Professional Documents
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INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be
transferred into water until it becomes heated water or a gas (steam). The steam
or hot water under pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to a process.
Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring heat to a process. When
water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a
force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be an
extremely dangerous item that must be treated with utmost respect.
Boilers were used in crude fashions for several centuries but development was
slow because construction techniques were crude and the operation was
extremely dangerous. But by the industrial revolution of the mid 1800s boilers
had become the main source of energy to power industrial operations and
transportation. The use of water as a heat transfer medium has many
advantages. Water is relatively cheap, it can be easily controlled, the gas in
invisible, odorless, and extremely high purity.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches it's gaseous state is called
evaporation. Heat is transferred from one body to another by means of (1)
radiation, which is the transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body through a
conveying medium without physical contact, (2) convection, the transfer of heat
by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of
heat by actual physical contact, molecule to molecule. The heating surface is
any part of the boiler metal that has hot gases of combustion on one side and
water on the other. Any part of the boiler metal that actually contributes to
making steam is heating surface. The amount of heating surface a boiler has is
expressed in square feet. The larger the amount of heating surface a boiler has
Sensible Heat
The heat required to change the temperature of a substance is called its
sensible heat. In the teapot illustration to the left the 70 oF water contains 38
Btus and by adding 142 Btus the water is brought to boiling point.
Latent
Heat
In the illustration to the left, to change the liquid (water) to its gaseous state
(steam) an additional 970 Btus would be required. This quantity of heat
required to change a chemical from the liquid to the gaseous state is called
latent heat.
The saturation temperature or boiling point is a function of pressure and rises
when pressure increases. When water under pressure is heated its saturation
temperature rises above 212 oF. This occurs in the boiler. In the example below
the boiler is operating at a pressure of 100 psig which gives a steam temperature
of 338 oF or 1185 Btus.
When heat is added to saturated steam out of contact with liquid, its temperature
is said to be superheated. The temperature of superheated steam, expressed as
degrees above saturation, is referred to as the degrees of superheat.
BOILER TYPES:
There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit into one
of two categories: (1) Firetube or as an easy way
to remember "fire in tube" boilers, contain long
steel tubes through which the hot gasses from a
furnace pass and around which the water to be
changed to steam circulates, and (2) Watertube
or "water in tube" boilers in which the conditions
are reversed with the water passing through the
tubes and the furnace for the hot gasses is made
up of the water tubes. In a firetube boiler the heat
(gasses) from the combustion of the fuel passes
through tubes and is transferred to the water
Firetube Scotch Marine
which is in a large cylindrical storage area.
Boiler
Common types of firetube boilers are scotch
marine, firebox, HRT or horizontal return tube.
Firetube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and
easier to operate but they are limited generally to capacities of 50,000pph and
pressures of 250 psig. The more common types of watertube boilers are "D"
type, "A" type, "O" type, bent tube, and cast-iron sectional. All firetube boilers and
most watertube boilers are packaged boilers in that they can be transported by
truck, rail or barge. Large watertube boilers used in industries with large steam
demands and in utilities must be completely assembled and constructed in the
field and are called field erected boilers.
Miura Watertube
Boiler
electricity, the wastes of certain processes and fossil fuels. The approximate
heat value of certain fossil fuels:
In a fuel oil fired boiler plant, fuel oil leaves the tank through a suction line and
duplex strainer traveling then to the fuel oil pump. The fuel oil is then forced
through the pump and then through the discharge line. From the discharge line
some fuel oil is burned and some returned to the tank through a regulating valve.
In a natural gas fired plant gas is supplied at a set pressure which varies
depending on the gas source. Gas systems are low pressure or high pressure.
In a low pressure gas system city gas pressure is reduced from pounds to inches
of pressure by passing through a gas regulator. Through the regulator gas is
drawn into the burner and mixed with air supplied by a blower. This mixture is
directed to the burner where it is ignited with the pilot light. In a high gas
pressure system, gas passes through the regulator and gas is reduced to the
proper pressure for the burner. Some boilers have combination burners which
can burn gas or fuel oil or a combination of both gas and fuel oil.
Coal fired boilers use mechanical feeders or stokers to feed fuel to the burner at
a consistent rate. For example, in a chain grate stoker coal is fed through the
hopper and regulated before passing under the ignition arch. The coal
continues on a conveyor which carries the ignited coal slowly under the heating
surface. Ash, slag and unburned parts or clinkers are discharged at the other
side of the conveyor.
The draft system regulates the flow of air to and from the burner. For fuel to
burn efficiently the right amount of oxygen must be provided. Air must also be
provided to direct the flow of air through the furnace to direct the gases of
combustion out of the furnace to the breaching. A forced draft system uses a
fan to force (or push) air through the furnace. An induced draft system uses a
fan to draw (or pull) air through the furnace. A combination or balanced draft
system uses forced and induced draft fans. Gases of combustion enter the
stack from the breaching and are released to the atmosphere.
COMBUSTION:
Is the method of combining the fuel and air systems in a source of heat at
sufficient temperature to produce steam. Combustion may be defined as the
must come from outside the boiler room and plant processes. For higher boiler
efficiencies the feedwater can be heated, usually by economizers.
