University of Rijeka, Faculty of Medicine

Seminar paper
Glands of the digestive system

Mentor: Dr.sc. Arijana Krikovi

Student: Matija Paji,

3st year, Study of Medicine

Contents

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................3
SALIVARY GLANDS.........................................................................................................................4
Acini......................................................................................................................................4
Ducts.....................................................................................................................................4
PAROTID GLAND............................................................................................................................4
SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND..............................................................................................................5
SUBLINGUAL GLAND......................................................................................................................5
Minor salivary glands...........................................................................................................5
VON EBNER'S GLANDS...................................................................................................................6
ESOPHAGEAL GLANDS..............................................................................................................6
GASTRIC GLANDS....................................................................................................................6
PANCREAS..................................................................................................................................7
Digestive Enzymes................................................................................................................7
Bicarbonate and Water.........................................................................................................8
LIVER...........................................................................................................................................9
Bile secretion.......................................................................................................................9
Protein and lipid synthesis................................................................................................10
Metabolic functions...........................................................................................................10
Storage of metabolites.......................................................................................................11
Detoxification and inactivation of noxious substances.....................................................11
SMALL INTESTINE..................................................................................................................11
LARGE INTESTINE..................................................................................................................13
SUMMARY................................................................................................................................14
COCLUSION..............................................................................................................................15

Introduction
Exocrine glands are glands which produce secretions destined for the surface of an organ, as
opposed to endocrine glands, which secrete compounds into the bloodstream. Some examples
of exocrine glands include the mammary glands, sweat glands, and saliva glands, and
numerous exocrine glands can also be found inside the body, facilitating processes such as
digestion. Some glands are both endocrine and exocrine in nature, secreting hormones into the
bloodstream along with compounds which reach the surface of the organ.
Some exocrine glands secrete directly, but more commonly, their secretions are routed through
ducts, which may be simple or compound. Simple ducts consist of a single duct, while
compound ducts branch out, providing more coverage. The ducts can also twist and turn in a
variety of ways which create a number of subclassifications based on the shape of the duct. The
shape of the ducts can be discerned clearly with the use of magnification, and sometimes
tracers or dyes can be utilized to make the ducts more clear.
Some exocrine glands are classified as merocrine glands, in which intact cells produce
secretions. By contrast, holocrine glands produce compounds by allowing their cells to break
up to release the desired secretion, and apocrine glands release their cells along with the
secretion, with cells budding off and being replaced as needed. These three types of glands
appear in many different areas of the body, with each type having advantages and
disadvantages that make it particularly suitable for specific applications.
The secretions produced by these glands can be broken into proteins and mucus. Some
exocrine glands produce both proteins and mucus, depending on where they are located and
what their function is. Mucus glands are classically used to create a layer of lubrication and
protection for the body, while glands which secrete proteins can have a number of functions.
For example, exocrine cells in the intestinal tract produce proteins which are used in digestion.
As with endocrine glands, the function of exocrine glands is critical to the overall health of the
body. A number of techniques can be used to evaluate the function of these glands to determine
whether or not they are working properly, and what the cause of failures might be. Damage to a
gland can play a role, as can issues with cell signaling which lead to mixed or missed messages
which confuse a gland or cause it to shut down. Synthetic versions of some of the secretions of
the exocrine glands are available to make up for production problems, such as artificial tears to
address problems with the tear glands.

Salivary glands
The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands, glands with ducts, that produce saliva.
They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose.The gland is
internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and
gradually branch out into the lobules.

Acini
Secretory cells are found in a group, or acinus (plural, acini). Each acinus is located at the
terminal part of the gland connected to the ductal system, with many acini within each lobule
of the gland. Each acinus consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a
lumen, a central opening where the saliva is deposited after being produced by the secretory
cells. The three forms of acini are classified in terms of the type of epithelial cell present and
the secretory product being produced: serous, mucoserous, mucous. (1)
Ducts
In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to
form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland
(called interlobar ducts or secretory ducts). These are found on most major and minor glands
(exception may be the sublingual gland).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in
digestion. The saliva that salivary glands release is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the
acid that is present there but the saliva also contains enzymes that are actually activated by the
acid. (1)

