Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

www.elsevier.com/locate/soilbio

Maturity indices for composted dairy and pig manures

P. Wanga, C.M. Changaa, M.E. Watsonb, W.A. Dickb, Y. Chenc, H.A.J. Hoitinka,*
a

Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
b
School of Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, 1680 Madison Avenue, Wooster, OH 44691, USA
c
Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel
Received 10 January 2003; received in revised form 15 August 2003; accepted 3 December 2003

Abstract
Bulking agents and bedding materials used on farms for composting manures affect the time required for composts to mature. The effects
of these materials on guidelines for the use of composted manures in potting mixes are not fully known. Several chemical and biological
compost characteristics were mentioned and a cucumber plant growth greenhouse bioassay was performed on samples removed from
windrows during composting of: (i) dairy manure amended with wheat straw; (ii) dairy manure amended with sawdust (mostly Quercus
spp.); and (iii) pig manure amended with sawdust and shredded wood (mostly Quercus spp.). Dry weights of cucumber seedlings grown in
fertilized and unfertilized potting mixes amended with composts (30%, v/v) having stability values of , 1 mg CO2 C g 1 dw d21, did not
differ significantly from those in a control peat mix. Only the most mature dairy manure-wheat straw compost samples consistently
established sufficient N concentrations in cucumber shoots in unfertilized treatments. For the dairy manure-wheat straw compost, all possible
subset regression analyses of compost characteristics versus cucumber plant dry weight revealed that any of several compost characteristics
(electrical conductivity-EC, compost age, total N, organic C, C-to-N ratio, ash content, CO2 respirometry, Solvita CO2 index and the
Solvitaw Compost Maturity Index) predicted growth of cucumber in the unfertilized treatments, and thus maturity. In contrast, at least two
characteristics of the dairy manure-sawdust compost were required to predict growth of cucumber in the unfertilized treatments. Effective
combinations were EC with compost age and the Solvitaw maturity index with total N. Even five compost characteristics did not satisfactorily
predict growth of cucumber in the non-fertilized pig manure-wood compost. Nutrient analysis of cucumber shoots indicated N availability
was the principal factor limiting growth in potting mixes amended with the dairy manure-sawdust compost, and even more so in the pig
manure-wood compost even though the compost had been stabilized to a high degree (,1 mg CO2 C g21 dw d21). Maturity of the
composted manures, which implies a positive initial plant growth response of plants grown without fertilization, could not be predicted by
compost characteristics alone unless the bulking agent or bedding type used for the production of the composts was also considered.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Compost maturity; Compost stability; Compost quality; Plant bioassay; Dairy manure; Pig manure; Nitrogen immobilization

1. Introduction
Changing public perceptions about environmental issues
associated with current manure management practices have
forced farmers to examine alternative options (Johnson
et al., 1998; Jongbloed and Lenis, 1998). The composting
process offers the potential to significantly reduce environmental problems associated with manure management (Carr
et al., 1995). Unfortunately, the cost of composting relative
to utilization of raw manures can be considerably higher
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1-330-263-3848; fax: 1-330-263-3841.
E-mail address: hoitink.1@osu.edu (H.A.J. Hoitink).
0038-0717/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2003.12.012

(Rynk, 1992). Therefore, composts of high quality must be

produced consistently to offset these production costs.
Compost stability is an important aspect of compost
quality and it can be assessed with respirometry (Iannotti
et al., 1994; Scaglia et al., 2000). It relates to the degree to
which the organic matter has been stabilized during the
composting process (Chen, 2003). The Solvitaw compost
maturity kit, which utilizes CO2-sensitive and NH3sensitive paddles in a jar containing a specific quantity of
compost (Werl, 1999), can satisfactorily assess the stability
of composted manures in on-farm applications (Changa
et al., 2003). Heat output as a result of biological activity in
composts can also be monitored on farms if several
precautions are taken (Weppen, 2002). Thus, adequate

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P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

procedures for testing of stability have been developed.