Chapter 2
MAKEUP WATER
A. WATER SOFTENERS:
Water as it passes over the ground, through caves and springs picks up some of
the elements from the limestone and other elements of nature which dissolved
and remain. These elements collectively are called hardness. Grandma's tea
kettle, used as an example in Chapter One, always seemed to have a "build up"
in the bottom which she removed periodically usually with vinegar. This "build
up" is called hardness. In a heavy use industrial steam boiler the water is could
be completely replaced as often as once each hour. Obviously at higher
turnover, temperatures and pressures than the tea kettle the boiler would quickly
have scale from this hardness that would reduce and ultimately prevent water
circulation and heat transfer which will destroy the boiler. The higher the
operating pressure of the boiler the more critical the removal of foreign items
from the feedwater becomes. Large utility boilers operating at 3,000 psig + may
actually use distilled water for ultimate purity.
The purpose of a water softener is primarily for the removal of hardness from the
boiler makeup water. Makeup water is the water supplied from the municipal
water system, well water, or other source for the addition of new water to the
boiler system necessary to replace the water evaporated. Some filtering of the
water may occur in the water softener but that is not the purpose of its design
and too much of other pollutants in the water could actually foul the water
softener affecting its operation. Hardness is composed primarily of calcium (Ca)
and magnesium (Mg) but also to lesser amounts sodium (Na), potassium (P),
and several other metals. Hardness is measured in grains with one grain of
hardness in the water being 17.1 ppm of these elements. The purpose of using
hardness as the unit of measure is that tests to measure in parts per million
(ppm) are much more difficult and expensive to use. Hardness varies from area
to area. Usually near salt water the hardness is very low as the limestone is
virtually non existent and in mountainous areas where limestone is everywhere
hardness is usually very high.
All softeners soften or remove the hardness from the water. The primary
minerals in the water that make "hard" water are Calcium (Ca++) and
Magnesium (Mg++). They form a curd with soap and scale in piping, water
heaters and whatever the hard water contacts. Hardness is removed from the
water by a process known as positive ion exchange. This process could also be
known as "ion substitution", for substitution is what occurs. Sodium (Na+) ions,
which are "soft" are substituted or exchanged for the Calcium and Magnesium as
the water passes through the softener tank.
The softening media is commonly called resin or Zeolite. The proper name for it
is polystyrene resin. The resin has the ability to attract positive charges to itself.
The reason it does so is because in its manufacture it inherits a negative charge.
It is a law of nature that opposite charges attract, i.e., a negative will attract a
positive and vice versa. A softener tank contains hundreds of thousands of
Zeolite beads. Each bead is a negative in nature and can be charged or
regenerated with positive ions. In a softener, the Zeolite is charged with positive,
"soft" sodium ions.
As "hard" water passes through the Zeolite, the Calcium and Magnesium ions
are strongly attracted to the beads. As the "hard" ions attach to the Zeolite bead,
they displace the "soft" Sodium ions that are already attached to the bead. In
effect, the Sodium is "exchanged" for the Calcium and Magnesium in the water
supply with the Calcium and Magnesium remaining on the Zeolite beads and the
Sodium ions taking their place in the water flowing through the softener tank. The
result of this "exchange" process is soft water flowing out of the tank.
It can now be readily understood that a softener will continue to produce "soft"
water only as long as there are Sodium ions remaining on the Zeolite beads to
"exchange" with the Calcium and Magnesium ions in the "hard" water. When the
supply of Sodium ions has been depleted, the Zeolite beads must be
"regenerated" with a new supply of Sodium ions. The regeneration of the Zeolite
beads is accomplished by a three step process.
SOFTENER DESIGN:
Water softeners come as single mineral tank units (simplex), double mineral tank
units (duplex) and multiple mineral tank units. Since regeneration cycles can
take approximately one hour simplex units are used only when this interruption
can be tolerated. To avoid interruption duplex units are used so that the
regeneration of one unit can be accomplished while the second unit is on line.
Triplex or other multiplex units usually are the result of need for increased
capacity and units can be added to keep soft water available. The reliability of
new electronic metering/controls for regeneration have allowed users to depend
on smaller units with more frequent regeneration.
Simplex Softener
Duplex Softener
Triplex Softener
REGENERATION PROCESS
BACKWASH:
The flow of water through the mineral bed is reversed. The mineral bed is
loosened and accumulated sediment is washed to the drain by the upward flow
of the water. An automatic backwash flow controller maintains the proper flow
rate to prevent the loss of resin.
FAST RINSE:
A high down flow of water repacks the mineral bed. Any trace of brine not
removed in slow rinse is flushed to the drain.
The unit is then returned to SERVICE the brine maker is refilled with fresh water
to form salt brine for the next regeneration. The total regeneration time is
approximately 60-90 minutes.
C = M * T * H /R
C = Capacity of softener in cubic feet of resin
M = Makeup water volume per hour in gallons; the volume needed to be
softened (8.34 pounds per gallon)
T = Time in hours desired between regeneration cycles
H = Hardness of water in grains (17.1 ppm per grain hardness)
R = Resin Capacity per cubic foot (this is virtually always 30,000 grains)
Chapter 3
BOILER FEEDWATER
A. DEAERATION:
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in solution. Certain gases, such as
carbon dioxide and oxygen, greatly increase corrosivity. When heated in boiler
systems, Carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) are released as gases and
combine with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid, (H2CO3).
CO2 + O2 + H2O
>
H2CO3
Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and other non-condensable gases from
boiler feedwater is vital to boiler equipment longevity as well as safety of
operation. Carbonic acid corrodes metal reducing the life of equipment and
piping. It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates
and causes scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not only contributes to
reducing the life of the equipment but also increases the amount of energy
needed to achieve heat transfer. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 5
The term given to the mechanical removal of dissolved gases is deaeration.
