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,,t
''!

{\ {'lrtr-Y

i9rX.

&l,t-

F 5FF

/-arnnn^r

L I I L t.r f-ttl/Cl-rr

T-k-

i.

ifrTRilSE-rC'Fi#H

Sai*liiies (nair.rral *r ariifi*iali, iiaivc inade gici:n3 suivclis a realistii;


abieclive.
* flcr,iur$ can he sp*."n;re,J ttt *E:rrlrrcl c*nlinenls
* c**dr:tic;:r:siti*n *a;l b* lirii:siiig*d &irv*ily *ri gi*i:ili daiurii
l

hiiliuiui saieiiitss; [in]r]ri,

sr-ui, gilal-icis auri siars

Path trf-the natural sat*lJit*s are functions of the oirs*n'ers positi*n


on *arf,l:
]-{ence. if *tati*n re**rit siiffi*ient cliseiviiiisir alang the satelliies
path, then their position are reiated

\11r.'J

\-

Artiti* ial {man-rnad*) sateilites

&
&

Ohsen'atiofis arff made electr*rricatly *r optically


h4easure range, range ra.te s;r clir:estiern ti*n: the *hsen er tc th*
sateliite
Fr*duccrl, *$ a gl*bal datuln:
Relativr: positi*n anlilng oirserving sens$rs
Sensors pasiticn
lJ*finiti*n of sarellire r:r'bits

s
o
o

Ariifiuiai sateiiites are differerri lrtlrn ordinruy planet duc t*:


* lts *rbit is mr"rch closer to the earth ti:len tire orbit cf any planet lvirtr
rrrspecf to its prinrary
h rr^+ion
* lvisJl
cf artifi*ial satellite is *igpifi*atfl_v af1bcted by th*
earth's gravitaii*nai {ield md by ifs ieinp*rill valj*tir:n (c,g.
rides)

*'

*
o

flnabie ddtemiinatioll r,rf pararneters rhat defines this fiefdt'"hich will y-ietd infarnratiorl orl tlre shape, fiia$s distribution
emci dymamic hehaviour *f'the eefilr
lt filoEjss. at least pnrtiall,r,'. ful an *tmosph*re ia'hij* thc nalri::*tr
satellite in*l,;ii practicall3'in a vacrium
u Enable thc deter:ninati*n of tlle ahr*spheric structur* aud its
behaviour
Affecreci lry ofirer phenon:etra, such as attraction cf the sun and the
moon. solar radiation pressure, lunar anel solar tidal dist*rtion,
ef1bct of the nragnetic field of the earth. *t*.
T'lt* e e!ftcts arE: relzezlively n*nor, but crumot brl

neglect*:d

,i

2.

['ie-P#SE U S' S.rtT?- LLi

]'n SSSERVAT-I$H

? g*nernl purposc *f sateilite *bservation


a) Scientiii* purp*se

h) {}perati*n*l pilry*se
?"l Scieniifir purp*se

Scientific purpo$e cf satellite *Lrseffi'atic:n is f'*rther break dow.'n int* 2


categories

a lltarnic purpfiso
{ier_rntetric purpose

a) Symamie purp*s*:

p*silittns t*uf xtoli*rus r$'u suteilitu ':t.s


a Juitttion af tiwe, vsifh sffitient {ttcurttw for Ceveloping * t:heory *.f
:nafiott cap*hle *f predirtingJuture S:asilicns rq'tlze sale.lliles" at lesst
cis dtcctttdttt$t as tizej,tan be ohsercetl
7is obserr;e

Requires:

a Pre*ise knowledge of ph3,sical paranreters that de{ines fh* forcsr


&

f,eld in li,hich the sateliites moves qorbit)


Accurate ge*cerdric positi*n af *bservers

6 F,nables.
* Irositi*n of salellit* to be computecl at any time,
* Predicted satellitc p*siticn t* he estimated using least square
J

r;stment pr*cedure
C*rrection to the assumed i:aralneters and statjons
c<xrrdfurates due to tJre diffbrences between actual and
predicted orbit" cnlculated using lcast squere adjus*nent
procedure
fr

r,t

clj

"fi

h) Ger:mbirir pur;los:

To ohserte pcsi{ions oJ's*teliites from ser;erctl


st*ti*ns o{ knot*'i cutd rsnkn*wn positksns stmu{t*rceousl1;.{or
determirzir?g tf?e re lt:rtive sso^ritirsrz a.f the stution,r {and sate{lites}

n
i.