Compost maturity, on the other hand, which implies nonlimited plant growth in compost-amended substrates
immediately upon their utilization (Zucconi et al., 1981),
still is best assessed with plant growth bioassays. This
applies even though numerous chemical and biological tests
have been proposed to characterize this aspect of compost
quality (Hsu and Lo, 1999; Chen, 2003). Much of the
literature on stability and maturity does not clearly
distinguish between these two properties of composts,
however.
The type of animal bedding used on farms (sawdust,
wood, straw, etc.) may affect compost quality through its
effect on plant growth, presumably through differential
effects on N availability (Fauci et al., 1999; Gagnon and
Simard, 1999). Similar effects have been described for
composted sewage sludge (Bernal et al., 1998). Raw
materials used as bedding or bulking agents before
composting typically inhibit plant growth and stimulate
diseases whereas stabilized mature composts tend to
stimulate growth and provide disease control (Hoitink and
Boehm, 1999). For these reasons, maturity is one of the
most important aspects of compost quality, particularly for
composts used in high-value horticultural applications
(Gouin, 1998; De Ceuster and Hoitink, 1999).
Some compost maturity tests focus on chemical and
physical properties of compost solids. Unfortunately, tests
on compost solids such as total N or the C-to-N ratio have
long been known to be inadequate for predicting the plant
growth response for all types of composts (Golueke, 1975).
Therefore, several approaches have been developed to
predict compost maturity. For example, Chanyasak et al.
(1982) demonstrated that an organic C-to-organic N ratio of
5.6 in the water extract of compost was indicative of
maturity for composts prepared from municipal solid
wastes. This procedure has been confirmed for this type of
compost (Garcia et al., 1993; Iannotti et al., 1994). But it is
only partially suitable for composts prepared from separated
dairy manure solids (Inbar et al., 1989, 1993). Total watersoluble organic C (Eggen and Vethe, 2001) and several
other stability indices have been proposed more recently
(Chefetz et al., 1998; Cooperband and Middleton, 1996;
Dinel et al., 1996; Forster et al., 1993; Ouatmane et al.,
2000). To develop a better understanding of how organic
matter transformations during composting affect plant
growth, various types of spectroscopic analyses, including
NMR and IR spectroscopy have been utilized (Chen, 2003).
Unfortunately, all of these tests are costly and unsuitable for
on-farm applications. In conclusion, procedures that predict
plant growth regardless of compost type are not available to
our knowledge.
The objective of this research was to identify characteristics of composted dairy and swine manures that can be
used to predict the potential for plant growth in compostamended potting mixes.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Raw materials and composting process
Manure solids from The Ohio State University dairy farm
at Wooster were blended with: (i) wheat straw or; (ii) a
mixture of hardwood sawdust and wood shavings (mostly
oak, Quercus spp.) and then composted in windrows on a
concrete surface. A third type of compost was produced
from partially composted pig manure and shredded wood
(mostly oak) collected from a High Rise Pigw facility
(Keener et al., 2001). Before composting in windrows this
partially composted wet manure was amended further with
hard wood sawdust (mostly oak) to reduce its moisture
content and thus avoid leachate formation. Additional
details on the three types of manures used in this work are
presented in Changa et al. (2003).
Two different, equal sized batches of each of the three
types of manures were composted from April through July
2001 in windrows (height of 1.5 m) with temperatures
within the range of 55 70 8C. Initially, the windrows were
turned daily, if needed, to reduce the moisture content,
avoid leachate formation and reduce odor generation.
Thereafter, they were turned weekly or every 2 weeks to
maintain porosity and adjust windrow height due to compost
shrinkage. Water was added when needed to maintain
optimum process conditions for composting of manures
(Rynk, 1992). The composting process was continued until
the stability of the compost was , 1 mg CO2 C g21 dw d21,
as recommended by the US Composting Councils Test
Methods for the Examination of Composting and Compost
(TMECC; Thompson et al., 2003).
2.2. Chemical and biological properties of composts
To minimize sample variability, sampling protocols for
each type of compost-followed guidelines provided by the
US Composting Council (Thompson et al., 2003), as
described in Changa et al. (2003). Samples were taken
when windrows were first prepared and at 7 or 14 d intervals
immediately after turning of the windrows. Ten sub-samples
were randomly collected from all locations and depths
within a windrow and composited into a single 9 l sample.
This was repeated three times for each batch of each type of
manure to provide a total of six samples for each compost
type. The composted samples were then mixed thoroughly
to ensure maximum homogeneity. Changes in some of the
chemical properties of the manures during composting were
presented in Changa et al. (2003). Electrical conductivity of
the compost samples was determined with a Solu Bridge
Conductivity Indicator (Beckman Instruments, Cedar
Grove, NJ.) according to TMECC method 04.10-A 1:5
Slurry electrical conductivity (EC). Percent Ash was
determined after heating (550 8C for 4 h) in a Thermolyne
Furnace (model 30400, Thermolyne Corp., Dubuque, IA;
TMECC method 03.02-A). The rate of respiration