Mechanical deaeration for the removal of these dissolved gases is typically
utilized prior to the addition of chemical oxygen scavengers. Mechanical
deaeration is based on Charles' and Henry's laws of physics. Simplified, these
laws state that removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be accomplished by
heating the boiler feedwater which reduces the concentration of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding the feedwater.
The easiest way to deaerate is to force steam into the feedwater, this action is
called scrubbing. Scrubbing raises the water temperature causing the release
of O2 and CO2 gases that are then vented from the system. In boiler systems,
steam is used to "scrub" the feedwater as (1) steam is essentially devoid of O2
and CO2, (2) steam is readily available and (3) steam adds the heat required to
complete the reaction. For efficient operation, deaerating equipment must satisfy
the following requirements: (1) Heating of the feedwater: The operating
temperature in the unit should be the boiling point of water at the measured
pressure. The pressure/temperature relationship is important since boiling must
take place rapidly for quick and efficient removal of gases. If this temperature and
pressure cannot be economically achieved then it is important to get as close to it
as possible. (2) Agitation decreases the time and heat energy necessary to
remove dissolved gases from the water. (3) Maximization of surface area by
finely dispersing the water to expose maximum surface area to the steam. This
enables the water to be heated to saturation temperature quicker and reduces
the distance the gases have to travel to be liberated. (4) The liberated gases
must be vented to allow their escape from the system as they are released.
While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels
(.005cc/l or 5 ppb), even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage
to a system. Consequently, good operating practice requires removal of that
trace oxygen with a chemical oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite or
hydrazine. Free carbon dioxide can be removed by deaeration, but this process
releases only small amounts of combined carbon dioxide. The majority of the
combined carbon dioxide is removed with the steam of the boiler, subsequently
dissolving in the condensate, frequently causing corrosion problems. These
problems can be controlled through the use of volatile neutralizing amines or
filming amines.
2. Spray Type Deaerators work on the same general principle as the tray
types. The spray-type deaerators do not use trays for dispersion of the water. In
this case, spring loaded nozzles located in the top of the unit spray water into a
steam atmosphere which is heated to within a few degrees of the saturation
Like deaerators, feedwater tanks operate by forcing steam into the feedwater
which scrubs oxygen and carbon dioxide gases that are then vented to
atmosphere.
Steam enters the bottom of the tank agitating the feedwater as it rises to the top
of the tank, and finally is vented along with the liberated gases. The temperature
is normally controlled as high as possible without causing pump problems which
occurs when the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is too low. Steam bubbles
form and fill the pump cavity causing vibration, a condition know as cavitation.
This condition may cause serious damage to the feedwater pump and jeopardize
steam production. The most practical potential solution for cavitation is the
installation of a slipstream, which allows a portion of the high pressure feedwater
to recirculate to the suction side of the pump where it lowers the temperature and
eliminates the boiling and cavitation. The slipstream will not always work leaving
the choices of increasing the NPSH by increasing the distance between the tank
and the pump, or sizing a new pump properly. Practically speaking, most
feedwater tanks are controlled between 180 0F - 2000F and rely more on the
assistance of a chemical oxygen scavenger for complete oxygen removal.
Pressurized deaerators must have the ASME U stamp attached and be built
under the regulations of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Section
VIII, Division I.
B. ECONOMIZER:
An economizer removes additional Btus from the stack gasses by circulating
the deaerated boiler feedwater through a series of bent tubes in the stack. This
translates into a "free" source of energy from the boiler operation. Finned tube
economizers are less costly and more efficient as the "fins" are a source of heat
transfer as well as the tubes. Economizers in watertube boilers typically increase
the efficiency of the boiler 4-10% which is usually less than a one year payback.
Due to the higher efficiencies of firetube boilers the payback is usually longer and
therefore economizers are not used as frequently on them. An economizer can
also be a useful means of increasing the steam capacity of a boiler.
The use of high sulfur oils, particularly #6 oil, is very corrosive on the economizer
tubes. This can be improved by increasing the temperature of the feedwater to
the economizer and the use of soot blowers but the life of an economizer in that
environment is limited to about 2-3 years. A bare tube economizer is easier to
keep free of the corrosive sulfur but requires more tubes to achieve the same
efficiency as a finned tube economizer. Since the economizer is directly part of
the boiler and has contact from the gases of combustion it must also be built
under the regulations of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Code
Section I and have the ASME S stamp attached.
Chapter 4
DEPOSIT CONTROL:
Deposits in boilers may result from hardness contamination of feedwater, and
corrosion products from the condensate and feedwater system. Hardness
contamination of the feedwater may result from either deficient softener systems
or raw water in leakage of the condensate. Deposits act as insulators and slow
heat transfer. The insulating effect of deposits cause the boiler metal
temperature to rise and may lead to tube-failure by overheating. Large amounts
of deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough to reduce
the boiler efficiency. The graph demonstrates that different types of deposits will
effect boiler efficiency differently. This is why it is important to have an analysis
of deposit characteristics.
When feedwater enters the boiler, the elevated temperatures and pressures
cause the components of water to take on dramatic changes. Most of the
components in the feedwater are soluble; they are dissolved in the water.
