Professional Documents
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Analytical Mechanics
J Kiefer
May 2006
2006
I.
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................3
A.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
B.
C.
II.
A.
1.
2.
Constant Force................................................................................................................................................... 8
Equation of Motion......................................................................................................................................... 8
Examples ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
Harmonic Oscillator........................................................................................................................................ 17
Simple Harmonic Oscillator in One Dimension ........................................................................................... 17
Damped Harmonic Oscillator ....................................................................................................................... 18
Driven Harmonic Oscillator.......................................................................................................................... 20
B.
C.
D.
E.
III.
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1.
Separable Forces.............................................................................................................................................. 29
Projectile Motion in a Uniform Gravitational Field...................................................................................... 29
B.
2.
1.
2.
C.
IV.
A.
1.
2.
V.
POTPOURRI ..........................................................................................................45
A.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Rigid Body........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Equations of motion...................................................................................................................................... 49
Computing moments of inertia ..................................................................................................................... 51
Laminar Motion of a Rigid Body ................................................................................................................. 53
1.
2.
Central Forces.................................................................................................................................................. 56
General Properties ........................................................................................................................................ 56
Orbits ............................................................................................................................................................ 57
B.
C.
I.
Introduction
Concepts
2.
Assumptions
a.
b. An ordered sequence of events can be measured on a uniform and absolute time scale. I.e.,
time intervals are measured the same by all observers.
c.
Coordinate Systems
a.
Cartesian
b.
Spherical polar
c.
Cylindrical
2.
Variables of Motion
&
Velocity, v
c.
&
Acceleration, a
&
& dr
v=
dt
&
&
& dv d 2 r
= 2
a=
dt
dt
d. Equation of motion
An equation of motion is a differential equation relating the variables of motion to one another,
&
&
esp. to t. We have solved the equation of motion when we obtain r (t ) and v (t ) .
e.
3.
Galilean Relativity
The motion of a particle may be described in terms of different reference frames. How do we
relate the motion variables measured in one frame to those measured in another frame?
a.
&
&
&
&
& & &
& dr dR dr dR &
Note that r = R + r . Then just take the time derivative: v =
=
+
=
+ v .
dt
dt
dt
dt
&
&
& dR
dR
is the relative velocity of the two reference frames. Lets say that u =
.
The quantity
dt
dt
&
&
&
& dv du dv & &
Finally, a =
=
+
= A + a . We have assumed that dt is the same in both reference
dt
dt
dt
frames.
c.
Examples
i) boat, drifting with the current
& & &
v = u + v
1.
A body in uniform motion remains in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external net force.
a. Inertia
This property of matter expressed by the First law is called inertia. The quantitative measure
of inertia a body has is its inertial mass.
b. Inertial reference frames
A reference frame in which Newtons three Laws are valid is called an inertial reference
frame. One in which they do not hold is called noninertial, for instance, the rotating Earth.
2.
Second Law
&
&
&
F = i Fi = ma
The acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force, and in the direction of the net force.
a. Process
&
&
*
&
Identify all applied forces, Fi . Add them vectorially to obtain the net force, F . Set F = ma
&
&
and solve for v and r .
b. Quantitative definition of inertial mass
Lets consider two bodies, 1 and 2, connected by a spring. Observe the motion:
&
&
a1 = a 2
We wish to obtain a parameter characteristic of each body, so rewrite this observation as
&
&
m1a1 = m2 a 2
Ultimately, all masses are measured relative to some standard kilogram.
c.
Translational momentum
3.
Third Law
&
&
dv
.
We identify the change in motion caused by a force as ma = m
dt
&
&
Definition: translational momentum, p = mv .
&
&
We observed the two masses connected by a spring: m1a1 = m2 a .
a. Action-reaction
&
The force exerted by body 1 on body 2 ( F12 ) is equal and opposite to that exerted by body 2 on
&
&
&
body 1 ( F21 ). I.e., F12 = F21 .
b. Interaction
In effect, the Third Law is describing a property of force: that it is an interaction between two
masses. Put another way, any two bits of matter exert forces on each other.
c. Conservation of translational momentum
If two bodies are isolated, then
&
&
m1 a1 + m2 a 2 = 0
&
&
dv1
dv 2
m1
+ m2
=0
dt
dt
&
&
m1v1 + m2 v 2 = a constant
A. Constant Force
1.
Equation of Motion
a.
Coordinate frame
&
&
F = ma
b.
vx
vox
to
to
dv x = a x dt = a x dt
v x vox = a x (t t o ) .
Let to = 0 and solve for v x (t ) = vox + a x t .
Further, v x =
dx
, so
dt
x
xo
to
dx = (vox + a x t )dt .
1
a xt 2 .
2
2.
Examples
a.
Inclined plane
& &
& &
F = Fc + mg + F f
Free fall
ay =
dv y
dt
= g
Separate:
dv y = gdt
Integrate:
vy
voy
dv y = g dt
v y = voy gt
& &
F = F (t )
1.
Equation of Motion
dv x
= a x (t )
dt
t
v x = vox + a x (t )dt
0
dx
= v x (t )
dt
x = xo + v x (t )dt
0
2.
Examples
a.
dv x
= b t , where b is a constant.
dt
t
1
v x = vox + btdt = vox + bt 2
2
0
Similarly,
dx
= v x , so that
dt
t
1
1
x = xo + (vox + bt 2 )dt = xo + vox t + bt 3 .
2
6
0
b. Simple harmonic motion
Fx = A sin( t ) , where A is the amplitude and is the angular frequency (radians/sec). We
integrate twice to obtain x(t).
t
A
sin( t )dt
m
0
v x = vox +
A 1
cos(0)
cos( t ) +
m
A
A
v x = vox +
cos( t )
m m
v x = vox +
x = xo + v x dt
0
A
A
x = xo + vox +
cos( t ) dt
m m
0
A
A
x = xo + vox +
sin( t )
t
m
m 2
3.
Impulse, a Vector
a.
Definition of impulse
& t &
P = F (t )dt
to
10
In one dimension, Px = Fx dt = m
0
x
dv x
dt = mdv x =
dt
v
ox
px
dp x = p x .
pox
1.
a. Integration
We want to write the equation of motion in terms of dx because the force is a function of x rather
than of time. Using a chain rule, we obtain
dv
d 2 x dv x dx dv x
=
=
= vx x .
2
dt
dt dx
dx
dt
So, we have in the Second Law
11
dv x
.
dx
d (v x2 )
dv
dv x
But notice that
= 2v x x , so substitute for
to obtain
dx
dx
dx
1 d v x2
Fx = m
.
dx
2
Fx = mv x
( )
b.
Kinetic energy
dp x
dT
1
, define the kinetic energy, T = mv x2 , such that Fx =
.
dt
dx
2
c. Work-energy theorem
In analogy with the definition of impulse, define the work done by a force on the mass, m, as
In analogy with Fx =
W = Fx dx = T ( x) T ( xo ) = T
xo
Keep in mind, this W is the work done by the force Fx on the object while the object undergoes a
displacement from xo to x.