Parotid gland
The parotid gland are a pair of major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus in
humans. It is one of a pair being the largest of the salivary glands, it secretes saliva to facilitate
mastication and swallowing and to begin the digestion of starches. The secretion produced is
mainly serous in nature and enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct or Stensen duct. It is
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located posterior to the mandibular ramus and anterior to the mastoid process of temporal bone.
This gland is clinically relevant in dissections of facial nerve branches while exposing the
different lobes of it since any iatrogenic lesion will result in either loss of action or strength of
muscles involved in facial expression. (1)

Submandibular gland
The submandibular glands are a pair of major salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws,
superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous
fluid andmucus, and enters the oral cavity via the submandibular duct or Wharton duct.
Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, even
though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.You can usually feel this gland, as it is in
the superficial cervical region and feels like a rounded ball. It is located about two fingers
above the Adam's apple (on a man) and about two inches apart under the chin. (1)

Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior
to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucus in nature, however it is
categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the
sublingual glands do not have intercalated ducts and usually do not have striated ducts either so
they exit directly from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral
cavity come from these glands. (1)

Minor salivary glands

There are 800-1000 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within
the submucosa of the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal, labial, and lingual mucosa, the
soft palate, the lateral parts of the hard palate, and the floor of the mouth or between muscle
fibers of the tongue. They are 1-2mm in diameter and unlike the major glands, they are not
encapsulated by connective tissue, only surrounded by it. The gland has usually a number
of aciniconnected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct
with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in
nature (except for Von Ebner glands- see next section) and have many functions such as coating
the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated with minor
salivary glands if there is dry mouth present (see further discussion). The minor salivary glands
are innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve. (1)

Von Ebner's glands

Von Ebner glands are glands found in a trough circling the circumvallate papillae on the dorsal
surface of the tongue near the sulcus terminalis. They secrete a purely serous fluid that begins
lipid hydrolysis. They also facilitate the perception of taste through secretion of digestive
enzymes and proteins. (1)

Esophageal glands
The esophageal secretions are entirely mucous and mainly provide lubrication for
swallowing. The main body of the esophagus is lined with many simple mucous glands. At
the gastric end and to a lesser extent in the initial portion of the esophagus, there are also
many compound mucous glands. The mucus secreted by the compound glands in the upper
esophagus prevents mucosal excoriation by newly entering food, whereas the compound
glands located near the esophagogastric junction protect the esophageal wall from digestion
by acidic gastric juices that often reflux from the stomach back into the lower esophagus.
Despite this protection, a peptic ulcer at times can still occur at the gastric end of the
esophagus. (1)

Gastric glands
Gastric gland, any of the branched tubules in the inner lining of the stomach that secrete gastric
juiceand protective mucus.
There are three types of gastric glands, distinguished from one another by location and type of
secretion. The cardiac gastric glands are located at the very beginning of the stomach;
the intermediate, or true, gastric glands in the central stomach areas; and the pyloric glands in
the terminal stomach portion. Both the cardiac and pyloric glands secrete mucus, which coats
the stomach and protects it from self-digestion by helping to dilute acids and enzymes.
The intermediate gastric glands produce most of the digestive substances secreted by the
stomach. These glands are narrow tubules composed of three major cell types: zymogenic,
parietal, and mucous neck cells. At the base of the gland are the zymogenic (chief) cells, which
are thought to produce the enzymes pepsin and rennin. (Pepsin digests proteins, and rennin
curdles milk.) Parietal, or oxyntic, cells occur throughout the length of the gland and are
responsible for the production of hydrochloric acid, which is necessary to activate the other
enzymes. The purpose of mucous neck cells is to secrete mucus.

There is usually a small, constant production of gastric juices, but their secretion can be
stimulated by numerous means. Tasting, smelling, or thinking of food tends to increase enzyme
secretions. The production of gastric juices is limited while a person is asleep, but production
resumes upon awakening. Consumed food provides additional stimulation necessary for mucus
secretion. Some foods also contain chemicals that activate enzyme production. Psychological
states of fear, sadness, or withdrawal may reduce gastric secretion. (1)