P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

(mg CO2 C g21 dw compost d21) for each compost sample

was determined according to TMECC 05.08-B (Thompson
et al., 2003). The maturity of the compost was determined
with a Solvitaw Compost Maturity kit (Woods End Research
Laboratory Inc., P.O. Box 207, Mt. Vernon, ME 04352) as
specified by TMECC, 05.08-E (Thompson et al., 2003).
Details of this procedure are presented in Changa et al.
(2003). A 4 l quantity of each sample was stored in a freezer
(2 15 8C) for subsequent use in seed germination and plant
growth bioassays.
2.3. Seedling and plant growth bioassays
The effects of compost maturity on seedling emergence and plant growth were determined with a
cucumber bioassay according to Iannotti et al. (1994).
A sphagnum peat mix that contained 70% peat and 30%
perlite (v/v) was used as a control. The percent volumes
of fresh and of the most mature compost samples tested
in preliminary bioassays for each compost type as
substitutes for peat were 0, 5, 10, 15, 30, 40, 50 and
100% (v/v). Dolomitic limestone was added to each mix
to adjust the pH to within the range of 5.5 5.8. All
treatments, except the control, were fertilized with
12.5 g l21 slow release fertilizer (Osmocote 14-14-14,
Grace-Sierra Chemical Co., Milpitas, CA), at the
recommended rate for cucumber.
Eight cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. cv. Straight
Eight, 99% germination) seeds were planted 1.0 cm
deep in each of five pots (450 ml potting mix per pot)
per compost maturity sample. Plants were grown in a
greenhouse at 23 26 8C with 14 h of supplemental
illumination d21 (225 mE m22 s21). Pots were irrigated
as needed and the mean percentage of emergence was
determined after 7 d. The number of seedlings was then
thinned to four per pot and the aerial portion of each
plant was harvested and weighed after 21 d and then airdried (70 8C) to a constant wt. Mean plant fresh wt and
dry wt per pot were determined. The air-dried shoots of
each pot for each compost maturity treatment (two
replicates of five pots per compost type) were pooled and
weighed to provide an adequate quantity of shoot sample
for analysis. The shoot samples were analyzed at the
Ohio State Universitys STAR analytical laboratory
(http://www2.oardc.ohio-state.edu/starlab) to determine
the concentrations of plant nutrients.

769

the number of treatments (e.g. compost age, fertilized,

non-fertilized and peat controls) applied to each sample was
too high to be tested in a single experiment. Individual
experimental units were randomized and responses were
analyzed using analyses of variance (ANOVA). Where
differences in ANOVA tests for treatment were significant
at the 0.05 level, means were separated using least
significant difference values. Linear correlation analysis
and all possible subset regression analysis were performed
using SAS statistical software (SAS 8.0) to define predictive
relationships between cucumber growth, compost maturity
and other chemical properties of the composts.

3. Results
3.1. Compost characteristics
Trends in compost temperature, pH, moisture content,
percent volatile solids, organic C, C-to-N ratio, stability,
2
total N, NH
4 N, NO3 N and Solvita maturity index were
presented in Figs. 1 4 in Changa et al. (2003). A summary
of these key compost properties is presented in Table 1 to
facilitate interpretation of the plant growth response data
presented here.

2.4. Experimental designs and statistical analyses

The chemical and biological properties of the two
different batches of each compost type did not reveal
significant differences. Therefore, data for the two batches
were combined to provide six sample replicates per compost
type. Furthermore, plant growth bioassays for each type of
composted manure were performed separately because

Fig. 1. Changes in electrical conductivity (EC) during composting of three

types of materials based on six samples per harvest date. Bars represent
standard errors.

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P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

Fig. 2. Changes in ash content during composting of three types of materials

based on six samples per harvest date. Bars represent standard errors.

3.1.1. EC values of composts

The EC values of the dairy manure-wheat straw and dairy
manure-sawdust composts increased significantly during
composting (Fig. 1). Towards the end of the process, a very
high EC value of 21.3 ds m21 was reached in the dairy
manure-wheat straw compost whereas the value in the dairy
manure-sawdust compost remained much lower. Trends in
EC for the pig manure-wood compost were unusual in that
values decreased over time.
3.1.2. Ash content of composts
The ash content of all three compost types increased
significantly with time (Fig. 2). After a short lag (28 d), the
ash content of the dairy manure-wheat straw compost
increased more than 2-fold from 16.1 to 36.7% after 105 d.
The ash content of the dairy manure-sawdust compost also
more than doubled from a low initial value of 8.7 23.7%
after 112 d. The highest initial ash content (22.2%) was
observed in the pig manure-wood compost, probably
because it contained all the urine from the pigs and also
because it had been partially composted in the High Risew
pig facility before initiation of windrow composting. It
increased to 40.1% after 91 d. Because leaching was
avoided throughout the composting process of all three
types of composts, these changes in ash content reflect
actual trends in mineralization of organic matter.

Fig. 3. Changes in rate of CO2 respiration during composting of three types

of materials based on six samples per harvest date. Bars represent standard
errors.