However, under heat and pressure most of the soluble components come-out of
solution as particulate solids, sometimes in crystallized forms and other times as
amorphous particles. The coming-out of solution is referred to as retrograde
solubility, and means that as temperature increases, ability to stay in solution
decreases. When solubility of a specific component in water is exceeded, scale
or deposits develop.
Internal chemical treatment for deposit control is achieved either by adding a
treatment to prevent the contaminants from depositing or by adding a treatment
chemical that will allow for easy removal by blowdown. Hardness can be kept
from depositing in boiler water by treatment with chelating agents. When
phosphate treatment is preferred over chelant treatment, the boiler water is
conditioned to form a fluid sludge which can be removed by bottom blowdown.
Formation of this sludge requires that alkalinity from caustic be present in the
boiler water. If sufficient alkalinity is not maintained in the boiler water, a sticky
precipitate will form and reduce heat transfer.
Even when the precipitates formed in the boiler water are in the form most
desired, they are often difficult to remove completely by blowdown. This is
especially true when the precipitates also contain iron and copper corrosion
products from the preboiler system and organic contaminants from condensate
returns. Sludge conditioners enhance the removal of precipitates from industrial
boilers. Sludge conditioners are organic polymers which combine with the
precipitates to permit the particles to be dispersed. This makes removal by
blowdown easier.
without excess blowdown, are maintained in the range of 300 -500 ppm OH. This
treatment provides the ideal conditions for formation of calcium and magnesium
precipitates in the preferred states. It also provides a residual of alkalinity to
neutralize any acid contamination, such as organic acids. It may, however,
promote foaming, especially if organic contaminants enter the boiler.
CHELANT TREATMENT:
A chelant is a compound which is capable of "grabbing onto" calcium,
magnesium and iron. Chelant treatment of boiler water is attractive because the
chelates of calcium and magnesium are soluble.
The undesirable scales of calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate are
successfully eliminated by chelant treatment.
While the chelates of the hardness and iron contaminants are soluble, some
chemistry precautions need to be mentioned. Phosphate will compete with the
chelant for calcium, and if present in significant amounts, will result in
undesirable calcium-phosphate deposits. Phosphate can enter the boiler water
where city water makeup supplies phosphate. Both hydroxide alkalinity and
silica compete with the chelant for magnesium. Depending on the concentration
of all the boiler water chemistry, magnesium silicate deposits may result.
Chelants should be fed to the feedwater downstream of any copper alloys, after
the deaerator and before the boiler drum. The preferred feed location is downstream of the boiler feedwater pump. A stainless steel injection quill is required.
Feed to the deaerator storage is not recommended since copper alloys in the
boiler feed pump may be attacked. Proper feed of chelant will result in a chelant
residual in the boiler water. The photo below shows the preferred feed locations
for chelant feed and other requirements for adequate assurance of chelant
control.
Injection Quill
A chelant residual in the boiler water, however, is not in itself proof of adequate
feed control. A chelant residual should be maintained in the feedwater at all
times. Chelant treatment is not a solution for highly variable and excessive
concentrations of hardness in the makeup and condensate returns.
Chapter 5
SUMMARY. Clearly each program or approach has certain features and benefits
as well as limitations. Each different set of operating conditions will tend to
dictate the appropriate treatment that is required. The expected steam pressure,
temperature, system metallurgy and the plants systems pH level all play an
important role in determining the most effective treatment program. Clearly each
program or approach has certain features and benefits as well as limitations.
Each different set of operating conditions will tend to dictate the appropriate
treatment that is required. The expected steam pressure, temperature, system
metallurgy and the plant systems pH level all play an important role in
determining the most effective treatment program.
Chapter 6
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is
accomplished by controlling the "three T's" of combustion which are (1)
temperature high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2)
turbulence or mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) time sufficient for complete
combustion. Not all of the Btu's in the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed
by the steam generation equipment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is
burned and most boiler fuels, allowable with today's air pollution standards,
contain little or no sulfur. So the main challenge in combustion efficiency is
directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or incompletely burned gas) which
forms CO instead of CO2.
The burner is the principal device for the firing of the fuel. Burners are normally
located in the vertical walls of the furnace. Burners, along with the furnaces in
which they are installed, are designed to burn the fuel properly by making the
proper combination of the "three T's." Combustion controls assist the burner in
regulation of fuel supply, air supply, (fuel to air ratio), and removal of gases of
combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficiency. The amount of fuel supplied to
the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity of steam
required. The combustion controls are also necessary as safety devices insuring
the boiler not only operates but operates safely.
A drop in steam pressure necessitates an increase in the fuel supplied to the
burner. Conversely, an increase in steam pressure necessitates a decrease in
the fuel supplied. Any change in the amount of fuel supplied requires a
corresponding change in the air for combustion supplied to the burner.
To maintain high combustion efficiency, the air to fuel ratio must be balanced
from the lowest firing rate to the highest firing rate. If there is an imbalance in the
air to fuel ratio, smoking, flame failure, wasted fuel and in extreme cases an
explosion could result.
The Control firing sequence occurs at cold startup or when the steam pressure
drops, the pressure control completes an electric circuit, which starts a timer
motor cam turning in the programmer. The first contact on the timer motor cam
closes and starts the burner motor that rotates the primary air fan. The primary
air fan blows air into the furnace to purge any unburned fuel present in a gaseous
condition. This process in called prepurging the furnace. By prepurging the
furnace before pilot ignition, the danger of a furnace explosion is reduced.