Pancreas
Pancreatic juice is composed of two secretory products critical to proper digestion: digestive
enzymes and bicarbonate. The enzymes are synthesized and secreted from the exocrine acinar
cells, whereas bicarbonate is secreted from the epithelial cells lining small pancreatic ducts.
Digestive Enzymes
The pancreas secretes a magnificent battery of enzymes that collectively have the capacity to
reduce virtually all digestible macromolecules into forms that are capable of, or nearly capable
of being absorbed. Three major groups of enzymes are critical to efficient digestion:
1. Proteases
Digestion of proteins is initiated by pepsin in the stomach, but the bulk of protein digestion is
due to the pancreatic proteases. Several proteases are synthesized in the pancreas and secreted
into the lumen of the small intestine. The two major pancreatic proteases
are trypsin andchymotrypsin, which are synthesized and packaged into secretory vesicles as an
the inactive proenzymes trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen.
As you might anticipate, proteases are rather dangerous enzymes to have in cells, and
packaging of an inactive precursor is a way for the cells to safely handle these enzymes. The
secretory vesicles also contain a trypsin inhibitor which serves as an additional safeguard
should some of the trypsinogen be activated to trypsin; following exocytosis this inhibitor is
diluted out and becomes ineffective - the pin is out of the grenade.

Once trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen are released into the lumen of the small intestine, they
must be converted into their active forms in order to digest proteins. Trypsinogen is activated
by the enzyme enterokinase, which is embedded in the intestinal mucosa.
Once trypsin is formed it activates chymotrypsinogen, as well as additional molecules of
trypsinogen. The net result is a rather explosive appearance of active protease once the
pancreatic secretions reach the small intestine.
Trypsin and chymotrypsin digest proteins into peptides and peptides into smaller peptides, but
they cannot digest proteins and peptides to single amino acids. Some of the other proteases
from the pancreas, for instance carboxypeptidase, have that ability, but the final digestion of
peptides into amino acids is largely the effect of peptidases on the surface of small intestinal
epithelial cells. (3)
2. Pancreatic Lipase
A major component of dietary fat is triglyceride, or neutral lipid. A triglyceride molecule
cannot be directly absorbed across the intestinal mucosa. Rather, it must first be digested into a
2-monoglyceride and two free fatty acids. The enzyme that performs this hydrolysis is
pancreatic lipase, which is delivered into the lumen of the gut as a constituent of pancreatic
juice.
Sufficient quantities of bile salts must also be present in the lumen of the intestine in order for
lipase to efficiently digest dietary triglyceride and for the resulting fatty acids and
monoglyceride to be absorbed. This means that normal digestion and absorption of dietary fat
is critically dependent on secretions from both the pancreas and liver.
Pancreatic lipase has recently been in the limelight as a target for management of obesity. The
drug orlistat (Xenical) is a pancreatic lipase inhibitor that interferes with digestion of
triglyceride and thereby reduces absorption of dietary fat. Clinical trials support the contention
that inhibiting lipase can lead to significant reductions in body weight in some patients.
In addition to the proteases, lipase and amylase, the pancreas produces a host of other digestive
enzymes, including ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease, gelatinase and elastase. (3)

Bicarbonate and Water

Epithelial cells in pancreatic ducts are the source of the bicarbonate and water secreted by the
pancreas. Bicarbonate is a base and critical to neutralizing the acid coming into the small
intestine from the stomach. The mechanism underlying bicarbonate secretion is essentially the
same as for acid secretion parietal cells and is dependent on the enzymecarbonic anhydrase. In
pancreatic duct cells, the bicarbonate is secreted into the lumen of the duct and hence into
pancreatic juice. (4)

Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ, and the bodys second largest, after the skin. It has four
lobes and is surrounded by a capsule of fibrous connective tissue called Glissons capsule.
Glissons capsule in turn is covered by the visceral peritoneum (tunica serosa), except where
the liver adheres directly to the abdominal wall or other organs. The parenchyma of the liver is
divided into lobules, which are incompletely partitioned by septa from Glissons capsule. The
parenchyma within the lobules is supported only by fine reticular fibres (which are discernible
only with special preparations). The blood vessels supplying the liver (portal vein and hepatic
artery) enter at the hilum (or porta hepatis), from which the common bile duct (carrying bile
secreted by the liver) and lymphatic vessels also leave. Within the liver sinusoids, the oxygenpoor but nutrient rich blood from the portal vein mixes with the oxygenated blood from the
hepatic artery. From the sinusoids, the blood enters a system of veins which converge to form
the hepatic veins. The hepatic veins follow a course independent of the portal vessels and enter
the inferior vena cava. (2)
Bile secretion
Bile is the exocrine secretion of the liver, released into ducts which eventually form the
common hepatic duct. It, in turn, unites with the cystic duct from the gall bladder to form the
common bile duct which enters the duodenum. The system of bile ducts in the liver, beginning
with the minute bile canaliculi, is described in more detail under "Organization of the liver".
Bile contains bile salts, also called bile acids, which are important in emulsifying the lipids of
the digestive tract, thereby promoting easier digestion by lipases and absorption. Bile salts are
largely recycled between the liver and gut.