2.
a. Potential energy
If the integration limits in the work integral are reversed, then
xo
V ( x) V ( xo ) = Fx dx ,
x
in terms of which Fx =
dV
.
dx
12
The characteristic property of a conservative force is that the work done by a conservative force
depends only on the endpoints of the motion.
c. Motion from the total energy
The equation E = T + V can be solved for vx(x), but whats really wanted is vx(t) and x(t).
When V(x) = E, vx = 0 and the particle turns around.
The points x1 and x2 are called turning points. On the
other hand, when E V(x) is a maximum, vx is
dV
maximum, etc. Also, since Fx =
, the force can
dx
be described qualitatively by looking at the slope of
the V(x) graph.
Quantitatively, the equation of motion is obtained by
first solving E for vx.
1 2
mv x + V ( x) = E
2
1 2
mv x = E V ( x)
2
dx
2
[E V ( x)]
vx =
=
dt
m
Integrate
t
dt =
0
xo
dx
2
[E V ( x)]
m
t=
xo
dx
2
[E V ( x)]
m
1
1
V ( x) = kxdx = kxo2 + kx 2 .
2
2
x
Evidently V ( x) =
V(x),
1 2
1
1
kx . The total mechanical energy is E = T + V = mv x2 + kx 2 . With this
2
2
2
13
t=
dx
t=
2
du
k
=
2 uo a 2 u 2
m
k
u
sin 1
a u
k
k
x
xo
m
2 sin 1
2=
sin 1
k
E
E
x(t ) =
dx
.
1
2
1
2
xo
o
E kx
E kx 2
2
m
2
du
u
1
= sin 1 , where a2 = E and u 2 = kx 2 .
2
2
a
2
a u
u
t=
2 x
dx
=
dt
m
k
.
sin 1 x
k
E
2
2E
sin
(t + ) .
k
m
2E
cos
(t + ) . As expected, a linear restoring
m
m
1.
a.
First way
Fx (v x ) = ma x = m
dv x
dt
vx
vox
dt =
vx
t =m
vox
mdv x
Fx (v x )
dv x
Fx (v x )
This expression would be solved for vx(t). In turn, vx(t) would be integrated to obtain x(t). A
specific form for Fx(vx) is required in order to continue.
14
b. Second way
The alternative approach is to eliminate t to obtain x(vx). This recalls the procedure used in
introductory physics to obtain the four equations of motion (involving x, v, a, and t) for cases of
constant acceleration. Using the chain rule, the Second Law becomes
dv
dv dx
dv
Fx (v x ) = ma x = m x = m x
= mv x x .
dt
dx dt
dx
Separate the variables and integrate
mv x dv x
dx =
Fx (v x )
vx
x = xo + m
vox
vx
dv x .
Fx (v x )
dx
. Then, separate the variables and integrate
dt
dx
to obtain t(x). Finally, solve for x in terms of t.
v x (x)
In practice, the second method is used when x(vx) or vx(x) is all that is desired. The first method
is usually shorter in obtaining vx(t) and x(t).
2.
Examples
ox
t=
m vx
ln
c vox
Solve for vx
c
t
vx
m
=e
vox
v x = v ox e
c
t
m
In the absence of other forces, the velocity decreases exponentially, with a characteristic time
m
(time constant) of = .
c
Next, integrate to get x(t).
t
dx = v e
ox
xo
c
t
m
m c t
dt = vox e m
0
c
15
x(t ) = x o +
mv ox
c
c
t
1 e m
mvox
= a constant!
c
b. Fy (v y ) = mg cv y , where mg is constant and upward is (+).
Follow those steps. . .
vy
vy
dv y
dv y
t = m
= m
mg + cv y
mg cv y
voy
voy
Notice that for long times, x xo +
mg + cv y
v
t = m ln(mg + cv y ) v y = m ln
mg + cvoy
oy
mg + cv y
mg + cvoy
=e
c
t
m
Solve for vy
vy =
c
c
1
( mg + cvoy ) e m t mg = mg + voy e m t mg
c
c
mg
= a constant called the terminal velocity, vt. Once
c
terminal velocity is achieved, Fy (v y ) = 0 and vy remains constant thereafter, or until impact.
Finally, vy(t) is integrated to obtain
c
t
m 2 g mvoy
mg
m
y = yo
t + 2 +
1 e
c
c
c
c.
Fy (v y ) = mg
v 3y
vy
This would be too messy to integrate, especially twice. The equation of motion could be solved
numerically instead. Firstly, chop time into short intervals, t , as shown on the time-line below.
Secondly, assume that ay is constant during each time step of duration t . Then the equations
for constant acceleration can be used to compute the motion from one time step to the next.
16
1
v 3y
2
2
a y = g
m 1
2
vy
2
2
0
1
y = y + v y t
2
2
2
3
1
2
v y = v y + a y t
2
2
2
1
Notice that the initial values, y (0) and v y must be given in order to start the cycle of
2
computation. The calculation can be performed by a computer program written in C or Fortran
or Basic or some other language, or it can be done in a spreadsheet such as Excel.
E. Harmonic Oscillator
1.
a.
Fx
m
2
d x
k
= x
2
m
dt
This is a second order ordinary differential equation for x(t). It can be solved by integration,
yielding two constants of integration: xo and vox, as shown in Section IIC. On the other hand,
there are only a few functions that are proportional to their own second derivative, such as sin t ,
cos t , or e qt .
d qt
e = qe qt
dt
d 2 qt
e = q 2 e qt
2
dt
b. Proposed solution
Rather than carry out the two integrations, assume a general solution of the form
x = Ae qt + Be qt and substitute into the differential equation.
d2
k
Ae qt + Be qt = Ae qt + Be qt
2
m
dt
k
Aq 2 e qt + Bq 2 e qt = Ae qt + Be qt
m
k
q 2 Ae qt + Be qt = Ae qt + Be qt
m
ax=
17
k
k
, or q = i
= i . The coefficients A and B are determined
m
m
by the initial conditions x(0) = xo and v x (0) = v ox .
Ae i 0 + Be i 0 = xo
iAe io iBe i 0 = vox
These constitute two equations and two unknowns, which are solved in the usual way.
A + B = xo
v
A B = ox
i
v
xo + ox
i
Add them together A =
2
v
xo ox
i
Subtract them B =
2
c. Euler relations
If the sine, cosine, and the exponential functions are expanded in Taylor series, it can be seen
that e i t = cos t + i sin t and e i t = cos t i sin t . Therefore, the solution
obtained in Section IIC is in fact the same as that derived above.
2.
Suppose the oscillator is immersed in fluid, then perhaps Fx = kx cv x , where c is the drag
coefficient.
a.
