Contents

Contents

Nomenclature

vii

4 Statics
4.1 Equivalent actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Actions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Equilibrium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Equipollent and equivalent systems of action. .
4
Line-of-action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Shifting law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Reduction to a wrench. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Screws, line vectors, and free vectors. . . . . . .
8
Virtual extension of a rigid body. . . . . . . . .
4.3 Plcker coordinates of a wrench . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Ray and axis coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Shifting law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11 Wrench transformations in coordinate frames. .
12 Planar wrenches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Recursive reverse static analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 The workpiece as a link. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14 Equilibrium of link j. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15 Actuator actions and joint reactions. . . . . . .
16 Recursive algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Nonrecursive static analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 Equilibrium of links j . . . n. . . . . . . . . . . .
18 Jacobian matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19 Forward static analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20 Jacobian shifting law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21 Jacobian transformations in coordinate frames.
4.6 Static singularity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22 Rank and reciprocal wrenches. . . . . . . . . .
23 Robots with a wrist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

January 31, 2014 10:22

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CONTENTS
24

Puma-class robots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

January 31, 2014 10:22

29



CONTENTS

January 31, 2014 10:22

Chapter 4

Statics
A body subject to external loads is in static equilibrium if the net force is zero
and the net moment about every point is zero.
For a given robot pose the reverse static analysis solves the problem: given
a specified load at the end-effector determine the joint actions for static equilibrium. A recursive solution is computationally efficient and includes the link
weights. A nonrecursive solution yields the Jacobian matrix, a purely geometric quantity that is key to understanding robot singularities and instantaneous
kinematics. If the Jacobian is nonsingular then it is possible to solve the forward
static analysis: given the joint actions, determine the end-effector load for static
equilibrium.

4.1

Equivalent actions

1. Actions. The study of statics involves the balance of forces and moments.
According to Newtons second law of motion, f = ma, a force is interpreted as
an action that accelerates a free particle in proportion to its mass. It is assumed
that the force acts directly on the particle. A moment is the action of a force
at a distance. The term action refers to the effect of forces and moments, or
alternatively to the forces and moments themselves. It is not used as commonly
as reaction which is a response to an action. Newton uses both terms in his
third law of motion, To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction
....
Actions are represented by vectors. In Figure 4.1a) force f is acting at point
c along its line-of-action; n(o) is the moment of the force about point o defined
by
n(o) = p(oc) f
The moment vector is drawn at o normal to the plane containing o and f ; the
moment magnitude is the product of the force magnitude and the perpendicular
distance from o to the line-of-action.

January 31, 2014 10:22

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A pair of forces with equal magnitudes and opposite directions is called a

couple, Figure 4.1b). The moment vector of the couple is drawn normal to the
plane of the two forces. Its magnitude is the product of the force magnitude
and the perpendicular distance between the lines-of action.

n(o)

n(o)

o
p(oc)
line-of-action

o
c

a)

b)

Figure 4.1: a) Moment of a force about o. b) Moment of a couple.

R 1: Borrowing from the language of projective geometry, a couple with a finite
magnitude can be modelled as an infinitesmally small force on an infinitely distant
line-of-action.
E 2: Figure 4.2 shows a common engineering application of a cantilevered
beam with the left side fixed and force f applied to the right side. In the horizontal
plane are the so-called bending moment vectors on the symmetrically located neutral
axis. The moments increase linearly with their distance from the force. Bending
moments are used to determine stresses in the beam that can lead to failure and
represent a portion of a moment field along a radial line from the force.
E 3: Figure 4.3a) shows the moment field of force f over a spatial region that
generalizes the previous beam example. The moments increase linearly with their
normal distances from the force, are tangent to cylinders centered about the force
line-of-action, and comprise a so-called cylindrical vector field.
The moment field of a couple n is shown in Figure 4.3b). It is a field of parallel
vectors that are equal in magnitude and direction to the couple. It is drawn on the
same cylindrical layout only for comparison with the force; n has no determinate
line-of-action though it is shown along the force line-of-action.

2. Equilibrium. An inertial reference is a mythical space or body that is used

as an absolute reference for motions. Usually it is considered to be a fixed
or grounded body and for terrestrial applications the earth itself is usually a
suitable approximation. It is a frame for which Newtons and Eulers laws of
motion hold.

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.1

E
 


Figure 4.2: Bending moments of a cantilevered beam.

a)

b)

Figure 4.3: a) Moment field of a force. b) Moment field of a couple.

The dynamics of particles, and bodies modelled as particles, are governed by

Newtons second law. The dynamics of general bodies are governed by Eulers
first and second laws.
A particle is in static equilibrium Newtons second law simplifies so sum of
the applied forces is zero,
f = 0
It may be moving with a constant velocity but for simplicity we generally assume
that static equilibrium implies no motion. Beyond this we are not interested
in particle equilibrium but instead are interested in the equilibrium analysis of
bodies subjected to force and moment actions.
For a body in static equilibrium Eulers laws simplify so that the sum of the
forces f is zero and the sum of the moments n about every point is zero,
f = 0, n = 0
Again for simplicity we assume that static equilibrium implies no motion.
For deformable bodies each action on a particle of the body is represented by
a point-bound vector, also known as cotangent vector in differential geometry.
Sequentially, most bodies are modelled as rigid and their actions are simplified
considerably via equivalent systems.

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3. Equipollent and equivalent systems of action. Two systems of forces

and couples are said to be equipollent when the sum of the forces is the same
and the sum of the moments about every point is the same. When applied to a
deformable body the two systems create distinct effects but when applied to a
rigid body their effects are equivalent. Equivalent systems of action is perhaps
the most fundamental tool for analyzing the statics of rigid bodies.
A fundamental technique for static analysis is the free-body diagram. It shows
a body isolated from its environment but represents all actions on the body.
Then it is then straightforward to determine equilibrium conditions by summing
up the indicated forces and moments. The following example illustrates the
use of free-body diagrams to show that equipollent systems are not equivalent
systems for deformable bodies. However for subsequent static developments is
it assumed that the bodies are rigid so equipollent systems are also equivalent
systems.
E 4: Figure 4.4a) shows a thin cantilever beam that is initially straight but
becomes very slightly curved (exaggerated in the figure) due to force f acting on
the end at point c. Directly below it is the free-body diagram where the end at o
is isolated from the environment (ground in this case) and replaced by an unknown
reaction force f r and an unknown reaction moment nr (o). Applying the conditions
for static equilibrium determines the reactions as,
0 = f = f r + f
0 = n(o) = nr (o) + p(oc) f

f r = f
nr (o) = p(oc) f = n(o)

where n(o) is the moment of the force about o.