Bile also contains cholesterol and phospholipids, and another function of bile salts is to help
keep them in solution. Cholesterol and phospholipids serve as metabolic substrates for other
cells and as precursors for components of cell membranes and steroid hormones. They are
largely reabsorbed in the gut and recycled.
Bile also contains bile pigments, which detoxify bilirubin, the breakdown product of
hemoglobin from aging or abnormal red blood cells destroyed in the spleen. The detoxified
bilirubin, mainly in the form of bilirubin glucuronide, is eliminated through the feces (and
gives them their color). Failure of the liver to absorb bilirubin, or to conjugate it to its
glucuronide, or to secrete the bilirubin glucuronide, results in jaundice.
Finally, bile contains electrolytes, which maintain bile as an isotonic fluid. Electrolytes are also
are largely reabsorbed in the gut. (5)
Protein and lipid synthesis
The liver makes a number of proteins, as suggested by its abundant rER and Golgi. The most
important of these are albumins (responsible for colloid osmotic pressure), the protein portions
of several kinds of lipoproteins, non-immune alpha and beta globulins, prothrombin, and
numerous glycoproteins, including fibronectin. These proteins are considered
as endocrine secretions because they are released directly from the liver cells into the blood
supply. The liver also synthesizes cholesterol and the lipid portion of lipoproteins. The enzymes
for these activities are found in the sER. (6)
Metabolic functions
The liver is involved in a wide range of metabolic activities. Among its major metabolic
funtions are gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors), and
the deamination of amino acids to urea. (For more details on these activities, consult a
biochemistry textbook.)
In addition to the proteins listed above, the liver also releases a number of other products
directly into the blood as endocrine secretions. These include products of carbohydrate
metabolism, eg. glucose released from stored glycogen, and modified secretions from other
organs, eg. triiodothyronine (T3), the more active deiodination product of the thyroxin.

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Liver cells contain abundant peroxisomes, which are involved in the breakdown of hydrogen
peroxide, produced in many general cytoplasmic metabolic activities. Peroxisomes also
function in gluconeogenesis, and the metabolism of purines, alcohol and lipids.
Storage of metabolites
Liver cells store large deposits of glucose in the form of glycogen, which can be stained by the
periodic acid-Schiff or PAS procedure. They also store lipids in the form of droplets of varying
sizes. These can be seen with Sudan staining after being fixed appropriately. The removal of
these materials in routine preparations gives liver cells a foamy or vacuolated appearance.
Lysosomes within hepatocytes may be a normal storage site for iron, as a ferritin complex.
Excessive amounts of iron may accumulate in cells as an unusable yellowish-brown pigment
called hemosiderin, a partly denatured form of ferritin. Liver lysosomes also contain pigment
granules (lipofuscin) and partially digested cytoplasmic organelles.
The liver also stores vitamins, especially vitamin A, which is transported from the liver to the
retina to be used in the formation of visual pigments. Most of the vitamin A is not stored in the
hepatocytes, however, but in special fat-storing cells, called Ito cells, within the sinusoids. Ito
cells also store the other three fat-soluble vitamins, D, E and K, as well as vitamin B12. (6)
Detoxification and inactivation of noxious substances
The liver is the first organ to receive metabolic substrates and nutrients from the intestine, but it
is also the first to receive any toxic substances, carcinogens or drugs that have been injested.
The sER of liver cells contains enzymes involved in the degradation and conjugation of toxins
(in addition to those responsible for synthesizing cholesterol and the lipid portion of
lipoproteins). Under conditions of challenge by drugs, toxins or metabolic stimulants, the sER
becomes the predominant organelle. Stimulation by one drug, eg. alcohol, enhances its ability
to detoxify some other compounds. On the other hand, some toxins can get metabolized to even
more damaging compounds. (6)