Equation of motion
ma x = kx cv x
ma x + cv x + kx = 0
In this case, both the first and second derivatives are present. For compactness, let x =
x =
dx
and
dt
d 2x
. Then the equation of motion looks like
dt 2
mx + cx + kx = 0 .
b. Solution
Physically, we expect the mass, m, to oscillate like a harmonic oscillator, but with diminishing
total mechanical energy because of the viscous resistance term. As before, a solution of the form
x = Ae qt is assumed and substituted into the differential equation.
d2
d
m 2 Ae qt + c Ae qt + kAe qt = 0
dt
dt
2 qt
mAq e + cAe qt + kAe qt = 0
18
mq 2 + cq + k = 0
This is a quadratic equation for q. The quadratic formula yields two roots.
c c 2 4mk
2m
Depending of the relative magnitudes of c2 and 4mk, there are three cases.
q=
c 2 > 4mk
c. Over damping
The roots are real and negative: Let
c c 2 4mk
c + c 2 4mk
and 2 =
, so
2m
2m
t
t
that the solution is x = A1e 1 + A2 e 2 . These
are both decaying exponentials. Therefore the
mass, m, approaches the origin exponentially
without oscillation. With the initial velocity set to
zero, it looks like:
1 =
c 2 < 4mk
d. Under damping
In this case, the roots are complex.
q=
c
k c
c i 4mk c 2
=
i
m 2m
2m
2m
q = i o2 2 = i
The solution takes the form
Critically damped
c
= . Now, to
2m
complete the solution, two constants are needed, so in this case the assumed solution is not
adequate. So, we must return to the original differential equation and solve it by another method.
mx + cx + kx = 0
c
k
x + x + x = x + 2x + 2 x = 0
m
m
Factor this like a polynomial
d
d
+ + x = 0
dt
dt
19
+ u = 0
dt
du
= dt
u
du
u = dt
u = Be t
Replace the u,
Solve for B,
t
+ x = Be
dt
d
d
B = e t + x = (xe t )
dt
dt
Bdt = d (xe )
t
Bt = xe t A
x = (Bt + A)e t .
3.
An additional force is applied to the damped harmonic oscillator. For instance, we might
consider a sinusoidal driving force, Fo e i (t + ) .
a.
Equation of motion
mx + cx + kx + Fo e i (t + ) = 0
The driving force is independent of x, so we separate the variables.
mx + cx + kx = Fo e i (t + )
This is an inhomogeneous second order ordinary differential equation.
b. Solution
The solution of such a differential equation consists of two parts: the general solution to the
homogeneous version, which we have in paragraph 2, plus a particular solution to the
inhomogeneous equation. To obtain the particular solution, we use physical insight.
What do we expect? The homogeneous solution dies out with time, so the remaining motion
must reflect the time dependence of the driving force. Therefore, we propose that x = Ae i (t + ) .
Notice that because the differential equation is second order, the proposed solution has two
adjustable constants.
20
k
In terms of =
m
2
o
)
F
c
[( )
and =
, A=
m
2m
2 2
2
o
[(
F
Thus, the particular solution is x = o o2 2
m
2
.
= = tan 1 2
2
+ 4
2
+ 4
2
1
2
1
2
e i (t + ) where
c. Interpretation
Notice that A depends on , as well as Fo and . It might be asked, at what = r is A a
dA
maximum? To find that out, set
=0.
d
3
1 Fo
2
2 2
2 2 2
o
+ 4
2 o2 2 ( 2 ) + 8 2 = 0
2 m
The numerator must vanish
4 o2 2 + 8 2 = 0
[(
[(
4 r r2 o2 + 2 2 = 0
= 2
2
r
2
o
21
Amax =
Amax
Fo
m
2 2 + 2 2
o
o
F
= o o2 2
2m
+ 4 2 o2 2 2
1
2
1
2
= tan 1
2
2
2
o
o2 2 2 o ( o ) and o .
Putting these approximations into A gives
Fo
m
A=
[(
2
o
2 2
+ 4
2
22
Amax
] [(
1
2 2
) +
2
1
2 2
1 2
2
Amax ? When ( o ) = 2 or when = o . So corresponds
2
. A relative measure of the width of the resonance peak is the quality factor, which is
2
defined as Q = d , where d is the frequency of the under damped, but undriven, harmonic
to
o o
.
=
2
23
Impulse
a.
& dp& d
&
F=
= (mv )
dt dt
The force, momentum and velocity are vectors. In three dimensions, we have three component
equations, as the vectors are decomposed along the three coordinate axes. E.g.,
dp y
dp
dp
d
d
d
Fx = x = (mv x ) ; Fy =
= (mv y ) ; Fz = z = (mv z ).
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
b.
Notice that these are vector equations, so they must be decomposed into component equations
&
before the integrals are performed. Also, it is often the case that F (t ) is not known, as in
collisions. In such cases we rely on the change in momentum.
2.
Work-Energy Theorem
a.
Kinetic energy
& dp&
F=
dt
&
Take the dot product with v , from the right on both sides.
& & dp& & d m & &
F v = v = v v ,
dt 2
dt
where we have assumed that the mass is constant and have recognized that
Work
&
&
Substitute for v dt = dr
& & d
1 & &
mv v , so that F v = T .
dt
2
& &
F v dt = dT
& &
F dr = dT
24
&
d & &
(v v ) = 2v& dv .
dt
dt
&
r2
& &
F
dr = T2 T1
&
r1
The left hand side (l.h.s.) is the work done on the particle by the force, as the particle moves
&
&
from position r1 to position r2 . Of course, to carry out the integral, the vectors must be
decomposed into components.
3.
Work Integrals
a. Path integrals
In general, the work integral has to be evaluated
along the path followed by the particle between
the initial and final positions. Further, the applied
force is likely not constant. Imagine the path, C,
&
broken up into N short segments, dri . At each
&
segment, the force is Fi . Then the work integral
is
N &
& &
&
F
d
r
= lim Fi dri .
C
dr 0 i =1
C
ds ds = Fx ds + Fy ds + Fz ds ds
&
& &
& dr
Alternatively, F dr = F ds = F cosds , where
C
ds
&
&
(s ) is the angle between the vectors F and r at every
point along the path. The choice of parameter will be
guided by the symmetry of the path.
c.
Example
25
W =
d.
h2 + " 2
mg cos ds = mg
h +"
Example
h 2 + " 2 = mgh
Consider the work done on a particle moving on a semicircular path in the xy-plane. The force
&
& &
acting on the particle is F = k (r ro ) ,
&
where ro = ai and a is the radius of the
semicircle.
Let s = a( ) . Since the motion is
confined to a semicircle, well write the
work integral first in terms of the arc
length, s, and then in terms of the angle .
& &
F
dr = F cosds
C
& &
r 2 + ro2 r ro
2rro
& &
r ro
& &
2a 2 r ro
2a 2
= 2a 2 (1 cos ) ;
& &
r ro = 2a sin .
2
=
= , by inspection of the diagram. Finally, since the path is
2
2 2 2
clockwise along the semicircle, ds = ad .
& &
0
0
2
2
F dr = 2ak sin 2 cos 2 ( ad ) = 2a k sin 2 cos 2 d = 2ka .
