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COUISE
IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Third Edition
A FUST COU1SE
IN
CONTINUUM
for
Physical
MECHANICS
and Biohgical
Y.
C.
Fung
Professor of Applied
University
Mechanics
of California,
and Bioengineering
San Diego
New
Jersey
07632
Library
of
Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Fung, Y. C. (Yuan-cheng)
A first course in continuum
mechanics:
biological scientists
cm.
p.
Includes bibliographical
references
and index.
ISBN 0-13-061524-2
1.
I.
mechanics.
Continuum
Title.
1994
QA808.F86
92-39910
531\342\200\224dc20
CIP
Acquisitions
Production
de Leon
to
Dedicated
Cover
students
my enthusiasm
who
would
share
Manufacturing
for
the
application
of mechanics,
by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
& Schuster Company
Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Englewood
\302\251
1994,1977,1969
A Simon
and to
States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
2 1
ISBN D-13-DtlS2H-H
90000
I I
ISBN
D-13-DtlSE4-2
Prentice-Hall
International
Prentice-Hall
of
Prentice-Hall
Prentice-Hall
780130
615244
Preface
Third Edition
to the
Prefaceto the
First
Edition
Introduction
1.1
The objective
1.2
Applications
1.3
What
1.4
1.5
Our definition
of this
to science
The classical
of a continuum:
in our
definition of a
1.7
1.8
What is continuum
1.9
Axioms
1.10
1.11
mechanics
of continuum
continuum
about?
mechanics
of continua depending
example of a hierarchy
in a scientific inquiry
of the object involved
7
biological
size
definition
continuum
of a
the
and technology
2
is mechanics?
prototype
course
which
basic ideas
evolved
on
12
IX
Contents
viii
Vectors
2.1
2.2
and Tensors
39
39
Vectors
The
2.4
Translation and
2.5
2.6
convention
summation
Coordinate
44
of coordinates
rotation
in general
transformation
of scalars,
definitions
Analytical
tensors
2.7
41
Vector equations
2.3
49
53
vectors, and
The significance
6.1
Cartesian
Notations
2.9
Quotient rule
2.10
Partial
6.2
6.3
58
and tensors: Boldfaceor indices?
of tensor
for vectors
5.8
equations
60
7.1
Stress
64
64
3.2
The
3.3
69
Cauchy's formula
Equations of equilibrium
Change of stress components
3.4
3.5
of motion
3.6
3.7
Stress
and
4.4
Mohr's circlesfor
Principal
4.6
Shearing stresses
Stress-deviation
4.8
Lame's stress
Axes
88
89
Infinitesimal
Principal
7.6
Materials
148
dimensions
155
156
fluid
157
with
154
of materials
properties
fluid
Isotropic
8.3
Isotropic tensors
8.4
8.5
8.8
stress states
The concept of
8.2
8.7
92
stress
161
mechanical behavior
complex
94
material
161
165
isotropy
165
tensor
Isotropic
tensors
Isotropic
materials
of rank
169
of rank
170
172
172
173
mierostructure?
tensor
102
ellipsoid
112
112
interpretation
Finite
Specification of the
Newtonian
9.1
Fluids
9.2
Viscosity
rotation
terms
of displacements
of infinitesimal strain
121
122
components
strains:
Mohr's circle
strain
124
117
components
Plasticity
9.4
Materials
with
9.5
Nonlinear
9.6
119
9.7
9.8
131
and Solids
183
9.3
tissues
Fluids
181
of metals
115
Geometric
three
154
7.3
7.4
7.5
8.1
76
97
Strain components in
5.6
in
94
Deformation
5.5
5.7
coordinates
Deformation
components
Equations
8.6
stresses
4.7
5.3
Compatibility
Isotropy
78
three-dimensional
4.5
5.1
of strain
165
of
88
Introduction
Analysis of
curvilinear
orthogonal
Principal
4.3
4.2
146
condition
72
in transformation
conditions
boundary
Principal Stresses
4.1
66
Stress components in
145
145
The compatibility
75
coordinates
polar
Conditions
Compatibility
fields
Velocity
Constitutive
and
125
58
59
derivatives
laws
Infinitesimal
Velocity Fields
55
2.8
Contents
nonlinear
stress-strain
186
188
elasticity
relationships
of rubber and
biological
191
193
Linear viscoelasticbodies
viscoelasticity
Quasi-linear
fluids
Non-Newtonian
9.9
Viscoplastic
9.10
and
Sol-gel transformation
materials
of biological
201
tissues
202
thixotropy
204
197
xi
X
10
Derivation of
Field
Equations
10.1
Gauss's theorem
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
Contents
209
13.3
209
13.4
212
Field Equations
and
in
Conditions
Boundary
Fluid
13.5
215
13 6
13.8
Index
231
Mechanics
between two
Dynamic
11.5
Laminar
235
fluids
11.8
Nonviscous
11.9
Vorticity
layer
Basic equations
of
bodies
270
12.2
Plane
12.3
Simplifications
elastic
waves
Introduction
13.2
How to
body
for homogeneous,
isotropic
272
cylindrical
shaft
274
281
and
13.1
270
274
Biomechanics
Stress, Strain,
257
265
elasticity
Torsion of a circular
12.5 Beams
278
13
254
fluids
flow
Elasticity
12.4
12.6
251
253.
flow
11.11 Compressiblenonviscous
11.12 Subsonic and supersonic
11.13 Applications to biology
12
247
249
circulation
and
240
244
fluid
11.10 Irrotational
238
Active
Remodeling
285
of Structures
285
discover
285
the zero-stress
state of material
in a
solid
example
Changeof
290
shapes
and
Morphological
a change in blood pressure
of mechanical
RemodeUng
structural
13.7 Stressanalysis
231
11.1 The Navier-Stokes
equations
11.2 Boundary conditions at a solid-fluid interface
233
11.3 Surface tension and the boundary
conditions
at an interface
11.4
of a structure: A biological
state
Remodeling the zero-stress
288
in stress
of active remodeling due to change
Materialsthat
temperature:
zero-stressstatewith
their
remember\"
214
223
coordinates
11
Contents
with
remodeUng
.,
vessel due
tn
to
292
properties
the zero-stress state
Stress-growthrelationship
,
ri_,
of blood
299
294
taken
into
account
296
formulation
mathematical
is the
edition
sameas that
of the
to reduce vague
mechanics,
a habit of questioning,
statements, and to cultivate
of problems
in
ideas
into
precise
analyzing,
more
inventing
in this
strongly
setof governing
equations
basic governing
This
explained.
techniques
compatibility,
specifications
is described
solids are
and boundary
equations\342\200\224is an
in detail
discussed in
in
Chapter
Chapter
objective
8. The
9. In
mechanical
properties
of real
fluids
laws
and
of me-
xtii
Preface
XIV
to the Third
Edition
are given. In
growth
law.
Chapters 11 and
12, some
growth
constitutive
equations.
A large number
of problems
is dispersed
are new
and
design,
problems
that
are
exercises
10,
Chapters
especially
in the text.
derived
some of the formulas
train the reader in applying
obtains a clear idea about the stress, strain, and constitutive
If the reader
from this book, and knows how to use them in formulating scientific and
equations
edition. Most
problems for inventing.
for this
are
engineering problems, I
problems
A few,
shall
for formulation,
in
for
2 and
be very happy.
This
7.
C. Fung
La Jolla,
California
book is
a series of
intended for
courses
in
students
mechanics.
At this
stage,
course
differential equations.
vector analysis,
and solid
physics,
in calculus,
for studies in fluid
foundation
a
mechanics then provides
i in continuum
and
of science engineering.
and other branches
sciences,
be physical rather
mechanics, material
should
the
approach
for a beginner,
mechanics
It is my opinion that,
continuum
use
who
To engineers and physicists
of conception
mathematical.
than
in its simplicity
lies
of the subject
attraction
introduced to
constantly, the primary
the students should be
Therefore,
in applications.
concreteness
and
as
the applications as soon possible.
he must find answers
questions
or
engineer, the important
field
For the scientist
the governing
I
state
the problem? How shall
I formulate
What
to are: How shall
alternate
hypotheses?
How shall I choose
conditions?
and boundary
How
equations
or improve my hypotheses?
or
deny
would justify
How much time is
kind of experiments
errors
appear?
Where
might
which
the investigation be?
should
are questions
exhaustive
At what cost? These
solution?
reasonable
a
obtain
to
analyses
which
employ
required
of spthesis,
and are questions
\"first
concern active investigators,
the scope of this
are
beyond
these
to
questions
answers
reader
the
ask
as tools. Complete
In this book, I often
but we can make a good beginning.
and
course,\"
his equations
solve
can
he
of whether
regardless
have read
who
formulate
problems,
to
many students
known
have
mathematical subtleties.!
a problem
understandall the
without ever formulating
exercises
of
and worked innumerable
books
problems
many
many
to generate
will learn the other way,
I
they
They
of their own. hope
subtleties of solutions.
to discover the methods and
own and then strive
and elementary
their
xv
-Mi
Preface
Kvi
to the
First
Edition
encouraged to
with
the
reader
from this
mathematics
and
physics.
The
writing
Edition
observe
First
the first
ease.
greater
Preface
to the
made the
work a pleasure.
:1
Y.
C. Fung
La Jolla,
California
i
5
FIIST
COUISE
IN CONTINUUM
MECHANICS
The
definition
examples
elementary
1.1
THE
OBJECTIVE
Our
OF THIS
vague questions
to cultivate a habit of
and
for
materials
real-world
is presented,
of mechanics
as are
evolved.
COURSE
is to learn how
objective
reduce
engineering
of continua
to
formulate
problems
precise
designing,
analyzing,
questioning,
mathematical
statements, as well
and inventing
in
to
as
science.
differential
precise
equations
quantitative
and boundary
conditions. By
information. In
this
book,
solving
we deal
with
Introduction
Chap.
Sec. 1.5
Our
Definition
of a Continuum
AND
ideas to
form.
a mathematical
TECHNOLOGY
The
mathematical
1.3
WHAT
inventing
domains
can be
and experiments
A sequence of spatial
converging on P.
1.1
Figure
limiting
value
is defined
as the
of the
density
at the
mass distribution
point P
and
by p(P):
is denoted
(1.4-2)
P(P)=lin3.
IS MECHANICS?
K\342\200\236->0
of matter
If the
density is well
defined
distributed.
considerationcan
so on.
energy, and
A similar
of
density
be used
and
PROTOTYPE
OF A
CONTINUUM:THE
DEFINITION
We say that
from mathematics.
of a continuum is derived
The classical concept
real numbers
Between
any two distinct
the real number system is a continuum.
there are infinitely
many real
real number, and therefore,
distinct
there is another
time
can
we
feel
that
numbers.
Intuitively,
numbers between any two distinct real
can
three-dimensional
that
a
t
and
space
be represented by a real number system
time and
we
z.
number
Thus,
identify
real
three
x,
y,
be
systems
represented
onP:
of
and the
be V\342\200\236
T\342\200\236
Per.,
r.cT..\342\200\236
volume
energy exist
in
is continuum
of momentum,
density
is a
material
the mathematical
for
the
which
sense. The
usual
definition
of a material
continuum.
mechanics.