Small intestine
Secretion of Mucus by Brunners Glands in the Duodenum
An extensive array of compound mucous glands, called Brunners glands, is located in the wall
of the first few centimeters of the duodenum, mainly between the pylorus of the stomach and
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the papilla of Vater, where pancreatic secretion and bile empty into the duodenum. These
glands secrete large amounts of alkaline mucus in response to (1) tactile or irritating stimuli on
the duodenal mucosa; (2) vagal stimulation, which causes increased Brunners glands secretion
concurrently with increase in stomach secretion; and (3) gastrointestinal hormones,
especially secretin.
The function of the mucus secreted by Brunners glands is to protect the duodenal wall
from digestion by the highly acidic gastric juice emptying from the stomach. In addition, the
mucus contains a large excess of bicarbonate ions, which add to the bicarbonate ions from
pancreatic secretion and liver bile in neutralizing the hydrochloric acid entering the duodenum
from the stomach.
Brunners glands are inhibited by sympathetic stimulation; therefore, such stimulation in
very excitable persons is likely to leave the duodenal bulb unprotected and is perhaps one of
the factors that cause this area of the gastrointestinal tract to be the site of peptic ulcers in about
50 percent of ulcer patients. (6)
Secretion of Intestinal Digestive Juices by the Crypts of Lieberkhn
These crypts lie between the intestinal villi. The surfaces of both the crypts and the villi are
covered by an epithelium composed of two types of cells: (1) a moderate number of goblet
cells, which secrete mucus that lubricates and protects the intestinal surfaces, and (2) a large
number ofenterocytes, which, in the crypts, secrete large quantities of water and electrolytes
and, over the surfaces of adjacent villi, reabsorb the water and electrolytes along with end
products of digestion.
The intestinal secretions are formed by the enterocytes of the crypts at a rate of about 1800
ml/day. These secretions are almost pure extracellular fluid and have a slightly alkaline pH in
the range of 7.5 to 8.0. The secretions are also rapidly reabsorbed by the villi. This flow of fluid
from the crypts into the villi supplies a watery vehicle for absorption of substances from chyme
when it comes in contact with the villi. Thus, the primary function of the small intestine is to
absorb nutrients and their digestive products into the blood. (6)
Mechanism of Secretion of the Watery Fluid.
The exact mechanism that controls the marked secretion of watery fluid by the crypts of
Lieberkhn is still unclear, but it is believed to involve at least two active secretory processes:
(1) active secretion of chloride ions into the crypts and (2) active secretion of bicarbonate ions.
The secretion of both ions causes electrical drag of positively charged sodium ions through the
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membrane and into the secreted fluid as well. Finally, all these ions together cause osmotic
movement of water. (6)
Digestive Enzymes in the Small Intestinal Secretion.
When secretions of the small intestine are collected without cellular debris, they have almost
no enzymes. The enterocytes of the mucosa, especially those that cover the villi, contain
digestive enzymes that digest specific food substances while they are being absorbed through
the epithelium. These enzymes are the following: (1) several peptidases for splitting small
peptides into amino acids; (2) four enzymessucrase, maltase, isomaltase, and lactasefor
splitting disaccharides into monosaccharides; and (3) small amounts of intestinal lipase for
splitting neutral fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
The epithelial cells deep in the crypts of Lieberkhn continually undergo mitosis, and new
cells migrate along the basement membrane upward out of the crypts toward the tips of the
villi, thus continually replacing the villus epithelium and also forming new digestive enzymes.
As the villus cells age, they are finally shed into the intestinal secretions. The life cycle of an
intestinal epithelial cell is about 5 days. This rapid growth of new cells also allows rapid repair
of excoriations that occur in the mucosa. (6)

Large intestine
Mucus Secretion
The mucosa of the large intestine, like that of the small intestine, has many crypts of
Lieberkhn; however, unlike the small intestine, there are no villi. The epithelial cells secrete
almost no digestive enzymes. Instead, they contain mucous cells that secrete only mucus. This
mucus contains moderate amounts of bicarbonate ions secreted by a few non-mucus-secreting
epithelial cells. The rate of secretion of mucus is regulated principally by direct, tactile
stimulation of the epithelial cells lining the large intestine and by local nervous reflexes to the
mucous cells in the crypts of Lieberkhn.
Stimulation of the pelvic nerves from the spinal cord, which carry parasympathetic
innervation to the distal one half to two thirds of the large intestine, also can cause marked
increase in mucus secretion. During extreme parasympathetic stimulation, often caused by
emotional disturbances, so much mucus can occasionally be secreted into the large intestine
that the person has a bowel movement of ropy mucus as often as every 30 minutes; this mucus
often contains little or no fecal material.
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Mucus in the large intestine protects the intestinal wall against excoriation, but in addition,
it provides an adherent medium for holding fecal matter together. Furthermore, it protects the
intestinal wall from the great amount of bacterial activity that takes place inside the feces, and,
finally, the mucus plus the alkalinity of the secretion (pH of 8.0 caused by large amounts of
sodium bicarbonate) provides a barrier to keep acids formed in the feces from attacking the
intestinal wall. (5)

