Professional Documents
Culture Documents
In journalism, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives timely
information. Outside journalism, sources are sometimes known as "news sources". Examples
of sources include official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or
business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, accidents or other events, and
people involved with or affected by a news event or issue.
According to Shoemaker (1996) and McQuail (1994), there are a multitude of factors that tend
to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists. Reporters are
expected to develop and cultivate sources, especially if they regularly cover a specific topic,
known as a "beat". Beat reporters must, however, be cautious of becoming too close to their
sources. Reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience.
For example, sometimes a person will say they don't want to talk, and then proceed to talk; if
that person is not a public figure, reporters are less likely to use that information. Journalists
are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical as per the saying "If your mother says
she loves you, check it out." popularized by the City News Bureau. As a rule of thumb, but
especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources.
Primary sources: materials that were created at the time the event occurred or materials
created by those who experienced the event. These materials include letters, speeches, diaries,
newspaper articles from the time period, interviews with people who were around when the
event occurred, documents, photographs, and artifacts such as tools, weapons, clothing from
the time period.
Some types of primary sources include:
Secondary sources: materials that were created after the event. These materials might tell you
about an event, person, time or place, but they were created by someone not from the time
period. Secondary sources can include history books, school textbooks, encyclopaedias, history
magazines, websites, and documentaries. Some types of secondary sources include:
NOTE: Tertiary sources contain information that has been compiled from primary and
secondary sources. Tertiary sources include almanacs, chronologies, dictionaries and
encyclopaedias, directories, guidebooks, indexes, abstracts, manuals, and textbooks.
Anonymous sources
The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news
organization's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. (Lawyers
are generally protected from subpoena in these cases by attorney/client privilege.) Legal staff
may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about
court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the
loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent anonymous sources and to provide a
second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how or how not to identify sources,
and whether other options should be pursued.
The use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that
anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others hold strict
prohibitions against the use of unnamed sources at all times. News organizations may impose
safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by
a second source before it can be printed.
Nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be
incorrect. For instance, much of the O. J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later
deemed inaccurate. Newsweek retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that
led to riots in the Middle East; the Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one
unnamed military source. The Los Angeles Times retracted an article that implicated Sean
"Diddy" Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. The original article was based on documents
and several unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted
that "[n]one of the sources was named.
After the embarrassment, a news organization will often "clamp down" on the guidelines for
using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down.
One study found that large newspapers' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically
between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use
of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004.
Not on tape
Whether in a formal, sit-down interview setting or an impromptu meeting on the street, some
sources request that all or part of the encounter not be captured in an audio or video recording
("tape"), but continue speaking to the reporter. As long as the interview is not confidential, the
reporter may report the information given by the source, even repeating direct quotes (perhaps
scribbled on a notepad or recalled from memory). This often shows up in broadcasts as "John
Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said" or simply "a spokesperson said".
Some interview subjects are simply uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they
will be inarticulate and make fools of themselves when the interview is broadcast. Others might
be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent
them from being able to broadcast an unflattering sound bite or part of the interview out of
context. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words,
rather than being on the air themselves, will blunt the impact of their words. The audience need
not see or hear them being uncomfortable (if they have unpleasant news), and not being on air
also allows them to be anonymous or identified only by title.
Attribution
In journalism, attribution is the identification of the source of reported information. Journalists'
ethical codes normally address the issue of attribution, which is sensitive because in the course
of their work journalists may receive information from sources who wish to remain
anonymous. In investigative journalism important news stories often depend on such
information. For example, the Watergate scandal that led to the downfall of U.S. president
Richard Nixon was in part exposed by information revealed by an anonymous source ("Deep
Throat") to investigative reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein.
Ethics
Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing
journalists in many democracies. In many countries, journalists enjoy the same protection
under the law as all other citizens, and as such may be required to divulge their sources in the
course of a criminal investigation as any other citizen would be. Even in jurisdictions which
grant journalists special legal protections, journalists are typically required to testify if they
bear witness to a crime.
"Speaking terms":
There are several categories of "speaking terms" (agreements concerning attribution) that cover
information conveyed in conversations with journalists. In the UK the following conventions
are generally accepted:
"On the record": all that is said can be quoted and attributed.
"Unattributable": what is said can be reported but not attributed.
"Off the record": the information is provided to inform a decision or provide a confidential
explanation, not for publication.
