ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a technical report of practical training at Rajasthan Rajya Vidhyut Prasaran Nigam LTD. It
was commenced on 15/6/2004 and completed on 15/7/2004. It was of 30 days and taken at 132
kv G.S.S Jawahar Nagar, jaipur.

I feel immense pleasure in conveying my heartiest thanks and deep sense of gratitude to
Mr.Monil Mathur, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department of Kautilya Instiute Of
Technology And Engineering. for his efforts and for technical as well as moral support.

I feel indebted to express my heartiest thanks and gratitude to Mr.N.K.Jain. (AEN),

Mr.M.K.Makheja(JEN) for their valuable time, learned guidance, kind, candid, wise and
illuminating advice during training period.

I am also thankful to our instructors and other technical and non technical staff, for helping in
understanding the various aspects and constructional details of work and site in 132 kV G.S.S.
Jawahar Nagar, Jaipur.

It may not be possible for me to acknowledge the contribution of all my friends, but I am thankful to all
those who came forward to help me. I express my sincere thanks to my colleagues and other trainees for
their valuable ideas and support during practical training.

RAGINI AGARWAL
III B.E. (ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING)
 DETAILS OF TECHNICAL

AND

OTHER OBSERVATIONS

MADE DURING TRAINING PERIOD

TRANSMISSION LINES
In this category the EHV lines viz. Extra high voltage lines of 400 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV and 66 kV
are considered/are used voltage from one grid sub-station to other sub-station through six various
types conductors.
THE CONDUCTORS USED FOR
(i) For 400 kV line : Taran Tulla and Marculla conductor.
(ii) For 220KV line: Zebra conductor is used composite of Aluminium strands and steel
wires.
(iii) For 132 kV line: Panther conductor is used composite of Aluminium strands and
steel wires.
The material used in these conductors is generally Aluminium conductor steel reinforced
(ACSR). The conductors run over the tower cross arms of sufficient height with the consideration
to keep safe clearance of sagged conductor from ground level and from the objects (trees,
buildings etc.) either side also.
The work involvement in laying EHT (Extra High-Tension) lines are:
The survey of the route is done keeping in view the shortest route as may be economical and
feasible too per load necessity. The shortest route between the two sub-stations on which
transmission line route is surveyed keeping in view to that survey of the route is done as may be
economical and feasible too per load necessity is called BEE LINE. Care is taken for legal
matters as may be due to near by habitants. When route is finalised and approved by the
authorities on the profiles plotted according to the data obtained at site by use of the theodo lite,
dumpy level, staff level & Measuring Chain/tape.
The steps followed in laying out the transmission lines are as follows:
I. Selection of Towers: Foundations is selected as per the requirement of the towers to
be used.
1. The 'A' type for straight conductors called as SUSPENSION TOWERS can be
used also for 2o maximum deviation.
2. The 'B' type angle towers of (O o - 15 o ) for turning/deviation points.
3. The 'C' type angle towers (O o - 30 o ) for turning/deviation points.
4. The 'D' type angle towers (O o - 60 o) for turning/deviation points and Dead/cut ends.
These may be for double circuit also with six cross arms. Other than these some time extension
part of the main height are used for 3m or 6m as may require/to maintain clearance from the
raised ground or building or railway crossing and roads. The foundation are casted (C.C) to set
the base leg called stubs (ground part block) aligned to the proper slope. The TEMPLATE is
used which is an arrangement of setting of the stubs resting on jecks before concereting.
II. Erection of Towers: As per practice the tower members are jointed in piece meal
method by use of derric pole (wooden or hollow pipe) and tightened by the galvanized nuts and
bolts of various size of 16 mm x 25 mm to 16 mm x 55mm and cross arm and lifted upward to fix.
III. Stringing of Conductor: It consists of many procedures:
(a) Paving out of conductors above the towers is done by tractor/winch machine
manually by turning the conductor drum for unwind on turn table and earthwire is also paved out
in same manner.
(b) Suspensions of disc insulators are made to the 'X' arms of towers in suitable
quantity. The quantity of disc insulators used generally in the suspension of conductors in 132 kV
towers is 9 in numbers and in 220 kV towers is 12 - 14 discs insulators in numbers.
(c) After paving out the conductor one by one is lifted to the height of the cross
arm for hanging in the disc and thereafter these are given tension pulling through the
tractor/winch machine and is finally sagged as per span finally in profile. The sag between towers
is different in different span. Thus for double circuit six conductors are drawn and for single
circuit three conductors are used.
(d) The earth wire is also given tension for final sag running on top of the towers
for protections from the line lightening hazards/strokes in rainy season.
(e) The earthing of each tower is done and by connecting the leg to the earthed
pipe by means of steel leads for protection in case of faults.
(f) Finally all trees falling in the danger zone of the line either side is cleared for
10 meters from the center to avoid earth fault and falling on t he conductor.
(g) Main consideration is to maintain the proper clearance for post & telegraphs
lines by seeking permission from the PTCC wing meant only for approval.
(h) Similarly the railway authorities are also involved for giving clearance of P & T
line and Railway Track Clearances
(i) After fulfilling all conditions the testing of the line by use of meggarring is done
to check continuity or obstacles if any.
(j) The vibration dampers are provided at the tension points as well as to
armoring points of suspension clamps at specified distances to suppress the wave due to wind to
save twisting of the conductor so that may not damage due to twist.

IV Total No. Of the Towers are:

(a) Transmission Towers
(b) Dead end towers
(c) Tangent towers
(d) Angle towers
(e) Extension towers
(f) Spiral towers
(g) Section towers
(h) Narrow base towers (used in 33 KV lines)
(i) Board base towers.
TRANSFORMERS

Introduction
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power of
one circuit is transformed into electric power of same frequency in another circuit.
In brief, a transformer is a device that:
1. Transfer electric power from one circuit to another
2. It does so without change of frequency
3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other
A high voltage is desirable for transmitting large powers in order to decrease the IR losses and
reduce the amount of conductor material. A very much lower voltage, on the other hand, is
required for distribution, for various reasons connected with safety and convenience. The
transformers make this easily and economically possible.

POWER TRANSFORMER
The x- mer is oil immersed with triple rating of 100 MVA auto under ON (natural cooling) (oil
immersed with natural air-cooling) or (oil immersed with forced oil cooling). The tertiary is suitable
for 11MVA continuos synchronous condenser loading. When the tertiary is load the secondary
load should be limited, such that no industrial individual winding is over loaded and are also that
total losses are not exceeds.
However a simultaneous loading of 100MVA at 0.8p.f. (Lag) on the low voltage and 65MVA at
0.8p.f. (Lag) on the territory is fissible the tertiary can also be loaded to 20MVA 0.8p.f.on low
voltage without exceeding temperature rise. The x-mer is suitable for simultaneous parallel
operation.
It is ensured that the tertiary winding will also operate satisfactory with each other. The x-mer is
provided with separate tank of radiators, fans, pumps and associated control equipment. The
control equipment is housed in a tank mounted marshalling commercial. It is provided with on
load tap charge.
The magnetic circuit is a 3 limbed core type construction each being inter leaved with joints with
top and bottom yokes. The winding surrounded the three limbs the conditions are made from
high grade caused "cold ratted grain oriented" silicon alloy steel. The Insulation on laminations is
of varnish. This has stepped sections with legs and yokes having 100% area cooling ducts are
provided parallel to the plane of laminations. The yoke laminations are clamped with clamp
plates are legs by means of clamping-cum-sling plates. They are clamped with bolts.
For lifting the core with winding high lumbers of lifting bolts are provided. The core clamp plates
are insulated from each other to with stand plates, a test pressure of 2 kV, 50Hz, A.C. for one
minutes.
The innermost coil i.e. nearest to the core transformer is the testing winding. This is wounded
helical on a Bakelite cylinder with radial coil ducts for cooling purpose. Axial oil ducts are provided
inside and out side the coil; means to tertiary winding is wound the common winding. This coil is
wound as a no. of continuous discs with radial oil ducts in between discs. Thus statics shields
rings are provided one at the top and other at the bottom to control the electrostatic stress
distribution in the winding
Just outside the common winding, the tapping coil is placed. The tapping coil is wound as an
inter-wound spiral coil on a Bakelite cylinder. As the tapping arrangement is of the reversing type
the number of sections in the coil is half the number of tapping steps. The required number of
parallel conductors are wound in two parallel conductors respectively one together outside the
coil the outer most coil forms the series winding, the series winding is shielded layer type winding
consists of five layer each wound spiral. The winding is placed in between two shields.
A X - mer double wound or auto wound has minimum of two voltage, one corresponding to the
supply and second to the load side. Many time a third winding is introduced in primary and
secondary, winding requires it because another voltage may be required at the place of supply to
load. In either core the third winding is connected to delta formation and is generally known as
"tertiary" winding in the case of star/star methods of connection three phase shell type X mer is
used which causes a serious problem of the third harmonic components of the magnetic
currents. The tertiary delta provides a short circuit for flow of the third harmonic currents
therefore eliminating third harmonic multiple connection are provided on primary and secondary
winding.
The neutral point of such winding is therefore stable and can earthen without any effect to the X-
mer on the system
The territory winding helps:
(1) To reduce the unbalancing in the phase of the primary side due to unbalanced three
phase loads;
(2) To redistribute the flow of faults currents;
(3) To supply an auxiliary load in addition to the main load. This could be consists of the
power factor improvement synchronous condensers or shunt capacitors. In such a case the
purchaser of a power X mer should always specify the voltage and power ratings of the tertiary
winding;
(4) As compared with star/delta connection of fault current in the event of secondary form
line to neutral tertiary delta consists in the laminations. This of course further depends upon the
impedance between tertiary and main winding.
(5) The X mer having mixed cooling OFB(forced oil air blast cooling) (100 MVA) OB(air
blast) (70 MVA) and ON(natural cooling) (50 MVA) is provided with separately mounted banked
radiators. There are eight radiators of elements 2920 mm. Long. The radiators are mounted on
the top and bottom headers, which are supported by facilitated frames. Each radiator is
connected at the top and bottom with respective header through out let and inlet valves. The top
and bottom headers are connected to the tank by 200 mm diameter pipes and valves one each
radiators as well as headers.
A Inland propeller type of air pump is connected in the bottom pipes, which circulate air through
the tank and radiators. A motor is full of the X mer oil, which serves as a cooling medium. A
window nut is provided on the body of the motor. The coolers are provided with two 915 mm
(36") dia. (weather proof), each blowing with 440 cubic meters of air minute on the radiators
element directed in such as way that the full length of the element is converted by the blast.
There are two type of control
(1) Hand Control and
(2) Automatic Control
Hand Control
For hand control selector switch is set to hard position whereby individual motor can be started by
its own starter push buttons already in the event all 'starts' push button are kept in the depressant
position, the cooler bank can be group started.
Automatic Control
The start push button of the starters is kept locked in depresses position and switch 4313 kept in
Auto position. fans motor conductors are energized by the closing of mercury switch contact
49A-1, 49B-1 or 49C-1. For winding temperature indicator 49A, 49B, 49C respectively with a
further increase in temperature either of contact 49A=2, 49B = 2 or 49C =2 of winding
temperature indicates closed to start the motor.
The bushings are one per phase porcelain steam type of 12 kV class. The neutral bushings are
oil filled porcelain steam type of 36 kV class. The LV and 245 kV class respectively oil filled type
condenser bushings. The active part of the bushings consists of core made of wound synthetic
resin bounded paper (5 RBP) with condenser layers (Aluminum foil) suitable inter posed to field
control.
The control metal tubes are serves as support for the paper wound core during the winding
process. The core adhere to the metal tube. The oil being absolutely oil tighten. The HV, LV
bushings are mounted on the delta detachable adapters, while the neutral bushings are mounted
directly on the cover.
Its temperature operates on the principle of liquid expansion (mercury is in steel). The
temperature indicator is provided with a max-pointer and two mercury switches. The mercury
switches are adjustable to make contacts between 50oC and have a fixed difference of 10oC.
This operates on the principle of liquid expansion (mercury in steel) provides in deal local
indication at the marshalling box. Half of the sheet temperature irrespective of the suitable
conditions, the thermometer bulb is connected by capillary tube to the local indicator.
The marshalling box is a weather proof steel box mounted on the side of X mer tank, the
marshaling box is provided with heater for the prevention of moisture condensation, besides this
the inside of the box is provided with anti condensation point.

The following equipment are mounted inside the marshalling box.