3.1.3. Rates of respiration of composts

The rate of respiration for all three compost types
decreased during the process until a final stability value in
the range of 0.3 0.6 mg CO2 C kg21 dw d21 was reached
after 80 90 d of composting (Fig. 3). Early during the
decomposition of the dairy manure-wheat straw compost,
when the straw was still largely intact, the rate of respiration
of the compost was high and variability among individual
samples was considerable. After the physical integrity of the
straw was lost later in the process, sample homogeneity
increased. In the dairy manure-sawdust compost, rates and
variability also decreased with time. The highest initial rate
of respiration was observed in the pig manure-wood
compost, probably due to decomposition of the fresh
sawdust added at the beginning of the process. In
conclusion, low rates of respiration indicative of highly
stabilized composts were reached towards the end of
process in all three compost types.
3.2. Seedling emergence and plant growth response
Cucumber seedlings responded to differences in maturity
of all three compost types. The greatest differences in shoot
dry weights were observed in potting mixes amended with a
compost volumetric ratio of 30%. Only slight differences
were observed with the lower volumetric compost

P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

771

Fig. 4. Effects of compost age on growth of cucumber (C. sativus cv. Straight Eight) plants in three different composted materials versus a standard peat potting
mix without fertilizer added (A) and with fertilizer added (B).

amendment rates (data not shown). Therefore, the 30%

amendment rate was chosen to test the effects of compost
maturity on growth of cucumber for all compost maturity
levels of all three types of composted manures.
The mean percent emergence of cucumber seedlings in
the peat control mix and in potting mixes amended with the
three types of composts of all maturity values tested was
95% (data not shown). This percentage was not significantly
different from the germination values determined for the
seeds prior to being planted in the treated mixes. Therefore,
compost age of the three types of composted manures used
in this work did not significantly affect the percent
germination of cucumber seeds.

3.2.1. Dairy manure-wheat straw compost

The response of cucumber plants to differences in
compost maturity was expressed as the percent shoot dry
weight of plants grown in compost mixes versus the peat
control. Data for the control and fertilized treatments were
plotted separately (Fig. 4). Percent plant dry weight of
cucumber in the unfertilized (control) dairy manure-wheat
straw compost-amended mixes significantly increased with
compost age (Fig. 4A). The dairy manure-wheat straw
composts sampled at 0, 14, and 28 d inhibited growth
compared to the control peat mix. Shoot dry weights
increased in mixes amended with older compost samples
until a plateau was reached with samples composted 70 d or

Table 1
Changes in chemical and biological characteristics during composting of the three types of manures
Compost type

Compost characteristics
Solvitaw MIa

238 ^ 60.3
123 ^ 123
116 ^ 89.8

, 1.0
9.71 ^ 17.5
128 ^ 99.2

NDc
5.3 ^ 0.5
6.3 ^ 0.8

33.0 ^ 1.22
19.9 ^ 0.38
12.7 ^ 0.34

1980 ^ 121
738 ^ 190
89.0 ^ 7.80

, 1.0
4.63 ^ 2.77
90.6 ^ 14.6

ND
4.7 ^ 0
5.5 ^ 0.8

18.7 ^ 0.66
21.6 ^ 0.93
15.3 ^ 0.68

8510 ^ 931
3780 ^ 282
196 ^ 46.5

, 1.0
, 1.0
, 1.0

ND
3.7 ^ 0.5
7.0 ^ 0

pH

Water content
(%)

Organic C
(%)

Total N
(%)

C/N ratio

Dairy-straw

0
56
105

8.54 ^ 0.09b
8.49 ^ 0.19
8.34 ^ 0.34

67.2 ^ 1.31
62.9 ^ 6.27
52.5 ^ 1.14

43.6 ^ 0.40
39.2 ^ 1.27
35.2 ^ 0.45

1.76 ^ 0.05
3.16 ^ 0.11
4.24 ^ 0.54

25.1 ^ 0.85
12.5 ^ 0.40
8.5 ^ 1.01

Dairy-sawdust

0
56
112

8.76 ^ 0.06
8.58 ^ 0.2
8.57 ^ 0.03

64.8 ^ 0.36
63.3 ^ 1.07
55.8 ^ 0.75

46.2 ^ 1.23
43.9 ^ 0.74
42.5 ^ 0.50

1.41 ^ 0.03
2.22 ^ 0.05
3.39 ^ 0.06

0
56
91

8.88 ^ 0.07
9.05 ^ 0.08
8.72 ^ 0.11

65.5 ^ 0.86
58.7 ^ 1.86
47.8 ^ 2.71

37.9 ^ 1.41
32.5 ^ 3.29
31.5 ^ 2.18

2.21 ^ 0.08
1.62 ^ 0.13
2.14 ^ 0.17

Pig-wood

a
b
c

Solvitaw MI: Solvitaw Maturity Index (1 8).