Depending upon the size of the furnace the purge cycle takes approximately 30
seconds but may take as long as 60 seconds. The programmer is still operating
and when the second contact closes, the circuit of the ignition transformer is
completed. This causes a spark in front of the gas pilot tube. At the same time,
a solenoid valve is opened in the gas pilot line, allowing gas to flow through the
gas pilot tube and be ignited by the spark. The scanner is located on the front of
the boiler and is used to sight the pilot. Sighting the pilot through the scanner will
verify that the pilot is lit. This process is referred to as proving pilot. The next
step is to close the contact which completes the circuit to the main fuel valve,
which opens only after the scanner has proved pilot. With the main fuel valve
open the fuel enters the furnace and is ignited by the pilot. The scanner is then
used to prove the main flame. The programmer continues to operate for a few
more seconds, securing circuits to the ignition transformer and the gas pilot.
After the circuits are secured, the programmer stops. The burner is now
regulated by the pressure control and the modulating pressure control. If the
scanner senses a flame failure, the system is purged and secured. The
programmer is then manually reset to the start cycle.
Chapter 6B
contribute greatly to the safety of boilers in the future. Control systems are now
more sophisticated for better load management and DCS (distributive control
systems) allow for connecting to computer controllers. The knowledge of our
qualified service technicians today is much greater than five years ago. Other
boiler companies have failed to keep up with the rapid change in technology.
Proper mechanical service will reduce repair and capital costs.
(3) Downtime is one of the most expensive items associated with improper
maintenance of mechanical equipment. Outages can cost from thousands of
dollars per hour in a small plant to hundreds of thousands of dollars in a large
plant. Monthly mechanical testing often results in early detection of improper
functioning controls. If possible we replace them at that time. B&HES service
vehicles typically carry over $ 10,000 in inventories. In the least case
replacement can be made at the customer's next scheduled down time. In a
typical boiler room situation, the service program pays for itself when it prevents
just one shutdown per year.
(4) Safety The lack of safety can easily become the most expensive cost of the
boiler operation. A rare waterside explosion occurred in Chattanooga several
years ago on New Years night with temperatures at 0 oF. A twenty ton boiler,
sheared from all its pipe and connections was blown over twenty feet into a block
wall. Fortunately the boiler room was in a remote building and unattended at the
time. No one was injured. Although it took B&HES less than 24 hours to install a
temporary boiler an expensive loss had occurred. The boiler operator had
rewired the auxiliary low water cutoff for automatic reset because the frequent
shutdowns had troubled him. The primary low water cutoff continued to control
the water level in the boiler under normal water level changes. However a slow
drain down of the boiler did not allow the mechanical control to function properly.
With monthly safety checks we would have detected the problem before this
disaster happened. This accident was typical. All the boiler explosions we at
B&HES have seen are traced back to boiler operator error.
(5) Training of your boiler operations personnel is another benefit of our monthly
mechanical service. As our technician performs tests and makes adjustments
the boiler operator receives explanations of each step that is being taken.
Informal training like this may have prevented the accident referred to earlier.
Certainly all operators are well-intended people and would never intentionally do
anything to jeopardize their companies or themselves.
(6) Third Party Audit of the company's boiler maintenance program is another
benefit of the monthly boiler mechanical/safety check. Would anybody operate a
business without an audit of their accounting records? The boiler room deserves
the same care.
(7) Insurance Premium Reduction is yet another benefit from a monthly boiler
mechanical/service contract. Insurance companies realize that in the event of a
negligence claim, documented third party evidence shows that due care has
been taken. This evidence can lead to little or no liability settlements.
It takes about four hours to perform this combustion and safety service. Any less
is not enough to assure proper efficiency and safety in your boiler room.
Job scope for the boiler audit should include the following items:
MONTHLY SERVICE:
1. Test combustion for five points on the base fuel on which the boiler is
operating.
Backup fuel may be the base fuel for at least two of the twelve monthly tests.
Necessary adjustments to improve fuel air ratios should be made, with readings
to record efficiency and other data both before and after the adjustments
are made.
2. Test flame failure control.
3. Test low water control cutoff and auxiliary using the slow drain method.
4. Test high pressure cutoff to be done by customer's operator.
5. Test gas pressure switches at high pressure cutoff and at low pressure cutoff.
6. Test combustion air proving switch.
7. Test auxiliary contacts on motor starter.
8. Test atomizing medium proving switch.
9. Test high and low fire proving switches.
10. Test high and low oil temperature.
11. Test low oil pressure switch.
12. Remove pilot assembly, clean and adjust.
13. Complete service report with recommendations.
ANNUAL SERVICE:
1. Open and washout boiler water-side.
2. Brush tubes and/or clean fireside surfaces.
3. Replace all gaskets on water-side and fireside.
4. Repack feed water pumps.
5. Clean strainers.
6. Replace gauge glass of DA or makeup tank.
7. Test float switches on make-up tank.
8. Shop rebuilt and testing of safety relief valves.
Chapter 6C
For building maintenance personnel, such systems allow ease of use through
touch-screen control on a personal computer; single-point access to all of the
building's controls and monitors; video tutorials; and optional remote video
cameras for monitoring of equipment in distant locations. Even operators
unfamiliar with computers find the newest control systems easy to use, because
"virtual control panels" displayed on the computer screen look and feel like actual
physical control panels.