F*r this plxpo$e, satsllite is regard*rl as *hserv atian'd,talget *nrl


*trservation is *ften carried *ut in tn'o lvays:

*rhitcl

meth.od', Safellite is qrbserved in its ortrit fr$m several


stali*us ot'assumect pusiti*n" The ol-rservation results are then
contpare<l rvith tlrc computed {pr*dictedi satellite positian, rvhich
are hasetl $n il$suirleil *r l.:nq:rtvn *rbitai parameters and station

cuor:ciirtaies. Froin iht: riifferr:n{,*s, eurrsciioris

iri i"he a-csuins.i


the e*ardiiiates, or b*th, niay be ,-lruiuir*
simulraneo u s or leasr s q u nre adi usrnenl Dis
tri
to inrprove the force fiuicticm, the initial conclitions,
oritlr" utution
Fosition of the observ'er.
paraffiltsfs *r

tr

ii'

iy
crepil;;;-use

Stellsr {spsce) triangtlation i trilateration:Satellite is used as


a
triangrlation. mark in space, w.hich is sirnultanrouulv ou;;;;;
$y
tneasuring directions or distances or both) from station of knonrr
and unkm*n positiorx. Frorn obsen'ation* ut l"oiitr
; tfr*
position of the satellite is cletennined at the firslant of
obseruation. Tlte observation at the unlcnonn station to the
knou,n
(detemrined) position of the satellite rviliyielcl the position
oi-the

"*ii"*
the

abserver.

o Determineel station position is useful for:


n strengthening satellite-tracking netrvork establislrcd
"
*
r

tbr d1'namic applicaticn


Providing connectians between geodetic datr*n,
separated by large distan*es
Determining disiortions w-itrrin geodetic datum
Detecting motions behveen stations clue to
geodynamic phenomena

2.2 Operationa I pu rpos

Operational puqpose of satellife observation is ta meet flre


operational
needs of the satellite, i.e.
Fcr regular suveillance of the satellite and to keep the orbita
data
up to date
Guidurg and controlling the clirection of the transmittirlg or
telenretry antenna of the sfttellite

Before stut$,ing the dynuntic and geomefi,ic ntethods in scientific


purpases
satellite geodeq'can be achieved, it is necessar,uio struty the
_of
orbit 0f the satellite.

3. i]L{iSE SATELLITE TI{flORY


'I'he tbeory, rvhich deals r,vitlr the nrotion of artiticial satellites in its orbit
around a ielestial body, u,hich is fixed in space, is called 'closed satel{ite
tlreot-v*t,

To understand the motion of a satellite easilv, lets proceed irr tr,vo steps:
Step

l: Start rvith a simplified case

i.
ii.
iii.

The earth is treated as a point rrrass, or, ecluirralently, as a sphere


with constant densiry distribution. The gravitational field o1'such a
hr:dy is radialiy slumretric: i.e. the plumb lines are all straight lines
and point towald the cenfie of the sphere
The mass of the satellite is negligible conrpared to the ntass of the
earth
l'he rnoticn takes place in vacuuni [i.e. there are no distubing
effects present drrc to cther celestial bodies (sun, moon. ar other
celestial body, etc.) ar t{r some physical phenomena (aUirospheric
dnag solar radiation pressure, etc.)]

The resulting orbits is called 'ndrmal

orbit'

Step 2: Reviert those factors tlut deviate from the assumptions above and
their effect on the nonnal orbit

i.
ii.