S.No. Name of equipment
1. Temperature indicator
2. Auxiliary gear for tap changer control
3. Cooler Control gear
4. Heater Switches, illumination lamps
The X mer is in the yard has many tapping on ways every one about. 17 tapping. When the load
on X-mer increase due to regulation of the voltage 90 down to increase the voltage on the
secondary side by the changing their tapping to higher position. For changing tap simply we have
to close the supply and taken change the tap by mechanically means. In Heerapura G.S.S.
there is on load taps changer and it is totally remote control. There are four panels at control
room for X mer and by pushing button, once we increase or decrease the tapping we can see the
number of trip at the panels, all four X mer must have the same number of tapping.
The on load tap changer design is a part of X-mer unit winding (e.g. as line and connection &
witch) .The on load tap changer consists load diverter and a selected switch, the desired winding
is first selects currents legs by a slow switching selector switch then follow the charge over by
means of load diverter connection, the neutral point has even and odd number selector and
contact plates alternatively. This adjustment scheme shows schematically design and mode of
operation of the training centre.
AUTO TRANSFORMERS
Basically auto-transformer comprises of only one winding per phase, part of which is used by
both primary and secondary winding. This arrangement results into an appreciable saving in cost
as well as higher operating efficiency is achieved, but their extensive use is not being favoured by
power utilities due to certain inherent dis-advantages which are as follows:
1. It has got low inherent reactance as such is subjected to severe short circuit conditions.
2. Since primary and secondary side uses same windings, there is always possibility of
imposition of higher voltage on secondary in case of fault.
3. Both the windings make use of common neutral, as such neutral is required to be
earthed or isolated on both sides.
4. Provision of additional insulation on secondary side and increased frame size when
adjustable taps are provided erodes the initial advantage of low cost.
Power transformer are installed with various fittings and devices which are necessary for their
proper functioning.
CONSTRUCTIONAL PART
The chief elements of the construction are :
1. Magnetic Circuits : Comprising limbs, yokes and clamping structures.
2. Electrical Circuits: The primary, secondary and (if any) tertiary windings, formers,
insulation and bracing devices.
3. Terminals : Tappings, tapping switches, terminal insulators and leads
4. Tank : oil, cooling devices, conservators, dryers and auxiliary apparatus.
CORE CONSTRUCTION
Special alloy steel of high resistance and low hysteresis loss is used almost exclusively in
transformer's cores. Induction densities up to 1.35 - 1.55 wb/m2 are possible. The limit for 50
c/s is being the loss and the magnetizing current.
As the flux in the cores is a pulsating one, the magnetic circuit must be laminated and the
separate laminations insulated in order to retain the advantages of subdivision. Paper, Japan,
Varnish, China clay or phosphate may be used.
Burring of edges of plates may cause a considerable increase in a core loss by providing paths
for eddy currents should the sharp edges cut through the insulation and establish contacts
between adjacent plates. Burrs are removed before core assembly. Silicon alloy steel are hard,
and cause wearing of the punching tools, so that the removal of burrs needs special attention.
Transformer shut sheet are cut as far as possible along the grain which is in the direction in which
the material has a higher permeability.
CONSTRUCTIONAL FRAME WORK
Considerable use is made of channel and angle section rolled steel in the framework of core type
transformers. a typical construction is to clamp the top and bottom yokes between channel
sections, held firmly by tie-holts. The bottom pair of channels has cross channels as feet. The
upper pair carries clamps for the high and low voltage connections.
Windings : Classification of windings maybe done as (a) Circular or rectangular & (b) Concentric
or sandwiched
In core type circular or rectangular type of windings are used and in shell type generally
sandwiched type windings are used.
On account of easier insulation facilities, the low voltage winding is placed nearer to the core. In
the case of core type and on the outside positions in the case of shell type transformers. The
insulation spaces between low and high voltage coils also serve to facilitate cooling.
INSULATION
The insulation between the H.V. and I.V. windings, and between I.V. winding and core,
compresses Bakelite paper cylinders or elephantine wrap.
The insulation of the conductors may be of paper, cotton or glass tape being used for air
insulated transformers. The paper is wrapped round the conductor in a suitable machine,
preferably without overlap of adjacent turns. In the power transformers, owing to strain on the
insulation between turns t the line end of the high voltage winding, about 5 percent of the turns
are reinforced with the extra insulating material.
LEADS AND MATERIAL
The connections to the windings are copper rods or bars, insulated wholly or in part, and taken to
the bus bars directly in the case of oil cooled transformers. The shape and size of the conductors
are of importance in very high voltage systems, not on account of the current carrying capacity,
but because of dielectric stresses, corona, etc. at sharp bends corners with such voltages.
BUSHINGS
Up to voltages of 33 kV, ordinary porcelain insulators can be used. Above this voltage the use of
conductor and of oil filled terminal bushings, or, for certain cases, a combination of the two, has to
be considered. Of course, any conductor can be effectively insulated by air provided that it is at a
sufficient distance from other conducting bodies and sufficiently proportioned to prevent corona
phenomena. Such conditions are naturally UN-obtainable with transformers where the conductor
has to be taken through the cover of the containing tank, although common enough with over
head transmission lines.
The oil filled bushing consists of a hollow porcelain cylinder of special shape with a conductor
(usually a hollow tube) through its centre.
The space between the conductor and the porcelain is filled with oil, the dielectric strength of
which is greater than that of air. The dielectric field strength is greatest at the surface of the
conductor, and this breaks down at a much lower voltage in air than in oil. Oil is fed into the
bushing at the top, act as an expansion chamber for the oil when the bushing temperature rises.
Under the influence of the electric field, foreign substances in the form of dust, moisture or
metallic particles have a tendency to arrange themselves in radial lines giving rise to paths of low
dielectric strength, with constant danger of breakdown. To prevent such action by unavoidable
impurities in the oil Bakelite tubes are used to surround the conductor concentrically. The effect
is to break up radial chains of semi-conducting particles.
The capacitor type bushing is constructed of thick layers of Bakelite paper alternating with thin
graded layers of tin foil. The result is a series of capacitors formed by the conductors and the first
tin foil layer, the first and second tin foil layers. …. an so on.
The capacitance of the capacitors is controlled by their length and the radial separation of their tin
foil plates.
The oil immersed ends of HV bushing maybe reentrant form, reducing the immersed length and
permitting as more uniform distribution of the axial and radial electric stress components.
TANKS
Small tanks are constructed from welded sheet steel, and larger ones from plain boilerplates.
The lids may be cast iron, or waterproof gasket being used at the joints. The fittings include
thermometer pockets, drain cock, rollers or wheels for moving the transformer into position, eye
bolts for lifting, conservators and breathers, cooling tubes are welded in, but separate radiators
are individually welded and afterwards bolted on.
CONSERVATOR
Conservator are required to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil to come in contact
with the air, from which it is liable to take up moisture. The conservator may consist of an airtight
cylindrical metal drum supported on the transformer lid or on a neighboring wall, or of a flexible
flat corrugated disc drum. The tank is filled when cold and the expansion is taken up in the
conservator.
TRANSFORMER OIL
Oil in transformer construction serves the double purpose of cooling and insulating. In the choice
of oil for transformer use the following characteristics have to be considered.
Viscosity, insulating property, flash point, fire point, purity, slugging, audity.
SYNTHETIC TRANSFORMER OIL
These have been developed to avoid the risk of fire and explosion, present always with normal
mineral oils. Chlorinated diphenyl, a synthetic oil suitable for transformer is chemically stable,
non-oxidizing, rather volatile, and heavier than water. Its dielectric strength is higher than that of
mineral oil, and moisture has a smaller tendency to migrate through it. The permittivity is 4.5,
compared with about 2.5.
TRANSFORMERS: OPERATION
NOISE: Under 'No load condition' the 'hum' developed by energized power transformers
originates in the core, where the laminations tend to vibrate by magnetic forces. The essential
factors in noise production are consequently:
(a) Magnectostriction i.e. the very small extension, with corresponding reduction of cross
section, of sheet steel strips when magnetized.
(b) The degree of mechanical vibration developed by the laminations, depending upon the
tightness of clamping, size, gauge, associated structural parts etc.
(c) The mechanical vibration of the tank walls.
(d) The damping
The total noise immersion may be reduced by:
(a) Preventing core plate vibration, which necessities the use of lower flux density and
attention and attention to constructional features such as clamping bolts, proportions and
dimension of the 'steps' in plate width, tightness of clamping and uniformity of plates.
(b) Sound insulating the transformers from the tank by cushions, padding, or oil barriers.
(c) Preventing vibrations of the tank walls by suitable design of tank and stiffness.
(d) Sound insulating the tank from the ground or surrounding air

TERRITARY WINDING
This core used on the main transformer instead of a separate regulator unit. The cost of tap
changing unit lies in:
(1) The mechanical arrangements for effecting the change
(2) The relay devices to prevent incorrect operation or to ensure that transformers in
parallel are all operated together.
(3) The electrical operation of the gear.
(4) The additional insulation required for tappings, switches, etc.
The booster transformer system is the most expensive, but has the considerable advantage of
employing a standard main transformer, and tap devices dealing only with a small power at low
voltage.

TERRITARY WINDING
Transformers may be constructed with territory windings (i.e. windings additional to the normal
primary and secondary) for any of the following reasons:
(a) For an additional load which for some reason must be kept insulated from that of the
secondary.
(b) To supply phase compensating devices, such as condensers, operated t some voltage
not equal to that of the primary or secondary or with some different connection (e.g. mesh)
(c) In star/star-connected transformers, to allow sufficient earth fault current to flow for
operation of protective gear, to suppress harmonic voltages, and to limit voltage unbalance when
the main load is asymmetrical in each case the territory winding is delta connected.
(d) As a voltage coil in a testing transformer.
(e) To load large split-winding generators
(f) To interconnect three supply systems operating at different voltages.
Territory windings are frequently delta-connected consequently, when faults and short circuits
occur on the primary or secondary sides (particularly between lines and earth), considerable
imbalance of phase voltage may be produced, compensated by large territory circulating current.
The reactance of the winding must be such as to limit the circulating current to that which can be
carried by the copper, otherwise the territory winding may overtreat under fault conditions.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES AND THEIR MAINTANENCE

DE-HYDRATING BREATHING

Presence of moisture in oil results into reduction of its di electric strength and may cause failure
of transformer. As such it is necessary to ensure that oil remains clean and dry. Conservator tank
is mounted on the top of the transformer and is connected to main tank by means of a small
diameter pipe. Interior of the conservator tank is connected to a silica gel breather by a pipe.
Silica gel breather absorbs the moisture when the transformer breathes due to expansion and
contraction of the oil on account of changes in temperature thereby ingress of moisture into the
main body of the oil is avoided.
Silica gel breathers are usually dispatched in Position during transit. But in some cases they may
be dispatched separately for transport purposes. In such cases breathers should be fitted as soon
as possible. While fixing the breather make sure that all joints are airtight. Silica gel is blue in
colour when dry with absorption of moisture, its colour changes to violet and then pink. pink
colour indicates that silica gel is saturated and is ineffective. It should then be either replaced or
re activated.
While charging the breather following steps must be considered:-
Remove the wing nuts supporting the body.
Glass container should be squarely fitted on its gasket, then pour reactivated silica gel into the
container up to a level ¼ inch from top.
Fix the assembly to the top plate with inspection window facing out ward from the transformer
and secure it with the wing nuts. Ensure that top gasket is in Position.
Transformer oil should be poured into the oil cup until it overflows through the screw hole and
fixes it to the assembly with the nut.
Applying heat to it in oven until its colour is restored to blue reactivates silica gel.