Each value is the mean of six replicates followed by the standard error.
ND not determined.

NH
4 N
(mg kg21)

NO2
3 N
(mg kg21)

Age
(d)

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P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

more. The most significant effect on these growth

differences was observed after 56 d of composting. Addition
of slow release fertilizer avoided inhibition of growth in
mixes amended with the 28 d compost samples, but not in
the mixes amended with the fresh straw-amended manure
(0 d of composting or 14 d compost samples, Fig. 4B).
The effects of dairy manure-wheat straw compost age on
the concentrations of essential plant nutrients in the shoots
of cucumber plants grown in compost-amended fertilized
potting mixes versus the unfertilized control peat mix are
summarized in Table 2. The shoot N concentration steadily
increased with dairy manure-wheat straw compost age. It
increased from a low value of 2.4% in the fresh dairy-straw
compost mix, a value that reflects N deficiency, to a value
within the sufficiency range (4.0%) after 91 d of composting. All other nutrients, except Ca, were within the
recommended sufficiency range for greenhouse cucumber
production (see footnote in Table 2). The concentration of
Ca was consistently low. It was not affected by compost age.
To further illustrate the response of cucumber growth
relative to compost maturity, other variables were plotted
against compost age. These included shoot dry weight, total
N supplied as compost in the potting mix, and shoot N
concentration. Fig. 5A reveals that shoot dry weights of
plants produced in the unfertilized dairy manure-wheat straw
compost-amended potting mixes increased significantly
during the first 70 d of composting. Total N incorporated
as compost into this potting mix increased almost linearly
with compost age over the entire test period. The shoot N

concentration followed a similar trend. Regression analysis

confirmed these findings (Table 3). In conclusion, all these
factors related well and N availability seemed to be the key
compost quality factor that limited growth of cucumber. This
effect did not disappear until after 105 d of composting
unless fertilizer was applied to the potting mix.
3.2.2. Dairy manure-sawdust compost
Percent shoot dry weight of plants grown in the
unfertilized (control) fresh dairy manure-sawdust manure
compost (0 d of composting) was significantly lower than
that in the unfertilized control peat mix (Fig. 4A). In control
mixes amended with older compost samples, shoot dry
weights increased with compost age until a plateau was
reached after 98 d of composting. A response to compost
age was not observed in the fertilized treatments (Fig. 4B)
except for in potting mixes prepared with samples
composted for 56 and 70 d.
The concentrations of essential plant nutrients in the
shoot of cucumber plants in the unfertilized treatments
(Table 2) revealed that all nutrients other than N, Ca and Mo
were within the recommended sufficiency range (see
footnote to Table 2). The concentration of N increased
with dairy manure-sawdust compost age, but remained
highly deficient even for the most mature compost
samples tested. Shoot dry weight related well to shoot N
concentration (Fig. 5B). However, total N supplied by the
compost did not relate well to shoot N or dry weight.
Regression analysis confirmed these findings (Table 3).

Table 2
Effect of compost age on concentrations of nutrients in the shoot of cucumber (C. sativus cv. Straight Eight) plants produced in three different types of nonfertilized composted manure-amended versus a fertilized and unfertilized peat potting mix
Potting mixa

Compost age
(d)

Major nutrients

Micro nutrients

N
(%)

P
(%)

K
(%)

Ca
(%)

Mg
(%)

B
(mg/g)

0
56
105

2.51
2.40
3.49
4.02
7.36b

1.00
0.553
0.804
0.958
1.24

3.16
3.92
5.66
6.88
5.90

1.86
0.833
0.698
0.630
1.86

1.09
0.868
0.606
0.444
1.14

0
56
112

2.41
1.52
1.78
2.07
7.59

0.15
0.581
0.601
0.712
0.976

0.80
4.45
4.83
5.98
6.08

2.57
0.645
0.663
0.713
1.94

0
56
91

Peat F

2.15
4.75
2.46
2.09
7.11

0.14
1.39
1.05
0.926
1.579

0.65
5.75
4.69
4.30
4.89

Sufficiency rangec

4.3 6.0

0.31.0

3.15.5

Peat 2 F
(Dairy-straw) 2 F

Peat F
Peat 2 F
(Dairy-sawdust) 2 F

Peat F
Peat F
(Pig-wood) 2 F

a
b
c

Cu
(mg/g)

Fe
(mg/g)

Mn
(mg/g)

Mo
(mg/g)

Zn
(mg/g)