Figure 4.4b) shows an equipollent system and its free-body diagram where the
force has been moved to point b along with an additional couple n(b) = p(bc) f . For
static equilibrium the reactions are the same,
0 = f = f r + f
0 = n(o) = nr (o) + p(ob) f + p(bc) f
= nr (o) + p(oc) f

f r = f
nr (o) = p(oc) f = n(o)

where p(oc) = p(ob) + p(bc). However there is a distinct physical effect since from b to
c the beam is no longer curved. Thus equipollent systems are not equivalent systems
for deformable bodies.

4. Line-of-action. For rigid bodies actions no longer need to be point-bound

vectors since there is no deformation. A force acting on a rigid body is modelled
as line-vector or a sliding vector since sliding the force along its line-of-action
yields an equivalent action where the moment about every point remains unchanged.
A couple acting on a rigid body is modelled a as free vector since translating
the couple yields an equivalent action where the moment about every point
remains the same.

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.1

E
 


f
c
o

f
c

fr

fr

n r (o)

n r (o )

b
p(bc ) f

a)

b)

Figure 4.4: Equipollent systems acting on a deformable body yield distinct physical
effects so the systems are not also equivalent.

E 5: Figure 4.5 shows an initially straight beam with force f acting along its
line-of-action at the top and at the bottom of the beam. Since the beam is deformable
there is a distinct localized effect and thus the two loadings are not equivalent. A rigid
body does not deform and thus sliding the force along its line-of-action has no effect.

line-of-action

line-of-action

f
Figure 4.5: A force acting on a deformable body is slid along its line-of-action.

E
 6: Show that any point on the force line-of-action can be used to compute
the moment of the force. In Figure 4.1a) c is on the line-of-action and let d be a similar
point. Show that p(od) f = p(oc) f .
E
 7: Show that moment of a couple is the same about all points. In Figure
4.1b) point o is shown on the plane of the forces. If d is an arbitrary point show that
n (d) = n (o).

5. Shifting law. Statics problems can be simplified by representing equivalent

actions at a judiciously selected points. Figure 4.6 shows force f and moment
n (c) acting at point c and it is desired to form the equivalent system at o. The

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moment n (c) is freely shifted to o as a couple. As the force is shifted to o it

is necessary to include the compensating moment p(oc) f so the moment of
the force about o remains the same. The resultant of the force moment and the
couple moment yields the shifting law,
n(o) = p(oc) f + n (c)
This is the fundamental relation for determining equivalent systems. Note that
for f = 0 the moments are equal.
n(c )

o p(oc )

n(o)

Figure 4.6: Equivalent systems are related through the shifting law.

E
 8: Prove the shifting law from the equilibrium of a rigid body.
E
 9: For a nonzero force f and moment n(o) acting at an arbitrary point o,
show that f n(o) = 0 if and only if the system is equivalent to force f acting through
some point c.

4.2

Wrenches

A system of forces and couples acting on a rigid body are reduced to the simplest
equivalent form, a wrench on a screw.
6. Reduction to a wrench. In Figure 4.7 a system of forces and couples
acting on a rigid body are shifted to a common point o where the forces are
summed to a resultant net force f and a resultant net moment n (o). The choice
of the common point is arbitrary but a special selection simplifies the system
further to a wrench.
n(o)

Figure 4.7: Reduction of a system to a wrench.

January 31, 2014 10:22

f
o

c n(c)

4.2

W


D%


 10 (Wrench): A wrench is the combination of two actions, a force

and a couple that are parallel.
For point c on the force line-of-action the wrench W (c) has the form,
W (c) = (f, n(c)) = (f, hf )
where the pitch h is the ratio of the couple to the force and has units of length.
The line-of-action of the force is called the wrench axis.
There are two special wrenches:
1. For h = 0 the couple vanishes and the wrench is a pure force
2. For h the force is said to vanish and the wrench is a pure couple
Figure 4.3 shows the individual moment fields for a force and a couple that is
parallel to the force. Combining these into a wrench yields a helicoidal moment
field, Figure 4.8, where the moments are added vectorially at each point. Each
moment vector is tangent to a helix centered about the wrench axis.

Figure 4.8: A wrench generates a helicoidal moment field. Each moment vector is
tangent to a helix centered about the wrench axis.

Although a wrench is a special system of a force and couple the following

theorem shows it is the simplest representation of the most general system.
T
 11 (Poinsots wrench theorem): A system of forces and couples on a
rigid body is equivalent to a wrench on the body.
P%. Assume that the system has been reduced to a resultant force and moment
at point o, (f, n (o)). For f = 0 the equivalent system is a couple which is a special
wrench. For f = 0 it is desired to determine a point c such that the force f and net
moment n (c) are parallel, or possibly the net moment n (c) vanishes, so f n (c) = 0.
Using the shifting law with the vector identity a (b d) = (a d) b (a b) d yields

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an expression with the vector p(oc),

0 = f n (c)

= f (n(o) p(oc) f )

= f n(o) (f f ) p(oc) + (f p(oc)) f

Point c lies along the wrench axis whose points are given by p(oc) +f with variable .
Imposing the orthogonality constraint f p(oc) = 0 gives a unique solution by selecting
c as the closest point on the line to o,
p(oc) =

f n(o)
,
f f

f p(oc) = 0

This guarantees that the moment at c has the form n (c) = hf so

W (c) = (f, hf )
The value of pitch h is determined using the shifting law
W (o) = (f, n (o)) = (f, p(oc) f + hf )
and the projection f n(o) to yield the pitch formula,
h=

f n(o)
f f

Thus the wrench W (c) has been determined from W (o), wrench axis placement is
given by p(oc), the axis direction is along f , and the pitch is h.

D%


 12 (Equivalent wrench): An equivalent wrench is any force and

couple pair W (o) = (f, n (o)). For simplicity W (o) is also referred to as a
wrench even though the force and couple are not parallel.
The Poinsots wrench theorem shows that (f, n (o)) is equivalent to (f, n (c))
making it a representation of the wrench. If this is understood then there is no
loss in clarity in simply referring to any force and couple pair as a wrench and
using the same notation, W (o) = (f, n (o)).
The theorem also yields a canonical decomposition of the wrench in terms
of the pitch,
P

 13 (Canonical decomposition): For wrench W (o) with finite pitch
h and point c on the wrench axis then
W (o) = (f, n (o)) = (f, p(oc) f + hf )
The moment n (o) is decomposed as hf in the direction of the force plus p(oc)f
normal to the force. Table 4.1 summarizes the forms of a general wrench, force,
and couple for a general point o and any point c on the wrench axis.

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.2

W


Element
General wrench
Force
Couple

Form
W (o) = (f, p(oc) f + hf )
W (o) = (f, p(oc) f )
W (o) = (0, n(o))

Pitch
h
h=0
h

Table 4.1: Forms for a general wrench, force, and couple where o is any point and c is
on the wrench axis.

D%


 14: The magnitude of a wrench W (o) is

for a general wrench (h)

f 
f 
for a force (h = 0)
W (o)

n(o)
for a couple (h )

The magnitude of a wrench is also referred to as the intensity of the wrench.