However,
and technology,
either.
by
continuum.
space together as a four-dimensional
to matter, we speak of a continuous
a
continuum
of
the
concept
Extending
illustrated
be
best
by considering the
of matter in space. This may
distribution
its
measured
be
of
matter
mass, and let us
amount
by
concept of density. Let the
1.1. Let us
as
in
a
certain
T0,
matter
Fig.
a
certain
space
assumelhat
permeates
T2, . . . , converging
\302\260VU
consider a point P in T0 and a sequence of subspaces
Let the
continuum
to be continuously
is said
if we adhere
set of
the
because
use to science
to it, it will be of no
would
no
rigorously
gas
For example,
such a definition is empty.
real-world systemssatisfying
And no
free
mean
the
path.
than
smaller
becomes
when
V\342\200\236
satisfy Eq. (1.4-2)
No
sized.
polycrystalline
atomic
becomes
when V\342\200\236
fluid would satisfy the equation
can meet
and no polymer plastic
no ceramic,
structure,
metal or fiber composite
cell, and
no
single
animal,
of
any
no living organism, no tissue
this
requirement;
This is the
CLASSICAL
mass
to define the
material
1.4 A
in V0, the
everywhere
the
mass of the
limit of
(1.4-1)
(\302\253 i,2,...).
matter
exists
MJV\342\200\236
contained
as n
->
We
be M\342\200\236.
in T\342\200\236
<\302\273
-\302\273
and V\342\200\236
0, the
1.5 OUR
DEFINITION
OF A
CONTINUUM
We shall
define
a material
Introduction
P. As n
the
->
with
an acceptable
<e
'n
said to be the
is then
density
of the
at P
material
with an
e in a
Sec. 1.6), we
unit
volume
acceptable
and the
OF
STRESS
(see
and it
would
shall
deal
be
IN OUR DEFINITION
OF A CONTINUUM
Consider
a material
S within
B,
B
and
occupying
consider
a spatial
region
the interaction
(Fig.
Fipre 1.2
Stress
principle.
variability
surface
Continuum
Real
M\342\200\236
^
THE CONCEPT
Abstract Copy of a
1.7
e if
variability
1.6
Sec.
tends to a finite
of V\342\200\236
w. Let the mass of
positive number
in T\342\200\236
be M\342\200\236.
The sequence of the ratios M\342\200\236IV\342\200\236
is said to have
enclosed
p--
energy
the limit
\302\260\302\260,
material
limit
Chap.
normal.
v of
to denote the direction of the normal
the superscript v is introduced
and
or
stress
the
the
called
T
is
vector,
vector
traction,
the surface AS. The limiting
the
surface.
on
area
unit
acting
represents the force per
closed surface S in the
that there is defined upon any imagined
The assertion
field whose action on the material
occupying
interior of a continuum a stress vector
upon it
to S is equipollent to the action of the exterior material
interior
the
where
space
as an axiom;
and Cauchy. We accept this principle
is the stress principle
ofEuler
is no a priori
there
For
example,
however, it is no more than a basic simplification.
the surface
of
the
two
sides
on
material
of
the
interaction
why the
justification
the
who
do
not
like
some
momentless.
be
Indeed,
people
element AS must
about any point
idea that the moment of the forces acting on the surface AS
restrictive
of the stress
the area vanishes in the limit have proposed a generalization
within
in a
element
surface
small
across
that
any
principle of Euler and Cauchy, namely,
to
is
interior
the
material
exterior
equipollent
upon
material, the action of the
stress and
of
the
The
couple
concept
theory
a force and a couple.
requires
resulting
So far, no real application
theory.
is much more complex than the conventional
has been found for the couple-stress theory; hence, we shall not discuss it further
in this book.
between the
distinguish
to which this normal
1.7 ABSTRACT
COPY
OF A
REAL
CONTINUUM
according
Once it
is decided that
a material
real
Introduction
Chap.
1.9 AXIOMS
The
need
entirely
different
MECHANICS
axioms
we
ABOUT?
shall
call
a continuum
in this
thermodynamics
of
Continua
book.
1.10 A
OF A
EXAMPLE
BIOLOGICAL
DEPENDING
THE
ON
SIZE OF
OF CONTINUA
HIERARCHY
THE OBJECTINVOLVED
INQUIRY
different.
a Hierarchy
of continuum mechanics. In
of physics are taken as the axioms
use Newton's laws of motion and the first and second laws of
IN A SCIENTIFIC
descriptions.
of
MECHANICS
OF CONTINUUM
particular,
system.
The constitutive
of an abstract copy of a real material
in a certain
equation
of another copy of the
range of sizes may differ from the constitutive
equation
same material in a different
of the real
range of sizes. If the constitutive
equations
material
were the same for consecutive
of sizes, then the abstract copy has
ranges
one constitutive equation in the total range. If the constitutive equations of the
real material are different
in different ranges of sizes, then
the abstract copies in
successive
constitutive
a
ranges of sizes have different
equations. This is indeed
useful feature of our system, because it allows us to recognize
different structures
of an object at different dimensionsof observation,
to ask different questions at
different
levels of sizes, and to gain a better understanding of the whole.
The hierarchy of the constitutive
dimensions
of
equations at different
observation of a material is related
to the similarity or dissimilarity
of the structure of
the
at different dimensions.The structure
material
of a material may be fractal,
in successive ranges of sizes;or it may not be fractal. For example,
i.e., self-similar
the
of the lung, from the largest
bronchi to the
geometric
pattern of the airways
smallest
fractal
in
is
structure, so the bronchi in this range of sizes
bronchioles,
can be expected
to obey the same constitutive equation. The structural
of
pattern
the alveolar ducts, from the respiratory bronchiole to the alveolar sacs, is another
a different constitutive
is expected to hold in this range.
fractal;
hence,
equation
The pulmonary
alveoli\342\200\224thealveolar
walls\342\200\224are
not fractal at all; neither are the
and elastin fibers in the alveolar walls. Hence, their mechanical
collagen
properties
Example
Biological
be transmitted
idealized
the
real material.
of the
Sec. 1.10
is the human
composed of three
example
to be
considered
enter
speaking)
called
tree
lung.
trees:
Figure 1.3
an airway
is for ventilation.
The trachea
is divided
lung may
tree,
be
and a
into bronchi,
pulmonary
alveoli.
Figure
1.4 shows a
photograph of human
alveoli,
as seen
Introduction
Chap.
in a microscope. The photo covers a small area within the little circle on the left
in Fig. 1.3. The walls
border of the leftmost drawing
of the alveoli are capillary
blood vessels. Every wall of each alveolus is exposed to gas on both sides. The
also bifurcates again and again until it becomes
pulmonary
artery
capillary blood
vessels that he in the alveolar wall. The venous tree begins with the capillaries in
the alveolar wall. The veins converge repeatedly until they become pulmonary
veins, which enter the left atrium of the heart. The main function of the lung takes
blood takes up oxygen from the gas in the alveoli
place in the alveoli. The venous
and releases carbon dioxide
to the alveolar gas. The gas exchange
takes place across
the
a micrograph
alveolar
wall. Figure 1.5 shows
of the alveolar walls enclosed
in
a small circle on the left border of Fig. 1.4. Figure
1.6 shows the collagen fibers
in the alveolar walls. The collagen
fibers were stained with
silver and appear as
black bundles. The collagen
fibers
are formed by fibrils. Fibrils are formed by
molecules. One could go on to smaller hierarchies consisting
of molecules,
collagen
atoms, nuclei, and quarks.
on what property of the lung we wish to investigate,
we may
Depending
consider the lung as a continuum at successivehierarchies.
For example, if one is
interested
the difference in strain in the upper part of the human
in comparing
then the individual
from that in the lower
alveoli
can be considered
lung
part,
and one can speak of deformation
infinitesimal
averaged over volumes that are
large compared with the volume of a single alveolus,but small compared with the
whole
in studying the interaction
lung. Such an approximation would be appropriate
Introduction
10
Figure 1.5 A
circle on the
in the walls
view of
magnified
the
alveolar
the interalveolar
Chap.
Sec. 1.10
Biological
Example
of
a Hierarchy
of
11
Continua
septa).
A =
alveolar
vessels
gas
space.
the distribution
of pleural pressure, or the
is related to
lung (becauseventilation
alveolar
For these problems, a hierarchy
with
size, which is proportional to the strain).
a minimum dimension on the order of 1 cm will suffice. On the other hand,
if one
is interested in the blood flow in the large pulmonary
then the blood can
artery,
and the blood vessel wall can be regarded as
be regarded as a homogeneous fluid
a continuum,
with a minimum dimensionfor the definition of stress and strain on
the
order
of 10 urn. If one is interested instead in the stress in a single alveolar
wall
(with a plane area on the order of 100 x 100|xm2 and a thickness of about
10 u,m), then even the individual
and elastin fibers in the wall cannot be
collagen
and the wall must be considered
a composite structure made of several
ignored,
different
materials and constructed in a special way. What
lands of averages are
useful
on what the purpose of one'sinvestigation
is. Engineers,
depend
biologists,
and
are concerned about these questions.
We bend the classical
physicists
continuummechanics
in this direction to make it useful for dealing
with practical
between the
distribution
problems.
lung
and
the chest
of ventilation
in
wall,
the whole
Figure 1.6
lung
inflated
Collagen
fibers
to a transpulmonary
in a
pulmonary
pressure
alveolar
(alveolar
wall
gas
of
a human
pressure
minus
pleural
pressure)
1675,1988. Reproduced by
permission.
12
Introduction
1.11 ELEMENTARY
Sec. 1.11
EVOLVED
on
As an introduction
to the
rest
that are
useful
and
simpleand
include Newton's
mechanics.
These
of the
some
book,
that have been fundamental
in the history of
the equations of equilibrium,
of motion,
laws
elementary
a plate, and a
diagrams, the analyses of a truss, a beam, a block,
shell, and the classical beam theory. If you are familiar with these topics, you can
If some points are new to you, I can assure you that learning
go over them quickly.
them would not be a waste of your time.
of free-body
If I
= /,
Let K
7th
be
particle
consists of an
of mutual
that is the
resultant
laws are
that
space
obeys
stated with
Euclidean
to material
respect
geometry. A
particles in
material
positive
measure,
with
reference.By
dx
a =
It>
total
force acting
on the
(11W)
Jf
= 0,
If F
particle.
v =
F t4 0,
Newton's
then
dt
Eq. (1.11-3)
states
is written
as an equation
appears
first law
inertial
jtat
Wf +
+
F\342\200\236,
(/
\302\245? \302\243
ja\\
(1.11-6)
F\342\200\236.
. , K).
1,2,..
(1.11-7)
particle
system.
(1.11-2)
Equilibrium
acceleration
i.e., one in which there is no
is equilibrium,
A special motion
particles of the system.
becomes
At equilibrium, Eq. (1.11-7)
= ma.
(1.11-3)
K
(I
Summing
over
I from 1
to K, we
obtain
of two
(1.11-4)
forces. The
term
-ma
In the
last
is called
sum,
Wu
appears,
consider
is influenced
a system
by all the
of particles
other particles
that
interact
in the
with each
system. Let
an
other.
index
That
/ denote
the
(1.11-9)
also;
appears
Every
Fj,
is zero.
in
equilibrium,
(1.11-8)
= 0.
reduces
to Eq.
according
whenever
for any
= l,2,...,K).
Fi,
+ \302\243
\302\243
\302\245?
\302\243
(-ma) = 0,
of equilibrium
= 0,
+ SF\342\200\236
Fl\302\243)
force.
Now,
D'Alembert'sprinciple.
particle
m,v,
that
the
Thus,
particles.
of the
of motion
as
F +
it
constant.
= F, or F
-mv
When
between
dv
states that
If
in agreement
definition,
Let F be the
(1.11-5)
0.