C
Next, =
4.
a. Conservative force
Condition for exact differential---A differential dV is an exact differential if
= V ( B) V ( A) .
A dV
&
&
is to be defined for a force, then the quantity F dr must be an exact differential. What
requirement on the force insures that this will be so?
Assume that for a given force there is a function such that
26
&
V V V
F = V = i
+ j
+k
.
x
y
z
Fx 2V
2V Fy
=
=
=
Since these are partial derivatives,
. That is, the order we take the
y
yx xy
x
Fx Fy
derivatives does not matter. Therefore, we have
=
, etc. Now, consider the curl
y
x
operator
j
i
k
&
F Fy Fz Fx Fy Fx
F =
= i z
+ k
x y z
z x
z x
y
y
Fx Fy Fz
The curl operator (del cross) acts on a vector function to produce another vector function, with
the usual x, y, and z components. The curl is a measure of the extent to which the vector function
& &
F (r ) curls back on itself. It is also associated with rotation.
Referring to the conditions for an exact differential, we see that if a force is a conservative force,
Fx Fy
=
, etc. This provides a test to determine whether a given
then its curl is zero, since
y
x
force is conservative. If it is conservative, then a potential energy function can be defined for
that force. The significance is that the work integral depends only on the end points of the
motion, not on the details of the path followed between the initial and final positions.
b. Potential energy
& &
& &
&
If F dr is an exact differential, then we can write it as F dr = dV , where V (r ) is a scalar
&
function of r . In Cartesian coordinates we have
V
V
V
Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz =
dx
dy +
dz .
x
y
z
V
, etc. since the x, y, and z-axes are
We can identify the force components as Fx =
x
&
independent. The V (r ) is the potential energy function. Its a function of position, and the force
components are obtained from V by
&
V V V
F =
i
j
k = V .
x
y
z
The operator (called del) is the gradient operator. It may be regarded as the threedimensional form of the slope. With the minus sign in front, we have defined the potential
energy function, or surface, such that the direction of the force will be down hill. Notice that
the gradient operator acts on a scalar function to produce a vector function.
5.
Angular Momentum
a.
27
&
Operate from the left with r
& dp&
F=
dt
&
& &
& dp
r F (t ) = r
dt
&
&
& & & dp
& dp
d & &
(r p ) = v p + r = 0 + r . So, we can write, on the right hand
Now, notice that
dt
dt
dt
side
& & d & &
r F = (r p )
dt
& & &
We define the angular momentum of the particle about the origin to be L = r p . The value of
the angular momentum will depend on the choice
of the origin of coordinates. In fact, an angular
momentum can be defines about any point, and
&
the vector r points from that point to the particle.
Note, too, that the particle need not be moving in
a circle or even along a curved path.
The left hand side is called the Moment of Force,
or torque. In terms of the angular momentum, we
&
& & dL
have r F =
.
dt
b. Directions
& & &
&
If the cross product A B = C is written out, it can be seen that the product C is perpendicular
&
&
to both the vectors A and B . Therefore, the direction of the angular momentum vector is
&
&
&
perpendicular to both r and p . Likewise, the torque is a vector perpendicular to both r and
&
F.
6.
Examples
a.
b.
&
Is F = xyi + xzj + yzk a conservative force?
j
i
k
&
F =
= (z x )i + 0 j + (z x )k 0
x y z
xy xz yz
28
&
Find values of a, b, and c such that F = ax + by 2 i + cxyj is a conservative force.
&
Apply the condition by setting F = 0 , then solve the component equations. In this case
&
&
F = (c 2b )yk . Therefore, F = 0 if c = 2b with any a.
c.
B. Separable Forces
& &
In general, the force components may depend on r , v , and t. This is too hard to deal with
analytically. Sometimes, the force is separable. That is, the force components depend only on
&
& &
their respective coordinates; i.e., Fx = f (x, x, t ) rather than Fx = f (r , v , t ) . If F is separable,
then the problem reduces to two (or three) independent one-dimensional problems.
1.
a.
No air resistance
mgk = m 2
dt
Integrate the component equations twice:
x = 0
y = 0
z = g
x(t ) = x o t + xo
y (t ) = y o t + y o
1
z (t ) = gt 2 + z o t + z o
2
Consider the trajectoryz as a function of x. Basically, we wish to eliminate the variable t from
x(t) and z(t).
t=
x
,
x o
29
1 x
z = g
2 x o
x
+ z o + z o
x o
g z
z = x 2 2 + x o + z o
2 x o x o
y y o t y o
=
=
= a constant. This
x x o t x o
y o
x . This is the
x o
reason that we treat projectile problems as two dimensional rather than three.
b. linear air resistance
Newtons Second Law says
&
d 2r
&
mgk cv = m 2 .
dt
Decompose
c
x
m
c
y
m
c
z
m
Just as before, we have three one-dimensional equations of motion. We can make use of
previous results:
x =
y =
x = x o e
z = g
c
t
m
c
t
m
m
x = x o 1 e
y = y o e
c
t
m
c
t
m
m
y = y o 1 e
t mg
mg
z =
+ z o e m
c
c
c
t
m 2 g mz
z = 2 + o 1 e m mgt
c
c
c
2
t
m g mz
z = 2 + o 1 e m mgt
c
c
30
series expansion
m
cx
and substitute into the z-equation.
ln1
c mx o
Expand the ln function in a series
Solve the x-equation for t =
cx
ln1
mx o
cx 1 cx
=
m
x
2 mx o
o
1 cx
+
3 mx o
1 cx
4 mx o
+
mg z o
mg
1 g 2 1 cg 3
+ x
x
x
x . Collect the powers of x,
2
3
c
x
x
c
x
2
3
m
x
x
o
o
o
o
o
Whence z ( x) =
z o
1 g 2 1 cg 3
x
x .
x
x o
2 x o2
3 mx o3
Now, the first two terms are the parabolic trajectory of a particle experiencing no air resistance.
The added terms give corrections to that trajectory due to air resistance.
z ( x) =
31
2.
Harmonic Oscillator
a.
&
&
ma = kr .
k
.
m
z ( x, y ) = C1 2
B2 A1 A2 B1
B1 A2 A1 B2
C B C 2 B1
C A C1 A2
+ y 2 1
z ( x, y ) = x 1 2
B2 A1 A2 B1
B2 A1 A2 B1
32
The items in the brackets are constants, determined by initial conditions. So, z(x,y) is of the form
of an equation for a plane. That is, the motion of the three dimensional harmonic oscillator is
confined to a two dimensional plane.
b.
More generally, the force constants may not be the same in the three directions.
& &
& &
F (r ) = k x xi k y yj k z zk = k r .
The separated equations of motion are
mx = k x x
my = k y y
mz = k z z .
These have solutions of the same form, but different constants.
x(t ) = A1 sin x t + A2 cos x t
y (t ) = B1 sin y t + B2 cos y t
z (t ) = C1 sin z t + C 2 cos z t
where x =
kx
, y =
m
Special case: if
ky
m
, and z =
kz
.
m
x y z
=
=
, where nx, ny, and nz are integers, then the frequencies are said
nx
ny
nz
to be commensurable, and the trajectory of the oscillator is closed. These closed trajectories are
the famous Lissajou Figures.
c.