36.8
49.3
36.8
32.8
26.9

3.24
3.66
8.00
8.75
2.13

47.46
48.4
60.9
57.6
76.5

102.7
89.9
61.4
59.1
94.7

0.38
0.270
1.49
2.89
0.250

59.1
62.7
89.0
93.0
36.4

1.96
0.631
0.513
0.540
1.02

35.7
45.8
40.8
43.4
30.0

4.24
3.99
3.93
5.77
2.14

56.9
57.1
46.9
45.3
94.5

87.5
63.1
64.0
70.7
110

0.46
0.386
0.418
1.02
0.346

49.4
52.1
50.3
57.7
75.7

2.77
0.667
0.551
0.534
1.69

2.02
1.07
0.963
0.862
1.15

37.7
55.7
57.2
52.3
29.7

3.33
14.5
7.6
6.0
1.6

49.8
87.5
57.4
47.6
75.8

87.1
84.4
62.2
62.5
84.4

1.00
3.37
5.64
5.77
0.407

59.1
152
86.8
78.1
50.1

2.4 4.0

0.351.0

30100

8.0 10.0

50 300

0.85.0

25 200

21

50300

Fertilized ( F) with 12.5 g Osmocote 14-14-14 (NP K) slow release fertilizer L potting mix (2F, nonfertilized).
Mean values based on two measured replicates (A and B) per treatment, each replicate had 5 4 plants pooled together.
Recommended foliar nutrient sufficiency range for cucumber produced as a green house crop from Mills and Jones (1996).

P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

773

Fig. 5. Effects of compost age on total N supplied by compost, the N concentration in shoots of cucumber (C. ativus L. cv. Straight Eight) and shoot dry weight
for plants produced in three different composted manure-amended potting mixes.

Ca was consistently low and not affected by compost age.

The concentration of Mo reached the sufficiency range after
84 d of composting.
3.2.3. Pig manure-wood compost
Growth of cucumber was inhibited in the unfertilized
(control) fresh pig manure-wood compost relative to that in
the peat control (Fig. 4A). This effect disappeared after 70 d
of composting. The effect of compost age on growth was
much more evident in the fertilized treatments (Fig. 4B).
Trends in concentrations of essential plant nutrients in
the shoots of cucumber plants produced in the unfertilized
pig manure-wood compost mixes revealed that all concentrations except Mo decreased with compost age (Table 2).
All, except for N and Ca, were within the recommended
sufficiency range. The concentration of N in samples
composted 14 d or less was sufficient (. 4.3%). However,
this concentration declined to a value as low as 2.1% after

91 d of composting. Calcium was not affected by compost

age. Neither shoot N nor shoot dry weight related well to
compost N (Fig. 5C). Regression analysis confirmed this
finding (Table 3). N availability seemed to be the critical
factor limiting plant growth for this composted manure,
particularly in the older compost samples.
3.3. Relationship between compost characteristics
and plant growth
The correlations between shoot N content and compost age
for the three different types of composted manures were
examined further through linear regression analysis. Significant correlations were established between shoot N content
and compost age for each compost type. The R2 value of the
dairy manure-wheat straw regression line (R2 0:93) was
significantly higher than that of the dairy manure-sawdust
regression line (R2 0:69). With increasing composting

Table 3
Relationship between N concentration in compost, shoot dry weight and shoot N concentration
Compost type

Dairy-straw

Dairy-sawdust

Pig-wood

N concentration in compost
N concentration in compost
N concentration in shoot
Dry weight
Total N content in shoot
N concentration in compost
N concentration in shoot
Dry weight
Total N content in shoot
N concentration in compost
N concentration in shoot
Dry weight
Total N content in shoot

y 0:737x 11:2 R 0:9145

y 0:020x 2 0:030 R2 0:8694
y 0:101x 2 1:06 R2 0:9067
y 0:292x 12:2 R2 0:4147
y 0:023x 2 0:167 R2 0:6424
y 0:075x 2 0:2971 R2 0:6807
y 2:93x 2 24:7 R2 0:2646
y 0:049x 0:407 R2 0:1678
y 0:610x 2 7:13 (R 2 0.2646)

Compost age
y 4:17x 2 68:8 R2 0:9841
y 0:178x 23:3 R2 0:9396
y 0:005x 0:298 R2 0:8765
y 0:024x 0:606 R2 0:9265
y 5:47x 2 68:8 R2 0:9888
y 0:054x 15:8 R2 0:4251
y 0:004x 0:447 R2 0:6678
y 0:014 0:631 R2 0:687
y 25:14x 146 R2 0:095
y 20:331x 46:8 R2 0:9341
y 20:006x 1:63 R2 0:7763
y 20:068x 7:66 R2 0:9081

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P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