Without the assumptions nrade in step t. the motion of the satellite


r"'ill deviate front dle nonnal orbit. This disturbed normal orbit is
called a'perturbed orbit'
The deviation befiveen the perturbed orbit and normal orbit is
cal led'p ertur bation'g

S.lNormal orbit
In normal orbit, we arssume that the satellite is travellin--e in a perfectly
spherical grflvrty field, and il'\.ve assume that only gravitational forces
(,'.

=gnPlare
r'
)

acting on the satellite i.e. the earth's gravitational field,

H/, equal to it's potential, (n,


zero, then the orbit

=Y.rJ unO disturbing potential r is

will obey 'Kepler's lqw of planetary motion'.

i{epicr's three iaws are ricdur:ed (iiom obscrvations oipiallets or"niiing


tlrc sun) in 1609 {law I &,2\ and i619 (lar.r: 3).
!---- ^4
?'!E'^-!^--t^
--^r:^J,.&r\epttsr
$ ;aYl ui
ilI{rai{it-t

i.

Kepier"s

iirsi iaw: Lalv of'urbii

Tire orbit a; a saieiiire

v;iii be an eiiipse wiiit ihe eariiz ar ane af its

.fuci.
satellrte

',ilil:'lr

Periot-e
t

Asceneiing nocie

Where:

AN,(

"!:!"

r
i"

a
h
L}

Apogee, points at rvhich the sateiiite is fufihest away frcnr


the earth
Perigee, point at whieh the satellife is nearest to iirc earth
Ascending Norie, point u'here the satellite crosses the
equator, travelling from south to north (of'lut pr:int af-Aries)
liue aronraly
iirstai rtaneous saiellite radiris
Radius of apogee
Radius of perigee

Orbital serni major axis


Orbital semi minor axis
Eccentricity

'i'iie p*siriorr of the *-rrbil iu sprir;* is defirted b5' six *rhital


(Keplerian) eleurcnts:

a ;
i '.
{i :

Semi-maj*r axis
hlclirration
Al"gum**?

*f

perigee

e.

g?:
t,

Ilc,centricity
Right nscensi*n
Tin":e of pi+ssage at perige*

Tlrese riumbers de.ftne rni eiltstse, *rienl it ahout ihr e{trfh, ciwl
ploe:* tlre s#teili!.e *re the eltitrsst: at * pnrticular tinte.

Line ef Apsides

[rluatorial plan*
Ascerr{iillg Fk:iie
af

/\

l',

1n!

-\
uff-)tiitl
i-ieile

N*diri [.ine

*li1ial-elg11g$S_egd part o{thn qri}ii pryiectecl itnto_a seotelrric


ur$lsphsrs

hiailai line isthe inter,secliun o{'the orbiral plaule rviLh thu cquat*rirrl
ptrane, wlrich ccnilects rhe ascending and riescending nades.
Rigkt *sc*n.q;iatt. (n) is the angle h*fw*en ghs lines of- nodcr and the
directi*r"r t* r'emal ecluin*x {zero nreridian)"
{ncfinrsti*n nngle {i} is th* angle betrvcen the equatar:iai anql the
,-lrbital plaiies.

o{perigee

is ths angl* befr,veen the nodal 1i*e and


th* orhital scmi-n'laj*r axis.

,!1rg;tdtrent

True *nrsrnulv
i:*rigee.

./

(,ru'}

is t!:e;rngula:'digtance *:f'th* satellite, S, ftorn

-ffire equati*rr

-'
-,i}2
"'iccs

#{1

1--' '-

1I

/'

e;sntrs ,rro*r.

ii.

*f the *ri:itai eilipse


, wilerf,, r is

i{*nce.

Lhe

r ilnci i'

baseci on

Kepier's i't iaw is:

distance clf the sateliites rrrl*l iire eru.ilh's

ftlirns a paii'ilf p*ii* c**r*jjriats.

