Justin Wenzel

Roman Art History

Roman Architecture and Engineering Late Republic, Early Empire

Roman architecture is regarded by many as some of the most beautiful

buildings to ever exist. Even today, many of the styles used by the Romans are seen
on prominent buildings in some of the most powerful countries in the world.
One of the greatest inventions that helped jump Roman architecture forward
was Roman concrete. It was invented in the late Republic era and was used as a
primary building tool through the rest of Roman history. Roman concrete differs
slightly from modern day concrete, however. One major thing missing from Roman
concrete was the use of steel rebar. While concrete today uses steel rebar to help
flexibility and avoid cracking, Roman concrete stood mostly on its own. To bind the
concrete together, Romans used gypsum and lime. If volcanic dust was available,
Roman builders preferred that to gypsum and lime. The concrete with volcanic ash,
called pozzolanic cement, is actually very similar to the modern Portland cement,
the most common type of cement in use today. 1
Many theories have been devised as to why Roman concrete structures were
able to stand for thousands of years while modern counterparts dont last nearly as
long. Italy is a seismic hotspot, so structures should not last as long. One of the
most accepted theories is that the very earthquakes that should have destroyed the
buildings actually strengthened the buildings. According to W. L. MacDonald, seismic

1 Wayman, Erin. "The Secrets of Ancient Rome's Buildings." Smithsonian. Web. 4 Dec. 2014. <http://bit.ly/1u0sOUx>.

interruptions most likely frequently occurred during construction and created

discontinuities in the concrete mass. 2 Because of the cracks, buildings could shift
slightly when seismic activity started again and accommodate the same stress that
was put on the building during construction. Therefore, the building was stronger as
a whole.
The evolution of Roman concrete created some of the most magnificent
buildings in all the world, including a new world wonder. 3 Through the use of stone
and cement, the Romans were able to advance themselves incredibly quickly in a
short period of time. Because of their magnificent public works and precise
engineering, Romans were able to stay relevant rule as a republic and then an
empire for nearly 1,000 years in the Western world, almost 4 time longer than the
modern day United States. It wasnt until 1453 AD that the Roman Empire was
officially considered absolved.
So, come take a look at all of these modern marvels as I present to you
Roman architecture and engineering.

(Note: The exhibit is intended to have small scale models of all architecture, as well
as a large scale model of the Pyramid of Cestius. They are arranged in the following
way: large scale model, public places, vital structure to advancement of Rome,
places of worship, public works.)
(Note 2: The Colosseum was actually a picture I took when I was in Rome in 2013.
Upon going through my pictures, I realized my family and I took plenty of pictures of
random things but I did not have a picture of the Arch of Titus, the Circus Maximus,
or a non-personal shot of the Pantheon. I guess I will have to go back to get more
pictures!)

2
3

MacDonald, William L. The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale UP, 1982. Print.

Images, Photograph. "Pictures: New 7 Wonders vs. Ancient 7 Wonders." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 9
July 2007. Web. 3 Dec. 2014. <http://bit.ly/1sPHn29>.

Pyramid of Cestius

The Pyramid of Cestius, located in southern Rome, is a pyramid built around 15 BC

as a tomb for Gaius Cestius. The structure resembles the pyramids of Nubia, which
the Romans had invaded around the same time. The pyramid has a much smaller
base and is taller in scale compared to the iconic pyramids of Giza. The building is
well preserved because it was incorporated into the Roman walls protecting the city
around 270 AD.
The pyramid is a concrete block pyramid that stands about 37 meters tall and has a
30 meter square base. Inside is a single barrel-vaulted room. Originally there were
frescoes on the walls, though they have since faded away. Only scholars are able to
see inside, with visitors being unable to access the interior.
This is one of the early Roman works of concrete and signifies how Romans had
become to assimilate other cultures into their own. While the original pyramid stood
on the country side, it was so well built that later Romans decided to incorporate it
into the city defenses. Roman concrete continues to stand the test of time.

Claridge, Amanda, and Judith Toms. Rome: An Archaeological Guide. Madrid: Acento,
1999. Print.
Osborne, John. The Marvels of Rome. Toronto, Ont., Canada: Pontifical Institute of
Mediaeval Studies, 1987. Print.