BUCHHOLZ RELAY
Oil immersed power transformer are fitted with gas actuated relay known as buchholz relay. It
compresses of oil tight cast iron housing and two operating elements. The top operating element
consists of alarm system on gas collection while the bottom-operating element trips the
controlling circuit breaker in case of oil surge. Each element is made up of an aluminum bucket
pivoted on bearings on a fixed stainless steel shaft. Mercury switches are clamped to these
elements control wires is taken to the terminal block. Pet cock and drain plugs are provided at top
and bottom of relay. An inspection window, with graduated scale is provided for viewing the level
of oil.
In case of minor faults, small bubbles of gas while going towards conservator get accumulated in
the relay housing and lower down the level of oil. Top operating element gets tilted and mercury
switch gets closed thereby completing the alarm circuit. In case of major faults due to violent
generation of the gas oil surges towards conservator. Oil surge tilts the bottom element that close
the mercury switch and necessary command is given for tripping the controlling circuit breaker. In
case the level of oil drops below the level of the relay due to heavy leakage, alarm and trip circuit
gets energized and transformer is isolated from the source of power.
Buchholz relay help in detecting various faults as: -
1. Core lamination short circuit.
2. Overheating of the windings.
3. Arcing due to bad conductors.
4. Earth faults.
5. Short circuit of winding.
6. Puncture of bushing insulators inside tank.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE/EXPLOSION VENT

In case of small transformers when they are not provided with conservator tanks, relief valves are
incorporated at the top for the release of the gas, which may be generated on account of
overheating, arcing or short circuit under the oil. Transformers of medium or large capacities are
fitted with explosion vent. Explosion vent is fitted with a diaphragm of mica, Bakelite or glass.
When heavy internal fault occurs gases is generated by the transformer in large volume. In case
diaphragm bursts with the force of the pressure generated by these gases, operating personnel
should immediately isolate the transformer and summon the maintenance crew for investigating
the cause. Once the defect has been located remedial measures should be taken, and after its
removal, diaphragm should be replaced by new one and transformer may be energized.
Transformers protected by buchholz relay are provided with a paper diaphragm at the bottom of
the explosion vent which serves as a deflector to ensure that the gases generated in the
transformer pass through buchholz relay instead of collecting in explosion vent. The diaphragm
as provided in such cases is set to blow at a pressure of 5 pounds per square inch.

FAULT AND PROTECTION

A power transformer is subjected to the following fault:

1. Overload and external short circuits
2. Terminal Faults
3. Windings faults
4. Incipient fault
All four conditions produce mechanical and thermal stress with the transformer windings overload
can be sustained for long periods being limited only by the permissible temperature rise in the
transformer windings and oil excessive overloading results in deterioration of insulating and
subsequent failure. It is used to provide winding and oil temperature indicators with alarm and trip
contacts. As soon as the temperature of winding and/or oil exceeds the predetermined values of
the contacts and bridges completing the circuit of an alaram bell and if the temperature reached
the hot spot value the transformer is tripped. The external faults subject the transformer to
electromagnetic stress and over heating.
It is therefore, desirable to limit the duration of such fault currents. Terminal faults on the feeding
side of the transformer have no adverse effect on the transformer but those on the load side do
have such fault can not operate the gas and oil pressure relay more commonly known as
"Buchholz relay". These no fall in the protective zone of the restricted earth fault or differential
relays. The majority of internal fault is either earth fault or inters turn faults. The severity of faults
depends on the location of fault transformer design and methods of system earthing, phase faults
within a transformer are rare.
Incipient faults are internal faults, which constitutes no immediate hazard. However, if they are
left undetected. They may develop into a major fault. The main fault in this group are core faults
due to isolation failure between the core lamination and oil failure due to either loss of oil or
obstruction in the circulation due of the oil. In that case overheating will occur the protective
system applied to a power transformer are as follows:
1. Gas and oil pressure relay (Buchholz relay)
2. over current and earth fault
3. differential
4. frame leakage
Simple over current earth fault protection is applied against external short circuits and excessive
over loads. These over current relays and earth faults relays were inverse and definite minimum
time types.
The over current relay fails to distinguish between conditions of external short circuits over load or
internal faults of the transformer.
The operation is governed primarily by currents and time ratings and the characteristics curve of
the relay. To permit the use of overload capacity of the transformer and co-ordination with either
similar relay at about 125 to 150 percent of the full load currents of the transformer but below the
minimum secondary current.
The simple over current relays therefore seldom serves the function of primary and relays
protection of the power transformers. They serve only as the back up protection both for the
transformer, internal and external faults. It is a common practise to provide the over current and
earth fault protection on the infeed side of the transformer and is made to trip both H.V. and L.V.
breakers over current and earth faults relays are provided on the other windings which are not
connected to any power sources but to serve primarily as back up protector to the circuit of load
of the respective voltage. In the latter case no interruption of primary side breakers is provided
with the over current relays on the secondary side.
The over current relays have three elements one for each phase and earth fault has a single
element. The normal large of current setting available on IDMT over current relays is 50-200%
and on earth fault element 20 to 80 per cent on the latter another range 15 to 40 per cent is also
available and may be selected where the earth fault current is restricted. Due to insertion of
impedance in the neutral grounding. In the case of transformer winding with neutral earthen
unrestricted earth fault protection is obtained by connecting an ordinary earth fault relay areas a
neutral current transformer.
The unrestricted over current and earth fault relays should have proper time lag to coordinate with
the protective relays of other circuit to avoid indiscriminate tripping.
It is a common practice to provide differential relays on all transformers above 5 to 10 MVA. The
advantages over other scheme of protection are -
(i) The buchholz can defect faults caused under oil only. The flash over the bushings
are not adequately covered by other protective scheme defects such faults and also on the feeds
between the current transformer and power transformer provided the current transformer are
separately mounted and not in the transformer bushings. In case of very serve internal faults
differential relays operate faster than the buchholz relay they control the external damages.
(ii) The differential protection responds to phase to phase faults and the protective
zone. This generally comprises all equipment and connection between the current transformers
on all sides of the transformer.
(iii) A transformer differential relay operates on circulation current principle, the currents
in various branches windings of transformer is through the media of current transformers. The
ratio and connections of various winding of all the secondary to earth through the tank and signal
earth connection thus energizing the current transformer and operating the relay.
This protective scheme is externally sensitive in detecting earth fault in the transformer zone, the
application is independent of normal load through fault conditions and to ratio variations due to
two transformer tapping it is possible to set the relay at very low value of fault current an order to
obtain successful results.
It is essential that the flow of fault current is correspondingly (that the flow of fault current) to the
path of transformer earth connection. Precaution should be taken to ensure that there is no
possibility of a portion of the fault current finding its way to the transformer frame circuit of the
other adjustment transformer filled with the same type of protection else false tripping of healthy
transformer might occur.
The local distribution systems are of shorter length and operate on comparatively lower voltage.
The transmission lines operate on considerably longer distance and at much higher voltages
more over the over head transmission lines or network or susceptible to more frequent and
numerous fault conditions. The requirements of the protective gear equipment are different in the
two cases particularly in the high speed and unit type protection.
The relay used for feeder protection are commonly time graded over current and earth fault
instantaneous directional over current and earth fault in input ends only or instantaneous non-
directional.
Instantaneous pilot wire protection with time graded over current and earth fault acts as back up
at input .
The time graded over current relay is simple and versatile in application. However, to achieve
proper selectivity the operating times have to be increased to each step. To minimise the
damage due to fault and improve systems, stability faster schemes are necessary ,the pilot can
be set independently to operate at high speeds such schemes often need to be start by protection
which is provided by time graded over current and earth fault relays.
On 66 kv and upward the specifically developed protective schemes are often economically
justified and are recommended. The schemes may be classified as :
1. Distance relaying
2. Pilot relaying
3. Differential relaying.

INSTRUMENT - TRANSFORMER

The transformer are used in a.c system for the measurement of current , voltage, power and
energy, the actual measurements being done by measuring instruments. Transformer used in
conjucation with measuring instrument for measurement purposes are called as "instrument
transformer". The transformer used for the measurement of current is called "current
transformer". Transformer used for voltage measurement are called as "voltage transformer" or"
potential transformer"
Current and voltage transformer insulate the secondary (Relay, instrument and meter) circuits
from the primary (power) circuit and proceed qualities in the secondary winding which are
proportional to those in primary. The role of a transformer in protective relays is not a readily
defined as that for metering and instrumentation whereas the essential role of a measuring
transformer is to deliver on its secondary a quantity accurately representative or that which is
applied to the primary side, a protective transformer varies in its role accordingly to the type of
protective gear it serves.
Failure of a protective system to perform its function currently is often due to incorrect application
of transformers. Hence current and voltage x-mer must be regarded as constituting part of the
protective system and carefully noticed with the relays to fulfill the essential requirements of the
systems. There is no great distinction between a protective voltage transformer and a measuring
voltage transformer. The difference only being nature of the volt transformer. Quite often the
same transformer can serve between purpose and provided. The protective voltage transformers
reasonably, accurately its duty will have been fulfilled.

Voltage transformers which step-down systems voltage to sufficiently low values are necessary
on every system for:
1. Induction of the voltage conditions
2. Metering of the supply (or exchange of energy)
3. Relaying and
4. Synchronizing
On account of cost and voltage the indicating instruments meters and relays are designed for the
voltage as obtainable from the secondary sides of the voltage transformer. The calibration of the
indicating instruction and meters is however done accordingly to the primary voltage of the V.Ts.
The voltage transformers are classified as under:
(a) Capacitive voltage transformer or Capacitive type
(b) Magnetic type
Capacitive voltage transformer is being used more and more for voltage measurement in high
voltage transmission network, particularly for systems voltage of 132 and above where it become
increasingly more economical. It enables measurement of the line to earth voltage to be made
with simultaneous provision for carrier frequency coupling which has reached wide application in
modern high voltage net work for tale-metering remote control and telephone communication
purposes. The capacitance type voltage transformers are of two types.
1. Coupling capacitor type; and
2. Pushing type.
Fig. On proceeding page shows a line diagram of coupling capacitor type voltage transformer.
The capacitor C1+C2 are made of oil impregnated paper and Aluminum foil. Each capacitor is
composed of a multiage of element provided with special contacts for series connection and
assembled in such a way that the capacitor inductance remains low. A tap is taken in between to
contact the magnetic voltage transformer across the capacitor and earth. This point is fixed in
consideration of the system voltage between line and earth, this is total capacitance of the
coupling capacitor and the primary voltage of the magnetic voltage transformer. It is a usual
practice to diagram the magnetic transformer for a standard primary voltage of 5, 10, 15 or 20 kV
depending on the requirement of burden and accuracy special circuit (auxiliary) element are:
1. Comparating inductance coil,
2. Damping impedance,
3. Resistor (R)
4. Spark gap (F)
The compensating Inductance Coil in series with the primary or the intermediate transformer
compensates the voltage increase on capacitive voltage divider. The damping in the secondary
circuit avoids the Ferro resonance. The resistor and spark gap provide necessary protection.
The condenser type bushings are primarily rolls of varnished, impregnated paper and laid under
heat and pressure with metal sheet lain in between the paper layers. The sheet may consist of
the aluminum foil or a coating of graphite. The voltage distributors between the various layers is
properly designed and predetermined.
A tapping across these can be proper calibration give a replica of the supply voltage. The low
capacitance imposes restriction on the supply voltage. The out put power of such capacitor
voltage x-mers and therefore limits the application to synchronizing and voltage indications. The
following table shows the maximum output for various systems voltage that is obtainable with
typical bushings.
Line to line kV Output power (in watt)
66 kV 5 Watt
110 kV 12 Watt
132 kV 15 Watt
220 kV 25 Watt
Since, however, in a sub-station there are other requirements which needs a greater burden.
These types of current transformer are not very commonly used.
These magnetic type transformer work on the same principle as the power transformer. The
design is, however, different because of different requirement of two used cases. The load to be
transmitted through a voltage transformer is quite limited depending on the purpose for which this
is to be used. This is generally limited to a few hundred VA at the most. The main object in the
design of a voltage transformer is to minimize possible errors in measurement made with its
help. These errors are due to:
1. Voltage drop in the primary winding caused by exciting current and
2. Voltage drop in both the winding caused by the load current.
The former accounts for the errors at zero burden and the latter for the stop of the ratio and
phase angle curves. Since the load current is fixed for a given burden the drop which it cause
can be reduced only by reducing the resistance and reactance of the transformer. This is done by
using relatively few turns and a large cross sectional of both iron and copper. The low primary
impedance thus brought out, causes a small no load drop that may be still further reduced by
running the iron at relatively low induction.
In the lower voltage drop of voltage transformer the active part is contain in a steel housing and
the primary terminal is brought out through a bushing on higher systems voltage above 66 kV. It
is generally practiced to contain the active part in porcelain housing. Whether the voltage
transformer is contained in a steel tank or in a porcelain housing, the secondary terminals are
made and brought out in the steel housing provides as a base in the case of voltage transformer
housed in porcelain bushing.
Another significant distinction between the single-phase voltage transformer and single-phase
power transformer is that in the case of former only one terminal of the primary winding is brought
out for connection to the tank. The secondary terminal is earthen alone the core and the steel
housing.
There are many factors to be considered before the choice between magnetic type voltage
transformer and capacitive type V.T. can be made.
The important amongst these are
(i) Purpose
(ii) Layout
(iii) Price
We should first know the purpose for which voltage transformers are needed. In case we need
voltage supply for voltmeter, synchronizing, energy meters, distance relays (without carrier)
magnetic type voltage transformer done case serve the purpose. It is required to adopt carrier
protection. It is that coupling capacitors are used on each phase along with the voltage
transformers. In such a way we can use either capacitive V.T. with coupling capacitor. If only
carrier communication is required the purpose can be served with only one capacitor coupling per
circuit and magnetic voltage transformer or capacitive voltage transformer only.
Only in 132 kV line's the desirability of providing career protection has to be checked. It may or
may not be necessary generally, if the highest system voltage connecting the various
powerhouses is then greater than 132 kV. The requirement of one coupling capacitor or three
with the magnetic voltage transformer can influence the comparison of price with capacitive
voltage transformers.
As present pricing in the magnetic market the price may work out almost equal. It is therefore,
more a matter of individual preference.
Test for V.T.:
The test for VT are classified as:
(i) Type test
(ii) Routine test

Difference between Instrument and Protective transformers

It should be appreciated by now that the current transformers can be classified depending on the
operational requirements or instrument transformers and protective x-mers. The characteristics
of the two types of the different and recognized as much. It is necessary to understand the
salient features, which distinguish the instrument transformers from protective transformers.

