CHAPTER 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS IN GEOMETRY

1.1 Points, Lines & Planes

The most fundamental geometric form is a point. It is represented as a dot with a capital
alphabet which is its name (Figure 1.1) A line is a set of points and it extends in opposite
directions up to infinity. It is represented by two points on the line and a double headed
arrow or a single alphabet in the lower case (Figure 1.1) A plane is a two dimensional
(flat) surface that extends in all directions up to infinity.
A plane has obviously no size and definitely no shape. However it is represented as a
quadrangle and a single capital letter (Figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1 shows
points A, D & Q,
line AB, line l
and plane P.
Some
axioms
regarding points,
lines and planes
are given below.
An
infinite
number of lines
can be drawn
through
any
given point.
One and only one
line can be drawn
through
two
distinct points.
When two lines intersect they do so at only one point.
Collinear And Coplanar
Three or more points are said to be collinear if a single line contains all of them.
Otherwise they are said to be non collinear. (Figure 1.2)
Figure 1.2
Figure
1.2
shows two lines l and m . Line l is such that it passes through A, B and C. Hence points A
B and C are collinear. In the case of points P, Q and R there can be no single line
containing all three of them hence they are called non-linear.
Similarly points and lines which lie in the same plane are called coplanar otherwise they
are called non-coplanar.
Axiom : A plane containing a line and a point outside it or by using the definition of a
line, a plane can be said to contain three non-collinear points. Conversely, through any
three non collinear points there can be one and only one plane (figure 1.3).
Axiom : If two lines intersect, exactly one plane passes through both of them (figure1.4).
Axiom : If two planes intersect their intersection is exactly one line (figure 1.5).
Lines

Figure 1.3
A, B and

are

contained in the same plane P or A, B and C are three non-collinear points through which
one plain P can pass.
1.4Plane Q contains
intersecting lines l and m .
Figure 1.5
Planes P and Q intersect and
their intersection is line l .
Axiom : If a line does not lie
in a plane but intersects it,
their intersection is a point (figure 1.7 ).
Figure 1.6
Point A is the intersection
point of line l and plane P.
Example 1
Take any three noncollinear points A,B and C
on a paper. How many
different lines can be drawn through different pairs of points ? Name the lines.
Solution :
Three lines can drawn namely AB, BC & AC.
Example 2
Figure 1.7
From figure 1.7 answer
the following :
Name lines parallel to line
AB
Are line AO and point R
coplanar ? Why ?
Are points A, S, B and R
coplanar ? Why ?
Name three planes passing through at A.
Solution :
Line CD, line SR and line PQ.
Yes. Any line and a point outside it are coplanar.
Yes. Two parallel line are always coplanar.
ABCD , ADSP and ADCB.
1.2 Line Segment
A line segment is a part of a line. It has a fixed length and consequently two end points.
They are used to name the line segment (figure 1.8).
Figure 1.8

Seg. PQ is a segment of line AB. A line contains infinite segments and if two segments on
a line have a common end point, they can be added ( figure 1.9).
Figure 1.9
Seg. PQ and Seg.QR are two segments on line l and they have a common end point Q.
Therefore Seg.PQ + Seg.QR = Seg.PR.
On segment Seg.PR there exists a point M. Therefore seg. PM + seg.MR = seg.PR or seg.
PM = seg. MR , it implies that seg.PR = 2 seg. PM = 2 seg. MR. In other words it means
that M is equidistant from P & R. Therefore, M is the midpoint of seg.PR. Every segment
has one and only one midpoint.
Exercise
Are the following statements true or false ?
Any number of lines can pass through a single given point.
If two points lie in a plane the line joining them also lies in the same plane.
Any number of lines can pass through two given points.
Two lines can intersect in more than one point.
Two planes intersect to give two lines.
If two lines intersect only one plane contains both the lines.
A line segment has two end points and hence a fixed length.
The distance of the midpoint of a segment from one end may or may not be equal to its
distance from the other.
Answers
True
True
False. One and only one line passes through two given points.
False. Two line can intersect in only one point.
False. Two planes intersect to give one line.
True
True
False. The midpoint is equidistant from both ends of a segment.
1.3 Rays and Angles
A ray has one end point and extends in the other direction upto infinity. It is represented
by naming the end point and any other point on the ray with the symbol (figure 1.10 ).
Figure 1.10
J is the end point of a ray and K is a point on it. This ray is represented as . A ray can
extend in any one direction only.
Two rays going in different directions, but having a common end point, form an angle.
The common end point is called the vertex of the angle and the rays are called its sides or
arms. An angle is represented by the symbol and named, using either both the rays or
just the vertex (figure 1.11).
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.11 represents XYZ
or Y.