Roman Forum

The Roman Forum, situated in the center of the city, is a rectangular piece of land
surrounded by Roman government buildings. It is often referred to as the center of
Roman public life and the most celebrated meeting place ever in the world. It is
here that elections were held, victories announced, speeches held, and criminal
trials were conducted. The forum was also a hub for commercial affairs.
The forum is vastly different from the forums that came after. While its successors
were planned, the Roman Forum developed gradually and organically. Public
buildings formed the outer edges of the forum, which left an open area that
measured 130 meters by 50 meters. The forum housed fountains, statues, and
multiple temples.
This piece of architecture is important because it is the last pieces of non-planned
architecture in the city. While other forums were meticulously planned, this forum
developed naturally, yet was still arguably the most successful piece of architecture
ever created by the Romans. Even without the use of concrete, Rome was able to
find success in architecture, although concrete would later help create some of the
greatest Roman architecture.
"The Roman Forum." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Web. 27 Nov. 2014.
<http://www.ancient.eu/article/26/>.
Watkin, David. The Roman Forum. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2009. Print.

Forum of Augustus

The Forum of Augustus was the third forum built,

preceded by the original Roman forum and the forum of Julius Caesar. The
construction of the forum began around 20 BC, and the forum and accompanying
temple were inaugurated in 2 BC.
The forum housed a temple to the god of war Mars and provided additional space
for legal proceedings. The Senate met at the Temple when discussing war and the
victorious generals dedicated their spoils from their triumphs to Mars at the altar.
Arms and other stolen goods from the enemy, or booty, recovered from battle were
often stored in the Forum as well.
While the original Roman Forum was somewhat unsymmetrical, the Forum of
Augustus was very strategically laid out. The entrance and exit was through the
Forum of Julius Caesar, to suggest a connection of the two rulers. The basic shape is
comparable to a Victorian era house, with semicircle alcoves near the temple steps
that housed statues of bronze and marble. In the middle of the forum sat a statue of
Augustus in full military outfit in a chariot atop a column. In total, there is estimated
to be 108 portrait statues each with elogia, providing an important idea of how
Augustus viewed himself.
The Forum of Augustus was created at the very beginning of the concrete age, yet
the forum was made with no concrete. At the same time the forum was being built,
the Pyramid of Cestius was also being built. It took 18 years of construction to finish
the forum, compared to 330 days for the pyramid. While the forum is a much larger
scale project, the comparison still showcases the efficiency that concrete inspired in
Roman architecture.
"Plan of the Forum of Augustus." Plan of the Forum of Augustus. Web. 5 Dec. 2014.
<http://bit.ly/12Itit1>.

Eck, Werner, and Deborah Lucas Schneider. The Age of Augustus. Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2003. Print

Pont du Gard

Every civilization needs a source of clean water to thrive. Rome needed massive
amounts of clean water and their solution was a series of aqueducts, or bridges that
carried water from a source to an end point. The most impressive of these
aqueducts is a sections known as the Pont du Gard, part of the Nimes aqueduct. It
stands nearly 50 meters tall and is built of three tiers of arches. It is built completely
of limestone and was active from around 50 AD until the 6 th century.
The Pont du Gard is located in Vers-Pont-du-Gard, an administrative division in the
French Republic. It spans the Gardon River, reaching 160 feet into the air. It is
estimated that at its peak, this aqueduct carried 44 million gallons of water per day
to fountains, baths, and homes of citizens in the Nimes region.
Roman concrete is often credited as being the reason that many of their great works
existed. This entire bridge was built of limestone and had a gradient of 1 in 3,000,
showcasing the prowess of Romes great engineers and how precise architecture
and engineering had become in the first century AD. Even though concrete was
becoming popular at the time, this structure shows how flexible architects and
engineers were.

Hodge, A. Trevor. Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. London: Duckworth, 1992.
Print.
Temple of Castor and Pollux