F\342\200\236
a three-dimensional
has a unique,
particle
summed)
interaction
F,
The equation
Newton's
particle
=
we set F\302\273 0,
then
Laws of Motion
Newton's
of
= -\302\245\342\200\236
or
Fa
F\342\200\236
topics
the use
that
F\302\273,
and
by particle number
J. Then Newton's third
exerted
states that
law
us consider
let
number
particle
of interaction
particle I on
the force
denote
13
through
Topics
Elementary
particle. Let Fw
the 2th
WHICH BASICIDEAS
THROUGH
TOPICS
Chap. 1
they
add
up to
(1.11-10)
= 0.
the summation
zero,
to
of all
external
forces
acting on
14
Introduction
Next, let us
consider the
Chap.
Sec.1.11
through
Topics
Elementary
15
at a point 0
I =
equation, setting
1 to K,
/from
on
is acted
and
and
by
1,2,...
tendency
a force
K,
the results
adding
to simplify
Eq. (1.11-5)
using
2 r, x
The choice of
of
equilibrium
the
the
on the body
acting
point 0
is arbitrary.
body: The
about
FfJ
0.
of the
over
(1.11-11)
we obtain the
Hence,
summation
point
any
the
second condition
moments of all
the external
of
(a, b,...),
forces
is zero.
tension,
Use of Free-BodyDiagram
in the
Analysis of
Problems
The word
Let us
first
truss as a free
compute
body.
It
is subjected
1.7(b)].
(1) Summation
of vertical
are:
is zero:
forces
= Q.
W-RL-R\302\253
Example 1.
of a
Analysis
Trussesare frame
construction
sites,
typical truss
bolted
that
Truss
(2)
structures
TV towers,
of a small
together.
railway
The joints at
the members
are joined
seen
commonly
radio
astronomical
bridge.
a,b,c,.
together
the
horizontal
bridges,
buildings, lifts in
etc. Figure 1.7(a)
ab,
be,
truss.
foundation
The support at /
is eliminated.
rests on
of moments
Summation
about the
W-3L shows
ac,...,
in
antennas,
a roller
so
compression.
point
a is
zero:
= 0.
RR-6L
small
Since
sin 0
0 = 45\302\260,
Summing
all
the
Fab
= 0.
Hence, for 0
sin 0
and
45\302\260
Fab
Fac
- W/V2, we
= 0.
obtain
Fac = WI2.
Introduction
16
ChapTl
Feg
1, we obtain
of the truss.
Hef
cut
we compute the tensions in the members df, ef, and eg. We pass a
a
free
the
truss
as
of
left
body
the
consider
and
members
portion
these
we resolve the tension in the member ef into
For convenience,
Next,
through
1.7(d)].
forces
Vsf. All the external
Hef and the vertical
two components: the horizontal
are:
conditions
in Fig. 1.7(d). The equilibrium
on this free body are shown
acting
[see Fig.
-W/2.
obtain
similar
Example
2. A
in
e/is
illustrates
Simply
through/'
andg'.
a simply
compressive
member
that resists
supported beam.
Summation
of all
resist moment.
Let us
(2) Summation
of all
+ Fes = 0.
+ v.-o.
y
(3)
of moments
y-2L
(4) Sum
of moments
about the
point
F(yL
about the
3, we obtain
reactions
+ 0-F1,+
are supported
0-F,
-W;
in
an imaginary plane
perpendicular
that
do not
W/2.
obviously
to
on pins
load. For
this
purpose,
let us
at a distance x from
of the left portion of the
the beam
the free-body
of all
forces
vanish:
H = Q.
(2)
(3)
Sum
in
the
vertical
direction
vanish:
= 0.
= 0.
=
1.8(a)
point/vanish:
Fdf
Fig.
e vanish:
condition
The
Consider
(1) Sum
y3L.-JVL
Hence, from
beam
M,
Sum
discussed
by
shown in
of the
the left
forces vanish:
vertical
truss
or compression
the truss resists the load by tension
whereas
and
tensile
distributed
it
continuously
resists
ask how
with
1.8(a)
Figure
diagram
end [Fig. 1.8(b)].
S
cut surface, there acts a \"shear force\"
the
At
in
1.8(b).
Fig.
beam, as shown
a
and
the cut,
couple
force\" H perpendicular to
an \"axial
are
tangential to the cut,
of equilibrium
conditions
The
beam.
the
in
the bending moment
called
by bending.
is similar to the
load
lateral
function
Its
stresses.
The ends
make a cut
(1)
members
Beam
Example 1. However,
beam
in the members, the
the
condition
compression.
Supported
A beam is a solid
to
diagram of a part of the truss
left of the cutting surface
passing
from
other
~Evolv~'
can be
The results
condition 2, we
= 3W/2; from
\"
Basic ^
>ugh'
/Topi
Elen
Sec.',,,.-.
from
condition 4,
we
obtain
of
the
moments
of all forces
about the
left
end support
vanish:
18
Introduction
Chap.
Sec.
1.11
Elementary Topicsthrough
Which
Basic Ideas
19
Evolved
/7W~
(a)
Figure
1.8
beam,
(a)
A simply supported
A sketch of the beam of
HTTT
W_
(a)
!b)
1.9
Figure
The
the
Stresses in a
block,
of reference x, y,
(a)
z,
loading, W, acting on the
frame
block,(b) Free-body
the part
of the block
and
diagram of
above the
z = 0. (c) Free-body
diagram
of the upper part of the block cut
vector v
by a plane whose normal
makes an angle 9 with the z-axis.
(d) The force acting on the inclined
with normal vector v is
plane
resolved into a normal force, N,
and a shear force, S. (e) The
and shear
of the normal
variations
stresses acting on die inclined
and t, respectively, are
o-\342\200\236
plane,
plane
in a cross section at a distance x from the left end, the stresses in the beam
are equipollent to a shear force S ~ WI2 and a moment M = Wxl2.
as shown in Fig. 1.8(c). Such a figure is called
As x varies, the moment varies,
a bending moment diagram of a beam subjected to a specific loading. Knowing
the
we
can
the
stresses
in
a
beam.
moment,
acting
compute
bending
[SeeEq. (1.1131)infra.] Beams are generally designed on the basis of the maximum
bending
moments they have to resist.
Thus,
Example
Stresses in
3.
Consider
shown
the
a Block
a block
of solid
plotted
material
Let us assume
are uniform
stresses
rectangular
that
in
Cartesian
compressed
is a rectangular
by a load W
acting
parallelepiped. We wish
(e)
end, as
on its
sufficiently
in the
figure,
with
the
of the resultant
force is W,
the stress
this
acting
z-axis
The stresses
acting
resultant
moment.
Applying
once
the horizontal
that
the
conditions
component of the
of equilibrium
resultant
force
as before,
vanishes,
we
that the
find
vertical
at
and
on a plane
z =
moment is zero. In
0 isa compressive,
normal
the angle of
8.
to know
component
at a distance
against
inclination,
(1.11-12)
'A'
where A is the
normal
normal
to the axis of
compressed
in
that
cross-sectional
area of the
block
z = 0
is
the block). The stress is compressive because the material
It is normal because cr is a force (per unit area)
direction.
20
Introduction
0. We indicate
(normal) to the surface z
by giving it a negative value.
Next, let us make a cut with a plane that is inclined
perpendicular
of the
Chap. 1
Sec.1.11
1 kilogram
stress
plane. The
normal
inclined
cos(v,
at an
angle 6 to
1 pound
the xy-
N=-W
The cross-sectional
normal
block cut
denoting the
=
- cos2
8WIA,
cr\342\200\236
S=-Wsin
8.
(1.11-13)
area.
cross-sectional
of the
area
cos6,
by the
N and
t =
(1.11-14)
numerical value.
The sign
convention
of the shear stress will be discussed in Sec. 3.1.
The normal and shear stresses cr\342\200\236
and t vary with the
8. If we plot them
angle
as a function of 6, we obtain
the curves shown in Fig. 1.9(e). We see that cr\342\200\236
is a
maximum when 0 = 0, whereas the shear t reaches a maximum
when
0 = 45\302\260,
and that the maximum
shear is Tmnx = iWIA.
The principal
that we learn from this example
lesson
is that there are two
of stress, normal and shear, whose
values at any given point in a
components
body
of the surface on which the stress acts. Thus,
depend on the direction
stress is a
vector (o-\342\200\236,
with another vector
t) associated
(v). To specify a stress, we have to
two vectors. To specify
the
state
stress
at a given point in a continuum,
specify
fully
of
we must know the stresses acting on all possible planes v
(i.e., sections oriented
in all possible directions).
A quantity such as the state of stress is called a tensor.
this example tells us that stress is a tensorial
Thus,
quantity.
In the International System of Units
(SI Units), the basic unit of force is the
newton
is the meter (m). Thus,
the basic unit of stress
is
(n) and that of length
newton per square meter (n/m2), ox pascal (Pa, in honor of
Pascal). We also have
1 MPa = 1 n/mm2.
A force of 1 n can accelerate a
of mass 1 kg to 1 m/sec2.
body
A force of 1 dyne can accelerate a body of mass 1 gram to 1 cm/sec2.
Hence, 1
= 10\"5 newton.
are some conversion factors:
dyne
Following
per
1 dyne/cm2
1 atmosphere
221
0.453592
kg
= 6.894757 kPa
(psi)
inch
square
newton
newtons
mass avoirdupois =
1 pound
body,
= 4.448
force
1 pound
way
simplest
= 9.806 65
force (kgf)
= 0.100 n/m2
= 1.013 25 x
105
= 1.013
n/m2
25 bar
1 ton ~ ix
=
n/m2 =
Hg at 0\302\260C 133.322
=
n/m2
1 cm H20 at 4\302\260C 98.063 8
= 0.1 newton sec/m2=
1 poise (viscosity)
1 mm
lcp
= 0.001
21
through
Topics
Elementary
kPa
0.1Pa-sec
Pa-sec
The
notion
Example 4. Stressesin
of stress
a Plate
material.
thickness and homogeneous
plate of uniform
Consider a thin rectangular
distributed
to
a
is
uniformly
subjected
As shown in Figs. 1.10(a) and (b), the plate
z =
and no load on the surface
- \302\261a
and y = \302\2615
load acting on the surfaces x
=
a
is
of a
the stress acting on the edge x
In Fig. 1.10(b), it is shown that
\302\261hl2.
=
a
x
the
on
edge
is equal to the total load
o^ per unit area. (or^.
magnitude
stress
The
x
the
a.)
area of the plate cut by
plane
divided
by the cross-sectional
unit area. In Fig. 1.10(c), it is
= b is of magnitude
per
o-\342\200\236,
the
on
y
edge
acting
= a (t^ is
to a shear stress tv on the edge x
that the plate is subjected
shown
x = a in the direction of the yacting on the edge
to the total shear load
equal
= a) and a shear stress
cross-sectionalarea of the section x
axis, divided by the
= b. o^, ayy, Tfl,, and tyx are called stresses because they are all
t,j on the edge y
in units of force per unit area.
in Fig. 1.10(b), we
to the plate shown
of equilibrium
Applying the equations
=
to
that acting on the
is
-a
x
equal
see that the stress o-K acting on the edge
in Fig.
shown
the
to
of
plate
=
the equations
equilibrium
a. Applying
edge x
=
=
on
a, that ryx y b and
x = -a is equal to t^ on x
1.10(c), we see that t^ on
all forces (stresses
= - b are also equal, and further, that by taking the moment of
y
about the origin
0, we obtain
x cross-sectional
area)
2a-txy-2bh
The
ayy.
If a
Tyx
The
state of stress
state of stress
plate is subjected
[a superposition
of stress
is specified
in
in
the
the
to both
of the
2b-Tyx-2ah
= 0,
or
t^ =
jyx.
condition shown
by the four
in
Fig.
in Fig.