Table 4
Adjusted R-Square R2 values of all possible subset regression analyses of
compost characteristics versus cucumber dry weight
Compost characteristics

C-to-N ration
Electrical conductivity
Compost age
Solvitaw maturity index
Solvitaw CO2 index
Ash
Total N
Organic C
CO2 respirometry
Solcitaw NH3 index
NO2
3 N
NO
4 N
a

Compost
Dairy-straw

Dairy-sawdust

Pig-wood

0.880a
0.817a
0.814a
0.782a
0.767a
0.754a
0.742a
0.680a
0.642a
0.378
0.264
0.209

0.295
0.443
0.415
0.059
0.164
0.131
0.406
0.360
0.070
0.108
0.036
0.000

0.000
0.242
0.117
0.092
0.102
0.123
0.000
0.010
0.167
0.000
ND
0.182

Adjusted R-square R2 values .0.500 were significant at P , 0:05:

time, significantly more N was taken up by cucumber plants

grown in the dairy manure-wheat straw compost-amended
mixes compared to the dairy manure-sawdust compost mixes.
In contrast, a negative correlation was observed for the pig
manure-wood compost mixes. Thus, compost age affected
shoot N more critically than any other essential nutrient and
the effect was specific to compost type.
Adjusted R2 values of linear regression analyses of
compost characteristics versus cucumber plant growth
(shoot dry weight), based on all possible subset regression
analyses presented in Table 4, revealed that several dairy
manure-wheat straw compost characteristics could be used to
predict growth of cucumber. Useful compost characteristics
(R2 values . 0:5) for this compost type in decreasing order of
R2 value included C-to-N ratio, EC, compost age, Solvitaw
maturity index, Solvitaw CO2 index, ash content, total N,
organic C, and the rate of CO2 respiration. In contrast, none of
the dairy manure-sawdust compost characteristics by themselves had high R2 values. At least two characteristics were
required to predict plant growth (R2 values . 0:5; data not
shown). The best predictor was EC combined with compost
age. The Solvitaw Maturity Index and total N combination
also was a useful indicator for the dairy manure-sawdust
compost. Finally, even a combination of the five highest
ranked characteristics of the pig manure-wood compost did
not provide an R2 . 0:5 (data not shown). This suggests that
no combination of these compost characteristics could serve
as a suitable indicator of the growth response of cucumber.
4. Discussion
4.1. N availability in compost for plant growth
The results of our work show that all three types
of composts could serve as effective peat substitutes
(30%; v/v) for growth of cucumber plants if fertilizer
was added and after they reached the stability level

recommended by the US Composting Council (, 1 mg

CO2 C g21 dw d21; Thompson et al., 2003). With fertilizer, growth equivalent to that in a standard fertilized peat
mix occurred after 40 80 d of composting. Without added
fertilizer, however, only the two most mature composted
dairy manure-wheat straw samples (after 91 d of composting) established sufficient N concentrations (43 mg
N g21 dw; Fig. 5A C; Mills and Jones, 1996) in cucumber
shoots. All other unfertilized treatments were deficient in N.
The type of bulking agent used for composting of the
dairy manure clearly affected N released by the composts
into the potting mixes, based on plant growth response data
and the concentrations essential plant nutrients in the shoots
of cucumber. The dairy manure-wheat straw compost
seemed to steadily release more N as the organic matter
mineralized during the composting process (Table 1,
Fig. 5A). Although the dairy manure-sawdust compost
supported growth of cucumber without added fertilizer, the
shoot N concentration remained in the deficiency range,
probably due to the dilution effect caused by plant growth.
Thus, the dairy straw compost would be most useful for
organic producers who rely on N provided by composts as
an important source of fertilizer (Hodges, 1991; Pang and
Letey, 2000; Levanon and Pluda, 2002).
The pattern of transformations of N in the pig wood
compost was quite different from that of the dairy manure
samples. It is more in line with that described earlier for
composting of pig manure (Hsu and Lo, 1999; Moller et al.,
2000). The decrease in N concentration in cucumber shoots
observed for pig manure-wood compost type as composting
proceeded (Fig. 5C) probably is best explained by: (i) loss of
N due to NH3 volatilization and (ii) immobilization of N by
the wood fraction in the compost. The cucumber shoot N
concentration did not increase until the last sampling date
when the quantity of N supplied with the compost in the
potting mix had also increased. As a result, prediction of
plant growth in non-fertilized potting mixes prepared with
this pig manure-wood compost, based on chemical properties of the compost alone (Table 1, Figs. 1 3), would appear
to be a challenge. No combination of these compost
characteristics proved useful for predicting growth of
cucumber unless fertilizer was added to the mix. Inhibition
of growth in the immature fertilized pig manure-wood
compost mixes probably was due to toxicity caused by high
concentrations of NH3 on NH
4 N in the compost (Table 1).
4.2. Effect of bulking agent type on compost maturity
The differential effects of wheat straw and sawdust used
as bulking agents in this work for composting of dairy
manure can be explained on the basis of differences in their
biodegradability in soil (Allison, 1973; Blanco and
Almendros, 1994). Utilizing 13C CPMAS NMR and
DRIFT spectroscopy, Stone et al. (2001) demonstrated
that much of the cellulose in sawdust and wood shavings
(mostly oak) blended with dairy manure solids indeed are