For f  = 0 the wrench is said to be proper.
The magnitude of a wrench is independent of the point used to represent
the moment and is also independent of the coordinates used to express the force
and moment vectors.
R 15: The magnitude of a general wrench is given by
the magnitude of the
force part. Occasionally one sees erroneous expressions such as f f + n n that are
dimensionally inconsistent, force2 +(forcelength)2 , lack physical meaning, and thus
must be completely avoided. To address the inconsistency the error is

actually further
compounded by introducing a scalar with dimensions of length, 2 f f + n n.
This doesnt solve the inconsistency but just disguises it into selecting an arbitrary
parameter without a motivating physical meaning.
E
 16: Show that the pitch of W (o) is not dependent on the point o or the
frame used for coordinates.
E
 17: Show that the magnitude of W (o) is not dependent on the point o or
the frame used for coordinates.
E
 18: In Figure 4.8 let the wrench axis be along the z0 axis of frame 0.
Determine the parametic form of the helix through point b with coordinates 0 b =

T
. (The parametric form is a vector which is a function of a variable
u v w
scalar. For example a line in the direction of vector e and passing through b has the
parametric form p = es + b where s is a variable scalar.)

7. Screws, line vectors, and free vectors. A force is said to be a line

vector since its action on a rigid body is the same if the force is moved to a
different point on the line. Let the force have the form
f = u

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where = f  is the magnitude of the force and u is a unit vector in the

direction of the force. Let c be on the force line-of-action so the representation
of the force at point o is
W (o) = (f, p(oc) f)
= (u, p(oc) u)
= U (o)
The wrench is factored in to the scalar force magnitude and a purely geometric
quantity that represents the line: u is the direction of the line, p (oc)u is called
the moment of the line about o, and together as U (o) they represent a unit line
vector describing the line-of-action.
A couple is a free vector and is factored as
n (o) = u
where = n (o) is the magnitude of the couple and u is a unit vector in the
direction of the couple so,
W (o) = (0, n (o))
= (0, u)
= U (o)
The couple has been factored into a scalar moment magnitude and a purely
geometric quantity U (o) that represents a unit free vector. The free vector is
also said to represent infinitely an distant line with direction u.
The case of a general wrench is similar but yields a new space element,
W (o) = (f, p(oc) f + hf )
= (u, p(oc) u + hu)
= U (o)
U (o) represents a unit screw which is defined as a unit line vector with the
additional property of pitch h. The term screw is discussed subsequently in
terms of rigid body velocities which gives it a more direct physical meaning.
Usually the unit term is dropped and the element is simply referred to as a
screw, and similarly for line-vectors and free vectors.
The three cases are summarized in Table 4.2 and are the geometric analogs
to the wrenches in Table 4.1. Since they are related to wrenches by scalar
multiples they also transform by the shifting law.
8. Virtual extension of a rigid body. When reducing a system of forces
and couples on a rigid body to a wrench, it is possible that the wrench axis
does not pass through the physical boundaries of the body. Consequentally the
rigid body is virtually extended to show the wrench action without adding any
physical properties such as mass, Figure 4.9. In the most general case the virtual

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.3

P* +
  %  ,

Case
Screw
Line vector
Free vector

11

Form
U (o) = (u, p(oc) u + hu)
U (o) = (u, p(oc) u)
U (o) = (0, u)

Pitch
h
h=0
h

Table 4.2: Forms for a general screw, line vector, and free vector where o is any point
and c is on the screw axis.

extension can be an entire rigid space and it is convenient to assume that this is
always the case. Further since this is just a mathematical fiction, it is useful to
allow the extensions of several bodies, or the bodies themselves, to simultaneous
occupy the same space. It is not always necessary to show the virtual extension
but a graphical represention facilitates visualization of applying an action at a
distance.

n(o)

n(c)

virtual extension

Figure 4.9: A rigid body is virtually extended to show the application of the wrench.

E 19: The center-of-mass is a good illustration of a point that may not be on

a body yet moves like it is rigidly attached to the body. Figure 4.10 shows a robot
end-effector holding a curved beam. The center-of-mass c is shown joined to the beam
by a virtual extension that carries the force f = mg where g is the gravity vector. An
equivalent action is at the end-effector point o and is found from the shifting law.

virtual extension

n(o)

f = mg
Figure 4.10: A gravity force acts on the center-of-mass that is rigidly joined to the
curved beam by a virtual extension. The equivalent action is also shown at the endeffector.

4.3

Plcker coordinates of a wrench

The force and moment of a wrench are combined into a matrix formulation
that facilitates calculations. There are two types of Plcker coordinates which

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correspond to the dual concepts of actions and motions. Judicious use of the
two coordinate types can simplify complex expressions though they carry a notational overhead since the transformations of each distinct. While it is possible to
formulate mechanics using only one type of Plcker coordinates, the expressions
more complex and less intuitive so on balance using the two types of coordinates
is preferred.
9. Ray and axis coordinates. The representation of a wrench as the 6 1
array


f
W (o) =
n (o)
is known as the Plcker ray coordinates of the wrench. Strictly speaking, Plcker
coordinates are always expressed at the origin of coordinates but the common
variation in use expresses them at any point. Also instead of using six individual
components it is more concise to use two vectors, but both forms are used as
most appropriate.
Using f = u and the forms in Table 4.2 then
W (o) = U (o)
where U (o) has the forms,


u

, (screw)

p (oc) u + hu


u
, (line vector)
Ray coordinates: U (o) =
p
(oc)


u

, (free vector)

The Plcker axis coordinates of the wrench W (o) are given by simply reversing the first and last three components,


n (o)
f
While this may just appear to be a simple manipulation, it actually has a deeper
significance tied to the duality of projective geometry and mechanics. We use
ray coordinates for wrenches (i.e. actions) and use axis coordinates for twists
(i.e. motions) and related elements such as the columns of the Jacobian in
18. The duality of mechanics is best expressed using the dual forms of Plcker
coordinates. Frequently in the literature the opposite convention is used and the
choice is mostly a matter of preference; we use the original convention developed
by Plcker.
10. Shifting law. From 5 the shifting law becomes,

 


f
1
0
f
=
n (o)
p(oc) 1
n (c)

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4.3

P* +
  %  ,

13

or more concisely,
W (o) = X T (oc)W (c)
by defining the 6 6 shifting matrix
X

(oc)