Instrument Transformers

Precision measurement and metering has assumed increasing importance as of the growth of the
supply system and particularly where energy interchanging between different power systems is
concerned with large quantities of energy transferred of the financial effect of measuring error
assume considerable importance. It is also important and required that small fraction of the rated
primary current should be measured with adequate accuracy. Some of them enters beyond rated
current is also necessary to make consideration of the normal system overloads. The instrument
transformers is therefore, required to maintain the accuracy class within says 50% to 120% of
the rated current and small measuring errors with the range as evident.

Construction of Current Transformer

On construction basis that the current transformers may be subdivided as:

(a) Bar type: a current transformer in which the primary winding consist of a bar of suitable
size and material forming an integral part of transformer.
(b) Wound type: a current transformer having a primary winding of more than one full turn
wound on core.
The use of one of the other is determined by the rated current of the apparatus and the rated
burden required.
Bar type C.T.
For large primary current the bar type construction is ideal because it can meet with the burden
and accuracy requirement and the same time can have high thermal and dynamic short time
factors. This type of construction is very sturdy. This may be further sub-divided.
(i) Separately mounted type
(ii) Bushing type
The bushing type is mainly employed on the bushing of transformers on bulk oil circuit breakers.
It has serious laminations with regard to the burden and accuracy. There is an upper limit to the
rated output of the expected form a bushing current transformer generally 15 KVA in class 0.5 or
P15 or 10p20 for current of 400 amp. The difficulty to keep the measuring errors within limits is
overcome either with the use of nickel Iron alloy.

Wound Type C.T

Where the primary currents are low on the burden and accuracy requirements are high. Primary
winding consist of a number of turns normally not exceeding 5. The primary number of turns
depends on the primary current.
The greater the number of turns lesser the thermal and dynamic short time current factors.
Selection of C.T.
The following points need to be considered while selecting a C.T.
1. Type
2. Number of Secondary
3. Accuracy class of each secondry
4. Rated burden
5. Accuracy limit factor
6. Short time current rating
7. Insulation valves e.g. power frequency dry and wet withstand valves; impulse withstand
valves.
Test for C.T.
The Indian standard IS: 2705 Lays down the following for the C.T.
(a) Type test
(b) Routine test

ISOLATOR
INTRODUCTION

When carrying out inspection to disconnect reliably the unit or section on which the work to be
done from all other live parts on the in-station in order to ensure completely safety of the working
staff.
To afford against minute mistakes it is desirable that it should be done by an apparatus which
makes a visible break in the circuit such an apparatus is the isolating switch (for insulator). It may
be defined as a device used to open (or use) a circuit either when negligible current is interrupted
(or established) or when no significant charge the voltage across the terminals of each pole of the
isolator will result from the operation.
Isolator may be classified as single pole and 3-pole isolator i.e. according to number of poles.
According to the service type these are:
(i) Indoor type and
(ii) Outdoor type
The doubling break rotating centre part isolating switches has
three isolator parts per phase mounted on a base of fabricated
construction.
The centre part carries the moving contacts arms tabular or fault with the intact assembles at the
extremities. The moving contacts engage the fixed contacts on the outer fixed insulator parts.
The designs of moving and fixed contacts vary from manufactures to the other. The variants are
generally simple one of the contacts is the male contacts with the other is contacts.
The rotating centre part of the three phases are inter connected by operating rods 50 that
simultaneous movement of each part, connected by the operating rods and driven form one post
by operating mechanism through an adjustable lever drive rod and torque shaft supporting
structures.
The design of a contact could be different with different manufacturers for closing or both the
isolator parts rotate causing moment of contact arm. The insulator shown is pneumatic operates
but is provided with emergency hand drive mechanism, also.
The contact at extremely which engares with the isolator contacts the line side. The earthing
blade when provided are so inter locked with the main line blade that there can be closed only
when the main blade are in fully open positions. Similarly it is possible to close the main blades
only when the earthing blades are fully in open position. The earthing blade of a line switch have
a separate operating mechanism as well as gallery switch indicate on contact room the open or
close position of the earthing blades.
OPERATION
The operation of an isolator may be manual i.e. by hand without using any other supply or
storage of energy meter power operated isolates during the cause of operation utilize energy
which is not supplied by the operator. The energy may be electrical pneumatic or the energy
previously stored in spring or counter weight.
Control
In case power operated isolators are purchased for any installation it may be worth while to
examine further weather control should be local in switchyard or remote in the control room.
The extra cost enrolled in the isolated is quite substantial particularly at voltage 132 kV and
below. It should therefore considered in detail whether any installation really instifies the
procurement of remote operated isolators keeping in view the past that the frequency of operation
of isolators is rather low.

AUXILIARY SWITCH
This is an operating and important accessory and is designed as a switching device working in
conjunction with an isolator for controlling a circuit for auxiliary device such as trip coils indicators
or indicating lamps. The number of normally closed and normally open contacts should be
specially worked out particularly if electrical interlocking between breakers and isolators is
chosen.
Make before and Break after contacts
These are provided in series with the main contacts so that in case of load isolators, the arcing is
taken and whenever necessary only the arcing contacts are replaced.
ARCING HORNS
These are provided on each stack of post Insulator for the purpose of insulation co-ordination
some time confusion is created in the function of these arcing horns vis a vis (make before and
break after contacts. These may be fixed or adjustable types).
The use of arcing horns is avoided where insulation strength between poles or phases and
between higher than that of earth. This is necessary for safety and security. Any travelling wave
meeting an isolator is the closed position should causes of it must a flash over to earth rather
than between phase or between terminal of the same pole where the design of the isolator itself
provides for this. It is necessary to use arcing hours on the insulator stacks.
INTERLOCKING
In correct operation of an isolating switch may be accidentally harmful effects and may cause
distribution of part of the plant as well as costly service interruption for preventing such incorrect
operation inter locks are used i.e. isolating switches. The mechanical interlocking between
isolating switches and it is earthing switch consists of a rod linkage between isolating switch and
its earthing switch shafts of the respective switches.
The mechanical interlocking between isolation switches and circuit breaker and different isolating
switches is generally in the form of lock and key arrangement. There is usually a common key for
a number of locks mechanical interlocking is generally provided on hand operated are isolating
switch only. Electrical interlocking is achieved with blocking magnets, these magnets are
arranged on the isolating switch on the hand drive or in the value controlled. The pneumatic drive
and are controlled by pilot switch contents. The requirement of interlocking may be summed as:
(i) The isolator can't be operated unless the association breaker is worked in the
position.
(ii) The earthing switch shell close only when the line isolator is open and locked and
net in its stroke.
(iii) The isolator shall close only where the corresponding circuit breaker and the
earthing switch of the corresponding line or open.
(iv) The circuit breaker shall close only after all the isolator associated with it have been
locked either in closed or open position
(v) When one bus bar isolations so that bus is open when on bus isolation of that bus
expecting the bus coupler bus is closed, the other small close only when bus coupler circuit
breaker and both the bus isolation are closed.
(vi) The bus isolator of bus coupler buy shell operates only when all the bus coupler
circuit breaker is open.
(vii) The bypass isolator is provided of the feeder shall also close manually irrespective
of the fact whether the feeder circuit breaker and it is adjoining isolator are open or closed.

CIRCUIT BREAKER

INTRODUCTION
A circuit breaker is equipment, which can open or close circuit under all condition viz. No load, full
loads an fault conditions. It is so designed that it can be operated manually under normal
conditions and automatically under fault conditions, for the later operation, relay circuit is used.
Circuit breaker can be defined as an electrical device, which protects the system from short
circuits or overloads with the help of relays. In case, circuit breaker is not of adequate capacity,
its failure may result into interruption of power, shut downs, injury to personals and damage to
property. Installation of over rated circuit breakers or extra sensitive and costly protective devices
will mean un-warranted expenditure. It is therefore necessary that calculations in respect of short
circuit currents for the concerned system be made before correctly rated circuit breakers are
selected or steps are taken to improve the existing system.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE
A circuit breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts under normal operating conditions, these
contacts remain closed.
In this condition, the emf in the secondary winding of current transformer (CT) in sufficient to
operate the trip coil of the breakers but the contacts can be opened by manual or automatic
control.
When a fault occurs on any part of the system the resulting overcurrent in the C.T. primary
winding increases the secondary winding EMF and hence the current through the relay operating
coils. The relay contacts are closed and the trip coil (tripping coil) of the breaker is energized.
The moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism thus operating the circuit breaker.
When the contacts of the circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, arc is produced
between them (male and female contact). The current is thus able to continue until the arc
ceases. This arc generates enormous heat, which may cause damage to the system or to the
breaker itself.
Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest time so
that heat generates by it may not reach a dangerous value.
Classification of circuit breakers for various voltages
1. Bulk oil circuit breaker.
2. Air blast circuit breaker.
3. SF-6 circuit breaker.
4. Minimum oil circuit breaker.
5. Vacuums circuit breaker.

Bulk oil circuit breaker

In such circuit breaker transformer oil is used for arc extinction. The contacts are opened under
oil, which absorbs the heat of arc, and decomposed into gases as hydrogen, which have excellent
cooling propeties due to high heat conductivity.
Circuit breaker compresses of three-pole contact assembly housed in a circular welded steel tank.
Circuit breaker is mounted on an angle iron frame grounded in cement concrete base the breaker
is provided with spring or solenoid operating mechanism. However, provision for hand operation
is there. The contacts are of but type the stationary portion comprises of two contacts pivoted at
the base of the explosion pot. The cross jet assembly is made of blocks of insulating materials,
which together form a chamber of irregular shape. The throat block and single block have circular
holes located centrally through which moving contact passes. The barrier plates are shaped to
form nozzle outlets through which the oil and arc glasses are projected from the explosion pot.
When the breaker is tripped on load or on fault, the moving contact breaks circuit with the
stationary contacts and the resulting arc is drawn downward through the throat hole. The gas
produced from the oil by the arc accumulated in the expulsion a pot at high pressure. This
pressure acts downward on the end of the moving contact and so accelerates its movement. As the
moving contacts descends, the flush of oil and gas sweeps through the arc an passes out through
nozzle outlets thereby producing powerful quenching effect and causing disruption of the arc
before the contact leaves the cross jet assembly. The combination of explosion pot and cross jet
chamber confines the high pressure of the arc produced gases to the interior of the explosion pot
and thus prevent the heavy shocks to the outer tank from sudden movement of masses of oil. The
small hole near the top of the explosion pot allow the accumulation of the gases to escape so that
the explosion pot fills up again with oil after the arc is extinguished.
The disadvantages of oil as an arc excitation medium for an arc: -
It is inflammable and there is a risk of fire.
The quality of oil deteriorates, due to increase of carbon in oil with the excessive use of breaker.
This needs periodic checking and replacement of oil.
In B.O.C.B. the increase in carbonization weakness the dielectric strength of the oil of breaking
strength of oil.

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER

PRINCIPLE
When the contacts of the breaker are opened in the vacuum (10 -7 toor and 10 -5 torr) an arc is
produced between the contacts by the ionisation of metal vapours of contact and it is is quickly
extinguished in the vacuum because it has excellent suspension arc quenching properties than any
other medium.