P. Wang et al. / Soil Biology & Biochemistry 36 (2004) 767776

destroyed during 120 d of composting whereas lignin and

lignin-protected cellulose are conserved. Thus, differences
in C availability between the wheat straw and the sawdust
composts probably accounted for differences in N mineralization and plant growth observed.
The significant correlation between any of several
chemical or biological properties of the dairy manurewheat straw compost (i.e. C-to-N ratio, EC, compost age,
ash content, total N, organic C, and the rate of CO2
respiration, or the Solvitaw Maturity Index) with cucumber
growth was to be expected. Farmers thus could use simple
tests such as the EC or the Solvitaw maturity index to
provide quality control for individual compost batches
prepared from wheat straw-amended dairy manures. This is
important for many parts of the world because wheat straw
is still used widely by dairy farmers. Thus, predictable
quality control for value-added utilization of dairy manurewheat straw composts should be possible as was determined
for composted separated dairy manure solids by Inbar et al.
(1993) and Hadas et al. (1996).
Recommendations for utilization of composted manures
in potting mixes to our knowledge do not consider the type of
bulking agent or bedding used on farms even though this has
been suspected to have an effect (Fauci et al., 1999; Gagnon
and Simard, 1999). Our data show that the wood industry
wastes (sawdust, chips, shavings and ground wood) may
introduce N nutrition problems for organic farming systems
that are not readily apparent from compost characteristics.
As mentioned above, the three composts met the CO2
stability guidelines proposed by The US Composting
Council (Thompson et al., 2003). Guidelines for the
Solvitaw maturity index test (Woods End Research Laboratory, 1999) identified the pig manure-wood compost (value
of 7 after 91 d of composting) as stable or as providing few
limitations during utilization. In contrast, the dairy manurewheat straw and dairy manure-sawdust composts only
reached Solvitaw values of 6 after 70 and 98 d of composting,
respectively, even though they released more N as mature
composts. Thus, the Solvitaw maturity index did not identify
the N immobilization potential of this compost type. The
only compost characteristic that revealed the potential for N
deficiency in plants grown in the pig manure-wood compost
was lack of nitrate accumulation in this compost after 91 d.
Unfortunately, nitrate may be denitrified quickly in composts
under low O2 concentrations (Kowalchuk et al., 1999). Thus,
the concentration of nitrate may not be a suitable compost
maturity test, a view supported by a recent review of the
composting process (Day and Shaw, 2001).
Although we did not present the data here, we tested the
suitability of the water extract organic C-to-organic N ratio
for all three compost types used. This procedure also did not
yield data that could be used to predict compost maturity
which agrees with a previous report for compost produced
from dairy manure solids without bedding (Inbar et al., 1993).
We suspect that the reason for the difference between the
above mentioned studies and that of Chanyasak et al. (1982)

775

mostly result from the presence of bulking agents and ligninprotected materials in composts prepared from manures as
opposed to from municipal sewage wastes (MSW). The latter
contained low amounts of lignin-protected materials and
high quantities of paper. The tree, species specific allelopathy
toxins, that are responsible for the selective rate of
decomposition of woody materials are removed during the
pulping process. It is not surprising, therefore, that
mineralization characteristics of MSW composts are as
predictable (Levanon and Pluda, 2002) as those of the straw
compost were in this work.

5. Conclusions
The types of bedding or bulking agents used for
composting of manures must be considered in the development of compost utilization guidelines Wheat straw, as
expected, did not pose problems, but wood wastes affected
N availability. This will need to be considered, particularly
for organic production systems. To the best of our knowledge, methods that adequately assess this potential negative
aspect of compost quality are not available. Thus, plant
bioassays need to be performed on composts prepared with
wood wastes or N fertilization and results must be
considered carefully to avoid N deficiency and thus plant
growth problems.

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by grants from The Ohio
Water Development Authority, Columbus, OH, and by State
and Federal funds appropriated to The Ohio State University
and The Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center, Wooster, OH. The authors thank G.L. Reid, C.A.
Musselman and T.L. Moore for technical assistance.
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