1
0
p(oc) 1

where 1 is the 3 3 identity matrix, p(oc) is the skew-symmetric form of the


T

1
cross product operator, and X T = X 1 = X T
. Another form of the
shifting law without the T is introduced subsequently for quantities expressed
using Plcker axis coordinates.
To add wrenches it is necessary that they are represented at the same point,
W (o) = W1 (o) + W2 (o)
Otherwise, to add wrenches represented at different points it is necessary to
include the shifting law,
W (o) = W1 (o) + X T (oc)W2 (c)
This just means that all of forces are shifted to the same point to determine the
net moment.
If the requirement of a common point is understood there is no loss in clarity
by omitting specific references to a specific point,
W = W1 + W2
since the expression holds at all points.
The static equilibrium of a body is concisely given by a single 61 equation,
W = 0
E 20: Figure 4.11a) shows two robot end-effectors rigidly grasping and supporting a beam in static equilibrium. The origin of frame 0 is at the center of mass
c, the weight of the beam is mgy0 , and the end-effectors are symmetrically located
at a distance a. There are many ways that the robots may support the beam, such as
one robot supporting all the weight while the other provides no support.
A symmetric scenario is for them to each support exactly one-half of the beam
weight at the center-of-mass,
 1

1
mgy0
2
W1 (c) = W2 (c) = W (c) =
0
2
At end-effector locations o1 and o2 the wrenches are,

 1



1
1
0
mgy0
y0
2
W1 (o1 ) = X T (o1 c)W1 (c) =
= mg
ax0 1
0
az0
2

 1



1
1
0
y0
2 mgy0
W2 (o2 ) = X T (o2 c)W2 (c) =
= mg
ax0 1
0
az0
2
At the end-effector locations oi the robots are each applying half the weight of the
beam along with equilibrating moments. Note that these wrenches are all forces.

January 31, 2014 10:22

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y0

a
o0 , c

z0

o1

x0

o2

mgy0

a)

y0

o1

o0 , c

z0

o2

x0

mgy0

b)

y0

a
o1

a
o0, c

z0

x0

o2

mgy 0

c)
Figure 4.11: Two robots supporting a beam by a) rigidly grasping, b) balancing with
point contact, and c) squeezing with point contact.

E 21: Continuing the previous example, instead of the end-effectors rigidly

grasping the beam they support it with cables, Figure 4.11b). At the end-effector
locations oi each robot supports just half the weight without a moment,
W1 (o1 ) =

1
2 mgy0

, W2 (o2 ) =

1
2 mgy0

At the center of the beam the equivalent actions are

W1 (c) = X T (co1 )W1 (o1 ) =
W2 (c) = X T (co2 )W2 (o2 ) =




1
ax0
1
ax0

0
1
0
1




1
2 mgy0

1
2 mgy0

and when summed the moments cancel.

January 31, 2014 10:22




1
mg
2

1
mg
2




y0
az0
y0
az0




4.3

P* +
  %  ,

15

E 22: Continuing the previous example, suppose the end-effectors support the
beam with friction by squeezing it with point contacts, Figure 4.11c). At o2 the right
robot is again applying half the weight but with an additional unit force in the x0
direction


1
x0 + y0
W2 (o2 ) = mg
0
2
Since W + W1 + W2 = 0 then the left robot is applying,
W1 (o1 ) = W (o1 ) W2 (o1 ) = X T (o1 c)W (c) X T (o1 o2 )W2 (o2 )



 
 1
1
0
mgy0
1
0
2 mg (x0 + y0 )
=

ax0 1
0
0
2ax0 1


1
x0 + y0
= mg
0
2
The robots are applying equal and opposite internal forces of magnitude fx = 12 mg
that cancel but generate the supporting friction forces fy = 12 mg where fy cf fx
and cf is the coefficient of static friction. (Just before the onset of sliding the equality
holds, fy = cf fx .) In this example fx = fy so it is necessary that cf 1.

11. Wrench transformations in coordinate frames. Similar to vector

notation, a leading subscript on a wrench denotes the frame used for coordinates,
e.g.,


if
i W (o) =
i n (o)
When adding wrenches the components must all use the same coordinate system,
iW

(o) = i W1 (o) + i W2 (o)

To sum wrenches represented at different points the shifting matrix must be

expressed in the same frame
iW

(o) = i W1 (o) + i X T (oc) i W2 (c)

since it contains the vector i p(oc) and

iX

(oc)

1
0
p(oc)
1
i

The coordinate mapping of wrenchs follows from the vector parts,


 


0
if
ij O
jf
=
0 ij O
i n (c)
j n (c)
or more concisely,
iW

(o) = ij Y T j W (o)

by defining the 6 6 coordinate transformation matrix



0
ij O
T
Y
=
ij
0 ij O

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which is composed of 3 3 orthogonal matrices. It is used to sum wrenches

represented in different frames,
iW

(o) = i W1 (o) + ij Y T j W2 (o)

Finally, it is convenient to combine the shifting matrix and coordinate transformation operator into a single form. This can be done in two equivalent ways,
ij Z

(oc) = i X T (oc)

ij Z

(oc) = ij Y T j X T (oc)

ij Y

or
where the order of operations is reversed and i X T (oc) changed to j X T (oc).
To sum wrenches specified at different points and frames then,
iW

(o) = i W1 (o) + ij Z T (oc) j W2 (c)

If it is assumed that the wrenches are all expressed at a common point and in
a common coordinate system then it is permissible to write
W = W1 + W2
Implicitly this expression must hold at all points and for all coordinate systems.
R 23: For ij Y T the T is unnecessary since ij Y T =ij Y . However it is
retained for consistency with the wrench ray coordinates transformation X T which
is distinct from the axis coordinates transformation X.
E 24: Figure 4.12 shows part of a robot with two forces acting, f1 = z1 1 and
f2 = z2 2 where the i are scalars. Determine the net wrench on the body and show
that the wrench axis intersects the x1 axis normally.

Figure 4.12: Two forces acting on link a1 .

To sum the wrenches they are expressed at point o1 using components in frame 1,
1W

(o1 ) = 1 W1 (o1 ) + 1 W2 (o1 )

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.3

P* +
  %  ,

17

Since 1 W (o1 ) and 2 W2 (o2 ) may be determined by inspection it is only neccessary to

transform the latter to frame 1,
1W

(o1 ) = 1 W1 (o1 ) + 12 Z T (o1 o2 ) 2 W2 (o2 )

= 1 W1 (o1 ) + 1 X T (o1 o2 ) 12 Y T 2 W2 (o2 )

 

1
0
1 z1 1
12 O
=
+
0
0
(1 x 1 a 1 + 1 z 2 d2 ) 1

 

1 z1 1
1 z2 2
=

0
(1 x 1 a 1 + 1 z 2 d2 ) 1 z 2 2


1 z1 1 1 z2 2
=
1 x 1 a 1 1 z2 2

0
12 O



2 z2 2
0


T
Vector 1 z2 is just the third column of 1 O2 (= 12 O) which is 1 z2 = 0 sin 1 cos 1
so

0
0
0

2 sin 1


 1 0 2 sin 1

1 2 cos 1
1

cos

1f
1

=
1 W (o1 ) =

=
1
0
0
1 n (o1 )

a1 0 2 sin 1 2 a1 cos 1
0
cos 1
2 a1 sin 1
Since 1 f has no x1 component then the wrench axis is normal to x1 . The perpendicular
vector from o1 to a point c on the wrench axis is along the x1 axis,
1 p(o1 c)

1f

1 n(o1 )
1f

1f

2
2 a1 1 2 a1 cos 1
2
2
1 2(cos 1 )1 2 +2

0
0

and the pitch is generally nonzero,

h=

1f

1 n(o1 )
1f

1f

= 1 2 a1

sin 1
21 2 (cos 1 ) 1 2 + 22

In general h = 0 so the wrench is not a pure force unless the original forces f1 and
f2 are i) parallel requiring sin 1 = 0 or ii) they intersect requiring a1 = 0.
Using 1 = 2 = a1 = 0 and 1 = 2 locates the wrench axis halfway between the

T
force lines-of-action, 1 p(o1 c) = 12 0 0 , with pitch h = 12 .