1.10(b) is
the
state
clarify
this
Introduction
22
Chap. 1
Sec. 1.11
through
Topics
Elementary
>
1.11
Figure
A pressurized
(a) A diametrical
shell,
spherical
mi
fyc
\\
_J\302\273x
-a
\302\253!\302\273\342\200\224
-o 0
t
-b
diagram
1
tt
,yy
pressure,
\\
-6
WWII
(b)
(a)
(c)
Stressesin
Figure 1.10
plane,
double subscriptnotation,
we specify the rule that the first index
of the stress denotes
the plane on which the stress acts, whereas
the second index denotes the direction
in
which the force acts. Thus, the tensorial character of stress mentioned
at the end
of Example
3 becomes even clearer in the
present example.
(b)
due to
therefore,
wall stress
is ir(r?
rj)
(a-). The
balance of the
forces
in equilibrium
ir(r*
rf)(v) = ,irr?p,
(Ul-15)
or
(cr)
This is a useful
formula
rlPl
pr
'rl-r,
that is valid
(1.11-16)
+ rf
h(ra
as well as thin-walled,
for thick-walled,
Pressurized
The wall
to know
Spherical
If a pressure
normal stress
in
p,
the
acts
on the
wall will
outside of the
shell,
as in
Fig.
1.12,
tensile
<o->
If the
shell is subjected
the resulting
be
Shell
the
spherical
shells.
rlp0
Example 5.
requires,
that
to both
(1.11-17)
+ ry
h(r\342\200\236
an internal and
an
external
pressure,
and the
shell
A spherical
external
to
pressure.
subjected
Fiprel.12
wall
24
Introduction
of the
reduce
sphere is very
thin,
then
r-,
r\342\200\236
h;r\342\200\236
r;
Chap.
Sec. 1.11
Elementary
of forces
balance
Topics
through
on the
semicircular
acting
in the
ring
25
that
to
2{o-s)(r0
r^L = 2r,LPi.
(1.11-19)
Hence,
Example 6.
Pressurized
Circular
Cylindrical
Tanks
Consider a cylindrical
shell subjected
to an internal pressure p\342\200\236
as shown in Fig.
Let us pass two planes perpendicular
to the axis of the cylinder to cut the
1.13(a).
shell into a ring, pass another
to cut the ring
plane through the axis of the cylinder
into two halves, and isolate the semicircular
in Fig.
ring as a free body, as shown
1.13(b). The stress acting on the radial cut CD is normal to the surface and is
directed in the direction of increasing polar angle 6 in polar coordinates; hence, it
will be denoted by or\342\200\236.
As in Example 5, we do not know the exact distribution
of
but if (a0) denotes
Go in the cross section,
the average value
of o-\342\200\236
over the cross
section, then (cre) multiplied by the area (r\342\200\236
force acting in
r)L is the resultant
the cross section CD. Similarly,
the tensile force in the section EF
[Fig. 1.13(b)]
is also
of pressure acting on the inside is
((rs)(r0
r^L. The resultant
2r,Lp,. The
is another
which
very
useful
formula.
exact
consider the
and
plane perpendicular to its axis
can examine the
we
in
as
shown
as a free body,
Fig. 1.13(c),
left half of the tank
x on a cross
direction
axial
the
acts
in
that
stress
axial
o-,
average value of the
- rf).
the area on which
ax acts is it(;^
that
note
We
to
x.
section
perpendicular
a
acts
has
the internal
projected
pressure/),On the other hand, the surface on which
of forces in the axial
area in the axial direction equal to irr}. Hence, the balance
direction yields
If we cut the
cylinder
by a
Trrfc
or
to =
If the
shell
equations
Qj
Ht
wall
are
thin, so that
simplified to
is very
A'
<o-0>
(a)
(1.11-21)
r?)
(ffj},r(r2
(1.11-20)
-^-,
Simple Beam
Consider
tanplar
ra
'-f,
(l-H-22)
^i-
r,-
= h
(ux)
and thus,
= r, then
= rt
r\342\200\236
these
(1.11-23)
g.
Theory
a prismatic
beam of a
cross section
as
acting on its ends,
uniform
isotropic
Hookean
material
with
a rec-
M
to a pair of bending moments of magnitude
subjected
is
beam
of
the
section
cross
the
If
in Fig. 1.14(a).
shown
will
beam
the
the
end
moments,
to the
containing
plane
with respect
as shown in Fig. 1.14(b). The deflection
into a circular arc in the same plane,
cross section is
arc because of symmetry, since every
must be a circular
curve
is small
deflection
the
that
Let us assume
strain.
and
subjected to the same stress
of
frame
a
choose
We
rectangular
of the beam).
with the length
(compared
axis of
the
of
direction
the
in
longitudinal
the Jr-axis pointing
reference x y z, with
to x and
to x but in the plane of bending, and z normal
the beam, y perpendicular
at the centroid
of the coordinates will be chosen
The
symmetric
deflect
(c)
Fipre 1.13 A
pressurized
cylindrical tank, (a) The shell seen in a
cross section passing through the central axis of the shell, (b) A freeto
body
diagram of a part of the shell cut by two planes
perpendicular
the central axis and a third plane containing the central axis, (c) A
free-body
diagram of a part of the shell to the left of a plane
to the central axis.
perpendicular
y. [See Fig.
1.14(a).]
of one crosssection,
The deflection
surface
(the
plane y
origin
of the
Introduction
26
Chap.
Sec.1.11
Since only
A
must
act on
moments
pure bending
\\r-7V
A is
where
Neutral plane
says
is unstressed
of the
beam, (a) The configuration
1.14 Bending of a prismatic
a uniform bending
bent
beam
The
by
state,
at
zero-stress
(b)
beam
theory, the
of the classical beam
moment M. (c) Under the hypotheses
beam bounded by two crossform of a small segment of the
deformed
in (b) is shown. R is the
sectional planes A and B in (a) and A', B'
which the origin of the
on
surface
neutral
radius of curvature of the
of the
The distribution
coordinates system x, v, z is located,(d)
stress is zero
the beam. The bending
of
cross
section
a
in
stress
bending
the
under
of
v
function
a
linear
is
on the neutral surface, and
to the neutral axis
that plane cross sections perpendicular
assumption
deformation.
in
remain
bending
Fipre
o\"zr
Tjy
7yz
component
to Hooke's
va. We
now
Substituting
Eq.
into
(1.11-25)
this
section. This
- 0
y
make
the
=
We
now
and
denote
(1.11-25)
(1.11-29)
j\\.AfdA.
as the
integral
yields
equation
M =
of the
cross section
it by I:
a-11-30)
i^lfdA.
Then
the
foregoing
equations
M
may
as*
be written
\302\260a ffo
r~'-
Yi
\342\226\240Mc
cr\302\260=
ci 11
ia\\
(i.n-31)
T'
c'
where c is the
W2
and
/ =
largest
distance
from the
neutral
surface
to the
~\302\253r\\
formulas
E-.
\342\200\242Ee^r
the cross
(1.11-28)
(1.11-24)
a stress
centroidal
M^jja^dA.
cross sections
surface. Consider two neighboring
any displacements
= 0 when the beam is unloaded.
the
to
y
plane
A and B that are perpendicular
A and B are deformed
into a circular arc, the two planes
When the beam is bent
arc.
normal to the
[SeeFig. 1.14(c).] That A'
remain
into planes A' and B' that
to the
are perpendicular
That
they
is because of symmetry.
and B' are planes
of the
curvature
of
the
radius
Let
centroidal arc is also because of symmetry.
relative
a
to
bent
are
angle
B'
A'
and
sections
cross
the
centroidal arc be R, When
at a distance y above the
a
line
whereas
is
RdO;
arc
length
of dd, the centroidal
The change in length is y dB. A
centroidal line will have a length (R + y)d6.
strain
division by its original length R dd yields the
be
be the
cross
to this
will
d'11^)
centroid
plane
(1.11-25)
Eq.
Substituting
(b)
relative
plane
as origin. The centroidal
on it
Material
particles
to
(1.11-25)].
Eq.
[according
called the neutral
therefore
is
This plane
direction.
choice of the
bending
during
the
= 0,
= 0) must
(y
origin
our original
explains
(d)
that the
area in
cross section.
y<L4
which
(1.11-26)
is an element of
dA
extends
the integration
into Eq. (1.11-26)yields
(a)
'
axial force
resultant
= 0,
J^ovL4
X
is,
That
vanish.
27
through
Topics
Elementary
\"Thirty important
of memorizing.
thirty lines worthy
by black
These are
Introduction
Chap. 1
Sec.
Which
Eiementary Topicsthrough
rll
Basic ideas
29
Evolved
28
Theseformulas
give
us the
stress and
strain
in a prismatic
beam when
it is
end
Clamped
(deflection
(1
be considered
cL
lWl)
taKv
true
along
(1.11-34)
= 0.
dx
the beam.
Free end
and
(moment
shear specified):
=
Figure
dy
= 0,
(1.11-33)
0.
= 0,
1.15
a distributed
beam
subjected
vfy
M,
(1.11-35)
- s
Eig
to
loading.
of Beams
Deflection
deflection of a beam
in Fig. 1.16. Let
illustrated
beams
the
consider
a lateral load. For example,
under
of the neutral surface) be y(x). When y(x)
deflection curve (deflection
the beam
can be approximated
of the beam), its curvature
is small (much less than the length
leadsto the basic equation
and the use of Eq. (1.11-31)
by dlyldxl,
Based on
such
an empirical
observation, we
can
analyze the
(1.11-32)
EI
dx1
equations
dx
But
since
If
M =
d1yldxt,
then
equation
(so
supported
as in
Eq. (1.11-35).
valid), but the
leads to the
which
can be
for VR,
in
W
\\dx)
(1.11-37)
'
EI
~~\"j j
Simply
(l.U-36)
we should
dx\"
= w.
dx
have S = El d^yldx1
that the preceding analysis
11 +
/1
dS_
we must
is small
curvature
the
slope is finite,
following
EI
= S,
Simply
supported
end
be integrated
beam
to obtain
(1.11-38)
\342\226\240
ttiilLw
\342\200\224.\342\200\224\342\200\224i
\342\226\240\302\273
pree endd
Cantilevered
\302\253
beam
HILL
Clamped
Figure
end
cantilever
Figure 1.16
Clamped beam
1.17
beams.
End
conditions
of
Bending
beam.
of
31
Introduction
30
constants.
= 0, so that
The boundary
the solution is
Chap.
conditions v = dyldx
Chap.
Problems
of
= 0
Mx2
for
In
this
special
becauseM =
case,
the
boundary
on the
conditions
free
end
are
also satisfied
const.
After all,
all the boundary conditions in general?
we, however, satisfy
that
we
have
four
so
conditions
two
two
ends
with
boundary
each,
beam has
our differential equation (1.11-32) is only of the second order.
whereas
Can
our
conditions,
to satisfy all
constants
a sufficient number of arbitrary
we going to have
reflection tells us,
as it stands, is no. A further
boundary conditions?The answer,
that for a general loading, the differential
by
equation must be obtained
however,
must be
with
Thus, the general equation
Eq. (1.11-32).
combining Eq. (1.11-36)
Are
dS
which is a fourth-order
conditions.
In the
case of a
differential
uniform
d2M
d2
to your
boundary
we have
the
improve
w(x).