Summary
Digestive system is the largest and extremely complex system of organs in our body. It is
responsible for many crucial to life processes, such as detoxification and nutrient absorption,
and is a big part of immune system. Absorption of the nutrients from diet depends on efficient
digestion. Our body produces enzymes (substances that speed up chemical reactions) to digest
fats, proteins, carbohydrates and dairy foods. When something goes wrong and certain enzymes
are not produced, the digestion is compromised, leading to a whole array of side effects,
ranging from mild discomfort to allergies, pain and chronic inflammation conditions. Friendly
bacteria in our gut is largely responsible for a healthy immune system, lack of inflammation,
good nutrient absorption and protection of the intestine walls. Therefore it is crucial to also
maintain healthy gut flora.
Digestion begins when we smell, see or just think about food, as saliva begins to form in the
mouth. During eating, the food passes through oesophagus to the stomach with a help of
muscle contraction known as peristalsis. In the stomach hydrochloric acid (HCI) is secreted
from its lining and the main digestion occurs. HCI lowers the pH of the stomach, activating
pepsin and rennin that break up proteins in food. The mix of acid and food in the stomach is
called chyme and once formed, it enters the small intestine. Food spends between 3-5 hours in
the stomach, with carbohydrates taking the least amount of time to digest, proteins (depending
on its kind) longer and fats the longest.
In the small intestine, the juices of two other organs mix with the food. First, liver produces
bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released as needed through the bile duct into the
small intestine, to emulsify fat to assist its digestion and absorption. Then, the pancreas secretes
a variety of enzymes to further break down carbohydrates, fat and protein in food. These are
amylases, lipases and proteases. Once everything is braked down, nutrients are absorbed

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through the intestinal villi and transported throughout the body by the circulatory system. The
small intestine is about 6 meters long and consist of three parts: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
The waste products of the digestive process, that include undigested parts of food, such as
fibre, are then enter the large intestine, where faeces are formed with the aid of water and
bacteria. Water is then absorbed back into the body, so the waste material becomes solid
enough on its way out of the large intestine. It can take up to 30 hours for food to pass
completely through the large intestine.

Conclusion
A persons health is directly linked to the health and process of the digestive system. The
process by which taking in of food, which are then broken down and transformed into life
giving particles. A persons health is not only based on the foods we eat but most importantly
on how well one is able to break down these foods and be processed in a manner that is useful
and lifesaving for the body.
Problems with improper digestion due to diet or poor digestion, not only lead to digestive
disorders but also to allergies, illness in the body and immune system impairment. Impaired
digestion can be attributed to low stomach acid (which helps the breakdown of food particles)
to damaged stomach and colon. One of the biggest problems with poor digestion is food
allergies which are caused by toxins in the small intestine, low stomach acid secretion. These
results in larger food particles which were unable to get properly digested, crossing the
intestinal membrane, the bodys immune system makes antibodies against them. These
antibodies attack these food particles causing immune complexes and inflammation. This can
result in Irritable bowel syndrome IBS, and many other comprising immune system diseases
such as Multiple Sclerosis.
Due to faulty digestion the food particles do not get properly broken down into life giving
amino acids, vitamins, minerals and glucose resulting in malabsorption. Even with a proper diet
high in complex carbohydrates, fish and fruits and vegetables malabsorption can still occur.
Proper gutocology must be established by the use of digestive enzymes taken with every meal,
as well as probiotics such as lactobacillus acidophilus and bifodobacterium bifidum taken daily
to help insure and correct problems with stomach acid and malapsorption to prevent possible
food allergies and disease.

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References
(1) Guyton And Hall Textbook Of Medical Physiology 12th Edition (e book)
(2) Http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_gastrointestinal_tract
(3) Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry, 29 edition (e book)
(4) http://www.le.ac.uk/pa/teach/va/anatomy/case6/frmst6.html
(5) Human anatomy and physiology, Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn 9th editon
(6) Physology, Linda S. Costanzo 5th Edition

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