Energy
1
k x x 2 + k y y 2 + k z z 2 and the kinetic energy
2
1 & & 1
mv v = m v x2 + v y2 + v z2 . The total mechanical energy is conserved E = T + V = a
2
2
constant.
is T =
33
1.
Smooth Constraints
a. Energy considerations
Lets suppose that the forces acting on a particle are divided into two classescall them the
applied forces and the constraining forces. The constraining forces are those that confine the
particles motion to a specific path or surface. In the Second Law
&
& &
dv
F+R=m
dt
&
Take the dot product with v on both sides of the equation
&
& & & &
dv &
F v + R v = m v .
dt
& &
& &
Now, if R v everywhere along the path, then R v = 0 . We have remaining
&
& &
dv & d 1 & &
F v = m v = mv v .
dt 2
dt
&
1 2
If the force, F , is conservative, we can integrate to obtain mv + V ( x, y, z ) = E = constant,
2
just as before. That is, the constraining forces do no work. Such constraints are called smooth.
b.
Examplea classic
R mgk = m
.
dt
The key is to recognize that when the particle
leaves the sphere, the contact force vanishes.
&
So we solve for R and set it equal to zero.
v2
The radial components are mg cos + R = m . Solve for R.
a
2
v
R = m + mg cos
a
34
The next step is to parameterize v in terms of , or both v and in terms of z. From the
1
conservation of energy we get mv 2 + mgz = E = mga , whence v 2 = 2 g (a z ) . Also,
2
z
cos = . Plugging these into the equation for R yields
a
m
z
R = 2 g (a z ) + mg = 0
a
a
Solve for z
z
z
2g + 2g + g = 0
a
a
2
z= a
3
2.
Motion on a Curve
&
A particle is constrained to move along a specified curve, C. Its displacement is r ( x, y, z ) . In
terms of s, the distance traveled along C, x = x(s), y = y(s), and z = z(s). There are two
approaches, both starting from the total energy, E.
a.
Energy
1 2
E = ms + V ( s ) = constant. This is solved for s by integration:
2
s
mds
2 E V (s)
t=
b. Tangential force
Alternatively, differentiate the total energy equation
dV
ms +
= 0,
ds
dV
where the quantity
= Fs is the negative of
ds
the tangential component of the external force,
&
F , that is tangential to the curve, C. As an
example, revisit the simple pendulum.
35
s
V ( s ) = mgz = mg"(1 cos ) = mg" mg" cos
"
dV
s
= mg sin = mg sin
ds
"
s
So we have ms + mg sin = 0 . We would integrate this twice to obtain s(t). If s << " , then of
"
course we have simple harmonic motion. If not, the motion is not simple harmonic. Instead,
s
s = g sin ;
"
3
5
s 1 s
1 s
s = g + .
5! "
" 3! "
36
Transformation Equations
2.
37
Suppose that somehow the external observer (in the O-frame) could inform the observer inside
the railcar that the force of gravity in fact pointed straight down, and that the true weight of the
mass is W = mg . Then the component equations in the O -frame would look like this:
T sin f x = 0 and T cos mg = 0 .
&
&
Of course T = T , so we can identify the f x = mao . This f x is called a fictitious or an inertial
force, since it arises from the relative acceleration of the reference frames, not from interaction
among physical bodies.
Equations of Motion
a.
Rotating axes
&
The O-frame is fixed; the O -frame rotates. We want to examine how the components of B
&
&
d B
change with time. For the moment, assume that B is fixed in the O -frame, so that
= 0.
dt
Geometrically, we see that in the O -frame
B = ( t ) B sin , where is the angle
&
&
between B and .
B
= B sin
t
Take the limit as t 0 ,
dB
= B sin
dt
From the diagram, the direction is
&
&
perpendicular to both B and . That is,
38
&
dB & &
=B.
dt
&
Now we turn to the more general time derivative of B .
&
dB d
B x i + B y j + B z k
=
dt dt
&
dB dB x
di dB y
dj dB z
dk
i + B x
j + B y
k + B z
=
+
+
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
&
& dt
&
&
&
dB d B
=
+ B x i + B y j + B z k
dt
dt
&
&
dB d B & &
=
+ B
dt
dt
c.
Motion variables
& &
If, at the moment, the origins of the two reference frames coincide, then r = r . To obtain the
&
velocity of the particle, we take the time derivative of r .
&
&
dr d r & &
=
+ r
dt
dt
& & & &
r = r + r
Similarly, the acceleration is
r& = d (r& + & r& ) = d r& + & r& + & r& + & r&
dt
dt
r& = r& + & r& + & r& + & r& + & (& r& )
r& = r& + & r& + 2& r& + & (& r& )
&
mr
&
mao
& &
2m r
& & &
m ( r )
& &
m r
39
The latter four forces are called fictitious forces, as they arise from the acceleration of the
reference frame, not from a physical interaction among particles. However, their effects are not
necessarily readily distinguishable from real physical forces in the O -frame.
d. Example
turn table, merry-go-round, etc.
&
&
&
&
Let = k = constant; r = x i ; r = x i = vo i =constant; and r = 0 .
&
As experienced in the rotating reference frame, F is the net force. . .
&
&
F = mr = 0
&
&
& &
& & &
& &
F mao 2m r m ( r ) m r = 0
&
& &
& & &
F 2m r m ( r ) = 0
&
F 2m k vo i m k k x i = 0
&
F 2m vo j + m 2 x i = 0
&
The applied force, F , is the force (such as friction)
&
necessary to maintain the constant r .
&
& & & &
& & & & &
F
2
r = r + r + 2 r + ( r ) = 0 + 0 + 2 vo j x i =
m
These deceptively simple expressions arise because we have taken a snapshot of the turn table
&
at the instant when the xyz-axes coincide with the xyz-axes. We have not obtained r (t ) as yet.
e. rotating velocity vector
By way edging into the full blown treatment of rotating reference frames, consider a turn table
again, rotating with constant angular velocity. An insect walks with constant speed outward
&
from the center along the i -axis. That is, r = vo i = constant. What are the velocity
& & & &
components relative to the non-rotating axes? Well, r = r + r = vo i + x j . But this
gives the components relative to the rotating axes. We need relations between the unit vectors of
the two reference frames.
i = i cos + j sin
j = i( sin ) + j cos
k = k
40
2.
Rotating Earth
a.
Statics
Dynamics
41
& &
&
A frame fixed to the Earths surface is the O -frame. In that frame, we observe r , r and r .