Interior and Exterior of an angle : The interior of PQR is the shaded region in figure
1.12. S is a point in the interior of Q because it lies on the R- side of ray PQ and the P side of ray QR. The set of all such points is called the interior of PQR.
Figure 1.12
In figure 1.13 the shaded
region shows the exterior
of XYZ. The exterior of
an angle is defined as the
set of points in the plane
of a given angle which are neither on the sides of the angle nor in its interior.
Figure 1.13
Measure of an angle : Every angle has a measure. It is measured in degrees from 0 0 to 1800 and is represented as m . A
line is also an angle because it satisfies the definition of having two rays going in different ( in this case opposite )
directions with a common end point ( figure 1.14 ).

Figure 1.14
is also AOB and m AOB = 1800
Figure 1.15
All rays starting from O and going above
line AB form angles with such that their
measure is between 00 and 1800. eg.
COB , DOB and EOB.
Angle addition property : Two angles
with a common side and a common vertex are adjacent if their interiors are disjoint . The measures of two adjacent
angles can be added to find the measure of the resultant angle. This is called the angle addition property. With
reference to figure 1.15 m COB + m DOC = m DOB.
Angle Bisectors : The ray which passes through the
vertex on an angle and divides the angle into two
angles of equal measure is called the bisector of that
angle. Of the two angles ( figure 1.16 ) AOB and
COB are equal in measure then is called the bisector of COA. Just as every line has only one midpoint every
angle has only one bisector.
Figure 1.16
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Types of angles : Depending on their measure, angles can be classified as acute angle, right angle or obtuse angle.
Right angle : The right angle ( figure 1.17 ) has a measure
of 900. It is represented by the symbol . Since its measure
is fixed, it follows that all right angles are equal. AOB
(figure 1.17 ) is a right angle.
Figure 1.17

Acute angle : Any angle whose measure is between 0 and 900 is called an acute angle (figure 1.18).
Figure 1.18
0 < a < 90 a is an acute angle.
Obtuse angle : An angle with a measure
between 00 and 1800 is called an obtuse angle
(figure 1.19).
Figure 1.19
90 < b < 180 b is an obtuse angle.
0

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1.4 Some special angles
Complementary angles : If the sum of two angles equals 90 0 the two angles are called complementary. Complementary
angles thus add up to a right angle.
Complementary angles are of two types. If they have one side in common they are called adjacent complementary angles (
figure 1.20 a ). If no side is common then they are called non-adjacent complementary angles ( figure 1.20 b ).
Figure 1.20 a
Figure 1.20 b
Since
the
measures
of
complementary angles always
sum up to 900 if the measure of
one angle is known that of the complement can be found easily. In figure 1.20 b a and b are complementary. Also it is
known that m a = 300.
m a + m b = 900
300 + m b = 900
m b = 900 300
m b = 600
Theorem : If two angles are complementary to a third angle, then they are equal to each other.
Proof : a and b are both complementary to c.
m a + m c = 900 and also
m b + m c = 900
m a + m c = m b + m c OR
ma=mb
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Theorem : If two angles are complementary to equal angles they are equal to each other .
If a and b are complementary to c and d respectively where m c = m d.
Proof : m a + m c = m b + m d = 900
ma+mc=mb+md
Since m c = m d

ma+mc=mb+mc
or m a = m b.
Supplementary angles : If the measures of two angles sum up to 1800 they are called
supplementary angles. Supplementary angles are of two types :
a) Non adjacent supplementary angles and
b) Adjacent supplementary angles.
Non adjacent supplementary angles are distinct and have no arm in common (figure
1.21).
Figure 1.21
A and B are
supplementary and
non adjacent.
Adjacent supplementary
angles are called angles
in a linear pair and have
one arm in common
( figure 1.22 ).
Figure 1.22
Vertical angles : When two lines AB and
CD intersect at O, four angles are formed
with vertex O. Consider AOC and
BOD. It is observed that and are opposite
rays and so is and . In such a case AOC and BOD are called vertical angles ( figure
1.23 ).
Figure 1.23
Theorem : Vertical angles
are always equal in
measure.
Proof : To prove m
AOC = m BOD
m AOC + m COB =
1800 ( supplementary angles )
m BOD + m COB = 1800 ( supplementary angles )
i.e. m AOC + m COB = m BOD + m COB
or m AOC = m BOD.
Example 1
Measures of some angles are given below. Find the measures of their supplements.
a) 750 b) 1250 c) x0 d) (180 - x) 0 e) (90 + x) 0
Solution :
a) 1050
b) 550
c) (180 - x) 0
d) x0
e) (90 - x) 0
Example 2
Measures of some angles are given below. Find the measures of their complements.

a) 350 b) 450 c) (90 - r) 0 d) x0

Solution :
a) 550
b) 450
c) r0
d) (90 - x) 0
Example 3
The measure of one angle is twice that of its complement. Find its measure.
Solution :
600
Example 4
The measure of an angle is four times the measure of its supplementary angle. Find its
measure.
Solution :
1440