The transformation in the controls industry began in 1991. A microprocessorbased integrated control system when used with gas, oil, or combination burners,
provided enhanced safety when compared to mechanical switches and allowed
constant monitoring of boiler conditions. It replaced the following components on
a typical steam boiler: the existing programmer, steam and modulating pressure
controls, gas and oil pressure switches, oil temperature switches, and the
standard modulating motor.
Some controls have a communication interface and software, which will allow
multiple systems to communicate with a personal computer. Using real time
burner status, the system is able to send boiler shutdown notification to any
desired site through a local personal computer or to one miles away through a
modem. In the event of a shutdown, the system can be programmed to
automatically dial a telephone number and display a message on the receiving
personal computer.
This is an exciting time for those involved in boiler maintenance and control.
Today's operators have the unique opportunity to gain expertise with the new
controls as they become more advanced and complex. At the same time,
personnel are capable of more effective boiler operation with greater efficiency
and safety.
Boiler controls technology will not likely come to a halt, either. The more complex,
but user-friendly technology continues to advance at a rapid pace. As future
development becomes available, progress will be seen in the following
applications:
Systems Integration As control manufacturers provide devices which have the
ability to communicate, the separate systems will be able to network into one
large integral package. This capability will allow the facility manager to
comprehensively monitor and control their facility.
Systems Diagnostics Control capability has assisted the service of burner/boiler
controls in many ways. Current technology will help build future controls and
further reduce the complexity and wasted time associated with an inoperable
system. Advancements in controls will allow for troubleshooting and help correct
problems quickly.
Enhanced Safety With current and developing technology controls, additional
safety checks can be added to enhance overall plant and equipment safety.
Chapter 7
BOILER OPERATION
A boiler operates using the feedwater system, the steam system, the fuel system
and the draft system. The feedwater system supplies water to the boiler. The
steam system controls and directs the steam produced in the boiler. The fuel
system supplies fuel and controls combustion to produce heat. The draft system
regulates the movement of air for combustion and evacuates gases of
combustion. Water, steam fittings and accessories are required to supply and
control water and steam in the boiler. Boiler fittings or trim are components such
as valves directly attached to the boiler. Accessories are pieces of equipment not
necessarily attached to the boiler, but required for the operation of the boiler.
Safety Valves are the most important fittings on the boiler. They should open to
release pressure when pressure inside the boiler exceeds the maximum
allowable working pressure or MAWP. Safety valves are installed at the highest
part of the steam side of the boiler. No other valve shall be installed between the
boiler and the safety valve. Safety valve capacity is measured in the amount of
the steam that can be discharged per hour. The safety valve will remain open
until sufficient steam is released and there is a specific amount of drop in
pressure. This drop in pressure is the blowdown of the safety valve. Safety
valve capacity and blowdown is listed on the data plate on the safety valve.
Spring loaded safety valves are the most common safety valves. A spring exerts
pressure on the valve against the valve seat to keep the valve closed. When
pressure inside the boiler exceeds the set popping pressure, the pressure forces
the valve open to release. The ASME Code specifies the design, materials and
construction of safety valves. The number of safety valves required and the
frequency and procedures for testing safety valves is also specified by the ASME
Code. Adjustment or repairs to safety valves must be performed by the
manufacturer or an assembler authorized by the manufacturer.
Water fittings and accessories control the amount, pressure and temperature of
water supplied to and from the boiler. Water in the boiler must be maintained at
the normal operating water level or NOWL. Low water conditions can damage
the boiler and could cause a boiler explosion. High water conditions can cause
carryover. Carryover occurs when small water droplets are carried in steam
lines. Carryover can result in water hammer. Water hammer is a banging
condition caused by hydraulic pressure that can damage equipment.
Feedwater Valves control the flow of feedwater from the feedwater pump to the
boiler. Feedwater stop valves are globe valves located on the feedwater line.
They isolate the boiler from feedwater accessories. The feedwater stop valve is
positioned closest to the boiler to stop the flow of water out of the boiler for
maintenance, or if the check valve malfunctions. The feedwater check valve is
located next to the feedwater stop valve and prevents feedwater from flowing
from the boiler back to the feedwater pump. The feedwater check valve opens
and closes automatically with a swinging disc. When water is fed to the boiler it
opens. If water flows back from the boiler the valve closes.
Water Column minimizes the water turbulence in the gage glass to provide
accurate water level reading. Water columns are located at the NOWL, with the
lowest part of the water column positioned at least 3" above the heating system.
Water columns for high pressure boilers consist of the main column and three
tricocks. High and low water alarms or whistles may be attached to the top and
bottom tricocks.
The Gage Glass is used to visually monitor the water level in the boiler. Isolation
valves located at the top and bottom permit the changing of gage glasses.
A Blowdown Valve at the bottom of the gage glass is used to remove sludge
and sediment. Tubular gage glasses are used for pressure up to 400 psig. All
boilers must have two methods of determining the boiler water level. The gage
glass serves as the primary method of determining boiler water level. If the water
cannot be seen in the gage glass, the tricocks are used as a secondary method
of determining boiler water level. The middle tricock is located at the NOWL. If
water comes out of the middle tricock, the gage glass is not functioning properly.
If water comes out of the top tricock, there is a high water condition in the boiler.
If water comes out of the bottom tricock, water may be safely added to the boiler.
If steam comes out of the bottom tricock, water must not be added to the boiler.
Secure the fuel immediately. Adding water could cause a boiler explosion.
