Lecture 2

In the next 4 lectures, we will do a brief review of the more

important quantum and chemical bonding ideas from Chapters
12, 13, and 14. After that we will start on chapter 5 (gas
properties) and go more slowly.

Reading assignment: chapter 12, section 13.1 and section

13.10.

Homework in chapter 12: problems 21, 23, 25, 35, 37 39, 43,
49, 55, 57, 59, 65.

Almost all mass is in the nucleus

Atom mostly empty

Very strong electrical field inside atoms

Fractions of different isotopes not universal

Group VIII: The Inert or Noble Gases

He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe

So-called because of their relative inertness, exemplified by the

fact that the compound exists in a monoatomic form, rather than

the diatomic form observed for H2, O2, and F2.
They are, however, reactive to a certain degree.

Now we turn to study of bonding in molecules

Ionic Bonding

Particularly favorable situations result when the ions have the

same number of outer electrons as that of one of the noble gas

atoms, i.e. a completed octet (or duet).

Li

Be

O

F

2e

Li

Be 2+

+2e

O 2

+e

Ionic Bonding

Elements on the right hand side of the periodic table (nonmetals)

tend to gain electrons to achieve an octet configuration.

Ionic Bonding

Elements on the left hand side of the periodic table (metals)

tend to lose electrons to achieve an octet configuration.

Ionization Energy and Electron Affinity

The ionization energy (IE) and the electron affinity (EA) are two

important factors which determine the ability of the electrons of

an atom to undergo rearrangement.

The ionization energy (sometimes called ionization potential)

measures the tendency of an atom to give up an electron
X(g)

X+(g) + e

E = IE of X

The electron affinity measures the tendency of an atom to receive

an electron.

X(g) + e

Important:

X(g)

E = EA of X

There are two conventions which have opposite signs

for the electronegativity. Here, we use the convention adopted by
the course text and so you should pay care when reading other
material.

An Aside: Definition of E
reactants

products

E = E(products) E(reactants)

E is defined as E(products) E(reactants), i.e. the energy

required to effect the transformation.

Positive E means energy is required to effect the transformation

(i.e. unfavorable)

Negative E means energy is liberated during the transformation

(i.e. favorable).

All IEs are positive, meaning that it is energetically unfavorable

to remove an electron.

Most EAs are negative (using Zumdahl definition), meaning that it

is energetically favorable to add an electron (exceptions are
Groups II and VIII elements).

Schematic Representation of IE and EA

Energy is required to remove an electron from an atom X to form X+.

Energy is released (in general) upon adding an electron to an atom X
to form X.

Increasing Energy

X+
Positive IE e
X
Negative EA + e
X

Covalent Bonding

A covalent bond is one in which the atoms are held together by a

shared electron pair.

e.g. H2
+

e
e

In essence, a pair of electrons that concentrate in the

internuclear region provide the glue that holds together the two
positively charged nuclei that would otherwise repel each other.

Lewis Diagram for Water

Oxygen forms H2O because coordination of 2 hydrogen
atoms is required to give oxygen an octet configuration.

O 6 valence electrons

H O: 7 electrons
O
H: 2 electrons

H O H

H O H

O: 8 electrons
H: 2 electrons (each)

Lewis dot
diagram

H O

Comparison of Lewis Diagrams for CH4, NH3, and OH2

H

H C H

H
H C

H N H

octet
4 electron pair bonds

H N

H O H

octet
2 electron pair bonds
2 lone pairs

octet
3 electron pair bonds
1 lone pair

H O

Bond Energies

The stability of a molecule is determined by its energy.

Atoms react to form molecules because the energy of the molecule
is less than that of the sum for the individual atoms.

Thus, when atoms combine, energy is released.

Conversely, energy is required to separate two atoms in a molecule,
and that energy is called the bond dissociation energy, or more
simply, the bond energy.
A + B
energy
released on
forming bond
A

energy
required to
break bond
(bond energy)

Bond Energies

Bond energies generally decrease as one progresses down a periodic

group, as illustrated by H-X, but there are exceptions.
For example, the F-F bond is anomalously weak.
The weak FF bond is due to repulsions between the fluorine lone
pairs because of the short bond length.
Bond Energy
(kJ mol1)

Bond Energy
(kJ mol1)
HF
HCl
HBr
HI

F2
Cl2
Br2
I2

565
429
363
295

lone pair
repulsion

155
240
190
148

Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory

Unlike a planet, an electron has a charge.

Acording to classical mechanics, an electric charge that undergoes

acceleration (changes velocity and direction) will emit

electromagnetic radiation and lose energy.
Therefore, an electron moving in a circular orbit must lose its
energy and spiral into the nucleus.

Death Spiral of Electron

Wave Motion and Light

In the 1800's, however, Maxwell, suggested that light consists of

waves and that the energy is spread over space like an oscillating
liquid.
A wave is described by its
(1) amplitude: the maximum displacement (i.e. the height of the
wave above the center line). The (amplitude)2 determines the
intensity of the radiation.
(2) wavelength (): the peak-to peak distance
(3) frequency (): the number of wavelengths that pass a given
point in 1 second. Units of frequency are cycles per second (s-1) or
hertz (Hz)

Wave Motion and Light

The speed of a light wave is the product of wavelength and

frequency.

c =

The speed of a light wave in a vacuum is a constant and does not depend
on wavelength or frequency.
c = 3 x 108 m s-1

Thus, wavelength and frequency are inversely related.

high frequency short wavelength

= c/
low frequency long wavelength

Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation has a large range of wavelength and

frequencies, with no known limit: the electromagnetic spectrum.

Red light has a lower frequency and longer wavelength than violet
light.
Visible light is only a small component of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

The Photoelectric Effect

Einstein explained these observations by proposing that

electromagnetic radiation consists of particles (later to be named

photons) that are packets of energy related to the frequency.

E = h

Blue light has a higher frequency than red light and so the photons
of blue light have a higher energy than those of red light.

When a photon strikes the metal, its energy is transferred to an

electron in the metal and if the amount of energy is sufficient to

overcome the attractive forces, the electron is ejected.