(1.11-41)
of the truss by
safety
one of
Then,
the truss would
if
E&
method?
a lift to
are challenged to design
to be built in town, and you
designs,
A 100-storybuilding is
alternative
several
process. Make
the construction
is a goodone.
elevate heavy material in
why your choice
them. Explain
from
among
choice
a
and then make
and felt that he could
truss shown in Fig. PI .6(a)
1.6 An engineer looked at the simpleadding another member AB, as shown in Fig. P1.6(b).
difference
1.5
(d2y\\
equation,
beam,
1.4
the members
AB,CD,
were broken
AC, BD, and AD
by
some accident,
yields
deviation
with
the beam is
occurs only when
soft core material in which
1000*
very
1000
(b)
(a)
determinate truss,(b) A
statically
lipre
PROBLEMS
1.1
of water in ice
with a slight reduction in volume. The molecules
some
Construct
feature.
this
examples
to achieve
macroscopic
themselves
rearrange
a solid structure into one that can be deformed
that can do the same, i.e., change
Ice melts
into water
Now,
such as airplanes,
the character of
the truss in Fig.
easily.
1.2
1.3
fail-safe
also.
construction
Fig. P1.6(b)
how do you determine
additional information,
is needed? With the
for the additional safety?
do
members? What cost you pay
indeterminate
a
in Fig. 1.6(b) is called statically
A truss like that shown
Note:
statics alone.
by
determined
be
in the bars cannot
because the
1.7
Galileo,
tension
in his Tivo
in the manner
rested on two supports,
a simply supported
structure
A column of marble
beam.
The citizens of
32
Introduction
about
third
the
support
Chap.
safety
33
Problems
Chap.
1.11
One
stressesin
Why?
their
Assume that
gymnastic
they are
corresponding
\342\226\240>Ah.\342\200\236-,,riJ,\342\200\236s&
A-&>,\302\243f.,^
is 2.
v...^,uv,0,.\302\273illi!,,.nr^i<,.v^
of a fallen
column.
1.12The
deflection
and
if
a lateral force
F induces a
1.9 Comparethe
for the
vertebra
following
(a) A secretary
and (ii) with
(b) A
bending
spinal
column
at the
level
of a lumbar
skier skiis
(i)
doctor always
artery.
A small
balloon.
How far
in
P = 4u/7?.
the equation
Take a pippette, put
at each end. (See Fig. PI.12.)
valve so that the gas in
middle
R by
diameters change?
Explain
bubble
in detail.
will
disappear.
(i) with
knees straight
cases:
on the floor
and (ii)
the
diagrams.
trys to \"feel
on your radial
your pulse\" by putting his fingers
can find by doing this, let us considera simpler case.
To understand what he
balloon is inflated by air at a
pressure
of p pascals.
I press
my
finger
on the
(See Fig. PI.10.) I assume that the bending resistanceof the wall is negligible.
down should I press so that the pressureacting on my finger is exactly pi
Hint. Considerthe free-body diagram of a small piece of the balloon under the finger.
when the spot under the finger becomes flattened into a plane surface.
Consider the condition
bronchioles,
the mouth,
nose, trachea, bronchi,
a person breathes, air enters
which are the final units of respiration.
the
in
alveoli,
ends
and
ducts
and
in Prob.
liken each alveolus to the gas bubble considered
Most textbooks of physiology
in
ventilated
parallel
consists of 300 million bubbles
1.12 and state that a human lung
One cannot
of Prob. 1.12to this statement.
Now, apply the results
to the atmosphere.
for the largest one.
that all the alveoli will collapse except
conclusion
Mammalian
alveolus.
This is
obviously
dM
hence,
in a
balloon.
the
d2M
pressure
What went
as
are so
-d?
Feeling
absurd.
\342\200\236
S =
P1.10
one.
alveolar
Figure
of a small
1.13 When
waist.
1.10 Your
of
knees bent.
water
gas pressure
dS
W=dl>
and
w the load.
Show that,
35
Introduction
34
Chap. 1
Chap. 1
Problems
wdx
=
WW
Fipre
M+dM
Solution.
S + dS
\342\200\224dx-
1,15 Using
the differential
distribution
in the beams
of;
moment
find the bending
equation derived in Prob. 1.14,
shown in Figs. P1.15(a) and (b) under a loading
per unit length
of
P1.17
Redundant
supports.
indeterminate
at A is statically
supported
To solve the problem, we
alone.
statics
at A cannot be computed by
A beam clamped
at B and simply
away.
the
Then
cantilever
to P.
is proportional
This produces
loaded by a force R at the tip.
beam
the same cantilever
consider
Next,
+ fff = 0.
8\342\204\242
Hence,
move.
the end A doesnot
at the end A. In reality,
a deflection 8\342\204\242
moment
the
R. With R known, we can then complete
From this equation, we can compute
diagram.
in
unlike Galileo's rocksdiscussed
rests on three hinges which,
(Fig. P1.18)
and pull can be
both
that
push
foundation
to the
Prob. 1.7, are so rigidly attached
beam
moment distribution in the
with which the bending
1.18 A beam
sustained. Sketch a
can be calculated.
x0MlXhi
P1.15
Bending of beams
distributed
under a sinusoidally
load, (a) Beam is cantilevered, i.e.,
at the
free at one end and clamped
Figure
simply
supported.
displacement
apply
at this point.
The condition
at
that is simply supported
W pounds tries to walk over a plank
1,16 A personweighing
two ends acrossa river. (See Fig. P1.16.) The plank will break whenever the bending
moment exceeds Ma. At what place (*) will the plank break and the personfall into
method
equation to compute
can be completed.
statically
due to
the
and compute
the
that
the
becomes
support
the
the river?
Answer, x
= j[L \302\261
(L2
4K)\"1],
where
K =
LMJW.
Figure
PL16
over a
plank.
person
walking
7MT/
wm
w\"/
Hint. Let x
and
be
atxis
1.17
A hinge is added to the left end of a cantilever beam that is loaded by a constant force
determine the bending moment in the
P, as shown in Fig. PI.17. How would you
beam?
supports.
MG0
=
\302\243(x-9\302\253>(9*
37
Chap.
Introduction
36
Chap.
A red bloodcell
isotonic
a
buffered
in
suspended
of
body
plasma is an axisymmetric
revolution with a central cross
section as shown.
Figure
wind
Figure P1.19 A strong
blowing on a palm tree.
The
Problems
bending
maximum
D(x) so
stress at x is proportional
that M(x)ID\\x)
that in =
1. The
to M(x)ID3(x).
for
results in aerodynamic
theory says that the best design
motion due
to
forward
air
resistance
an
of
(the
induced
airplane
the minimum
drag
is meant
to lifting the weight of the airplane) is one with elliptic loading. By loading
the lift
that
is
meant
unit
loading
force
lift
span. By elliptic
per
the aerodynamic
the
distance
the
be
wing
x
along
distribution from wing tip to wing tip is an ellipse. Let
the
of
b
the
wing
Let
be
the
semispan
of
the centerline
airplane.
span measured from
theorem says that the
the
Then
the
to
centerline
the
wing
tip).
from
(the distance
formula
is achieved if the lift is distributed according to the
induced
1.20Oneof
minimum
drag
/c(l
\342\202\254(*)
k is a constant. This
where
lift
distribution,
P1.21
diagram
shows a free-body
Figure P1.22(b)
a person worldng.
shows
1.22 Figure P1.22(a)
intervertebral disc in the
an
through
section
cross
a
passing
with
The
of the upper body,
is sketched in Fig. P1.22(c).
structure of the lumbar spine
In
lumbar
region. The
moments.
torsion
and
cannot resist bending
discsserve as pivots of rotation: They the
are stressed. The
muscles
the
and
discs,
load, the vertebra,
whose
resisting the external
erector spinae,
line of the discsare the
centroidal
the
behind
muscles
of the disc.
center
major
the
behind
trunk
22% of the depth of the
centroid is located about
moment of the
arm of L, what is the bending
moment
a
with
For a load W acting
muscle for
erector
in the
spinae
tension
disc? How large is the
external load about the
a person of your size?
to this problem.
that lots of attention has been given
Low back pain is so common
some cases.It
in
strain
with
gages
the discshave been measured
The loads acting on
not take into
do
if we
obtained
with prediction can be
abdominal
was found that no agreement
the
tenses
one
up
when one lifts a heavy weight,
account the fact that
that it helps for a lifter
Show
increased.
is
in the abdomen
and
muscles so that the pressure
muscles. Ref. Schultz, A.B.,
and strong abdominal
abdomen
a
large
to have
Basic
Orthopaedic
In
of human spine.\"
J.A.: \"Biomechanics
337\342\200\224
Ashton-Miller,
Press, New York, 1991,pp.
and W.C. Hayes, Raven
Mow
V.C.
Biomechanics,ed. by
364.
xVFj\"2
yields
economy.
the
airplane
irX
p=dC0S7\302\243
Figure
cell is an axisymmetric
a hole.
(See Fig.
P1.21.)
and it floats
People describe it as a
biconcave
disk.
It is
filled
By considering suitable
the
between
difference
Pivoi
(b!
free-body
is the physiological
significance
of this conclusion?
-vertebra
Figure
P1.22
Loads
in the spine
when a man
shoves
a weight.
33
Introduction
Chap.
entitled
1.23 Figure P1.23is a classicfrom a book by Giovanni Alphonso Borelli (1608-1679)
\"De Motu Animalium\"
published in 1680 (first part)
(On the Movement of Animals),
New York,
and 1681 (second part),
recently translated by P. Maquet, Springer-Verlag,
1989. The fipre shows a person
carrying a heavy load. Several parts are cut open to
can be obtained,
show how bones and muscles work in this effort. Further clarification
of course, by use of moredetailed
free-body diagrams. Use them
is the load acting on the hip joint when a 70 kg person walks
on the shoulder.
carrying
story needsa
mechanics.
of
A beautiful
2.1
Tensoris the
to tell.
language
beautiful
language
VECTORS
in a three-dimensional Euclidean
is defined as a directed
line
space
and a given direction.
We shall denote vectors
with a given magnitude
by
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
, or by boldface letters, u, v, F, T,
AB, Ft, \342\226\240
Two vectors are equal if they have the same direction and same magnitude.
1. The zero vector, denoted by 0, is a vector
of magnitude
A unit vector is a vector
of zero magnitude. We use the symbols
\\AB\\, |u|, and v to represent tie mapitudes
A vector
segment
and
u,
The
sum
v, respectively.
of two vectors
is
vector
multiplied
number, ka represents
+ BC
by a number
The
subtraction
= AC. Vector
ka is a vector
whose
to a. If k = 0,
- b =a
the
by
addition
vector.
another
yields
a vector
obtained
vector
another
If
as a
magnitude
we have 0-a
\"parallelogram
is commutative
k is a positive real
k
and a magnitude
is |fc| times as large
= 0.
by
+ (-b).
we let
%i axes,
combination
u = Kiei
then
i
I
Mi,
u2, u3
u,
u2e2
and
+ \302\2533e3,
a can
be
(2-1-1)
represented
by a
matrix
M3).
(Ki, \302\2532,
39
Vectorsand
40
The
is then
|u|
magnitude
|u|
= 0 if
and therefore u
given
=
PROBLEMS
Vu! +
+ \302\253i>
ul
= h2 = u3 =
only if Ui
of u and v, denoted
product
2.1 Given
(2.1-2)
Answer:
is defined
by u>v,
by
the
2.2
6 is
where
magnitude
of the
first;
< 0<
(0
tt),
2.3 Prove
2.4 Find
the angle between the given vectors. This represents the product of the
of one vector and the component of the second
vector in the direction
that is,
\342\200\242
=
(magnitude of u) (component
of v
10
2.5
the scalar
+ u2e2 +
= liiei
v^, +
v2e2
be expressed
also
in
of the
terms
+ u2v2
m,Vi
u3v3.
Whereas
|w| =
u and
between
angle
|u||v| sin
v,
plane determined by
Vector products
system.
to the
perpendicular
right-handed
u x
w)
(0
< 6<
u and
v,
in
the
satisfy
(2.1-6)
of w
direction
the
and
ir),
a way
such
following
is defined
that
u, v,
e, x
fai
components
d
e2
three
|v|2).
coplanar
of
forces
and
and making angles of 60\302\260,
120\302\260,
2e, -
between n = 6e, +
the angles
cos\"1
3e3
and v
= -e,
+ 8e,+ 4e3.