Makeup Water replaces boiler water lost from leaks or from the lack of
condensate returned in the boiler. Makeup water is fed manually or
automatically. Boilers can have both manual and automatic systems. If the
boiler has both, the manual always bypasses the automatic system. Boiler
operators must know how to supply makeup water quickly to the boiler in the
event of a low water condition. Manual systems feed city water with a hand
operated valve. Automatic systems feed city water with a float control valve
mounted slightly below the NOWL. If the float drops from a low water level, the
valve in the city water line is open. As the water level rises, the float rises to
close the valve.
The Low Water Fuel Cut Off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low
water condition in the boiler. The low water fuel cut off is located 2" to 6" below
the NOWL. Low water fuel cut offs are available with or without an integral water
column. Low water fuel cut offs must be tested monthly or more often depending
on plant procedures and requirements. Low water fuel cut offs operate using an
electric probe or a float sensor. The float senses a drop in water level. Switches
in the low water fuel cut off are wired to the burner control to shut off fuel to the
burner when the water level drops in the chamber.
The Feedwater Regulator maintains the NOWL in the boiler by controlling the
amount of condensate return pumped to the boiler from the condensate return
tank. The correct water level is maintained with a feedwater regulator, but boiler
water level must still be checked periodically by the boiler operator.
Feedwater Pumps are used with feedwater regulators to pump feedwater to the
boiler. Pressure must be sufficient to overcome boiler water pressure to maintain
the NOWL in the boiler. For maximum safety, plants having one steam driven
feedwater pump must have a back up feedwater pump driven by electricity.
Feedwater pumps may be reciprocating, centrifugal or turbine. Reciprocating
feedwater pumps are steam driven and use a piston to discharge water to the
feedwater line. They are limited in capacity and are used on small boilers.
Centrifugal feedwater pumps are electric motor or steam driven. They are the
most common feedwater pump. Centrifugal force moves water to the outside
edge of the rotating impeller. The casing directs water from the impeller to the
discharge piping. Discharge pressure is dependent on impeller speed. Turbine
feedwater pumps are steam driven and operate similarly to centrifugal
feedwater pumps.
Feedwater Heaters heat water before it enters the boiler drum to remove
oxygen and other gases which may cause corrosion. Feedwater heaters are
either open or closed. Open feedwater heaters allow steam and water to mix as
they enter an enclosed steel chamber. They are located above the feedwater
pump to produce a positive pressure on the suction side of the pump. Closed
feedwater heaters have a large number of tubes inside an enclosed steel vessel.
Steam and water do not come in contact, but feedwater goes through the tubes
and steam is allowed in the vessel to preheat the feedwater. They are located on
the discharge side of the feedwater pump.
Bottom Blowdown Valves release water from the boiler to reduce water level,
remove sludge and sediment, reduce chemical concentrations or drain the
boiler. Two valves are commonly used, a quick opening and screw valve. During
blowdown the quick opening valve is opened first, the screw valve is opened next
and takes the wear and tear from blowdown. Water is discharged to the
blowdown tank. A blowdown tank collects water to protect the sewer from the hot
boiler water. After blowdown, the screw valve is closed first and the quick
opening valve is closed last.
Steam Fittings & Accessories remove air, control steam flow, and maintain the
required steam pressure in the boiler. Steam fittings are also used to direct
steam to various locations for heating and process.
Steam Pressure Gages and vacuum gages monitor pressure inside the boiler.
The range of these gages should be 1-1/2 to 2 times the MAWP of the boiler. For
example: on a low pressure boiler, a maximum steam pressure on the pressure
gage reads 30 psig as the MAWP is 15 psig.
Steam Valves commonly used include a gate valve used for the main steam stop
valve and the globe valve. The main steam stop valve cuts the boiler in online
allowing steam to flow from the boiler or takes it off line. This is an outside stem
and yoke or OS&Y valve. The position of the stem indicates whether the valve is
open or closed. The valve is opened with the stem out and closed with the stem
in. This provides quick information to the boiler operator.
The globe valve controls the flow of steam passing under the valve seat through
the valve. This change in direction causes a decrease in steam pressure. A
globe valve decreases steam flow and can be used to vary the amount of steam
flow. This should never be used as a main steam stop valve.
Steam Traps remove condensate from steam in lines from the boiler. Steam
traps work automatically and increase boiler plant efficiency. They also prevent
water hammer by expelling air and condensate from the steam lines without loss
of steam. Steam traps are located after the main steam header throughout the
system. Steam traps commonly used include the inverted bucket, the
thermostatic and the float thermostatic. In the inverted bucket steam trap steam
enters the bottom flowing into the inverted bucket. The steam holds the bucket
up. As condensate fills the steam trap the bucket loses buoyancy and sinks to
open the discharge valve. The thermostatic steam trap has a bellows filled with a
fluid that boils at steam temperature. As the fluid boils vapors expand the
bellows to push the valve closed. When the temperature drops below steam
temperature, the bellows contract to open the valve and discharge condensate.
A variation of the thermostatic steam trap is the float thermostatic steam trap. A
float opens and closes depending on the amount of condensate in the trap bowl.
Condensate is drawn out by return vacuum.
Steam Strainers remove scale or dirt from the steam and are located in the
piping prior to steam trap inlet. Scale or dirt can clog discharge orifices in the
steam trap. Steam strainers must be cleaned regularly.