In the rotating frame, Newtons 2nd Law looks like
&
&
F = mr . As related to an inertial reference frame,
& & &
& & & & &
& &
r = r ao 2 r ( r ) r . On the
rad
2
Earth, a o = R cos 2 , =
= 7.3 x10 5
,
day
sec
& & &
= 0 , and the product ( r ) is very small. For a
& &
projectile without air resistance, mr = W only. The
&
&
&
equation of motion reduces to mr = W 2m r . We
may further neglect ao 2 in this case. [Since is
&
&
small, = mgk .]
Let i be east, j be north, and k be the local vertical.
Then our vectors have the following components:
&
W = mg k
&
= x i + y j + z k = cos j + sin k .
The Coriolis term is
j k
i
& &
r = x y z = i( z cos y ) + j ( x sin ) + k ( x cos ) .
x
y
z
&
Therefore, the components of r are
x = 2 (z cos y sin )
y = 2 (x sin )
z = g + 2 (x cos )
[Recall that g g in this case.]
These are coupled equations; we want to de-couple them. Firstly, integrate each one with respect
to time. . .
x = 2 (z cos y sin ) + x o
y = 2 (x sin ) + y o
z = g t + 2 (x cos ) + z o
and z
into x .
Substitute y
x = 2 [( g t + 2 x cos + z o )cos ( 2 x sin + y o )sin ]
42
Integrate.
Integrate again.
1
x = g t 3 cos t 2 (z o cos y o sin ) + x o t + xo
3
.
Penultimately, plug this into y and z
y = 2 {x }sin + y o
z = g t + 2 {x }cos + z o
Integrate each of these, afterward dropping once again terms in 2 .
y = y o t x o t 2 sin + y o
1
z = g t 2 + z o t + x o t 2 cos + z o
2
c. Projectile
Example: an object dropped from rest. xo = y o = z o = 0 and x o = y o = z o = 0 . Then,
1
x = g t 3 cos
3
y = 0
1
z = g t 2
2
We see that x 0 ; the object drifts to the east as it falls. Suppose z = h . If we can pretend
2h
that the object is falling nearly straight downward, then the fall-time is t 2
and
g
1
2
8h
1
x g cos 3 .
3
g
3
R
time of flight and the total drift in the j -direction is
sin .
vo
Of course, the horizontal range is determined in the first place by
43
how long it takes for the projectile to fall from its initial elevation to its final elevation. If the
2z
change in elevation is given, then the range is approximately R vo
.
g
However, if h (or z ) is large, then we can no longer use the approximate fall-time. If air
resistance is added as well, then its time for the numerical solution.
d. Foucault pendulum
We are not sensibly aware of sitting or standing
on a rotating surface. A definitive physical
demonstration that the Earth rotates is the
Foucault Pendulum.
Assume that the Earth rotates with a constant
&
angular velocity, . As viewed in the rotating
frame, the equation of motion for the pendulum
bob is
&
&
&
& &
mr = T + W 2m r .
Decompose
x
mx = T 2m (z cos y sin )
"
y
my = T 2m x sin
"
mz = Tz mg + 2m x cos
As usual, we consider small oscillations, in
which case T = W mg and z << y . Then
g
x = x + 2 y sin and
"
g
y = y 2 x sin . The pendulum bob
"
experiences a transverse force which causes the
plane of its swing to precess about the k -axis,
and at a rate proportional to and to the sine of
the latitude, . The fact that just exactly such a
precession is observed serves to demonstrate that
the Earth rotates.
44
V. Potpourri
A. Systems of Particles
1.
N-particles
&
Consider a system comprised of N particles, each with its own mass, mi, its own position, ri , and
&
&
velocity, r , and acceleration, r . The particles exert forces on one another and may be subject to
i
Forces
&
&
N &
Newtons Second Law applies to each particle: Fi + k =1 Fik = mi ri . Of course, the i = k
&
&
term is omitted from the summation. Fi is the total external force acting on mi. Fik is the force
exerted by the kth particle on the ith particle.
The Second Law applies to the system as a whole, also. The total net force on the system is
&
&
&
i Fi + i k Fik = i mi ri
&
&
However, for each i and k, Fik = Fki , so the double sum adds up to zero.
&
&
&
F =
m r = MA
i i
That is, the acceleration of the Center of Mass is proportional to the net external force on the
&
system. The Second Law reduces to that for a single particle of mass M located at R .
c. Momentum and energy
&
&
&
&
The total translational momentum of a system of particles is P = i pi = i mi ri = MV . At the
&
&
&
dpi
dP
= i
= MA . Therefore, if the net external force on the system is zero, then
same time,
dt
dt
the total translational momentum of the system is conserved.
45
1 & &
By a similar token, the total kinetic energy of the system is T = i mi ri ri . Now, we might
2
rewrite this expression in terms of the particle velocities with respect to the center of mass,
& & &
ri = V + ri .
& & & &
& &
& & & &
1
1
T = i mi V + ri V + ri = i mi V V + 2V ri + ri ri
2
2
1 & &
1 & &
T = MV V + mi ri ri
2
2
We see the kinetic energy separated into two contributions: kinetic energy of the Center of Mass
and kinetic energy with respect to the Center of Mass (or internal kinetic energy).
)(
d. Angular momentum
&
&
The total angular momentum of a system of particles is the vector sum L = i Li . Of course,
the individual angular momenta must be computed about the same axis point. For the sake of
&
& &
argument, lets say that point is the origin: L = i mi ri ri . Again, rewrite in terms of positions
and velocities relative to the Center of Mass.
&
& &
& &
& &
& &
& &
& &
L = i mi R + ri V + ri = MR V + i mi R ri + i mi ri V + i mi r ri .
&
&
The middle two terms are both zero, since i mi ri = 0 and i mi ri = 0 .
&
& &
& &
L = MR V + i mi ri ri
)(
Like the kinetic energy, the total angular momentum separates into two contributions: the
angular momentum of the Center of Mass about the origin and the angular momentum about the
Center of Mass. A similar analysis can be done if the axis point is not the origin.
If we consider the time rate of change of the angular momentum, we obtain
&
&
&
& &
& &
&
dL
= i mi ri ri + i mi ri ri = 0 + i ri Fi + k Fik
dt
&
&
&
dL &
= N i k rik Fik ,
dt
&
& &
th
where the position of the k particle relative to the ith particle is rik = rk ri . If the internal
&
forces are central forces, then the double sum vanishes. If the external torque, N , is zero, then
the total angular momentum of the system is conserved.
2.
Rocket
&
&
Fext t = p .
Further suppose that during that interval t the mass changes by an amount m . The change in
momentum that results is
&
&
&
&
p = mv 2 + mv 2 (m + m )v1 .
&
& &
& &
p = m(v 2 v1 ) + m(v 2 v1 )
We want to rewrite this in terms of the change in velocity of the mass, m, and the relative
& & &
& & &
velocity of the m and m . Namely, v = v 2 v1 and V = v 2 v 2 .
& &
&
&
& &
& &
p = m(v1 + v v1 ) + m V + v1 + v v1
&
&
&
&
&
&
p = mv + mv + mV = (m + m )v + mV
&
&
&
The impulse, then, is Fext t = (m + m )v + mV . We may as well just let m + m be m at this
point.