(-|).
Given u = 3e, +
e3, v =
4ea
2e, +
5e3,
that n +
otv
is
x v
relations,
e3
= u x
(u2v3
(u x v)-w is
=
u-(v x w).
Find
2.10Find
2.11Find
+ uxw
uxv
= e,
k(n x
u3v2)e, +
called
Ix -
2y
- 3z
2e3,
evaluate
u-(v x
and
w)
of n, v, w. Show that (u
product
and
C(2,
v)-w
2, 3).
- 1 = 0.
in Prob. 2.9.
can
(u3V!
to both
a vector perpendicular
e3 x
et
2.2
= e2
VECTOR
7e2
u = 2e, +
3e2
- e3 and v =
e, -
2e2
+ 3k.
7e3.
or geometric
of vector analysis is to use symbols to represent physical
a
fact
or
a
to
and
geometric
by an equation.
physical relationship
express
quantities
the forces F(,), F(2), . . . , Fc\"' act,
if we have a particle on which
For example,
The
v).
be expressed
in
terms
of the
EQUATIONS
spirit
then we say
-
= e,
(11_7)
x e3 = 0
e2 x e3
=
- e2 + 2e3,w
Answer: let
la/
= e,
+ 3e2,v
16.
Answer:
w form a
as follows:
u x v
n = 2e,
Given
Answer: V62/2.
= e2 X e2 = e3
=
2.9
as
relations:
= 0
these
Find
Answer:
2.8
x u
\342\226\240
Using
of
(u x v)-w.
x u)
-(v
ux(v +
2.7
(2.1-5)
cross)product
0 is the
force
resultant
at the origin
+ v|2 = 2(|n|2 +
+ |u
Answer: -~.
u-v =
where
v|2
orthogonal to v.
components:
2),
(-5,1).
the
of the
that,
Answer:
v3e3
2.6
of these
product
v =
u3e3
the direction of u.
If
u
lb
vector in
\342\200\224\302\273
+ 3e2,
= -2e,
270\302\260,
respectively,
(2.1-4)
along u).
If AB
Answer: (-3,1),
(2.1-3)
4e2
(V2710)u.
\342\200\224i
find
|u||v| cosd
u = -3e, +
vector
0.
formula
u-v =
41
Vector Equations
Sec. 2.2
by
and
Chap. 2
Tensors
+
\302\253iv3)e2
(u,v2
u2Vi)e3.
(2.1-8)
that
the
condition
of equilibrium
Fd) +
pro
+ ...
for this
particle
=
p(\302\273)
o.
is
(2.2-1)
42
and Tensors
Vectors
As another
example, we
if n is a
a plane
the following
equation
and p is a constant:
vector
unit
for the
say that
Chap.
vector r represents
be
shall
Then
the
force
produced
attraction between
2 is
, m^nii r,2
we mean
statement,
the preceding
obtain
rB.
43
Equations
(2.2-2)
that
the locus of the end point
of a radius vector r
equation is a plane. The geometric meaning is again clear.
The vector n, called the unit normal vector of the plane, is specified. The scalar
of r on n. Equation (2.2-2)then states
r-n represents the scalar projection
product
that if we consider all radius vectors r whose component
on n is a constant p, we
this
satisfying
Vector
1 and
r-n = p.
By
Sec. 2.2
a plane.
(See
Fig.
constant.
where G is the gravitational
2.13 Consider a particle constrained to move in a circular orbit at a constant speed.Let v
of the particle; i.e., what is the
be the velocity at any instant. What is the acceleration
vector dvldtl
The velocity vector v may be represented in polar coordinates as follows.
the unit vectors with origin at P in the directions of the radius,
(See Fig. P2.13.)
and the polar axis perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
the tangent,
Thenv = v6, where v is the absolute value of v. Hence, by differentiation,
2.1.)
Answer.
Let r, 0, z,
be, respectively,
dv
it\"
Figure 2.1
r-n = p.
dd
dv.
dt
dt
V\342\200\224
+ -r%.
of a plane,
Equation
\\.
On the other
hand,
as they
elegant
are,
vector
are not
equations
always
coordinate
2^
= 0,
(2.2-2)
= 0,
EF?
i=l
i=l
ax +
by
may be written,
+ cz
2F\302\253
respectively, as
0,
(2.2-3)
i=I
F\302\256,
Ff,
particle
The last
(2.2-4)
p,
F<? represent
P2.13
moving
Velocity vector of a
in a circular orbit.
term vanishes
vector;hence,
8, i.e., parallel
orbit.
Figure
it
Obviously,
8 is turning
at a rate
of u
via.
Hence,
dhldt =
-(v/a)r,
and
dvldt
~(vVa)i.
a circular helix of radius a and pitch h at a
particle is constrained to move along
If the particle is located at
constant speed v. What is the acceleration of the particle?
vectors in terms of
and
acceleration
the
in
velocity
Fig. P2.14, express
P, as shown
2.14 A
PROBLEMS
2.12 Expressthe
law
for
for the
electromagnetic
For example,
Newton's
physics\342\200\224e.g.,
electric
between
the
field\342\200\224in
form
of
vector
charges,
equations.
vector form,
particle
let m, and
1 to particle 2
Figure P2.14
helical
orbit.
Vectorsand
44
unit vectorst,
helix
tangent,
Chap. 2
Tensors
and binormal to
normal,
the
Sec.
2.3
45
set of n
integers
one that
at P.
vector
is parallel to
and
has a magnitude v.
Hence, v
= vt
has
an integral,
in
e.g.,
fj(x)dx
\342\200\224
=
Kn + Tb
fj(y)dy.
dt
where k and t are constants. If the particle moves with unit velocity, the constants k and t
are called the curvature and the torsion of the space curve, respectively.
It is convenient
to use polar coordinates
for this problem.
Let the unit vectorsin the
and axial directions be r, 8, and z, respectively.
direction of the radial, circumferential,
Then
Examples
The
use of the
examples.Consider
rectangularCartesian
v =
hO
+ wi
oti
where \302\253
and w are the
+ u a%ldt
(duldt)Q
are related
by
circumferential
+ {dwldt)i + w{dildt)
In the time interval
= hullva, and v =
hlht
to v as follows:
/:. Hence,
w=
Af
-(uVaji.
Ittalu, the axial
position
dvldt =
h and w
z is changed
+ h1l{4rr(?)]m.
\302\253[1
where
(v, x)
numbers
denotes the
= 1,
a,(i
a2 =
(v, x),
that
a3 =
y),
v and the
between
angle
2, 3) represents
coordinate axes.Thefact
cos(v,
the
of the
the length
*-axis, and
of the
components
is unity
vector
as
so forth.
unit
The set of
on the
vector
is expressed by
the
equation
or,
be mastered.
is usually denoted as xh i = 1,.. . , n.
A set of n variables xu x2,. . . ,xn
When
written
jtt, xt,. . . ,
singly, the symbol x-x stands for any one of the variables
in every case; the simplest way is to write, as
The range of i must be indicated
x\342\200\236.
illustrated
i = 1, 2, . . . , n. The symbol i is an index. An index may be
here,
A system of notations using indices is said to
either a subscript or a superscript.
For further
development, an
matter
important
to
a rectangular
equation
describing
at
and p
a three-dimensional
where
in
equation
a3x3
can be
axes
space referred
consider a line
Euclidean space with
z. The square of the length of the line
As
another
illustration,
in
a three-dimensional
v,
and
we
However,
preceding
equation
dxx
The
convention
with
8n =
(2.3-2)
then Eq.
(2.3-5)may
simple form
dz
x,
is
+ dz1.
dx2 = dy,
dx,
822
82I
S33
(2.3-5)
dx, = dz,
(2.3-6)
(2.3-3)
a term
of an
will denote a
index i is the
with
the
1,
(2.3-7)
be written
as
=
l-.jdxAx,,
(2.3-8)
understanding
ds2
convention
dy1
element
as
=
a,Xi
p.
summation
rectangular
and
written
&n
summation
(2.3-1)
a,x; = p.
in the
= dx2
element
If we define
1,
(2.3-4)
p,
= 1.
aia,-
ds2
a plane
(a3)2
simply,
of notation must
be an indicial notation.
Consideran
(a2)J +
(a,)2 +
CONVENTION
46
Tensors
and
Vectors
Chap.
Sec. 2.3
and Determinants
Matrices
The
Convention
Summation
The
of a
determinant
square
47
The rules of
more simply
rectangular
of determinants
matrix algebra and the evaluation
can be expressed
with the summation convention. An m X n matrix A is an ordered
array of mn
elements. We denote
812
/flu
is a
matrix
number
that
of the
any
the
Am
\302\25311
\302\25312
Al3
(a,7) =
A =
^21
A22
a-2,,
(2.3-9)
A =
det
det (a/;) =
\\aml
au is the
element
the ith
in
Thus,
The
Then
/flu
AT =
a2l
am\\
sign is
the
Let
(2.3-10)
of two
3 x
3 matrices A
A-B
an
\\fl31
whose
element
in the
row
ith
a33j
= (6,7)is
(%), B
jbn
bn
ba\\
bn
b31
\\b31
a 3
a special
an
a33
flUfl22fl33
flUfl23fl32
(2.3-15)
fll2fl23fl31
+ OB^lfe
~
fll2a21\302\25333 \302\253B\302\2532zfl31
sign is negative.
equations
6111
=
=
=
= \302\243222
\302\243333\302\24311261a
6123
= 6231 = \342\202\254312
=
1,
anbn
022^21
\"
+ \302\25323&31
\\a3lbn
a32621
+ a33&3t
(2.3-11)
= 1 when
the
determinant
the
matrix
\342\200\242\342\226\240\342\226\240\\
det
subscripts
of the
\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242/
be written,
with
= 0,
(2.3-16)
e,7t vanishes
words,
e,7t
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\202\254211
6221
6331
\342\200\224
!\342\200\242
= 6321 = e132 =
6213
b33j
aabM
x 3 square
In other
+ aab2i
laubn
a}l
dmnj
&\342\226\240}\302\243
#23
bu
(Xl\\
da1
/\302\253uAn
A23
the
positive; otherwise
introduce
us
by the
defined
a-bt
w
The product
matrix
defined as
#22
special rule of signs is as follows: Arrange the first index in the order 1,2,3.
index. If they permute as 1,2,3,1,2,3,...,
check the order of the second
then
an
Al2
(\302\253,#
#21
Qml
(%)
write Eq.
we can
e\342\200\236\342\200\236
erj,ar!fll2flfl
(2.3-17)
(2.1-8)defining
the vector
product u x
v as
the summation
11
x y
e\342\200\236,\302\253,v<er
(2.3-18)
convention, as
(A-B),, =
A vector u
may
be represented
|u|2
scalar
by a row
(2.3-12)
(aikbki)
matrix
and
(\302\253,),
+ u3 =
(\302\253,\342\200\242)\342\200\242
(\302\253/)r u] + \302\2532
=
of
product
two vectors
\302\253,\302\253,-.
be written
(2.3-13)
The e-8
The
Identity
Kronecker
that will
appear again
and
be written
symbol
permutation
again in this
eiji&st
book. They
\342\200\224
8/s8t,
8j,8tj.
(2.3-19)
as
ipv =
= ihVi
(\302\253i)(v,)r
u2Vt
+ K3V3 = u,Vi.
be verified
is used
by actual trial.
special
attention
here. It can
48
and Tensors
Vectors
Chap,
Differentiation
., x,) be a
be written
shall
to differentiation
n variables xu x2,. . . , xn. Then
extend
shall
of
function
formulas.