SUMMARY
The safety valve is the most important fitting on the boiler. The gage glass is
used to visually monitor the water level in the boiler. Tricocks are used as a
secondary device for determining water level in the boiler. Makeup water
replaces water lost from leaks or lack of condensate return to the boiler. The low
water fuel cut off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low water condition.
Steam pressure gages and vacuum gages are used to indicate the pressure
inside the boiler.
Chapter 8B
the test. Second, the cost of testing six to eight valves in the field is about
the same as the cost of rebuilding one valve in the shop. Third, since the
electronic valve tester does not lift the valve from its seat reseating problems
are not an issue.
The electronic valve tester is amazingly accurate and is now recognized by most
insurers as an acceptable alternative to sending the valve to the "VR" shop for
testing. The National Board recognizes it as part of the quality control manual of
the valve repair shop. The customer is provided with a printout including a graph
of each valve tested. This can provide a valuable record for documentation in
the customer boiler quality/safety compliance program and to establish
guidelines for future repair scheduling for the repair of SRVs.
"Why dont all repair shops own this type equipment?" Quite possibly because of
the high purchase cost, which exceeds $50,000, and also it reduces the number
of valves available for repair. But the effectiveness of this service means that the
valve repair companies must offer it and will maintain their repair volume by
increasing their customer base.
Chapter 9B
Now that we have classified the equipment it is time to discuss the different
options available:
With another boiler operating in the boiler room, to assure low humidity in the air,
the trays should be placed in each drum of a watertube boiler or on the top tubes
of a firetube boiler. The feedwater inlet and steam outlet should be checked to
ensure no dampness occurs in the boiler from these points. All manhole and
hand-hole covers should remain opened to allow dry air to enter the unit. Be sure
to inspect the boiler internals every month to ensure against any moisture. When
the desiccant becomes hard due to absorbing moisture, be sure to promptly
replace it.
Chapter 10
REFERENCES
Links:
National Board of Boiler & Pressure Vessel Inspectors
Natural Gas Prices at the Well Head
www.amazon.com
High Pressure Boilers
by Frederick M. Steingress, Harold J. Frost
Steam Plant Operation by Thomas F. Lammers, Everett B. Woodruff
Boiler Operator's Guide by Anthony Lawrence Kohan
Water Treatment Essentials for Boiler Plant Operation
by Robert G.
Nunn
Fuel Values-Standard
#6 oil = 150,000 Btu/gallon
#4 oil = 145,000 Btu/gallon
#2 oil = 140,000 Btu/gallon
Natural Gas = 1,000 Btu/cubic foot
1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
Propane = 91,500 Btu/gallon
Coal = 12,000 Btu/pound
Wood - Dry = 8,000 Btu/pound
Wood - Wet = 4,500 Btu/pound
1kw electricity = 3413 Btu
SATURATED STEAMTEMP
BTU'S/LB
DegF
DegC
32.0
0.0
-14.6
3305.0
-0.02
1075.5 1075.5
32.0
40.0
4.4
-14.6
2446.0
8.03
1071.0 1079.0
40.0
50.0
10.0
-14.5
1704.8
18.05
1065.3 1083.4
50.0
60.0
15.5
-14.4
1207.6
28.06
1059.7 1087.8
60.0
70.0
21.1
-14.3
868.4
38.05
1054.0 1092.1
70.0
80.0
26.7
-14.2
633.3
48.04
1048.4 1096.4
80.0
90.0
32.2
-14.0
468.1
58.02
1042.7 1100.7
90.0
100.0
37.8
-13.7
350.4
68.00
110.0
43.3
-13.4
265.4
77.98
120.0
48.9
-13.0
203.26
87.97
130.0
54.4
-12.5
157.33
97.96
140.0
60.0
-11.8
123.00 107.95
150.0
65.5
-11.0
97.07 117.95
160.0
71.1
-10.0
77.29 127.96
170.0
76.7
-8.7
62.06 137.97
180.0
82.2
-7.2
50.22 148.00
190.0
87.8
-5.4
40.96 158.04
200.0
93.3
-3.2
33.64 168.09
210.0
98.9
-0.6
27.82 178.15
212.0
100.0
0.0
26.80 180.17
220.0
104.4
2.5
23.15 188.22
230.0
110.0
6.1
19.381 198.33
240.0
115.5
10.3
16.321 208.45
250.0
121.1
15.0
13.819 218.59
260.0
126.7
20.7
11.762 228.76
270.0
132.2
27.2
10.060 238.95
280.0
137.8
34.5
8.644 249.17
290.0
143.3
42.9
7.460
259.4
300.0
148.9
52.3
6.466
269.7
310.0
154.4
63.0
5.626
280.0
320.0
160.0
74.9
4.914
290.4
340.0
171.1
103.3
3.788
311.3
360.0
182.2
138.3
2.957
332.3
400.0
204.4
232.6
1.8630
375.1
420.0
215.5
294.1
1.4997
396.9
440.0
226.7
366.8
1.2169
419.0
460.0
237.8
452.2
0.9942
441.5
480.0
248.9
551.5
0.8172
464.5
500.0
260.0
666.2
0.6749
487.9
520.0
271.1
797.8
0.5596
512.0
540.0
282.2
948.1
0.4651
536.8
580.0
304.4
1311.5
0.3222
589.1
600.0
315.5
1528.5
0.2675
617.1
640.0
337.8
2045.2
0.1802
679.1
700.0
371.1
3079.6
0.0752
822.4
705.5
374.2
3193.5
0.0508
906.0