In the previous example the conditions for the resultant wrench to be a force
are general,
P

 25: If the resultant of two forces is another force, then the two
forces either intersect or are parallel.

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E
 26: In Example 24 show that the pitch expression becomes indeterminate,
h 00 , when the resultant is a couple.
E
 27: Generalize Example 24 to show that two forces and their resultant
wrench (h = 0) all intersect a common line at right angles. (Hint: set up a coordinate
frame with the z axis along the common normal of the two forces. The forces and
the resultant wrench will all be parallel to the x y plane.) If the resultant is a force
(h = 0), how should the statement be modified?
E
 28: Further generalize Example 24 to show that two wrenches and their
resultant wrench all intersect a common line at right angles.
E
 29: Prove Proposition 25 that if the resultant of two forces is another force,
then the two forces either intersecto or are parallel. What are the conditions for the
resultant to be a couple? (Hint: recall that a wrench is a force if f n = 0 for f = 0.)

12. Planar wrenches. Planar mechanics rigid body motions are constrained
to translations parallel to a plane and rotations with axes normal to the plane.
Planar mechanics actions are limited to forces parallel to a plane and couples
normal to it. This reduction of degrees-of-freedom enables a reduction of coordinate forms.
If the plane is in the x y directions then the six coordinates of a wrench
are projected into planar and nonplanar parts as,

fx
0
fy

0
fz

W (o) =
+ mx (o)
0

my (o)

0
mz (o)
0
The nonplanar projection always represent reactions that are equilibrated by
the imposed planar constraint and are generally not considered further. The
planar projection has zero coordinates for rows 3, 4, 5 and upon elimination
reduces it to a 3 1 array

fx
W (o) = fy
mz (o)
For points o and c on the plane, applying the 6 6 shifting matrix X T (oc),
to the 6 1 wrench planar projection preserves the three zero rows. Consequentially eliminating rows and columns 3, 4, 5 reduces it to a 3 3 form,

1
0
0
0
1
0
X T (oc) =
p (oc)y
p (oc)x 1

January 31, 2014 10:22

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R
   
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19

Planar coordinate frames have a common z direction so spatial coordinate

mappings of vectors have the elementary form,

cos sin 0
sin
cos 0
ij O =
0
0
1
The 6 6 coordinate map
T
=
ij Y

ij O

0
ij O

restricted to the planar is reduced to a 3 3 form by again eliminating rows

and columns 3, 4, 5,

cos sin 0
T
cos 0
= sin
ij Y
0
0
1
and coincidentally this has the same form as ij O.
Finally the combined transformation has the simple 3 3 form,

cos
sin
0
T
sin
cos
0
(oc) = i X T (oc) ij Y T =
ij Z
j p (oc)y
j p (oc)x 1
or the more complex one,
ij Z

(oc) = ij Y T j X T (oc)

cos
sin
=
i p (oc)x sin i p (oc)y cos

sin
cos
i p (oc)x cos + i p (oc)y sin

0
0
1

depending on the order of the transformations.

4.4

Recursive reverse static analysis

Given a load at the end-effector the reverse analysis determines the joint actions
required to maintain static equilibrium. In practice the weight of the robot links
is significant and contributes to the joint loads. A recursive static formulation
for the reverse analysis makes it simple to include external forces acting on the
robot such as gravity.
13. The workpiece as a link. The robot is assumed to have n links and
joints. The end-effector is assumed to be interacting with a workpiece or some
other part of the environment which is conveniently labeled as link n + 1 with
an arbitrary origin on+1 and coordinate frame. Figure 4.13 shows a free body

January 31, 2014 10:22

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diagram of the workpiece with the end-effector applying action W which is also
designated as Wn+1 for uniformity. The connection to the workpiece can be
modeled as a general joint, even if the connection is rigid providing no relative
degrees-of-freedom. The workpiece applies the equal and opposite load W to
the robot which must be equilibrated by the joint actions. Generalizing this
convention, wrench Wj is the action on link j due to the previous link and Wj
is the reaction on link j 1.

link n 1

W = Wn +1

link n
link n + 1
(workpiece)

Figure 4.13: The workpiece is treated as an additional link. The gripper is modeled
as a rigid joint.

14. Equilibrium of link j. Figure 4.14 shows a free body diagram for the
j th link along with the neighboring links. Link j 1 impresses wrench Wj (oj )
on link j. Similarly, link j impresses wrench Wj+1 (oj+1 ) on link j + 1. The
reaction on link j is equal and opposite, Wj+1 (oj+1 ). The gravity load of the
j th link is Wjg (cj ) at the center-of-mass cj .

Wj
oj
link j 1

Wj

Wj +1
link j

oj

cj

oj +1

oj +1

Wjg

link j + 1

Wj +1

Figure 4.14: Free body diagram of link j.

For each robot link to be in static equilibrium, the impressed wrenches sum
to zero,
0 = Wj + Wjg Wj+1 , j = n . . . 1
and expressing the result at oj with the shifting law gives,
Wj (oj ) = X T (oj oj+1 )Wj+1 (oj+1 ) X T (oj cj )Wjg (cj ) , j = n . . . 1
For the reverse static analysis the end-effector wrench Wn+1 (oj+1 ) is known so
the wrenches acting at each joint are determined from tip to base by recursively
applying the equilibrium equations with j = n . . . 1. Then it is necessary to
determine the action required in joint j for equilibrium.

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.4

R
   
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21

15. Actuator actions and joint reactions. The wrench Wj at each joint
is decomposed into two parts, the wrench Wja generated by the actuator and
the joint reaction wrench Wjr generated by the joint constraint,
Wj = Wja + Wjr
Figure 4.15a) shows the j th joint as a revolute joint split in two parts showing
the equal and opposite joint wrenches. The joint constraints provide reaction
forces in the xj , yj , and zj directions and provide reaction moments in the xj
and yj directions. The moment in the zj direction must be supplied as actuator
torque j which is just the projection of the moment in that direction,
j = zjT nj (oj )
so the actuator wrench is the couple,
Wja (oj )

0
zj j

The remaining components determine the joint reaction wrench,

Wjr (oj ) = Wj (oj ) Wja (oj )


fj
=
nj (oj ) zj j

n (o j )
zj

zj

f j

xj

oj

xj

oj

a)

xj

fj
yj

yj

f j

n(o j )

zj

zj

yj

yj

oj

n (o j )

fj

oj

xj

n(o j )

b)

Figure 4.15: Wrenches acting at each joint provide the joint action and joint reactions
by projection for a) a revolute joint and b) a prismatic joint.