Let
A x
its differential
p,
=
+ ---+-f dx\342\200\236
f
Sx\342\200\236 dXi
+ $-dx2
dx2
dxt.
(2.3-20)
(B x C) =
of A and B. Accordingly,
combination
and
respectively,
we may
write
+ |i(A-B)C
\\(A-C)B
|i by special
dxi
A-B,
where X.,
as
df=$-dx1
to A-C and
are proportional
49
of Coordinates
Rotation
combination
a,
Fmally, we
f(xu x2,. .
Translation and
2.4
Sec.
1.
2.15 Write Eq. (2.2-1)or (2.2-3) in the index form. Let the components of F\"1 be written
= l,2,3;i.e.,F,
= F\342\200\236etc.
as F?,k
Answer.
3
8\342\200\236
(b)
3
8l78\342\200\236.
(c)
6
i\342\200\236fi;u
(d)
(e)
e,ikA,Ak
index
and
form,
prove
(B X
C)],
vectors A,
B, C, this
x C)\342\200\236
6i\342\200\236\342\200\236a\342\200\236(B
e.nlme.\342\200\236lkambjCt.
6,\342\200\236\342\200\236fl\342\200\236e\342\200\236M6,c\302\273
(8/;8mS
(A-C)(B),
SuS^aJ^Ct. Hence,it
is 8,ja\342\200\236cmh/
(A-B)(C),.
2.4 TRANSLATION
8,75/t
2.17Write
in
= K2V3 -
W2
HjVj,
2.21 Derive
vector
the
vector
the
uj>,.
Define
on
e\342\200\236
to solve Probs.
=
h2, u3)
(u\342\200\236
U,V3,
Solution. Since
Hence, we
x (B x C) is
a plane.
lt>3
U,V2
If
a change
P has coordinates
without
a point
of
two
Consider
reference,
y =
vectors A,
B, C by
the method
(B x C) = (A-C)B
x' + h
y'
Oy
the
+ k
A x (B
x C) is
C; hence, a
must
= x
be a linear scalar
[y
k.
(2.4-1)
y
origin remains
an angle
x' cos
= x'
y
may write A x
a linear function
\\x'
through
x =
(A-B)C.
Ox
fixed, and the new axes are obtained
by rotating
6 in the counterclockwise direction, then the
to the
coordinates
transformation
of axes is a rotation. Let P have
(x, y), (x1,y') relative
old and new frames of reference, respectively.Then (see Fig. 2.2),
If
and
form.
arbitrary
transformation
or
eiikUjVt.
from
then
x =
by writing
=
then the
orientation,
of reference
obtained
to O-xy,
relative
in
U2V,.
analysis:
A x
of B and C.
index
u-v =
origin
= H3V, -
Wi
e.g.,
the following:
OF COORDINATES
ROTATION
Two-Dimensional Space
8\342\200\236
= 0
Eqs.
AND
= 0
Note.
For Eq. (2.1-1), we may do
vm - &2, vm = e3; then u = \302\253,'v(i).
the
that
=
(a)
(f) M,,,
But
S,kamback
2.16Show
of
Since the
Note.
Solution. [A x
= 0.
2^
2.21 in
PROBLEMS
y' sin d
sin 8 + y'
x' = x cos
y' = -x
9 +
sin
cos 6.
y sin 6
0 +
y cos 6
(2.4-2)
(2.4-3)
50
Chap. 2
and Tensors
Vectors
Sec.
Translation and
2.4
where 8,7
is the
Pttfo
To clarify
the geometric
meaning of this
rotation transformation
along the x,!-axishas direction
2.2
Figure
Rotation
The fact
Then
a rotation
obviously,
xh x2 replace x,
specified by
and
x[, xi
can be
(2.4-3)
Eq.
X\\
pf/ are
where
of the
elements
frjX,;
square
^21
The
inverse transform
by the
represented
2)
(2.4-4)
-sin 6
P22/
cos
(2.4-5)
linear
other hand,
equations
inverse of the
from
(2.4-4),
matrix
the point
the
p/7 is the
the
element
matrix
(p;i)
(2.4-6)
row and
in
the/th
is the transpose
ith
of the
(P\302\253)r.
we obtain a
defines a rotation
of view
of the
(p/;)
in Eq.
fundamental
property
column
matrix
solution of the
(2.4-6)
must
set of simultaneous
be identified
= 1,2,. .. ,n,
matrix. A transformation
orthogonal.
The
For
is said
that
xraxes,
equation
(2.4-11)
1,2).
the x,!-axis
the
is perpendicular to
a unit
pBpp
0,
(2.4-12)
(z#j).
vector along
equation
(2.4-5), we
computation.
ado. The
preceding
of the
rectangular
ei-ei
In terms
of the
base
vectors,
matrix
product
of both
the vector s
to three
to 1,2,3.
xx,x2,
dimensions
without
xl(ej-$,
as follows:
(2.4-14)
xjej.
with
sides of Eq. (2.4-14)
(2.4-13)
8,7.
be expressed
may
xft
xter^
(p,7) that
e,'-e;
b\342\200\236,
x =
A scalar
transformation
range of indices
(2.4-8)
e,-
gives
(2.4-15)
But
(2.4-9)
(p^), i, j
the
Obviously,
as the
Cartesian coordinates:
of rectangular
the
Space
(p,7), i.e.,
(WT = (P./)\"1.
A matrix
(2.4-11)
(2.4-7)
(fe) = (P\302\253)Thus,
Eqs.
right-handed
the same
= U)
(W =
matrix
can
much
(P.-;), i-e.,
On the
vector along
Note: Alternatively,
verify Eq. (2.4-10) by
Three-Dimensional
(*'
to Eq. (2.4-2),
according
of the matrix
(p,7). It is clear that
(x
to the xr,
respect
sin 61
/cos6
of Eq. (2.4-4)is
where,
= 1,
(P*)2
with
matrix
P\342\200\236
pn\\
(&/) =
length
pnPi, +
Combining
= 1,
(i
P,-2
directly
is expressed by
is unity
is expressedby
iij^i
replace x',y'.
equation
=
a unit
that
the x'rsm
we let
p,h
vector
unit
of
coordinates.
index notion,
we rederive it
equation,
important
cosines
+
(P\302\253)2
Using the
The
(2.4-10)
as follows.
for the
respectively.
51
of Coordinates
Rotation
x,-(e;-e,)
xfitj
= xr,
therefore,
to be
x, =
Now,
(e;-e;)x;.
(2.4-16)
define
(e;-e,)
= p;7;
(2.4-17)
52
Vectors
and Tensors
Chap.
Sec.2.5
then,
* =
both sides
dot
Next,
p\342\200\236x/'.(;
of Eq. (2.4-14)
with
(2.4-18)
1,2,3).
(e/-e,!)
B,7and (e,-e,0
x\\
(2.4-6)
(2.4-7)
are
(2.4\342\200\22419)
= 1, 2, 3).
(i
p^-,
(2.4-19)
value
determinant
the
of
p,7
of
generalizations
2.3 are
numbers
xu x2, x3
that
represent
radius
point
U2
\"3
V,
\\>2
v3
Wl
W2
H>3
(2.4-21)
represents
x2,
x3 are
1:
Pb Pb|
and
(2.4-4)
Eqs.
U\\
and xi,
xb x2, x3
fr/l-
three-dimensional case.
of the coefficient p,7.That
shows the geometric meaning
(2.4-17)
and
and (2.4-8) hold for i, j = 1,2,3 is clearbecause
Eqs.(2.4-18)
Then,
inverse transformations of each other.
Eqs. (2.4-9) and
the
Now,
v)-w
|p.i
are
(2.4-10) Mow.
Fig.
that
assume that
to the
Equation
Eqs.
Let us
we obtain
therefore,
p,7;
and (2.4-19)
(2.4-18)
Equations
(u x
x/(ey-e;) = x/(e/-e,').
But
Volume
53
in General
Transformation
Coordinate
P22
Pa
Pm
P32
Pa
(2.4-22)
PROBLEMS
P in
of this fact
p2i
Solution. Let
of the six
interpret
2.23 Write
If i =
If i
1,/ =
= 1,
1:then
= 1.
+ p12p,2 + p13p13
p\342\200\236p\342\200\236
/ = 2: then
+ p12pE
p\342\200\236p21
(1)
= 0.
^n
(2)
means
of the vector (p,\342\200\236
p,2, p,3) is 1. Equation (2)
other.
to
each
are orthogonal
Equation
2.24
Fipre 2.3
Radius
vector
and
coordinates.
dx'f.
pM.
gives us
immediately
rectangular
vector
Differentiating
f$,7 represents
\342\200\224
the cosine
p//A'>
of the
between
8,,
$,kdxkl
we have BxjSx'j
(2.4-20)
\"\342\226\240'\342\200\242
Plt\342\204\242h
angle
obtain
IN GENERAL
2.5 COORDINATETRANSFORMATION
5\342\200\236-
in
Cartesian coordinates:
A-i
in which
of the components of a
sides
=
both
Bxjix,
the results.
that
and
Oxr
the
form
Finally, let us point out that the three unit vectors along x[, x{, x|
three
a
of
volume
1.
The
any
parallelepiped having
edges of a cube with volume
vectors u, v, w as edges is given either by the triple product u-(v x w) or by its
u, v, w, in this order,
by whether the three vectors
negative; the sign is determined
or not. If they are right handed, then the volume
form a right-handed screw system
of their components:
is equal to the determinant
A set of independent
frame of reference.A
xu
variables
set of
the coordinates of a
x3 specifies
point
in a
equations
* = fi(xu
describes a transformation
x2,
from
x2, ij),
xh
x2,
(J
x3 to a
1,2,
set of new
(2.5-1)
3)
variables
xh
x2,
x3. The
inverse transformation
x, =
gi(xh
x\\, x3),
(i
= 1,2,
3)
(2.5-2)
54
Vectors
proceedsin
direction. In order
reverse
the
ensure
to
Sec.2.6
Chap. 2
and Tensors
reversible
in a certain region R of
that such a
derivatives
partial
That
are single
and possess
in the region R.
determinant
J = det(3x,/3x/)doesnot
vanish
valid.
tfX;/
3x!
3xi
3xi
3x2
3x3
3x2
3x2
flx2
3xi
3x2
when J
Further,
at any point
transformation
given
3x3
3x3
3x2
3x3
x\302\260,
(x\302\260,
xf)
55
Tensors
only if Eq.
(2.5-3) is
to obtain
(2.5-6)'
djdxj
(2.5-2)
exists.
PROBLEM
5^0.
(2.5-3)
2.25
Coordinate
-of,
neighborhood
\302\245>
0, Eq.
by Eq.
(a)
uses determinants.
3Xj
the
Scalars,
continuous
3x3
3x3
in
of
dx-,
is,
3xi
exists
an inverse
Thus,
Definitions
Analytical
Use that
linear
method
If the
and
admissible
Significance
To appreciate
have found
or
proper.
the
that
of the
significance
(2.5-1),
neighborhood
of
this point.
we can find
We differentiate
let us
determinant,
to (xi,
X-J,
x3),
an inversetransformation
Eq. (2.5-1) to obtain
i.e.,
assume
that
dXi
~dxi
they satisfy
small
Eq.
in a
2.6
ANALYTICAL DEFINITIONS OF
AND CARTESIANTENSORS
= l,2,3)
(i
(2.5-4)
the
(2.5-5)
is the
where
p,7
coordinate
axes
Xi
Cartesian frames
of
(2.6-1)
P//X;
angle
between
the
xt. Thus,
p2[ =
so forth.
of rectangular
law
and
sets
fixed
x2, x3)
reference
and
^h
of the differentials
VECTORS,
SCALARS,
X,
and
by the product
we
Let (xh
=
of
Jacobian
x\302\260,
(x\302\260h
x\302\260)
corresponds
an integration
Here,
cos(x2,x,),
(2.6-2)
is
Xi
(3;,-x}.