&
&
&
Fext t = mv + mV
Divide by t ;
&
&
&
dv & dm
v m &
Fext = m
V m
+
+V
.
dt
dt
t t
&
&
Recap: v is the velocity of the object (rocket or rain drop), V is the velocity of the m relative
dm
is the absolute value of the time rate of change in the mass of the object.
to the object, and
dt
Actually, we have to be careful of the directions of things. As derived here, if m is leaving the
&
&
object, then the object is losing mass and v is in the opposite direction as V . Consider a
rocket in the absence of gravity or any other external force.
&
dv & dm
0=m
+V
dt
dt
&
&
dv
dm
m
= V
.
dt
dt
47
3.
Collisions
&
&
&
p1 = p1 + p 2
p12
p2
p2
= 1 + 2 +Q
2m1 2m1 2m2
In general, this can be complicated, the more so if the particles are not point masses. We look at
a special case. . .
If the collision is elastic (Q = 0) and if m1 = m2 , then p12 = p1 2 + p 2 2 . On the other hand,
& &
&
&
&
&
& &
p12 = p1 p1 = ( p1 + p 2 ) ( p1 + p 2 ) = p1 2 + p 2 2 + 2 p1 p 2 .
& &
& &
Evidently, 2 p1 p 2 = Q if m1 = m2 . Further, if Q = 0, then p1 p 2 = 0 which implies that
1 + 2 = . In order to solve for the out-going velocities, we need to be given one of the out2
&
&
&
going angles. An alternative scenario is that p1 = 0 and p 2 = p1 .
Center-of-Mass framesay the origin is at the Center of Mass.
&
&
&
p 2 = 0 = m1u1 + m2 u 2
&
&
&
p 2 = 0 = m1u1 + m2 u 2
48
+Q
+
+
2 m1 m2
m1 m2
p12 m1 + m2 p12 m1 + m2
+Q
2 m1m2
2 m1m2
m12 u12
2
m1m2
, in which case
m1 + m2
p12 p1 2
=
+Q.
2 2
Because the momenta of the two particles as measured in the Center of Mass frame are exactly
opposite of each other, it is often more convenient to solve a collision problem in the Center of
Mass frame. Of course, we would observe collisions in the Lab frame, so results must be
transformed from one frame to the other, and back again.
b) Transforming from the Lab frame to the Center of Mass frame, and back again
B. Rigid Body
A rigid body is a system of particles for which all the relative displacements between pairs of
& &
particles are fixed. That is, ri r j = a constant for all i & j.
1.
Equations of motion
a. Rotation variables
Let k be the axis of rotation, and consider a particle, or mass element, which is executing
circular motion about the axis.
49
i = angular displacement,
& d
= i k = angular velocity, and
dt
vi = Ri = orbital speed
By inspection, we can see that
xi = Ri cos i
d i
x i = Ri sin i
= Ri sin i
dt
y i = Ri sin i
y i = Ri cos i
zi = 0
b.
Kinetic energy
2
1
1
T = i mi vi2 = i mi Ri2 2 =
i mi Ri2
2
2
2
We define the Moment of Inertia for the system as I = i mi Ri2 , in terms of which the rotational
kinetic energy can be written as Trot =
1 2
I . Notice that the numerical value of I depends on
2
j
yi
mi y i
k
z i = i i( mi y i z i ) j ( mi x i z i ) + k(mi y i xi mi x i yi )
mi zi
&
& &
N = ri Fi
&
This is the total torque exerted on a system of particles. The Fi is the net force acting on the ith
&
particle; the ri is the position of the ith particle.
50
2.
a. Discrete particles
The approach is to select an axis of rotation, then the moment of inertia about that axis is
I = i Ri2 mi . Note that the Ri2 is the distance of the ith particle from the axis of rotation.
b. Continuous mass distribution
If the distribution of the mass in a system is continuous, then the summation goes over to an
integral over the mass density function.
I = R 2 dm = R 2 dxdydz
The whole of the integrand must be written in terms of spatial coordinates. The steps are
i) select the axis of rotation
ii) write R2 in terms of coordinates
iii) write dm or in terms of coordinates
iv) take advantage of symmetry.
example: a thin rod of length a and uniform mass density .
Because the rod is thin we have a one-dimensional problem. Lets say the axis of rotation is
the k axis, while at the moment the rod lies along the i axis. Then R = x and dm = dx .
a
a3
I = R dm = x dx =
3
0
0
2
Suppose the mass density is not uniform, but instead = 3x 2 x . Then the moment of inertia is
a
I = R 2 dm = x 2 dx = 3 x 4 x 3 dx =
3 5 1 4
a a
5
4
example: a disk of radius a and uniform mass density; the axis of rotation is perpendicular to the
plane of the disk, through the center of the disk.
51
This is a two-dimensional problem, since the object is said to be a disk rather than a cylinder.
The symmetry of the disk is circular, so polar coordinates are convenient.
I = R 2 dm
a 2
I =
0
a4
r rddr = 2 r dr = 2 4
0
0
2
a
2
x3 2
a3
I = x 2 dx = =
12
a
3 a
a3
If I is the moment of inertia of the same rod about its endpoint, we can see that I = I +
.
4
a3
a2
=M
. But thats just the moment of
Once more in terms of the total mass of the rod,
4
4
52
a
from the axis of rotation. Thus, what we have is the
2
following statement: the moment of inertia of a system about a specified axis is equal to the
moment of the system about a parallel axis through its Center of Mass, plus the moment of
inertia of a point mass, equal to the total mass of the system, about the specified axis.
inertia of a point mass at a distance R =
example: a hoop
The moment of inertia about an axis in the plane of
the hoop and through its Center of Mass is
a2
I = M
2
The moment of inertia about a parallel axis at a
distance r from the hoops Center of Mass is
a2
I = I + Mr 2 = M
+ r 2
2
example: disk
I = I + Ma 2 = M
3.
a2
3
+ Ma 2 = Ma 2
2
2
Laminar motion means that the translational motion of the rigid body is confined to a plane, say
the xy-plane, while rotation occurs only around an axis perpendicular to that plane, say the z-axis.
a. Angular momentum
Imagine the rigid body is composed of many tiny mass elements, mi. The rotational equation of
motion is
&
dL &
=N
dt
&
&
& &
d
ri mi ri = ri Fi
dt
In terms of the Center of Mass,
&
d
(r&cm + r&i) mi r&cm + r&i = (r&cm + r&i) Fi
dt
&
&
Now, mi ri = 0 and mi ri = 0 , so we have left
)]
53
&
&
drcm d
&
&
& &
& &
rcm mi
+ ri mi ri = rcm Fi + ri Fi .
dt
dt
&
&
However, Fi = mi ri so the Center of Mass falls out completely.