A prismatic joint is similar but the roles of the forces and moments are
reversed. Figure 4.15b) shows the j th joint as a prismatic joint split in two
parts showing the equal and opposite joint wrenches. The joint constraints
provide reaction moments in the xj , yj , and zj directions and provide reaction

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forces in the xj and yj directions. The force in the zj direction must be supplied
as actuator force j which is just the projection of the force in that direction,
j = zjT fj
so the actuator force is
Wja (oj ) =

j zj
0

The remaining components determine the joint reaction wrench,

Wjr (oj ) = Wj (oj ) Wja (oj )


fj zj j
=
nj (oj )
R 30: Actuator torques j and forces j are important in the design of robots.
If the robot load capacity is specified through out the workspace then the joint active
wrench Wja can be used to estimate the required capability of the actuator. Similarly,
knowing the resulting joint reaction wrench Wjr through out the workspace can be
used to select bearing for maximum expected loads.
E
 31: If the j th joint is a revolute show that,
Wja (oj ) =

0
zj zjT nj

(oj )

and

Wjr (oj ) =

fj
zj (zj nj (oj ))

Hint: a (b c) = (a c) b (a b) c.
E
 32: If the j th joint is a prismatic show that,
Wja (oj ) =

zj zjT fj
0

and

Wjr (oj ) =

zj (zj fj )
nj (oj )

Hint: a (b c) = (a c) b (a b) c.

16. Recursive algorithms. The reverse static analysis is well-suited to a

recursive algorithm. First it is presented without reference to specific coordinate
frame for greatest simplicity and then using a series of local coordinate frames
suitable for numerical calculations. The algorithms proceed from end-effector
to base by propagating the wrenches acting at each joint (refer to Figures 4.14
and 4.15).

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.5

N
  
 -


23

A/

 33 (Recursive reverse static analysis):
Initial valu es:Wn+1 (on+1 )
for j = n . . . 1
Wj (oj ) = Wj+1 (oj+1 ) Wjg (cj )
if revolute joint then j = zjT nj (oj )
if prismatic joint then j = zjT fj
end for
To calculate numerical actuator loads it is necessary to introduce coordinates. Rather that using a single coordinate frame it is more efficient to use
coordinate frames on each link and coordinate transformations. It is assumed
that all robot parameters and joint displacements are known as well as the
rigid body transformation n,n+1 Z T (on on+1 ) between the end-effector and the
workpiece frames.
A/

 34 (Recursive reverse static analysis in local coordinates):
Initial valu es:n+1 Wn+1 (on+1 ) , n0 Y T
for j = n . . . 1
j0 Z

j,j+1 Z
j Wj

(oj cj ) = j X T (oj cj )
T

j0 Y

(oj oj+1 ) = j X T (oj oj+1 )

(oj ) = j,j+1 Z T (oj oj+1 )

j,j+1 Y

j+1 Wj+1 (oj+1 )

j0 Z T (oj cj ) 0 Wjg (cj )

if revolute joint then j = j zjT nj (oj )

if prismatic joint then j = j zjT fj
j1,0 Y

= j1,j Y T

j0 Y

end for
The presented
are not as optimized for

 minimal calculations. For
 equations
example X T Y T W has less operations than X T Y T W . Also several
of the quantities are constants: 0 Wjg (cj ), j zjT ; j X T (oj oj+1 ) for the j th joint a
revolute; and j1,j Y T for the j th joint a prismatic.

4.5

Nonrecursive static analysis

For a robot to remain in equilibrium under external loads the joints must provide
the necessary actions to prevent any motion. These joint actions allow the
entire chain to be treated effectively as a single rigid body connected to ground,
much like a cantilevered beam. The static analysis is performed using the usual
tools: free body diagrams are drawn for an isolated portion of the robot with all
interacting actions explicitly shown, and equilibrium conditions require that the

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sum of forces and the sum of the moments each vanish. In this analysis gravity
is not included in order to use the results to transparently identify singularity
configurations.
17. Equilibrium of links j . . . n. In Figure 4.16 a free body diagram is
constructed for links j . . . n by disassembling the two parts of joint j, disengaging
the end-effector from the workpiece, and showing the acting wrenches. For
equilibrium it is assumed that the intermediate joints are held rigidly by the
required actuator actions i , i = j + 1, . . . , n making the chain effectively rigid
so,
0 = Wj W
which at oj becomes,
fj = f
nj (oj ) = p (oj on+1 ) f + n (on+1 )

o j link j

Wj

link n 1

link n

on +1

Figure 4.16: Joint actuation keep links j to n in static equilibrium to form an effectively
rigid chain.

R 35: The condition Wj = W means that the same wrench acts throughout
the chain in static equilibrium. This is not true when gravity loads or other external
loads act on the connecting links, or when there are dynamics actions.

18. Jacobian matrix. If the j th joint is revolute, then the actuator must
supply an equilibrating torque about the axis of rotation, j = zjT nj (oj ). The
equilibrating moments in the other directions and the equilibrating force fj
result from the physical constraints of the joint. Solving for the joint torque
gives,
j = (p (on+1 oj ) zj )T f + zjT n (on+1 )
Repeating this for j = 1 . . . n and collecting the results in matrix form
yields,

1
..
.
j
..
.
n

p (on+1 o1 ) z1
p (on+1 oj ) zj
p (on+1 on ) zn

z1
zj
zn

January 31, 2014 10:22

T 

f
n (on+1 )

4.5

N
  
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25

or more concisely,
= J T (on+1 ) W (on+1 )
where the 6 n matrix J is referred to as the Jacobian.
If the j th joint is prismatic, then the actuator must supply an equilibrating
force along the joint axis, j = zjT fj . The equilibrating forces in the other directions and the equilibrating moment nj (oj ) result from the physical constraints
of the joint. Since fj = f then the actuator force is,
j = zjT f
If the remaining joints are revolute then,

1
.. 
.
p (on+1 o1 ) z1
z
p (on+1 on ) zn
j =
j
.
z
0
zn
1
.
.
n

T 

f
n (on+1 )

or more concisely as,

Q = J T (on+1 ) W (on+1 )
where Q is the general form to represent mixtures of joint forces and torques,
but is generally used even when all of the joints are the same type. Given
W (on+1 ) this equation is the unique solution to the reverse static analysis and
is valid for any number of joints.
The joint directions zj and position vectors p (on+1 oj ) are only a function
of the joint variables so J is only a function of the joint variables. This means
that the Jacobian is a purely geometric quantity and as the robot changes
configuration the Jacobian components vary.
19. Forward static analysis. Given Q then the forward static analysis for
W can yield a unique solution, no solution, or many possible solutions. For
invertible J the forward analysis is simply,
W (on+1 ) = J T (on+1 ) Q
The quantity J T is a generalization of mechanical advantage for a multi-input
and multi-output system. This is evident in comparison with a scalar form
which could represent the mechanical advantage (M A) of a simple lever,
fout = (MA) fin
However a robot is much more complex since a single joint input Qi generally
affects every component of the output wrench W . The Jacobian also has a
second and more usual interpretation as a set of influence coefficients. These
determine how individual joint velocities affect the end-effector velocity and are
examined in the subsequent velocity analysis.