1. Newspaper stories are generally secondary sources of information because they are not
first-hand reports describing the action that is creating the news. Most newspaper stories are
written by reporters who have gathered information from witnesses or participants in a
newsworthy event, so the story's content is second-hand news. If someone who actually took
part in the event wrote the story that would be a first hand resource. If the person who
personally climbed Mt. Everest wrote a news story about the climb and the new equipment
used in the process, that would be first hand news concerning the climb and the evaluation of
the equipment.
2. Anything that is a first-hand account of people and the way they lived is considered a primary
source. Anything that is interpreted is considered a secondary source.
With this in mind, newspapers can be BOTH primary and secondary sources depending on
the purpose of the article and how it was written. If it is a factual account, recording the events
as they happened, it is a primary source. If the article is interpreted or has opinion interjected,
it is considered a secondary source.
3. Other primary sources include official documents (birth or marriage certificates), diaries,
photos, personal calendars, recordings of television and/or radio broadcasts, items collected at
events (brochures, ticket stubs, etc.), autographs, maps, artifacts that are handmade and tell
something about the culture (jars, etc. that would be dug up in an archaeological dig, eyeglasses
or pocket watches from ancestors, etc.).
Secondary sources include biographies, histories, analyses, reviews, books, etc.
It depends on what is in the newspaper. For example, a letter to the editor would be a primary
source. It is written by the person involved, and contains his or her personal information. A
news article is usually a secondary source, because it combines other sources. A column might
be a primary source, depending on the content.
Basically, if a reporter witnesses an event and writes about it, it is a primary source. If the same
reporter receives the information from witnesses or the police, for example, it is secondary.
Many letters to the editor are primary source material, but some, which merely rehash
information found elsewhere, would be considered secondary.
"There can be grey areas when determining if an item is a primary source or a secondary source.
For example, newspaper journalists may interview eyewitnesses but not be actual eyewitnesses
themselves. They also may have completed research to inform their story. Traditionally,
however, newspapers are considered primary sources. Examples of common primary source
formats can include...contemporary newspaper articles. Newspaper articles, although often
written after an event has occurred, are traditionally considered a primary source. "
"Examples of primary information: A current news report that is reporting the facts (not
analysis or evaluation) of an event."
What are primary sources? Published materials (books, magazine and journal articles,
newspaper articles) written at the time about a particular event. While these are sometimes
accounts by participants, in most cases they are written by journalists or other observers. The
important thing is to distinguish between material written at the time of an event as a kind of
report, and material written much later, as historical analysis."
The definitions cited by the relevant policy state that newspaper articles are primary sources.
However, while this is generally true, there are some exceptions.
Eyewitness news
The television news presenter stands in front of a burning house and describes the fire. The
newspaper journalist describes the scene of a major car wreck that his editor sent him to.
Breaking news
The wire service announces that a prominent politician has been taken to the hospital. The
weather service says that a tornado has touched down.
Reports on events
The newspaper journalist describes the discussions from a meeting of the local school agency.
The radio announcer reports the arrest of an alleged criminal.
The magazine publishes a touching story about a child with a congenital heart defect. The
society column in the newspaper reports the birthday of a prominent local citizen.
The reporter quotes the politician's speech. The talk show host interviews a celebrity. (Defined
as a primary source by policy.)
Investigative reports
The journalist goes undercover and reports his or her experiences. The journalist meets with
people and reads documents to uncover corruption. (Defined as a primary source by policy.)
The newspaper editorial staff announces its support for a proposed law. The syndicated
columnist explains his idea for fixing the economy. (Defined as a primary source by policy.)
These kinds of media reports are usually, or at least might be, secondary sources:
Historical reports
A special television program is broadcast to mark the 60th anniversary of the end of World
War II. A newspaper column lists the events reported in that newspaper on the same date from
25, 50, 75, and 100 years before.
Analytical reports
The newspaper publishes a week-long series of articles on health care systems in the nation.
This is not merely a piece that provides one or two comments from someone who is labeled an
"analyst" in the source, but is a major work that collects, compares, and analyzes information.
Book reviews
Book reviews are generally secondary sources if they provide information beyond a basic
description of the book's contents. Book reviews are often a mix of primary and secondary
material: e.g., an analysis of some aspect of the book (secondary) plus the reviewer's rating or
opinion about the book (primary). Simple plot summaries, synopses, other basic descriptions
of a work's contents are generally primary sources.
Again, "Primary" is not another way to spell "bad". Just because most newspaper articles are
primary sources does not mean that these articles are not reliable and often highly desirable
independent sources.