The Temple of Castor and Pollux, built in the heart of Rome, was dedicated in 484
BC in gratitude for a victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus. Before the battle, Roman
dictator Aulus Postumius Albus vowed to build a temple if the Romans were
victorious. Legend states that the twins of Zeus, Castor and Pollux, appeared on the
battlefield as horsemen. After winning the battle, it is said that the two appeared in
the Roman Forum to announce the victory.
Little is known about the original temple as it was reconstructed and enlarged in
117 BC. The temple was restored again in 73 BC, and was rebuilt in 6 AD after being
destroyed by a fire. According to history, the temple had eight Corinthian columns
on the shorter sides and eleven columns on the longer sides. There was a single
inner chamber with a podium outside. Shortly after dedication, the temple served as
a meeting place for the Roman Senate and a speakers platform. Since the 15 th
century, only three columns have continued standing.
Upon reconstruction of the temple, concrete was used to rebuild broken parts and
also enlarge the temple. The temple was a center for Roman senators and culture,
residing in the Roman Forum.
"Temple of Castor & Pollux." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Web. 3 Dec. 2014.
<http://www.ancient.eu/article/632/>.
Salmon, Frank. 'Storming the Campo Vaccino': British Architects and the Antique
Buildings of Rome after Waterloo. 1995. Print.

Pantheon

The Pantheon is a
temple of worship that
was commissioned by
Marcus Agrippa during the Augustuss reign (27 BC 14 AD). It was rebuilt by
Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. Today the temple still stands, although it served as a
place of Christian worship starting in 609. The temple is said to have been the
private temple for Agrippas personal worship.
The original building unfortunately burned to the ground in 80 AD, and was rebuilt
but destroyed again in 110 AD. Emperor Hadrian rebuilt the existing domed
structure in 126, and attributed it to Agrippa, the original builder. The building
features the inscription Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made [this building] when
consul for the third time. In 609, Pope Boniface IV converted the Pantheon into a
Christian structure. Since that time, the Pantheon has been used as a burial
chamber and now serves as a church.
The most well-known feature of the Pantheon is its dome. According to the History
of Rome authored by Cassius Dio around 200 AD, the dome was done by the original
builder Agrippa, although it has widely become accepted that the concrete dome
was done by Hadrian and was not part of the original construction. The dome
weighs about 4,535 metric tons and the thickness of the dome varies from 21 feet
at the base to 4 feet near the hole at the top.
The outside of the temple features 24 columns that are nearly 40 feet tall and weigh
60 tons. Each column was quarried in Egypt at Mons Claudianus. The columns had
to be dragged over 700 meters through the streets of Rome after arriving from
Egypt. At the back of the porch area are niches for statues.
Concrete allowed builders to create one of the most breath taking buildings in all of
Rome today. Without concrete, the dome of the building would be impossible to
construct.
DuTemple, Lesley A. The Pantheon. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications, 2003. Print.

Kowski, Adam. The Temples of Mid-Republican Rome and Their Historical and
Topographical Context. Roma: "L'Erma" Di Bretschneider, 1992. Print.

Theatre of Pompey

The Theatre of Pompey

was the first nonwooden theatre ever built in Rome. Dedicated in 55 BC by Pompey the Great, the
Theatre of Pompey served as a theatre for productions as well as a place for political
meetings. This is the structure in which Julius Caesar was famously murdered.
The theatre featured two separate parts: an auditorium and a garden. Up to
construction, all finished theatres had been temporary wooden structures that were
set up and then torn down after a performance. The building was made of concrete
and stone foundations. The stage and scaenae frons sections were directly attached
to the auditorium, unlike Greek construction which separated the two. The
architecture of the Theatre of Pompey became the blueprints for nearly all future
Roman theatres.
The garden portion of the theatre featured the Temple of Venus Victrix as well as
fountains and statues of important Roman figures. Hung on the walls of the garden
were various spoils of war that Pompey had collected during his time as a successful
Roman general. The theatre also contained galleries, shrines, and meeting halls.
The garden area was were Julius Caesar, a good friend of Pompey, was murdered.
Today, most pieces of the theatre can be found throughout Rome in various
buildings. Some of the hallways under the theatre are now used by neighboring
hotels and restaurants.
The use of concrete and stone foundations allowed the Theatre of Pompey to be the
first permanent, free standing Roman theatre and amphitheater. The vaulted
corridors still stand today and inspired the architecture of the Colosseum and
subsequently in modern sports stadiums. Concrete allowed the Romans to begin
building permanent entertainment buildings, which probably led to a happier Rome.

Taylor, Rabun M. Public Needs and Private Pleasures. Roma: "L'Erma" Di

Bretschneider, 2000. Print.

"Theatrum Pompei." LacusCurtius The Theatre of Pompey (Platner & Ashby, 1929).
Web. 1 Dec. 2014. <http://bit.ly/1CNqfzD>.