Kepl*r's se*und lalv: i,ai.v *iareas


tr(epler Znd iaw sfates titilf. llre aren *f tlre etliptical sect*r srnept by
rh* radir.r* rzestor r betr,'u'**n rur},' trv* ptsiti*ns clf the sat*llite is

preipcrti*nal t* the tisn* it takes ttie slifellite t* pass frcinr ope


pcsition tc) another, i.e. tlie time ratt *J'*rfifige af the $r"c& sw'upt bt;
the r#di'ils vcctCIr is t*nsf.ant.
t t'!{

tlt

;:*::---T.
t" iu = c{Jn5tanl

= 4! i,t{{ | -

Ar:Az
Satcllite larlves faster neal perigee {gr*atast resistanc*)
5 alellite lnoves stror+'er ne?rt' apogee {lorr est rcsistance}

.'li:'.

'ii{t.

tlt"

Kepler's lhirci traiv: Hanluonic

laiq,

Ii

Kepler 3d law statss that" thr: square of the perioc{ of revolurir}tl,


is prop*lti*nnl f"o fhe cuhe *f its senri*lrrai*r axis clf'ths crbit, a.
,J'

'tu

'I,

c*fiste*t

Later in th* l?th century. hl*rvton proves all thr above lni,vs licmr
his universal law o{ g;lavitation and in fact derived Kepler's 3'd law
relaiionship to he:

(-ii,l L_-J
( 4*t,.,t
',''
-* i sl-___l

{,n
_*;;__-_
'1',;

4rt

r;.,tr

3.LGeometry of elliptic orbit

First$, let us rotate our cartesian coordinate system to make Xaxis


coincide with major axis of the ellipse.

a
Satellite orbit

O-rP

ae

Orbital plane coordinates

i.

Size and shape of the orbital ellipse are defined by it's semi major

axis, d, and it' eccentricity, e,


"^'-'- -2 where
"'

ii.
iii.

=1' a2=b.'

oJil,

From geometry of the ellipse, semlminor axis o =


and
the distance from the focus Fto the center O is equal to ae
The point on semi major axis at the nearest approach is the
pericenter, ffid farthest approach is apocenter (perigee and apogee)

When satellite is at arbitrary point, m, its position in orbit is defined by


the angle mFP, or TRUE ANOMALY, which is measured in the direction
of motion and denoted,,asf.
The angle m'OP, which associated with the auxiliary circle of radius a, is
catled ECCENTRIC ANQMALY and denoted by angle E.
Ttre MEAN AN2MALY is the true anomaly corresponding to the motion
of an imaginary satellite of uniform angular velocity. It can be visualized
as an angle that is zerc atperigee and increases uniformly at a rate of

360'per revolution. It is denoted by M.

ORBITAL COORDINATES
orbital coordinate system (xo,yo,zo) is defined with xo towards perigee,
Io towards true anomaly of 90o and Zo pointing perpendicular to the orbit
plane to make right handed coordinate system. In normal orbit, zo is of
course zero, but for real (perturbed) satellite orbit z, wrll assume nonzero value.

The position of satellite at any given time, l, is defined by its polar


coordinates, r andf. The radius vector r can be computed from the
rectangular coordinate Xoand ro:
X o = r cosf= acos-E

= rstrtf= Dsing =
Zo=o
Yo

ae =

a(cosE - e)

oJlllr*

The polar radius is:


f=

* Yo'

= ol-ecosE)

Expression for true anomaly,f can also be calculated from simple


geomefrical considerations :
tan1^=

rsin

Yo

rcos

xo

=0-

u'Y ,i,.s
cosB

And in a more convsnient form:

o"f;r:(#)'tanla

The polar coordinate r andf are given as a function of eccenfric anomaly,


E. To find E, we first define the mean anomaly, M, as a true anomqly of
an imaginary satellite, m ', moving with uniform angular velocity and the
same period as ffi. Then, at time t,

M is computed from: M =+Q 4 r)

Where, T,theorbit period, is computed from Kepler's 3'd law. E can now
be computed from M,us,tng classical equation of celestial mechanics
(Kepler's equation).