WORKING
When the breakers operates, the moving contact operates from the fixed contact and an arc is
produced between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the ionization of metal ions and
depends very much upon the material of contacts. The arc is quickly extinguished because the
metallic vapours i.e. electrons and ions produced during arc diffused in a short time. Since
vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in vacuum breaker
occurs with a short contact separating (say .625 cm) vacuum.

ADVANTAGES
They are compact, reliable and have long life
There are no fire hazards
They require little maintenance and are quiet in operations

APPLICATIONS
They are widely used from 33 kV up to 66 kV voltages.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker

In such circuit breaker, high-pressure air blast is used for arc extinction. The contacts are opened
in the flow of air blast. The air blast cools the arc and removes the arcing products (mainly
composed of carbon) to the atmosphere. This rapidly increases the dielectric strength of the
medium between contacts and prevents the arc restriking. Consequently the arc is extinguished
a flow of current is interrupted.
For the interruption of current on load, air blasts C.B. are used. In 220kv A.B.C.B. is used. This
type of circuit breaker has four interrupter terminals while in 132kv there are three interrupter
terminal of A.B.C.B. A pole chiefly consists of number of identical column each are standing on it
compressed air receiver supporting interrupter.
The C.B. can be operated both electrically either from relay station or with a separate master
switch and a puss button operate valve in the central controlling cabinet AB-5.
The controlling impulse are transmitted from the controlling cabinet AB-5 electrically or
pneumatically to the control again in the panel box and from these to the intermediate value AB-5
which in turn determines the condition in air insulators and position of C.B.. The controlling
cabinet has alarm type pressure gauge for the pressure in the receiver of the pole pressure
switches and mechanically lode pressure blocking device.
Electrical operation of tripping.
The electrical impulse from the central controlling cabinet the opening coil releases the armature.
The pressure fills the wave below and the valve chamber is pressured. The controlling valve
changes its Position. The outlet is connected with the intake, thereby closing the intermediate
valve its position gets changes.
The controlling isolators are pressured and the interrupter carries out the operation. The control
oil from intermediate valve pressurizing the resulting unit via the inlet. Any pressure loss occurring
through leakage from the cylinder part below the piston is replaced via the outlet and the
interrupter carry out the opening operation. At the same time the resulting unit is pressured to
move the control piston towards the armature but this doesn't effect the cycle. The organs in the
operating reles don't particulars participate in the operation.
During the closing operation on receipt of an impulse the closing coils open the auxiliary control
(closing valve) which send controlling air to the piston. The piston lifts the pappet valve on other
side of the opening valve. The pressure on the upper part of the control piston closes the
controlling valve. The outlet is cut off from the intake and is joined to the atmosphere.
Hence the intermediate valve becomes pressure less and changes position, which causes to
carryout closing operation. The necessary unit is also pressurized and the control piston returns
to the circuit breakers upper position but this doesn't effect the cycle. The circuit breaker is also
provided with a facility of pneumatic closing operation. It's only difference is the armature coil has
been substituted by manually operating valve.
Compressed air system for A.B.C.B.:
The EHV A.B.C.Bs are out door equipment's. The air pressure in the receiver of the circuit
breaker is of the order 20-30kg/cmsq for 220kv A.B.C.B. The local receivers are of the order of
(air receiver) 4 to 12replaces operations. When the pressure in the receiver of the C.B. is of the
order of 20-30kg/cmsq for 220kv A.B.C.B. the local receiver is of order of 4 to 12. Thus it repeats
the operation when the pressure in the receivers maintained at desired value.
While comparing the main type of pipeline, compressor and other types of equipment for the
measurement we find that the whole system is automatic. The pressure in the main receiver is of
35kg/cmsq.i.e. Higher than that the auxiliary receiver and in air receiver when the pressure
reduces below certain value the compressor motor starts automatically when the desired
pressure also stoops. Usually two identically compressor sets are provided. These are driven by
2-2.5 H.P. induction motor one set act like stand by set.
In air receivers when pressure reduce below certain value the compressor also stops. The
automatic compressors are installed in compressor room in the yard. The compressed air is taken
through trendies in individual breaker receivers, which are connected, to the pipelines.
DISADVANTAGES
(i) Considerable maintenance is required for compressor plant, which supplies the air
blast.
(ii) Air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive in the rate of rise of restriking voltage
(PRRV).
ADVANTAGES
(i) The risk of fire is eliminated
(ii) The arcing products are completely removed by blast whereas in the oil circuit
breakers oil deteriorates with successive operations. The expense of regular oil replacement is
avoided.
(iii) The arcing time is very small due to the rapid build up of dielectric strength between
contact, therefore arcing energy is only of friction of that in the oil circuit breaker thus resulting in
less burning of contacts.
TYPES
Depending upon the direction of air blast in relation to the arc classified into:
(i) Axial blast type
(ii) Cross blast type
(iii) Radical blast type

SF6 circuit breaker:

The arc excitation process in SF6 gas removes the heat from the arc by axial convention and
radial dissipation. As a result the arc dia. reduces during the decreasing made of the current zero
and arc is extinguished due to its Electromagnetic and low arc time constant, the gas remains its
dielectric strength rapidly after the final current zero. The rate of rise of dielectric strength is very
high and time constant is very small. The arc extinguished properties of SF6 gas has pointed out
in 1983.
Minimum oil circuit breaker.
Oil circuit breaker uses dielectric oil (transformer oil) for the purpose of arc extinction. In bulk oil
circuit breaker the arc extinction takes place in the tank where as in M.O.C.B. the current
interruption takes inside interruption. The enclosure of the interpreter is made of insulating
material like porcelain. Hence clearance between the live part and the enclosure can reduce and
layer quality requires of internal insulation.
Construction:
In M.O.C.B. there are two chambers separated to each other but both are filled with oil. Their
upper chamber is the circuit breaking while lower one is supporting chamber. The oil from one
chamber does not mix with the oil in the lower chamber but it acts as dielectric support. This
arrangement permits two advantages, firstly, the circuit breaking chamber require a small volume
of oil. Secondly the amount of oil to be replaced is reduced as the oil in the supporting chamber
not get contaminated by the arc.
(i) Supporting Chamber
It is a porcelain chamber mounted on a metal chamber. It is filled with oil, which is physically
separated from oil in the circuit-breaking compartment. The oil inside the supporting chamber
and the annular space formed between the porcelain insulation and bakelized is employed for
insulation purpose only.
Arc extinction device is filled to the upper fixed contacts. The lower fixed contacts are ring
shaped. The moving contact makes a sliding contact with the lower fixed contacts. A region
bounded with glass fiber cylinder encloses the contact assembly. This cylinder is also fixed with
oil porcelain cylinder enclose the glass fiber cylinder.
The M.O.C.B. may be self-blast type or blast type or combination of both. According to the
principle two types of venting are used in the design i.e. axial venting and radial venting.
Axial venting has the advantages that it's generates high pressure and also directional strength. It
is used where low currents are to be tripping at high current and low voltage braking purpose.

(ii) Circuit Breaking Chamber

It is a porcelain enclosure mounted on the top of the supporting compartment. It is filled with oil
and has the following parts.
(a) Upper and lower fixed contacts
(b) Moving contacts
(c) Turbulator
The moving contact is hollow and includes a cylinder, which moves down over a fixed piston.
The turbulator is an arc control device and has both axial and radial vents. The axial venting
ensures the interruption of low currents whereas the radial venting helps in the interruption of
heavy currents.
(iv) Top Chamber
It is a metalchamber and is mounted on a circuit-breaking chamber. It provides expansion space
for the oil in the circuit breaking compartments.
The top chamber is also provided with a separator, which prevents any loss of oil, by centrifugal
action caused by circuit breaker operations during fault conditions.

OPERATION
Under normal operating conditions the moving contacts remain engaged with the upper fixed
contact. When the fault occurs, the moving contact is pulled down by the tripping springs and an
arc is struck. The arc energy vapourises the oil and produces gases under high pressure. This
action constrains (compels) the oil to pass through the central hole in the moving contact and
result in forcing series of oil through the respective passages of the turbulation. The process of
turbulation is orderly one in which the sections of the arc are successively quenched by the effect
of the separate streams of oil moving across each section in turn and bearing away its gases.
ADVANTAGES
(i) It is requires lesser quantity of oil compare to the bulk oil circuit breaker.
(ii) It require smaller space
(iii) There is reduced risk of fire
(iv) Maintenance problem are reduced
Disadvantages
These chambers suffers from the disadvantages that a very low current, they have long arcing
period so a separate oil reflection device has to be used. The contacts are operated by pull rod or
by the spring operating mechanism.
Advantages
1. It requires less oil in comparison to bulk oil circuit breaker.
2. It requires lesser space.
3. There is reduced risk of fire.
4. Maintenance problems are reduced.

CONTROL ROOM
Synchronizing - Panel
There is a hinged synchronized panel mounted at the end of a control board. To take out new
supply on the bus bar supply so the panel handles put to cuts synchronizing and then see the
synchronies scope. There is also two voltmeter one-give busbar voltages. Second in coming
voltage when the syncronoscope stop zero we close the C.B. and the supply is taken on bus bar.
Syncrono scope
A syncronoscope is used to determine the current instance of closing the switch, which connects
new supply to bus bar.
The current instance of syncronising is when the bus bar and the incoming voltage.
1. Are equal in magnitude
2. Are in phase
3. Hare the same frequency
4. The phase sequence should be same.
Introduction
In order to generate the electric power and transmit it to consumer millions of rupees must be
spent on power system equipment. These equipment are to work under specified normal
conditions. However a short circuit may occur due to failure of insulation called by:
(i) Over voltage due to switching
(ii) Over voltage due to direct and indirect lightning strokes
(iii) Briding of conductors by birds
(iv) Break damage of insulation due to decrease of it's di-electric strength.
(v) Mechanical damage of the equipment. The fault takes place in following
properties.
1. Phase to phase 20 - 25%
2. Single phase short circuit 50-60%
3. Double phase S.S. 3-5% 20-25%
4. Three phase short circuit 3-5%
5. Phase to phase and phase to guard 10-15%
Fault may be defined as the rise of current in the several times to normal current resulting the
high temperature rise which can damage the equipment.
It reduces the voltage immediately and considerably.
Basic Equipment or Requirement of Protective Relays
Basic requirements of protective relays are as follows
Speed
Protective relaying should do's connect a faulty element as quickly as possible.
Selectivity
The ability of the protective relay to determine the point of which have the fault occurs and select
the nearest circuit breaker tripping of which will lead the clearing of fault with min-or so damage to
the system.
Sensitivity
It is the capacity of the relaying to operate relay under the actual condition that produces the last
operating condition tendency.
Depending upon the method of element connected primary relay (series element connect directly
on the circuit of protective element) and secondary relay (sensing element connected through a
current and voltage transformer).
Depending upon the time action
Depending upon the kind of contacts
These are called normally opened, normally closed in Heerapura sub station control room there in
panel in which the relays are set and there are many type of relays.
1. Over current relays
2. I.D.M.T. fault relay
3. Impedance relay
4. Earth fault relay
5. Bucheloz's relay
6. Differential relay
7. Auxiliary relays
Over current relay
It is used in over current protection scheme over current protection is the name given to protected
relay scheme devised to rise in current in a protected circuit of to a safe value inherent simplicity
of operation and reliability in operation has resulted in over current protection having obtained the
widest application in short circuit protection scheme and a mean of protection against abnormal
condition's of operation etc in power x mission circuit as here is Heerapura grid station when the
short circuit occurs the fault current which is very much higher than the normal current flow
through the relay i.e. from proportional due to C.T. and the over current relay because operations
(because flow is more than the present value) i.e. is more than Ix where Ip is relay picking up or
operating currents now due to close of C.B. the signal is go to trip coil of C.B. trip.
(a) Electromagnetic relay
(b) Induction over current relays
Inverse time characteristics relay
The relay using here having the inverse time characteristics having the time delays dependent
upon current value. This characteristic is being available in relay of special design. There are
(1) Electromagnetic Induction type
(2) Permanent magnetic moving coil type
(3) Static type
Earth fault relay
The earth fault relay and over current relay resembles because when the conductor break or by
any reason it is earth ment it is short circuited and fault current which flow in many times to
normal current, so there is always over current fault so now we have the over current relay and
both are same. These relays can also be Electro-magnetic induction and static relay.
Directional Relay
The non-directional relay discussed above can operate for fault in either direction in order to
achieve operation for the fault current flowing in a specific direction. It is necessary to add an
additional element, such a relay which corresponds to fault current flow in a particular direction is
closes called a directional relay. These relays are added in the panel.
When a fault takes place, the fault current flows through the current coil of relay which produces a
flux in the lower magnet of the directional while the current in the voltage coil produces another
flux in the upper magnets. The flux produces torque tending to close it's contact (directional
element contacts). The relay also flows through the windings over the magnet of the non-
directional elements. Since this winding provides a closed path the induced emf circulates a
current, which therefore produce another flux.
ANNUNCIATOR AND METER SECTION
In the control room the 'annonciator' is most control box as when the fault across and relay trip by
which we mean that the fault is cleared.
In this there is a box type thing in which probable fault at different feeder and different zone have
written and in front of them there is a bulbs. There is also alarm systems.
When same fault is occurred the relay is trip and is given two signal one for two circuit breaker
and second to annuncitor auxiliary relays. This relays first signal trip the C.B. and signal when
goes to relay i.e. auxiliary type trip, that relay this relay i.e. seeds the signal to annunciator which
give alarm and the bulb is lightning in the front of the type of the fault, which is occurred. The
shift engineer can receives this signal and sees the annunciator at which feeder at which zone
and which type of fault is occurred
Meter Section
Panel at which the C.B. is open it trip again to see that whether it is instantaneous fault (like
monkey made short circuit or bird made a short circuit ) The closes the circuits breaker and reset
the relay is trip or not. It is not other the system coil leak as much as it again announce that the
circuit is still faulty then as we know that suppose fault is at RPS Feeder zone earth fault send a
maintenance party to the fault.
Measuring Instruments
These are certain panel boards, which have the energy meter for differential feeder, wattmeter
and maximum demand indicator.
Energy Meter
The energy meter is the meter, which measures the energy. These are filled to different feeders
and we note hourly reading how much a amount we are importing/exporting. These meters read
in MW.
Watt Meter
This meter is also attached to energy feeder and we can note by the watt meter how much
amount energy power is exporting or importing .
Maximum Demand Indicator
This is also mounted on panel board. The chief requirement of these indicators is that they shall
record the maximum power taken by the feeder during a particular period. The maximum
demand indicator shall be a so designed that any sudden momentary increase in loads such as
due to short circuit not account. Therefore, a maximum demand indication is to record the
average power over successive pre-determined period.
LIGHTNING ARRASTER
Introduction
Lightning Arresters are installed in power houses and sub-stations to safeguard the major
equipment like power-transformers, switch gear and to ensure the flow of power un-interruptedly.
It is true that lightning arresters require minimum post-installation care, but their importance as a
critical equipment can hardly be disputed.
Lightning Strokes and Over-voltages
The overhead transmission lines and connected electrical apparatus i.e. Power Transformers,
Switch gear etc. are subjected to over voltages on account of lightning discharges caused by
atmospheric disturbances and or by switching operations. Abnormal voltages are caused by
atmospheric disturbances as a result of:
(a) Direct Strokes
Direct stroke to the phase conductor or ground wire or to supporting structure results into
abnormal transient voltage, which gets super-imposed on the power net work.
(b) Indirect Strokes
Direct stroke in the vicinity of the line or the equipment or charged cloud over the power line
induces abnormal voltages.
Abnormal transient over voltages super-imposed by direct or indirect strokes travel along the
conductor in both the directions with the speed of light i.e. 186,000 miles per second or 1000 feet
per micro second. These waves are steep fronted in case of direct strokes and travel till the
surge voltage is attenuated or neutralized by reflected waves of opposite polarity from the earthed
object. E.H.V. transmission lines and sub-stations are designed to take care of direct strokes by
providing:

(1) Higher impulse level

(2) Shielding and lower footing resistance
(3) Lightning arresters for draining undesirable voltage to the ground.
Type of Lightning Arresters
Ground wires or shielding wires generally of steel are fixed over the phase conductors in case of
transmission lines and sub-stations and are solidly grounded. The ground wire when solidly
grounded through a very small resistance reduces the magnitude of voltage induces upon the line
conductors due to electrostatic field produced by charging cloud. The ground wire is in a general
sense is preventive device, but it does not entirely prevent the formation of travelling waves on a
line. Surges produced by direct strokes or by induced strokes must be drained to the ground
through low impedance ground to protect power transformers and other costly equipment and to
reduce outages in the system. Lightning arresters are the devices to provide the necessary path
to the ground for such surges. An ideal arrester must therefore have the following properties:
1. It should be able to drain the surge energy from the line in a minimum time.
2. Should offer high resistance to the flow of power current.
3. Performance of the arresters should be such that no system disturbances are
introduced by its operation.
4. Should be always in perfect form to perform the function assigned to it.
5. After allowing the surge to pass, it should close up so as not to permit power current to
flow to ground.
Lightning protective devices, which are in market, are of the following type:
(a) Rod Gap or Sphere Gap
It is a very simple protective device i.e. gap is provided across the stack of insulators to permit
flash-over when undesirable voltages are impressed on the system. It does not fulfil the function
of ideal lightning arresters i.e. it does not cut off power voltage after it has flashed over by a
surge, in other words a short circuit will be caused on the system every time a surge causes a
flash-over. Flash over conditions are also affected by rain, pollution, humidity temperature and
polarity of the incident waves. In view of these disadvantages it can be only used as "back up"
protection in case main lightning arrester gets damaged.
(b) Expulsion type Lightning arresters
Expulsion type lightning arresters are also called "expulsion protector tubes", "de-ion tubes" and
"line type expulsion arresters." Constructional details and salient features of expulsion type
lightning arresters are shown in fig.
It consists of an insulating tube, which has got an electrode at each end and discharge hole at the
lower end. The length of the tube is such that spark over occurs in the tube between the two
electrodes. While installing lightning arresters it is ensured that there is external series gap
between the cap and the line. Series gap prevents constant application of system voltage and
thus leakage corona is avoided. Whenever undesirable transient voltages occur, two gaps i.e.
external and internal breakdown due to flash over and provide a conducting path in the form of
arc for drainage of the voltage to the ground. They are produced inside the tube by "follow up
current" produces gas which drives out ionized air (air is ionized by the arc) through the bottom
vent. The "follow up current" at its zero finds the arc path de-ionized and space between the
electrodes fully insulated to prevent the flow of "follow up current." The rapid expulsion of the
gases in the tube normally interrupt the short circuit power follow current within the first or second
half cycle.
(c) Valve Type Lightning Arresters
Valve type Lightning arrester consists of number of spark gaps in series with non-linear resistors,
the whole assembly being rigidly housed inside a hermetically sealed bushing. Under normal
conditions, power frequency system voltage does not cause break down of series spark gaps and
thereby insulate the line from ground for the highest system voltage. When undesirable transient
voltages due to lightning are super-imposed over the system, the series gap assemblies spark
over at a pre-determined value. After the breakdown of the gaps, the non-linear resistors conduct
the surge current to the ground offering very low resistance and limit the power frequency current,
to a value, the gaps can interrupt at the first current zero. During the flow of the discharge current
the non-linear resistor limit the voltage drop across the arrester to a value far below the BIL of the
equipment.
The valve type lightning arresters are generally classified as station type and line type. Station
type lightning arresters are very robust and efficient and are installed in sub-stations and power
houses. Line type lightning arresters are similar to station type lightning arresters but are smaller
in cross-section and are less costly. Line type arresters allow higher surge voltages across their
terminals and have low surge current capacity.
General rating recommendations of lightning arresters
(i) 10 KV rated lightning arresters: Arresters of this rating are used in case of power
stations and E.H.V. sub-stations.
(ii) 5 kA rated lightning arrests: Arresters of this capacity normally are used in case of
high voltage sub-stations having system voltage as 66 KV or less. These are also used in case
of small power houses.
(iii) 2.5 kA rated lightning arresters: Arresters of these ratings are used in case of
system upto 11 KV
(iv) 1.5 kA rated lightning arrests: arresters of these ratings are normally used in case
of distribution system.
Location of Lightning Arresters
In order to ensure effective protection of the equipment lightning arresters should be located :
(a) Very close to the equipment to be protected and connected with shortest leads on both
the line and ground side to reduce the inductive effects of the leads while discharging large surge
currents.
(b) In order to ensure the protection of transformer windings it is desirable to inter-connect
the ground lead of the arrester with the tank and also the neutral of secondary. This
interconnection reduces the stress imposed on the transformer windings by the surge currents to
the extent of the drop across the earth resistance and the inductive drop across the ground lead.

Power Line Carrier Communication

Introduction
Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) provides for signal transmission down transmission
line conductors or insulated ground wires. Protection signalling, speech and data transmission
for system operation and control, management information systems etc. are the main needs
which are met by PLCC.
PLCC is the most economical and reliable method of communication because of the higher
mechanical strength and insulation level of high voltage power line which contribute to the
increased reliability of communication and lower attenuation over the larger distances involves.
High frequency signals in the range of 50 kHz to 400 kHz commonly known as the carrier signal
and to result it with the protected section of line suitable coupling apparatus and line traps are
employed at both ends of the protected section. Here in 'Heerapura' and also in other sub-station
this system is used. The main application of power line carrier has been from the purpose of
supervisory control telephone communication, telemetering and relaying.
PLCC Equipment
The essential units of power line carrier equipment consists of (a) Wave trap; (b) Coupling
Capacitor; and (c) LMU and protective equipments.
Wave Trap
Rejection filters are known as the line traps consisting of a parallel resonant circuit (L and C in
parallel) tuned to the carrier frequency are connected in series at each end of the protected line
such a circuit offers high impedance to the flow of carrier frequency current thus preventing the
dissipation.
The carrier current used for PLC Communication have to be prevented form entering the power
equipments such as attenuation or even complete loss of communication signals. For this
purpose wave trap or line trap are used between transmission line and power station equipment
to -
(i) Avoid carrier power dissipation in the power plant
(ii) Reduce cross talks with other PLC Circuits connected to the same power station.
(iii) Ensure proper operating conditions and signal levels at the PLC transmit receive
equipment irrespective of switching conditions of the power circuit and equipments in the
stations.

Coupling Capacitor
Coupling of high frequency transmitter receiver units to the power line is done through high
voltage capacitor. The high voltage capacitor, which has a capacitance of about 0.000, 1 MF is
earthen through the drainage coil. This provides insulation of the terminal equip from line by
providing a very high impedance to carrier frequency current.
Coupling Capacitor is used for coupling the carrier current or voltage to the power line. It blocks
the power frequency current to flow into the PLC equipment.
The coupling is usually designed for mounting of the wave traps on it. A corona shield is always
provided. Arcing rings are usually not provided as they may give resistance to corona
discharges, which result in higher noise level in PLCC circuits.
The coupling capacitor is used as a part of filter network which allows a fairly wide band of radio
frequency to pass through to the PLC terminals to be connected in parallel to the coupling unit
and hence results in a saving in the use of installation.
Use of Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT) as a Coupling Capacitor
The matching transformer is used for matching the impedance. The two capacitors and voltage
driver circuit. The carrier signals pass through these capacitors.
Signal is transmitted to PLC from the point through co-axial. The voltage drop across C2 is
applied to auxiliary transformer to get potential required for live line indication, metering and
synchronizing circuits.
Driving Coil
Function of this coil is to prevent high frequency signals from transmitter to ground and also
preventing the coming signals from earth the receiver. Its value of order of 100 MH

Line Matching Filter & Protective Equipments

For matching the transmitter and receiver unit to coupling capacitor and power line matching
filters are provided. These flitters normally have air corral transformers with capacitor assumed in
Heerapura.
The matching transformer is insulated for 7-10 KV between the two windings and perform two
functions. Firstly, it isolates the communication equipment from the power line. Secondly, it
serves to match the characteristic impedance of the power line (400-600 ohm). The vacuum
arrester, which sparks over at 250 volts, is provided for giving additional protection to the
communication equipment.
Cables
The connection of transmitter receiver units to the connecting fitters is done through co-axial
cable. There is mesh shield with is grounded.
Transmitter
The transmitter consists of an oscillator and a amplifier. The oscillator generates a frequency
signal with in 50 to 500 Hz frequency bands the transmitter is provided so that it modulates the
carrier with protective signal. The modulation process usually involves taking one half cycle of 50
Hz signal and using this to create block to carrier.