Circus Maximus

The Circus Maximus is an ancient chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment
venue located in southern Rome. Situated in the southern part of Rome between the
Aventine and Palastine hills, it is the largest and oldest Roman stadium. It measures
612 meters by 118 meters and could seat nearly 150,000 people.
The Circus Maximus was originally nothing more than an agricultural landscape
with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some
shrines and sacred spots. Ancus Maricus, the first Etruscan King, provided wooden
seating for the upper class of Rome. His grandson Tarquinius the Proud provided the
first seating for commoners. It wasnt until 190s BC that permanent stone seating
was built, first for senators. Julius Caesar was the first emperor to add seats
spanning nearly the entire track in 50 BC. The inner third of the seating was for
senators and equites (knights). The rest of the seating was wooden structures for
the common class and non-citizens. Beneath the wooden seating were shops and
entry-ways. The commoner seating was damaged in a fire in 31 BC, and was
repaired and damaged by fire nearly a half dozen more times.
Founded in the Old Kingdom Era, the Circus Maximus now functions as a park after
centuries of unused. The grounds now are used for concerts and meetings. Fans of
local and national teams will often celebrate on the grounds as well.
Without the use of concrete, Rome still built a fantastic center of culture and
entertainment. Because the continued to use wood instead of all concrete seating,
you saw constant and massive destruction, including one massive breakdown which
killed 13,000 people.
Humphrey, John H. Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. Berkeley: U of
California, 1986. Print.

Colosseum

The
Colosseum,
located in central Rome and just east of the Roman Forum, is one of the greatest
works of Roman architecture and engineering. Built of Roman concrete and stone, it
is the largest amphitheater of the Roman Empire and is still the largest in the world.
It is listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World by the New Open World
Corporation. The Colosseum received its unofficial name from the colossal statue of
Nero nearby. The original name was Amphitheatrum Flavium.
Construction began in 70 AD by Vespasian, but it wasnt finished until 80 AD under
Titus. Domitian also made major modifications to the building. The Colosseum was
originally used for gladiatorial contests and public entertainment such as sea
battles, executions, theatre, animal hunts, and re-enactments of famous battles. It
is estimated that it could seat between 50,000 and 75,000 people.
The Colosseum is best known for its barrel vaulted, crumbling walls and the ancient
stories of gladiator battles. The entire structure measures at 189 meters long and
156 meters wide, with a base area of 24,000 square meters. The height of the outer
wall measures at 48 meters tall. The interior looks very similar to a current sports
stadium, and had special boxes at the north and south ends for the Emperor and
others. Senators sat behind the Emperor. The false floor allowed for tunnels to be
carved in the center of the stadium, which housed gladiators and animals.
Construction on the Forum of Augustus took 18 years. With concrete, the Colosseum
only took 10 years and still stands today. Roman concrete became a corner stone of
the society and allowed them to create many of the famous works that still stand
today.

Hopkins, Keith, and Mary Beard. The Colosseum. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP,
2005. Print.
Personal trip to Rome. August 2013.

Arch of Titus

The Arch of Titus, located on

the southeast border of the
Roman Forum, was
constructed around 82 AD by
the Roman Emperor Domitian
after the death of his older
brother and former emperor
Titus. The arch was built to
commemorate Titus
victories, especially the Siege
of Jerusalem. Since its
construction, the Arch of
Titus has become the
blueprints for many other
triumphal arches.
The original arch was made with fluted columns and spandrels on the upper left and
right of the arch contain winged women which personify victory. The southern panel
shows the victory in Jerusalem, complete with Roman soldiers carrying significant
religious symbols from Jerusalem. The northern panel depicts Titus as a triumphant
leader, complete with various divinities signifying his great deeds. The original
inscription on the arch read The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the
divine Titus Vespasianus Augustus, son of the divine Vespasian.
One of the most iconic structures in Rome, the Arch of Titus might have never been
built without concrete. Because of the entire arch being one solid structure, it would
have been nearly impossible for the Romans to transport a piece of marble or
granite of that size a considerable distance. It was also constructed in a little over a
year after the death of Titus, a feat unimaginable without the assistance of
concrete.

MacDonald, William L. The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Rev. ed. New Haven:
Yale UP, 1982. Print.
Woodward, Christopher. Rome. Manchester: Manchester UP :, 1995. Print.