Mean anomaly: M = E - esinE

If satellite position is to be determined as a function of time, this equation


is solved by iteration, ffid outlined as follows:

i.

'

a-

First, compute M for a time I using: M =+Q -t r)

ii. Then calculate approximation of E using:


Et=M+esinMl,JU*sin2M

iii. Then substitute value into mean anomaly equation, and compute
M1 using: M, = E, - esinE,

iv.
v.

Calculate the difference'. LA/ = Mr-

Determine the correction

fo:
rEt aE=_M
ecos.
1

vi.

Then compute

2od

approximation E2: Ez=

vii. With E2,ftpe&tthis

sequence

until LM

Er+

0 (or nearly so)

* Knowin g E, andf cannow be determined. These define the


satellite motion and position in the plane of the ellipse, with respect
to polar and rectangular Cartesian coordinates system.

10

3.2 C OORDINATES

TRANSFORMATION

For most application, we require the satellite position to be in 3D


cartesian system, namely Geocentric cartesian Coordinates and
Topocentric Cartesian Coordinates with its cente at the cenfte of mass
of the earth.
G eo c entri c C artesian C o o rdin st es

Here we used right-handed coordinate system. 26is defined as being


parallel to the earth's mean spin axis, X6 is towards the zero longitude
and 16 towards 90oE. The cenfie of this system is near the cenffe of the
mass of the earth. This coordinates system is often referred to as "earth
fixed" because it rotates with the earth.
\'ti:'l

')-rzo

ql;!:i'

4.,r

Yc

Yo

Orbital Plane

}D

irr.J lr

Geocentric Coordinates System

To transform\om orbital coordinate system to earth fixed geocentriQ


coordinates system requires simple rnatter of 3 rotations (each involving
Keplerian elements)

IfXo is a vector (xd,yJ ,ZEY and xo is (xf ,fo' ,ziY,

[";l
r.f

R,(G,qsr
I=

I't)

-o)R*

then:

["ll
rJ

Fi)a,(-r)

lrt )
l1

The Cartesian Coordinates of the satellites in the equatorial system are as

follows:
XE =rcosdcoscr

Yi ='cosdsina
ZE =rsin6
Where, geocentric declination,

d,

and right ascension

,d,

are:

d = sin-r[si"(7 + ar)sin i]
a = GAST- b = tan-r[costt an(y + d)]

With the rotation matrices

&(r)q(ilRr(")

Rotation matrix about

[r o

R,(B)=lo

ol

are as follows:

axis (axis 1) is:

,tn,
Lt - sin a*or r-l
cosct)

o Rotation matrix about X axis (axis 2) is:


lcosi
0 -sinll
tt
n,(B)=l
o

o1

fsinl 0

cosiJ

Rotation maffix about

ans(axis 3) is:

I cosa sina 0l

&(e)=l_;;;;;;l

[o

rJ

L2

An alternative coordinates system withXtoward l't point of Aries is


sometimes used. Such system, referred to as an inertial coordinates
system (i.e. fixed in space), is useful when relative star and satellite
positions are important. Positions of the satellite in this coordinate system
1Xf ,Y,s,Zl )are derived from:

lxil
t'

[x;'l
l= R, (- o)R" (- i)n, F rl r,'

I't

Lr: )

The relationship between Earth Fixed and Inertial coordinate systems is


express by an angle known as Greenwich Apparent Sidereal rime,
denoted as GAST (a), and the required transformation can be carried out
using:

I
rd

["*

I cos GrsI

l=l-sinGlsr

lrt)[ o
I

sin

GrsI ol["] I

cosG,4sl 0ll

ti

,)lti ]

The value for GAST at any particular time depends on number of factors
and exffemely complex to compute. Here, we simply mention that it
depends on the motion of the earth with respect to the sun (for definition
of vemal equinox), and hence the precession and nutation of the earth,
and on rotation of the earth.