Receivers
The receivers usually consist of an alternate matching transformer band pass filter and amplifier
detector.
The amplifier detector converts a small incoming signal in to a signal capable of operating a
relatively intensive carrier receiver relay. The transmitter and receiver at the two ends of
protected each corresponds to local as far as transmitting.
Transmission System
The range of freque3ncies used for PLCC communication is generally between 10-500 kHz. In
partial situation, frequencies above 25 kHz are used due to the following reasons:
(1) Harmonics, switching, lightning and corona, which are generally present on HV lines,
have component in the frequency band between 100 HZ and 24 kHz which course considerable
noise in communication circuits. If frequency below 25 kHz are employed, the signal to noise
ratio in such circuit will be quite poor.
(2) Difficulty in separating power frequency and ratio frequency component below 25 kHz.
(3) Cost of coupling equipment becomes prohibitive owing to the size and complexity of
equipment required for operating efficiency at low frequency.
The upper limit of 500 kHz is used because -
(a) Radiation losses are high above 500 kHz
(b) Interference problems are encountered
The following methods can be employed for the speech in PLC Communications.
(i) Amplitude modulation with carrier and double side band transmission
(ii) Amplitude modulation with single side band suppressed or reduced carrier
transmission
(iii) Frequency Modulation
Almost all-modern PLC transmission equipments for speech use single side band suppressed or
reduced carrier transmission. Single side band AM transmission has the following advantages
over double side band AM transmission.
(a) The band width requirement channel is exactly half that of double
side band transmission
(b) As the receiver accepts half the band of frequencies the noise input
to the receiver is correspondingly reduced
(c) As the carrier and one side band are not transmitted, the power
required for these is saved.

MERITS AND DEMETIS OF PLCC

Merits
1. The severity that a power line can withstand is much more than that odd communication
line due to higher mechanical strength of transmission line
2. Power lines generally provide the shortest route between the Power Station and the
Receiving Stations.
3. The carrier signals suffer less attenuation, owing to large cross sectional area of power
line
4. Larger spacing between conductors reduces the capacitances which results in lesser
attenuation of higher frequencies.
5. Large spacing also reduces the cross talk to a certain extent.
6. The construction of a separate communication line is avoided.
Demerits
1. Utmost care is required to safeguard the carrier equipment and persons using them
against high voltage and currents on the line.
2. Noise introduced by power line is far more than in the case of communication line. This
is due to the discharge across insulators and corona etc.
3. Induced voltage surges in the power line may affect the connected carrier equipment.

BATTERRY ROOM
Introduction
Storage battery is the most dependable source of supply of D.C. power required for closing and
tripping of circuit breakers, operation of automatic protective devices; signaling equipment,
remote control apparatus, telephone service and emergency lighting in case of power plants and
sub-stations. Correctly selected and properly maintained battery will withstand heavy stresses
and strains during service without causing much headaches to the maintenance Engineer. D.C.
Auxiliary power supply is provided from storage batteries maintained continuously charged by
some type of supply set or a charger. The voltage of the auxiliary supply is maintained at
110/220 volt.
Advantages of Storage Batteries
• High Reliability
• Independances of A.C. power circuit conditions of existence of the faults.
D.C. Earth Fault
All D.C. auxiliary supply circuits must have their insulation resistance maintained at an adequate
level, as any breakdown in the insulation with respect the earth may lead to false tripping due to
formation of a path for bypass of the current round the control devices. Because of this danger
every D.C. auxiliary supply installation must include a unit for constantly monitoring the condition
of the insulation.
As fig. Shown, when the insulation is healthy the voltage of each power relative to earth V1 and
V2 will be equal and half the voltage between both the poles.
In case the insulation of one pole drops in value with respect to earth, the voltage to earth of this
pole will also drop, but the voltage to earth of the other pole of the circuit will increase by the
some amount.
Stationary Storage Batteries
Batteries are bring used for the supply of direct current to various types of equipment and
appliances and are broadly divided into two categories i.e. stationary and transportable type. The
stationary type battery, once installed is never moved during the course of its service life.
Lead Acid Storage Battery
Basically, lead acid storage cell consists of electrodes i.e. anode and cathode in the form of
plates immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, placed in acid resistant container. Acid resistant
containers are usually made of vulcanized rubber, glass, plastic, ceramic and good quality of
wood lined with lead. Glass and plastic containers are normally used in case of stationary
storage batteries. Where weight of the Battery does not present problem and simple space is
available wood containers lined with lead may be used. The container is provided with the vent to
facilitate the escape of gases as well as it provides opening for the addition of distilled water or
electrolyte.
Plates as used are in the shape of grids made of an alloy of lead and antimony and active
material. The use of plates in the shape of the grid is helpful in providing support to the active
material, conduction of electric current and maintenance of uniform distribution of the current
throughout the mass of the active material. Heavier grids are used in case of stationary batteries,
while light grids are used in case of batteries designed for heavier discharges when these are of
short duration. Lead non-oxide (lead power and Litharge) is normally used as an active material.
Lamp black, or barium sulphate or organic extract is added as an expander to the active material
in case of active material. An expander helps in decreasing the possibility of shrinkage and
hardening of the negative plates. The positive and negative plates are separated from each
other by means of porous separators made of wood vanear, perforated and slotted hard rubber,
glass fibre, etc. etc.
The Electrolyte
Sulphuric acid of very high purity diluted with distilled water is used as an electrolyte in case of
lead acid batteries. Since specific heat of the water is higher than sulphuric acid as such when it
is mixed with water abnormal increase in temperature takes place, it is, therefore, necessary to
get the solution cooled down before it is poured into the battery, to avoid damage to the plates.
Specific gravity and viscosity of the electrolyte has got great bearing on the condition and
capacity of the battery. The rate of diffusion of the solution through the pores of the plates,
depends upon its viscosity. The viscosity increases with the decrease in temperature, thereby
affecting the capacity of the battery at low temperatures. The value of specific gravity is the
indicator regarding the condition of the battery. It is defined as the ratio between equal volumes
of the liquid and the water at specific temperature and is measured by means of hydrometer. As
the life of the battery is greatly influenced by the chemical reactions taking place in the cell itself
i.e. formation of sulphates, effect of concentrated solution on the separators, temperatures, and
working conditions, it is extremely important to keep careful watch over the specific gravity of the
electrolyte. The range of the concentration of the electrolyte for different types of batteries as
suggested are as follows:
Specific gravity of the Electrolyte for various types of Batteries
Type of Battery Sp Gravity
Stationary batteries 1.200 to 1.225
Truck and tractor batteries 1.260 to 1.280
Starting and lighting batteries (in-topics) 1.200 to 1.233
Aviation Batteries 1.260 to 1.285
Operating Principle of Lead-Acid Cells
1. The decomposition of molecules in to ions due to action of water is called electrolytic
dissociation
H2SO4 2H + + SO4-2
2. Since the sum of the electric charges carried by the positive H 2 ions is equal to the sum
of electric charge carried by the negative acid redical ions, the solution remains electrically
neutral.
3. As a result of interaction of electrolyte with the atoms of lead of the (-)ve plate, some of
the lead atoms become ionized and two charge (+)ve ions of lead pass over in to the electrolytic
solution. This leaves the surface of the (-)ve plate becomes charged negatively in relation to the
electrolyte and the positive plate positively.
Battery Room
The battery room should be ready in all respects by fulfilling the following minimum requirements.
1. The walls and the ceiling of the battery room should be well black washed and should
remain clean and dry.
2. The flooring of the battery room shall be acid resistant tiles and material.
3. The battery room should be well lit. there should be no direct sun light on the cells.
4. Suitable exhaust fans shall be fixed to provide a minimum of six air charges per hour.
5. The exhaust fans shall be suitably distributed and placed on the wall, which open to
atmosphere, equally sufficient air inlet should be provided to prevent any negative pressure
developing in the room.
6. Necessary blowers are to be provided to maintain sufficient air inlet in to room
7. Never the entrance door should be kept closed which will lead to a negative pressure
developing in the batter room due to the continuous operation of exhaust fans.
8. Inlet air should be free from effluents (such as chlorine, acetic acid).
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS
1. Float charger should always be kept on even when the battery set is being boost
charged.
2. In case of failure of A.C. supply to the battery charger, the battery set should be boost
charged at the equalizing current rate for the same number of hours for which A.C. supply
remained failed.
3. The door of battery room should always be kept open when the exhaust fan is running.
Door can be kept closed if sufficient inlet for air is provided in the door itself.
4. Add only distilled water to maintain cell electrolyte level, never add acid.
5. Temperature correction of sp. Gravity
S.G. (27 C) = S.G. (t) + 0.7 ( t - 27)
where t = actual temp. of cell electrolyte
6. If inspite of repeated charging the specific gravity or voltage of some cell(s) does not
improve, these are to be considered weak cells.
7. Premature gassing in any cell is due to (-ve) plate of low capacity because of
sulphation. Such cells should be removed from the battery set.
8. Adjustment of specific gravity: (a) Replacement of electrolyte with distilled water in
cells having high gravity (b) Replacing electrolyte in cells having low gravity with electrolyte from
cells having high gravity.
9. Never store acid i.e. electrolyte of sp. Gravity higher than 1200.
Life of the Lead Acid Battery
Factors, which influence the life of battery, are as follows:
(a) Overcharging of the battery reduces the life of battery due to the following reasons:
(i) Water present in electrolyte is decomposed into hydrogen and Oxygen
due to excessive charging. Gas bubble thus formed remove active material from the plates.
(ii) Removal of water from the electrolyte on account of decomposition makes
the electrolyte more concentrated. Concentrated acid is harmful to the separators and negative
plate material at high temperatures.
(iii) Due to excessive heat, positive plates, separator negative plates get
damaged.
(iv) Over charging results into buckling and warping and of the positive plates.
(v) Under charging results into the formation of sulphates which cannot be converted
electrochemically into active material and thereby causes strain on the positive plates. Strained
positive plates are likely to get buckled.
(vi) If the battery remains idle for longer periods and is undercharged lead sulphates
are formed and may result into "shorts". When such battery is recharged, there is likelihood of
excessive self-discharge.
(vii) Undercharged battery will not feed the required power for which it has been
installed. Under serveres right conditions Electrolyte may freeze.

Safety Precautions
It is in the interest of the Undertaking to provide protective equipment to maintenance crew and
also keep them properly instructed about the precautions, which should be observed while
working on batteries. Protective equipment and recommended safety precautions are listed
below:
(a) Protective equipment
(i) Goggles
(ii) Acid proof Gloves and Aprons
(iii) Water
(iv) Bicarbonate of Soda
(b) Precautions
(1) While preparing electrolyte for lead acid batteries never pour water into the
acid.
(2) Handles of tools required for tightening the bolts should be insulated.
(3) Smoking, presence of naked flame should prohibited in the battery room
(4) Battery room should be well ventilated and provided with exhaust fans
(5) Acid should be stored in separate rooms
(6) Cells should be installed on wooden racks painted with acid resisting paint
(7) Cells should be insulated from the racks by placing insulators in between
(8) Cells should be levelled during installation by using lead shims
(9) Sulphuric acid containers are normally enclosed in wooden crates. These
crates should be handled by two men without any regard to its weight and each crate should be
clearly marked with the label that it contains acid.
(10) Never use metallic vessels while handling acid or distilled water.

General Care
(a) Lead Acid Batteries
(1) Electrolyte level must be maintained 10 to 15 mm above the plates.
(2) Terminal voltage of the cell must not be allowed to fall below 1.85 volts.
(3) Battery should be charged to its rated capacity.
(4) Battery should not be allowed to remain in semi-discharged condition
(5) Commercial sulphuric acid should not be used
(6) Distilled water should be used for topping of the battery.
(7) Excessive charging should be avoided
(8) Bare and insulated leads should be painted with recommended paint
(9) Battery should be kept clean and dry and battery room should be well
ventilated
(10) Should acid be spelt or if any parts are wet, wipe over with wet rag and dry
thoroughly
(11) Terminal posts and connectors should be clean and free from corrosion
(12) Nuts and bolts of cell connectors should be kept tightened and smeared with
Vaseline.

B. SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER

There are ways to correct poor power factor, through capacitors or

synchronous condensers. The choice will be dependent upon the
application and budget. There are two main reasons to correct poor
power factor. The first is you are being charged a power factor penalty
by your local utility and this penalty is of such a size that you
want/need to do something about it. The second reason is that your
existing load capacity is or shortly will be at capacity and you are
staring at a large bill to increase it. Depending on the size of the power
factor correction (number of kVARs that need to be injected into the
electrical system) and the dynamic nature of the load, capacitors or a
synchronous condenser may be the solution. If the load is less than
500kVAR, then capacitors are easier to justify. Anything over
500kVAR, a synchronous condenser should be considered. If there are
large, rapid and random swings in kVAR demand throughout the day, a
synchronous condenser is a better solution. If the changes in kVAR
demand are small and made in regular increments, then capacitors are
a better solution. When your capacity becomes a problem, the choice
of a solution will be dependent upon the size of the increase needed.
Again the 500kVAR rules holds true. Anything less than 500kVAR,
capacitors should be considered anything over, a synchronous
condenser. Like all power quality solutions, there are many factors that
need to be considered when determining which technology is best to
solve power factor problem.
The electrical power requirement by bulk consumers like heavy industries due to various loads in their
premises is of generally lagging pf in nature. Lighting loads, heaters, furnaces etc. consume electrical
power almost at UPF. Whereas a major share of their requirement is for Induction motor loads which
always works on lagging power-factors. Thus a Synchronous motor used to change the phase angle or
power-factor in the supply lines is called Synchronous Phase Modifier.
But more specific requirement, imposed by power supplying authority, is to reduce the lagging reactive
current and power drawn by the load. To meet this requirement the Synchronous motor is to be operated
on over - excitation so as to draw leading reactive current and power from the supply lines. The leading
reactive current and power drawn by the motor compensates the lagging current and power requirement of
the load.
A Synchronous motor operated at no-load with over-excitation condition to draw large leading reactive
current and power is called a Synchronous Condenser.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Motor has 6 salient poles and it is fitted with damper winding to start it as a 3 phase induction motor at
reduced voltage of 3-4 kV. since the starting of synchronous motor is like an induction motor, so as to
reduce the initial in rush of current, a reduced voltage of 3-4 kV is applied at the starting.
A large oil cooled auto-transformer suplies the starting voltage of 3-4 kV to the motor, one the motor gains
sufficient speed full voltage of 11 kV is applied to make the machine run at rated speed of 1000 rpm.
The bearings are lubricated by means of forced air or jetting of oil. cooled air acts as a cooling medium for
the motor and water is used to cool oil. Various protective relays i.e. high oil temperature, high winding
temperature, over heating are provided for the system.
Since the current rating is 1050 A, so buses are coming from switchyard power transformer instead of
cables. These buses are open (bare) and kept underground.

MOUNTING OF SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

The condenser is mounted on a cemented R.C.C. foundation for the purpose of economy there is an angle
latticework around the condenser for the purpose of repair and maintenance.

COOLING: The lower half of the condenser is in a closed cemented room in which forced air phenomena
is used which acts as cooling medium for condenser.
Cooling arrangements includes :
(1)Heat exchanger (2) lubricating oil
(3)Radiators (4)Water cools the stator winding of machine.

PROTECTION
Various protective relays are provided for system oil high temperature,

winding high temperature, lubricating oil pump failure, starting

transformers heating are some of the most common factor for which
protective relays are provided in the unit.

WORKING
The working of the synchronous condenser can be divided into
following steps:
Jacking: It is a phenomenon of the synchronous condenser bearing with the help of forced or jetting oil
operation, the operation makes the main shaft of the motor float in bearing with a thin film of oil. This
operation reduces friction at effects considerably and hence the starting current is reduced.
Starting: Starting operation is accomplished with the help of an auto-transformer designed to give start
within an hour starting transformer is put into circuit by closing the neutral of three windings. A voltage of
3.4 kV is fed into the damped winding and the motor starts, drawing a current of 3000 ampere (starting)
from the auto-transformer.
Running: Once the motor has gained the speed nearly equal to the synchronous speed, the neutral switch is
opened and the bridge circuit is then closed. During the operation the connection between the network and
machine is maintained through the X'mer winding which now acts only as a reactor, the whole operation is
automatic and is provided with interlocking arrangements to overcome any fault or non-correct switching
of apparatus.
Power factor adjustment: Power factor adjustment can be carried out by controlling the exciter field
current. Hence a stepless variation of capacitive or reactive power upto the rated power can be achieved. It
should be noted that synchronous condenser has internally inheritly, sinusoidal waveform and the
harmonics in the waveform do not exist.

Power Factor Improvement Using Synchronous Condensers

When the KVAR requirement is small, it can be met through static capacitors. However when requirement
exceeds 10,000 KVAR it is generally more economical to use the synchronous condensers.
A synchronous condenser is essentially an over excited synchronous motor. Generally it does not supply
any active mechanical power. The excitation of the machine is varied to provide the necessary amount of
the leading kVAR. The advantages and disadvantages of using synchronous condensers as compared to
static capacitors are as under :
A synchronous condenser can supply kVAR equal to its rating and absorb kVAR upto 50 per cent of its
capacity. Thus a synchronous condenser of certain kVAR is equal to a static capacitor of that kVAR and a
shunt reactor of 50 per cent kVAR.
By the use of synchronous condenser a finer control is possible than by the use of static capacitors.
A synchronous condenser can be overloaded for short periods but a static capacitor cannot be overloaded
A momentary drop in voltage causes the synchronous condenser to supply greater kVAR to the system
whereas in the case of static capacitor, the kVAR supplied is reduced.
The inertia of the synchronous condenser improves the system stability and reduces the effect of sudden
changes in load.
The power loss in a synchronous condenser is much greater than that in a capacitor.
For small kVAR requirements, static capacitors are preferable and economical. For requirements above
10,000 kVAR or so synchronous condensers are more economical.
Static capacitor installations can be distributed in the system. Thus capacitors can be located near the loads
and are more effective. However small size synchronous condensers are very uneconomical. As such the
synchronous condensers have to be installed at one point only.
The rating of static capacity bank can be changed very easily as per requirements. Capacitor units can be
added to the bank or taken away from it. This is not possible with synchronous condensers.
Installation of a static capacitor bank is easy.

A failure of one unit of capacitor bank affects that unit only. The
remaining units continue to do their job. However failure of a
synchronous condenser means loss of total condenser capacity. On
the other hand the failure rate of a synchronous condenser is very
small as compared to the failure rate of a capacitor bank.
Synchronous condenser adds to the short circuit currents in the system and increases the circuit breaker
ratings.

Synchronous condensers are mostly used by utilities at large sub-

stations to improve the power factor and voltage regulation. Machines
upto 100 MVAR ratings or even higher have been used. The field
current is regulated automatically to give a desired voltage level. A
typical instance is of 150 MW to be transmitted over a distance of 240
km. If the receiving end power factor is 0.85, the sending end power
factor is 0.68 and sending end voltage 1.5 times receiving end
voltage. Addition of 75 MVAR synchronous condenser at receiving end
improves the sending end power factor to 0.88 and reduces the
voltage drop in transmission line by 50 per cent.

APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Definition of the terms used
1 Admittance:
2 Conductance
3 Susceptance:
4 Phase sequence:
5 Power factor:
6 Synchronous speed:
7 Primary relay:
8 Secondary relay:
9 Back-up relay
10 Instantaneous relay
11 Time delay relay
12 Bulking relay
Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. The
ratio of R.M.S current to the R.M.S
electromotive force which produces it.
It is given as: -
Y=I/V or Y=1/Z if Z=V/I
Where Y is admittance, I is current, V is
voltage and Z is the impedance.
It is the component of the current in phase with
the applied voltage divided by applied voltage or
the resistance divided by the square of the
impedance.
It is the component of current in quadrature with the
applied voltage divided by the voltage or the reactance
divided by the square of the impedance.
It is the order in which the phase of polyphase system
reach a maximum voltage in the same direction.
It is defined as the cosine of the angle of lag of the
current, because it is the factor by which the apparent
power must be multiplied in order to obtain the true power.
It is the speeds of an A.C. machine which corresponding to the
speed of rotation of the magnetic flux. It is related to the
frequency in cycle per second and number of poles in the
machine.
Primary relay are those which are connected directly in
the protected circuit.
These are connected to the protected circuit through
current transformer and potential transformer.
A relay, which operates, usually after a slight delay, if the
normal relay does not operate to trip concerned circuit
breaker.
It is that relay that operate in less than 0.1 second, and
does not have intentional delay.
A relay which is equipped with delaying elements.
It is the device, which prevents the protecting relay from
tripping, either due to its own characteristics or to an

13 Operating current
14 Drop out current
15 Re-set ratio
16 Recovery voltage
17 Rate of rise of recoveryThe rate of rise of recovery voltage is a rate expressed in
voltage (R.R.R.V.):
18 Spinning reserve
19 Demand factor
20 Group Diversity Factor
21 Peak Diversity Factor
22 Load Factor
additional relay.
The minimum value of current at which the relay picks up
is called as operating current.
The maximum value of current at which the relays drop
out is called the drop out current
It ratio of drop out current to the pick up current
It is the voltage, which appears across the terminal of
each poles of circuit breaker immediately after the braking
of the circuit.
volts per micro second representative of the increase of
the recovery voltage, the assessment being made in
accordance with a prescribed method.
Reserve generating capacity connected to the bus and
ready to take load.
= maximum demand
Connected Load
= Sum of individual maximum demand
Maximum demand of the group
= Maximum demand of consumer group
Demand of the consumer group at the time of system
peak demand
= Average Load
Peak Load
23 Capacity Factor = Average annual load
Rated Plant Capacity
or
= Maximum Load X Load Factor
Plant Capacity
or
= (Utilization factor) X(Load Factor )

24 Utilization Factor = Maximum Load

Rated Plant Capacity

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A.B.C.B. Air Blast Circuit Breaker

A.C. Alternating Current
A.En. Assistant engineers
C.B. Circuit Breaker
C.T. Current transformer
Ckt. Circuit
CVT Constant Voltage Terminal
D.C. Direct Current
dia. Diameter
E.H.V. Extra High Voltage
Engg. Engineer
Ex.En. Executive engineer
G.S.S. Grid sub-station
H.P. Horse Power/ High Pressure
H.V. High voltage
Hz Hertz
I/P Input
J.En. Junior engineer
KV Kilovolt
KW Kilowatt
L.P. Low Pressure
L.V. Low voltage
M.O.C.B. Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker
MVA Mega volt ampere
O.B. Air blast cooling
O.C. Open Circuit
O.F.B. Forced oil air blast cooling
O.F.W. Forced oil water-cooling

O.N. Natural cooling

O/P Output
p.f. Power factor
P.L.C.C. Power line carrier communication
P.T. Potential transformer
R.M.S. Root mean square value
R.R.R.V. Rate of rise of recovery voltage
R.S.E.B. Rajasthan state electricity board
S.C. Short Circuit
S.E.B. State electricity board
S.G. Specific Gravity
S.R.B.P. Synthetic resin bounded paper
Temp. Temperature
U.H.V. Ultra High Voltage
V.T. Voltage transformer
VA Volt Ampere
W.T.I. Winding temperature indicator
wdg Winding
x-mers Transformer
CONCLUSION
The power sector of the country has been set on a path of vigorous and sustainable growth with
self-reliance in all technological aspect. The country has aim at energy self-sufficiency. The
growth in power sector helped millions of people in the country to secure employment. It is
anticipated that a large part of the nation's wealth would be in power sector.
A necessary and important aspect of engineering course is practical training. It gives an engineer
to face and tackle actual problems in the industries and field. The institute where the student
studies can't provide him that practical knowledge on all always of learning. Until and unless the
student has been exposed to its practical aspects, the study of the subject is incomplete. The
artificial studies built the engineer in him by providing him pools of knowledge where as the
practical application makes him agile and complete. If theoretical knowledge teaches the principal
and policies, the practical exposure tells how to use those policies and principal in practical
atmosphere. During training session the student learn to work in human laboratory.
As the case of practical training there is a major difference between
theoretical and practical knowledge, hence practical training is taken at a
company or industry to get familiar with engineering organizational and
technical practices in the field. This made a relation between theory being
taught in the class and application in the field along with the organizational
and financial aspect of industry. theoretical knowledge without any
practical implementations is just like a bird with one fan.

So, I thought to take my practical training at 132kv G.S.S. R.R.V.P.L. Jawahar Nagar Jaipur. I
learnt there a lot. I came to know about CT and PT, distribution system, various transformers,
relays, circuit breakers, conductors, LA etc. etc.
In Jawahar Nagar G.S.S. every event added a lot to my practical knowledge during my training
session. As during the practical session, maintenance period was going on thus it made a right
direction to understand and make a clear and absolute approach about various equipment's and
their fittings and features installed there. This made a perfect relation between theoretical and
practical knowledge.