&
&
& &
d
r
m
r
r
=
i i i i Fi
dt
&
dL &
= N
dt
The time rate of change of angular momentum about the Center of Mass is equal to the net
&
torque about the Center of Mass. Since this is true no matter what rcm is, the translational and
rotational motions can be treated separately.
b. Motion of a rigid body
example: rolling down an inclined plane
Consider a disk or a sphere or a hoop rolling down an inclined plane. The translational equation
of motion for the Center of Mass is
&
&
F = Mrcm
For rotation about the Center of Mass the equation is
&
&
dL d &
= (I ) = N
dt dt
The component equations are
Mxcm = Mg sin F f
Mycm = Mg cos + FN = 0
N = F f a = I
Note that rolling friction is not the same as sliding friction. If the object rolls without slipping,
x
then x cm = a and xcm = a . Therefore the third equation becomes I cm = F f a , which tells
a
x
us that the frictional force must be F f = I cm
. Substitute this into the x-equation. . .
a2
54
Mxcm = Mg sin I
xcm
a2
g sin
= a constant!
I
1 +
Ma 2
and are constants, when the object rolls down the incline without slipping.
xcm =
Mga cos
t.
I
We find the relationship between the translational and rotational motions by dividing the two,
x
g (sin cos )t
I tan
thusly, cm =
=
1 .
Mga cos
Ma
t
I
Integrate to obtain =
55
1
1
2
Mx cm
+ I 2 .
2
2
If we put the origin of coordinates at the top of the incline, then the gravitational potential energy
is V = Mgxcm sin . Consequently, the total mechanical energy of the rolling object is
T=
I 2
1
1
1
2
Mx cm
+ I 2 Mgxcm sin = M + 2 x cm
Mgxcm sin = constant.
2
2
2
a
When there is no slipping, the rolling frictional force does no work.
E=
C. Central Forces
1.
General Properties
&
&
r F (r )
F = F (r )r = F (r ) =
xi + yj + zk
r
r
&
&
Gmi m j rij
1
e.g., gravity: Fij =
. However, the force is not necessarily proportional to 2 . For
2
rij
r
rij
&
&
instance, the isotropic harmonic oscillator is F = kr . Thats a central force proportional to r.
a.
Conservative
&
Consider the curl of a central force; F =
( F& )
. The x-component is
y
z
F (r )
r
r
F (r )
F (r )
r F (r )
r F (r )
z
y
F (r ) F (r ) = z
=
y
=z
y
y r
z r
y r r
z r r
r z
r
F (r )
x
r
F (r )
1
1
y
2
r x
r z
r
1
x + y 2 + z 2 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 2 2 y = . Similarly,
=
= and
= .
r
x r
z r
y y
2
&
zy
yz
F (r )
F (r ) = 0. The same is true for the y- and zTherefore, F x =
r r
r r
components, so any central force is conservative, because we have not specified F(r).
Now,
b. Potential energy
The potential energy function is obtained from the work integral, if the force is known.
r &
&
W = F (r ) dr = V = (V (r ) V (ro ) ) .
ro
On the other hand, if V(r) is known, the force components are obtained by
&
y
z V
V
x
F (r ) = V (r ) = i + j + k
r .
=
r
r r
r
r
56
c.
Angular momentum
&
& & dL d & &
The torque exerted by a central force about the origin is r F =
= (r p ) . In a central
dt dt
& &
force field, r F = 0 ; therefore the angular momentum is constant. That means both magnitude
and direction. The motion is confined to a plane perpendicular to the angular momentum vector.
As a result, we often use plane polar coordinates rather than Cartesian.
&
In polar coordinates, the velocity is r = rr + r . The angular momentum becomes
& & &
L = r p = rr m rr + r = (mr 2)r = a constant vector.
The constant magnitude of the angular momentum determines the orbits that are possible for an
particle subject to any central force.
d.
Equations of motion
Decompose:
d
: 0 = r + 2r =
mr 2
dt
r : mr = F (r ) + mr 2
The angular equation says that the quantity mr 2 is a constant of the motion, namely the angular
momentum. The radial equation includes the same centrifugal term that arose in the rotating
reference frame.
e. Energy
The total mechanical energy is also a conserved quantity, or a constant of the motion.
L2
1 & &
1
1
E = mr r + V (r ) = r 2 + r 2 2 + V (r ) = mr 2 +
+ V (r ) .
2
2
2
2mr 2
2.
Orbits
57
h K
m r 3 2 = 0
r r
d 2r
d2
Next, we need to express 2 in terms of
. To do this we start with the first derivative:
dt
d 2
1
Let r = . Then
u
du
1
1 d du
r = 2 u = 2
= h
d
u
u dt d
Take the derivative of this
2
d du
d d du
2 2 d u
r = h
= h
= h u
dt d
dt d d
d 2
-equation above.
Substitute into the r
d 2u
h 2 u 2 Ku 2 = 0
m h 2 u 2
d 2
d 2u
K
mK
+u =
= 2 = constant.
2
2
d
mh
L
This is a differential equation with the form of a driven harmonic oscillator. The driving term is
mK
1
constant. The solution has the form u = A cos( o ) 2 . Recalling that u = , we obtain
r
L
1
r=
, where we have set o = 0 . This expression is the equation for a conic
mK
A cos 2
L
1+ e
section whose general form is r = ro
, where e is the eccentricity and ro is the closest
1 + e cos
AL2
L2 1
1
and ro =
. The exact
approach to the origin. In this case e =
=
mK
mK
mK 1 + e
A
L2
shape of the orbit depends on the values of the orbital parameters, e, ro, and A. These, in turn,
are determined by the initial conditions through the total energy and angular momentum. The
conic sections are: ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.
58
L2 1
1
+ K E = 0
2m r
r
Solve for
1
using the quadratic formulaobtain two roots.
r
2
Km Km
1
2mE 2
= 2 + 2 + 2
ro
L
L
L
1
2
Km Km
1
2mE 2
= 2 2 + 2
r1
L
L
L
Notice that if K > 0 (the force is repulsive), then r1 < 0 doesnt exist and there is only one turning
pointthe orbit is open.
1
Km
differential equation for r in terms of . Set this equal to the expression above and solve for A.
Km 2 2mE 2
A = 2 + 2
L
L
Plug this into the expression for the eccentricity
1
2
2 EL
AL
= 1 + 2 .
Km K m
Now, given E and L, we can obtain ro, r1, and e.
e=
The period of an orbit has meaning only for a closed orbitan ellipse. For an ellipse, the total
area enclosed by the orbit is A
3
= a 2
2a 2 EL2
1 e2 =
, where a is the semimajor axis. On the
K 2m
59
A
L
L
&
dt =
other hand, the total area swept out by the r vector is also A = dA =
. So set
0
0 2m
2m
K
em equal and solve for the period, . Using also the fact that a =
, we get
2E
3
4a 2 LE
L
EK
&
&
&
Commonly, we start with ro perpendicular to ro at o = 0 and ro = vo . Then the angular
K
L2
K 1
+
= + mvo2 .
2
ro 2mro
ro 2
Notice that the origin is not at the center of the ellipse, but at one of the foci.
momentum and total energy are determined: L = mro vo and E =
60