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R 36: When rank (J) < 6 then the solution for W is no longer unique but
composed of particular and homogeneous solutions, W = W p + Wh . A particular

solution exists when the equations are consistent, i.e. rank J T = rank
JT Q
so Q is in the range space of J T . The homogenous solution is given by,
Wh = R1 1 + R2 2 + + Rm m
where for J T Ri = 0 the Ri are said to be reciprocal
 to J and form a basis for the
null space of J T with dimension m = 6 rank J T , and the are i arbitrary scalar
multipliers.

20. Jacobian shifting law.

As derived, the Jacobian and the workpiece
wrench are represented at on+1 . However, the calculated joint actions are independent of any particular representation so for an arbitrary point c,
Q = J T (on+1 ) W (on+1 )


= J T (on+1 ) X T (con+1 )X T (con+1 ) W (on+1 )


= (X(con+1 )J (on+1 ))T X T (con+1 )W (on+1 )
= J T (c) W (c)

where J (c) = X(con+1 )J (on+1 ). Expressing the Jacobian shifting law in a form
similar to that derived for the wrenches gives,
J (o) = X (oc) J (c)
where
X (oc) =

1 p (oc)
0
1

The shifting matrices X (oc) and X T (oc) are similar but have the off-diagonal
blocks exchanged.
21. Jacobian transformations in coordinate frames. The Jacobian
transformations are analogous to the wrench transformations except the T
is missing in each case. The derivations are very similar to the one for the
shifting law above so just the results are presented,


1 i p (oc)
i X (oc) =
0
1


0
ij O
ij Y =
0 ij O
ij Z(oc)

= i X(oc) ij Y
= ij Y j X(oc)

Judicious use of transformations can considerably reduce the complexity of the

Jacobian and is especially valuable in static singularity analysis that follows
subsequently.

January 31, 2014 10:22

4.6

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/
- -


27

Often times it desired to represent the Jacobian at a point on the workpiece,

on+1 but to use coordinates in the base frame 0. One way to calculate this
first determines the Jacobian at the base origin o0 and in frame 0 and then
transforms the result to on+1 using the shifting law. In the following algorithm
Ei is the ith column of the Jacobian.
A/

 37 (Jacobian):
Initial values:0 B0
for i = 1 . . . n
0 Bi = (0 Bi1 ) (i1 Bi )

if revolute joint then 0 Ei (o0 ) = ( 0 p (o0 oi ) 0 zi )T

T
if prismatic joint then 0 Ei (o0 ) = 0T 0 ziT
end for
0 J (o0 ) = [0 E1 (o0 ) . . . 0 En (o0 )]
0 Bn+1 = (0 Bn ) (n Bn+1 )
0 J (on+1 ) = 0 X (on+1 o0 ) 0 J (o0 )

T
0 zi

T

E
 38: Modify Algorithm 37 to yield n J (on+1 ) using two different methods.
For one of the methods use i = n . . . 1.

4.6

Static singularity analysis

In the reverse displacement analysis singularities were identified when joint displacements became indeterminate. This means that with the end-effector held
at a fixed location the robot can still move specific joints through a finite range of
motion. The cost of this internal motion is that one or more degrees-of-freedom
are lost for the end-effector.
Displacement singularities are a special case of more general singularities
that occur in a static analysis and in a velocity analysis. These general cases
could be called static singularities or velocity singularities but it is more common to just use the term singularities. There are two basic types: i) displacement singularities where internalized degrees-of-freedom result in finite motions
amongst specific joints and ii) nondisplacement singularities where the internalized degrees-of-freedom are only be capable of infinitesimal motions amongst
specific joints. In these cases an internal motion moves the robot away from the
singularity.
22. Rank and reciprocal wrenches. A robot configuration is said to be
singular if the 6 n Jacobian does not have full rank,
rank (J) < min(6, n)

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The rank is not dependent on the point or coordinate frame used for representation since the rank of a matrix is not altered when it is multiplied by a
nonsingular matrix,
rank (J (o)) = rank (X(oc)J (c))
rank (i J) = rank (ij Y j J)
A 6 6 Jacobian is singular when its determinant vanishes,
|J| = 0
Consequently, there are nontrivial solutions W to
0 = JT W
which are called reciprocal wrenches. This means that there are wrenches W
that can be applied to the end-effector yet require no joint actions, Q = 0,
to maintain static equilibrium. The equilibrium is maintained by the joint
constraint reactions.
In general there are 6rank (J) reciprocal wrenches, even if J is not singular.
For example if J is 64 and has rank four then there are two reciprocal wrenches.
23. Robots with a wrist. Consider a six degree-of-freedom robot whose
last three joints are revolute and intersect in a common point to form a wrist,
like the Puma-class of robots. In Figure 4.17 this robot has the end-effector
virtually extended to the wrist point at the common origins of o4 and o5 . Using
the wrist point to represent the Jacobian so p (o5 o4 ) = p (o5 o5 ) = 0 and noting
that z6 and p (o5 o6 ) are parallel so p (o5 o6 ) z6 = 0 simplifies the Jacobian so
it contains a 3 3 block of zeros,


p (o5 o1 ) z1 p (o5 o2 ) z2 p (o5 o3 ) z3 0 0 0
J(o5 ) =
z1
z2
z3
z4 z5 z6
Since the Jacobian is square then setting
|J(o5 )| = 0
determines the singular configurations. However the block of zeros simplifies it
to a product of 3 3 determinants,



 p (o5 o1 ) z1 p (o5 o2 ) z2 p (o5 o3 ) z3   z4 z5 z6  = 0
which follows from the identity,

 

 A 0   A 0
1

=
 C D   0 1
C

0
D

 
  A 0
=
  0 1


 1

 C


0 
= |A| |D|
D 

The form holds for any six degrees-of-freedom robot with a wrist.

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Figure 4.17: Puma class robot with the end-effector virtually extended to coincide
with the wrist point o5 .