..:,:r

l3

T?p

centric C artesian

Co

ordinates

Topocentric Cartesian Coordinates system is


also known as Local Coordinates System. The
system is defined at one point (called point of
origin, observer). Zyis the direction of the
vertical (up) at that point, Yyis north and ZTis

.l

X"
I
I

----------r-

lt

tl

east.

Now, lets inffoduce the Topocenfric coordinate system Xy,Y7,Zy parallel


to the geocentric coordinate system X6,Y6,26.
Satellite, S

Centre
mass, o

Yi
Topocentric Coordinate system

Note that, q and a are known satellite celestial coordinates that would be
viewed by an observer at the earth's centre; a' and 5' ate the celestial
coordinates actually observed (Topocenhic); p is the range from the
observer to the satellite; r is the range from the satellite to the earth's
centre; and X*,Y14,21a are the rectangular coordinates of the observer in
the celestial coordinate system at the moment of observation.

t4

In Topocentric Coordinate System: sind'=

1i
p ^A p=sind'

Therefore, the satellite coordinates in this system can be expressed as in


geocentric coordinate system:

Xi = pcosd'cosa'= Zl cotd'cosa'
Yf = p cos d'sin a' : Zl cot 6' sin a'
Zl = psinS'
Now, as both coordinate systems are parallel, the Topocentric coordinates
of satellites in this system is:

+;

ly,l[f]

l,;l

These coordinates may also be expressed as a function of Topocentric


Spherical Coordinates as follows:

d'
d'
p

... The Topocenffic right ascension


... The Topocenffic declination
... The Topocentric radius

And these values can be derived as follows:

.;lir:::

ii

\ir.

d,=tan-tf-r,''l

lxi

d'=

cot-l[4r.ro']

\zi

o=ffi=m
)

15

":l
In real situation, the Geocenffic and Topocentric coordinate systems are
not parallel (earth fxed but with cenffe at P and with xr,Yr,Z, are
directed east, north and up respectively).

It is necessary to initially compute the earth fixed Cartesian coordinates


of the observing station P from the given latitudg longitude and height
(0r,1r,hr), using:
X [ = (v + H r) cos Q, cos X., ;

Where:

YI =(v + 1/" ) co s {,

sin }",

; ZI =(v(1 - e2 1 + H r)sin /"

v-, =a=
-e2 sin' prlrtz

.,=,

(1

Then the satellite to ground distance

o=Wtr-xtrY*ki

is simply given by:

r[f +(z'.-rIYY

And direction cosines from:

,=ryr*=Wrr=ry

To determine the direction to the satellite, it is necessary to transform the


satellite position in Earth Fixed to Topocentric coordinate system, given
by the following:

lxil [t o o l[-sin/, cost", ol lx|-xt1


t' l=lo sin4, cos4,ll-'orz" sin)", o l-l t; -y:
I
o lJ lz|-z| )
lzi ) [o -cos4, sin/,][ o
I

t6

Geodetic Coordin ates Sv stem


For practical application, it is unlikely that such coordinates will be
direct$ useful. They will normally have to be fansformed into the local
national coordinate system, or perhaps to a particular pu{pose system that
may have been adopted for a particular project in hand.

Nominally the transformation between geodetic coordinate system is


expressed by seven parameters transformation (Flelmert fransforrnation),
with the required geodetic coordinates (xG ,yG,zcl betng related to those
given by satellite positioning (xty,t ,zs) by:

ItAW.n.'{;?
\-

:r?t[i]

Where: dX,dY,dZ are translation parameters, 0y,0y,0, are small rotation


parameters, s dscale parameter.

In areas where the seven transformation parameters are not known, then it
is necessary to carry out satellite position fixing at stations with known
local coordinates and solving the seven parameters using least squares, by
treating qxc,yG,zo) and (xty,t,zt ) asobserved quantities.

t7

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