24. Puma-class robots. Puma-class robots have a wrist but also have the
second and third joint axes parallel. This allows a further simplication of the
determinant factorization. The first 3 3 determinant factor is expressed in the
equivalent scalar triple product form
(p (o5 o1 ) z1 ) (p (o5 o2 ) z2 ) (p (o5 o3 ) z3 )
The last two terms form a vector triple product which is reduced using the
identity
(a b) (c d) = |acd| b |bcd| a
with p (o5 o2 ) = p (o5 o3 ) + p (o3 o2 ) and the Puma class condition z2 = z3 .
Rearranging expresses |J(o5 )| = 0 as the product of three 3 3 determinants,




 p (o1 o5 ) z1 z2   p (o2 o5 ) p (o3 o5 ) z3   z4 z5 z6  = 0
The vanishing of any factor yields a singularity, though the simultaneous vanishing of more than a single factor is possible.
There are three ways that a 3 3 determinant of vectors can vanish:
1. One or more vectors are zero.
2. Two or three vectors are parallel (i.e. nonzero scalar multiples).
3. Three vectors are parallel to a plane.

These criteria are applied to each of the three determinant cases.



Case i):  p (o1 o5 ) z1 z2  = 0.
There is only one way to satisfy this condition for general values of the
nonzero ai and di , all three vectors are parallel to a plane.
Figure 4.18 shows o5 positioned on the y1 z1 plane. Since y1 is parallel
to z2 then the position vector p (o5 o1 ), z1 , and z2 are all parallel to the y1 z1
plane. (Because of the a1 link length, z2 does not lie on the plane, also see
Figure 4.17.) Although the figure shows the end-effector vertical, it may have
an arbitrary orientation.

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Figure 4.18: Nondisplacement singularity. Origin o5 lies on the y1 z1 plane with

p (o5 o1 ), z1 , and z2 all parallel to the plane. The reciprocal wrench is a force acting
on the end-effector with a line of action through o5 and parallel to joint axes 2 and 3.

It can be verified by calculation that the rank of J is five but it is much

simpler to identify the 6 5 = 1 reciprocal wrench. It is a pure force acting on
the end-effector with a line of action through o5 and parallel to joint axes 2 and
3. In the figure the end-effector has been virtually extended to show the force
application. Of course if it is desired to apply the equivalent force directly to
the end-effector, say on the tip at point o6 , then it would be necessary to use
the equivalent wrench W (o6 ) = (f, p(o6 o5 ) f) but that is less visual and not
intuitive. For example, it is easy to see that the force through o5 creates no
moment about any of the joint axes: the force intersects joint axes 1, 4, 5, and
6 so there is no moment arm, and the force is parallel to joint axes 2 and 3 so
the moment of the force is perpendicular to those axes; in each case no torques
are required in the joints to maintain static equilibrium despite the end-effector
load.
This singularity was not identified in the displacement analysis and is thus
a nondisplacement singularity; with the end-effector held fixed it is not possible
to move some joints through a finite range. It is however possible to vary the
link and offset dimensions to create a displacement singularity.
ia): If additionally d2 + d3 = 0 then the wrist point o5 will lie on joint axis
1. This is the displacement singularity that was identified in the displacement
analysis when 1 became indeterminate. With the end-effector held fixed joint
angles 1, 4, 5, and 6 can move through finite motions because the four joints
intersect in at point o5 and form a spherical four-bar mechanism with one degreeof-freedom while joints 2 and 3 will remain fixed.

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E
 39: For the singularity in Figure 4.18 use the displacement analysis solution
for 1 to show that it is a double root, i.e. the two solutions are equal.



Case ii):  p (o2 o5 ) p (o3 o5 ) z3  = 0
There is only one way to satisfy this condition for general values of nonzero
ai and di , all three vectors are parallel to a plane.
Figure 4.19 shows two possible configurations with the arm either a) retracted or b) extended. Points o2 , o3 , and o5 all lie in a plane that contains the
axes of joints 2 and 3 which are normal to the figures. Although the figures show
the end-effector horizontal and vertical, it may have an arbitrary orientation.
It can be verified by calculation that the rank of J is five but it is much
simpler to identify the 6 5 = 1 reciprocal wrench. It is a pure force acting on
the end-effector with a line of action through o5 and intersecting all six joint
axes so there is no moment arm about each axis and thus no torques are required
in the joints to maintain static equilibrium despite the load.

a)

b)

Figure 4.19: a) Nondisplacement singularity with the wrist fully extended. b) Nondisplacement singularity with wrist folded back.

This singularity was not identified in the displacement analysis and is thus
a nondisplacement singularity; with the end-effector held fixed it is not possible
to move some joints through a finite range. It is however possible to vary the
link and offset dimensions to create a displacement singularity.
iia): If additionally a22 = a23 + d24 then the wrist point o5 will lie on the axis
of joint 2, Figure 4.20. This is the displacement singularity that was identified
in the displacement analysis when 2 became indeterminate. In the figures joint
axes 2 and 3 are shown coaxial but in general the end-effector orientation is
arbitrary. With the end-effector held fixed joint angles 2, 4, 5, and 6 can move
through finite motions because the four joints intersect in at point o5 and form
a spherical four-bar mechanism with one degree-of-freedom while joints 2 and

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3 will remain fixed. In the particular case shown just joint angles 2 and 5 will
move while the others remain fixed. This represents an even more special case
and it illustrates that singularities can degenerate. The reciprocal wrench is a
pure force with a line of action through o5 and intersecting joint axes 1 and 3
so there are no moment arms about any of the joints.

a)

b)

Figure 4.20: a) Displacement singularity with the wrist fully extended. b) Displacement singularity with the wrist folded back.

iib): If a22 = a23 + d24 , a1 = 0, and d2 + d3 = 0 then o5 will also intersect joint
axis 1 and thus will simultaneously include case ia), Figure 4.21. The rank of J
reduces to 4 and there are two linearly independent wrenches through o5 that
also intersect joint axis 3. All linear combinations of those wrenches produces a
pencil of reciprocal wrenches through o5 that lie on a plane and intersect joint
axis 3. This is just one example of how it is possible to combine singularities.
E
 40: For the singularity in Figure 4.19 use the displacement analysis solution
for 3 to show that it is a double root, i.e. the two solutions are equal.



Case iii):  z4 z5 z6  = 0
This case occurs when joint axes 4 and 6 are collinear, Figure 4.22a. This is the
displacement singularity identified in the displacement analysis when 4 became
indeterminate. With the end-effector held fixed joint angles 4 and 6 can rotate
through finite angles while the other joint angles remain fixed. The reciprocal
wrench is not easy to identify in this case because it is not a force or couple. It
is easier to see that columns 4 and 6 of J become identical and thus the rank is
reduced to 5.
iiia): A special case occurs when joints 2, 3, and 5 are parallel, see Figure
4.22b. The reciprocal wrench is a couple that is normal to all joint axes.

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Figure 4.21: Displacement singularity. Joint axes 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 all intersect the
wrist at o5 . The reciprocal wrenches are a pencil of forces through o5 and intersecting
joint axis 3.

a)

b)

Figure 4.22: a) Displacement singularity where joint axes 4 and 6 are collinear. b)
Displacement singularity where joint axes 4 and 6 are collinear and joints 2, 3, and 5
are parallel.

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