(2.6-3)
Vectors
56
Tensors
and
Chap. 2
is called a
*(*,,
x2, x3) =
$(x,,
A system is
a vector
called
Xi,
\302\243/(*i>
X2,
\302\243i(*l>
field or a
(2.6-4)
x3).
x2,
Xi)
field
%k(xi,
(ji(Xi,
Xi, X~i)$ki.
to a system
these definitions
Generalizing
x^
tensor
that
has nine
components when i
that has
it is a system
tij\\Xl,
X2, Xi)
=
=
tmn(xi,
Xi, Xi)$im$i\342\200\236,
tmn\\X\\,
Xi, X3)$mi$nj,
example,
examples,
some
consider
examples to
following problems:
to specific
attention
the
of
that, if all components
Cartesian
they vanish in all other
2.26 Show
tmn
in
Vectors
and Tensors
Are
of
systems.
coordinate
that
the
Eq.
be two
B\342\200\236
Let A,,,
Proof.
(2.6-1), we have
tensors. Under
the
B,i
A\342\200\236\302\243lm$,.,
A\342\200\236
or
coordinate
another
x2-0,x3-Q),
i.e.,
and
(xs,
x2,
it
numerically
x3). When
components referred
to Eq.
expresses
(2.6-1),
which
in terms
Bm\342\200\236p,\342\200\236pin.
theorem is proved.
,,r be tensors.
B\342\200\236,..
the following theorem: Let AH...\342\200\236,.,
(2.6-1)into
radius
Proof.
Multiplying
both
sides of
the
Then
the equation
= B\342\200\236,...\342\200\236,(\342\226\240*!.
x2,. . . , xn)
is true in one
is a tensor equation; i.e., if this equation
coordinate
systems.
is true in all Cartesian
to the
by
=
\302\261
\302\261
ptap,\342\200\236(/L, B\342\200\236,\342\200\236)
B~\342\200\236
given
we obtain
subtracting,
A,i
is designed
to follow the idea of a radius
vector.
vector joining the origin (0, 0,0) to a point
of vectors
transformation
Defined
radius vector, a
of
tensors of the
The sum or difference
of two Cartesian
2.27 Prove the following theorem:
of tensors
linear combination
rank.
same
Thus,
the
any
tensor
a
of
same rank is again
rank.
same
a tensor of the
of the same rank is again
and the
definition
We all know
equations,
Cartesian
2.28 Prove
The analytical
tensor
If every component
follows immediately from Eq. (2.6-6).
The property
= 0 for all i, j.
side vanishes and \"t,,
then the right-hand
vanishes,
Adding
Why
significance
of tensor fields.
property
. .,
on
This Manner
the
discuss
PROBLEMS
definitions
Elaboration
57
Tensors
steps
mathematical
Proof.
These
Further generalization to tensor fields of higher ranks is immediate.
be modified to two dimensionsif the indices range over
can obviously
n. Since
our
1, 2, or to n dimensions if the range of the indices is 1, 2, .
from one rectangular
Cartesian
frame of
definitions are based on transformations
tensors. For
Cartesian
the systems so defined are called
reference to another,
will be used in this
book.
tensor
Cartesian
equations
only
simplicity,
Cartesian
the variables
(2.6-6)
and
social
to identify myself, I can list my age,
can you
in a column matrix. What
code
and
address,
zip
not a vector.
It is certainly
Nothing very interesting!
in Eq.
definition
the
given
we took in generalizing
The
Vectors,
of Scalars,
Definitions
(2.6-5)
and /
tjjfii,
Analytical
Sec. 2.6
equation
Cartesian
coordinate
system, then it
by
vector.
and
summing
over the
repeated
indices
yields
the equation
=
x\\,...,
xn).
. , x\342\200\236)
5\342\200\236...t(*\342\200\236
Xi, . \342\226\240
Afi...i(x\342\200\236
as
A - B
2.27
= 0. Then
of A
every component
B vanishes.
Vectors
58
OF TENSOR
The theorems
most
in one
can
coordinatesystem,
be obtained
of a given
fields
tensor
admissible
by
equation can be
EQUATIONS
vanish likewise
in all coordinate
systems that
Since the sum and difference of
same type, we deduce that if a tensor
one coordinate system, then it must hold for all
they
transformations.
are tensors of the
type
in
established
systems obtained
coordinate
Chap. 2
of tensor
property
important
vanish
Tensors
in the
stated
and
by
admissible
transformations.
be merely
fortuitous.
in any
analysis is as important as dimensional
analysis
formulation of physical
relations.
In dimensional analysis,
we study the changes a
with particular
choices
of fundamental units. Two
physical
undergoes
quantity
We see
that
quantities
physical
equation
respect
tensor
cannot
have
the same
Because
equations are
of the
in harmony
design of the
with
tensor
transformation
unless
dimensions. An
it is invariant
with
Sec. 2.9
59
Rule
Quotient
with
and tensors are resolved into their components
used. In this notation, vectors
etc. These
such as\302\253,-,
\302\253,7,
to a frame of reference and denoted by symbols
respect
usual
Mathematical
operations on them follow the
components are real numbers.
be
introduced.
to
Thus,
need
No special rules of combination
rules of arithmetic.
the index notation exhibits the rank
Furthermore,
we gain a measure of simplicity.
of reference
frame
It
displays the role of the
clearly.
and the range of a tensor
explicitly.
is also a
last-mentioned
Hence,
entity.
2.9 QUOTIENTRULE
a set of
Consider
n3
functions
A(l,
1,1), .4(1,1,2),
j, k)
the
determining
the
law
of
transformation
For example,let
physics.
be
\302\243,(x)
convention
illumination
directly.
a vector. Let
us
that the
suppose
to yield a tensor
productA(i,
of the type
j, /c)
Ajk(x),
i.e.,
2.8 NOTATIONS
FOR
AND TENSORS:
VECTORS
OR INDICES?
Then we can
In continuum
concerned
velocities,
mechanicswe are
forces, etc., and with
equations, etc.
u or
if, is agreeable
tensor of rank
2 may
usual
to all;
but for
be printed
tensors,
as a boldface
there
are differences
letter or with
A(i,j,k)i,
BOLDFACE
a double
displacements,
into
A(i, j,
such as
of opinion.
A
arrow or with
prove that
kjl, = A,t
a pair of
[A{i, /, *)
Now
I,- is an arbitrary
Aijk(x).
A ]k, it
type
side of
right-hand
is transformed
(2.9-2)
r, j)$J.
\342\200\242=
p7rptlA\342\200\236 P/rPfaMm.
=
this in the
Inserting
But \302\243m
p,\342\200\236,i,-.
the
of
side
to
one
all terms
equation,
Thefirst
(2.9-1)
Alk,
transposing
we obtain
r, s)]l
p/rpt,p,.A(m,
quantity
= 0.
within the
(2.9-3)
brackets must
vanish,
and we have
A(i, j,
which
is precisely
the
The pattern of
tensors.
law
the
k)
of transformation
preceding
example
of the
(2.9-4)
r, s),
PtaPyrPfaAOn,
tensor of the
can be
generalized
type
Aijk.
to higher
order
61
Vectors
60
and Tensors
Chap.
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
only Cartesian
coordinatesare considered,
Xi
p,v and
where
Now,
a,-
Solution.
if \302\243,(jci,
Xi, jc3)
is a
is a tensor of
Prob. 2.29, A\342\200\236
From
A,, =
= 8,\342\200\236\342\200\236A\342\200\236\342\200\236
Amn,
= A\342\200\236\342\200\236p(mPte
A\342\200\236
g.
(Ufa,
of this
one obtains
equation,
*k*?\342\204\242
=
(2.10-2)
x^ pit,
x2,
o. g.
i!k
(210-3)
comma to denote
use a
differentiation.
partial
and
\342\226\240'
to Cartesian
provided
3, respectively,
that
$,
|, and
32v\342\200\236,
6
e\342\200\236*ei,
to fix,
3\\,
are
(U,-, and cry,*
cr,7
are
tensors
-<M*-*JWtojte
tensors.
d~vj
V(V-v)
PROBLEMS
over that index is called a
and summing
2.29 In any
equating two indices
a contraction over i and;'((',;' = 1, 2, 3) results
contraction.
Thus, for a tensor A\342\200\236k,
= A,u + Ank + Am. Prove that the contraction of any two indices
in a vector A\342\200\236t
- 2.
tensor of rank n results in a tensor of rank n
in a Cartesian
tensor A ,lt...m,
Solution.
tensor,consider
the definition
A;jk...n
A contraction over
i and
Let r be the
Prove that,
with
- V-Vv =
of a
vector
_A
typical
grad
div v
Av.
a field
point in
in the following
and r be
the
Tensor
of
= u,v,
=
W,
\302\243/M\302\253/V*
0
1
1
a$
V<|>
(|>
dXt
(vector
Vv
av,
gradient)
dXj
^\302\253imo3...n\342\200\236PloiP/i>2P)to3\"'Pijan.
divv
of r.
magnitude
table,
V(
X
\342\200\242tto,o2i.3...ci\342\200\236Pl..|P;\302\2532p*\302\2533'\"Pii\302\253,1.
that
Eq. (2.4-10)
i^i
BXjWi,
teiWJ
v (vector)
or inner product)
X = ii-v
(dot, scalar,
vector product)
or
(cross
w = u x v
of scalar field)
=
(gradient
=
grad v
=
radius
_ i_
BxfiXj
Rank
grad
j yields
Ant...n
2.32
a'V|
Sxfix,
is a feasor.
that it is a
axt
coordinates, $,,,
prove
a2i
f
v = e,/t
Sx
(c) curl curl
\342\200\2241\302\253\302\253.
Thus,
*\"\342\200\242*
ax/
to
convention
of solution.
&/
Eq.
scalar,
(c)
3xm
dxm dXj
Example
restrict ourselves
(2.6-4).
and
2.31 Use the index notation
of notations below):
table
the
(see
x v = -v x u
(a) u
(s-v)(t-u)
x t)-(u x v) = (s-u)(t-v)
(b) (s
Av
=
v
div
v
curl
curl
grad
statement.
a common practice to
tj
of a
definition
summation
of rank 1,2,
Am\342\200\236p,\342\200\236,p,.\342\200\236
x2, x3) =
dXj
When we
we have
both sides
differentiating
is
a scalar.
0 and
rank
tensor, so that
!li _
It
that A ,, is
2, show
tensor of rank
A,v is a Cartesian
If
(2.10-1)
+ a,-,
Pax,
2.30
(n
are constants.
I,(xt,
then, on
the partial
tensor of rank
the statement.
proved
law for a
Thus,
2.10
Partial Derivatives
2.10
Sec.
= V-v
av,
(divergence)
dx,
1
curl v =
x v
(curl)
t,ik
dx,
Hence,
=
Ai:k...\342\200\236
j4omi,3...ai,8ni\342\200\236Pin3---p\342\200\2360n
V2V
V-Vv =
1
Av
(Laplacian)
_\302\243%_
(3Vj\\ =
ixfix,
ix,\\6x,l
i_
63
62
and Tensors
Vectors
Chap.
rotation
(a) Let
of solution.
the components
* about
z. Comparethe
2.36
r be jc, (/ =
of
1, 2, 3).
flr
x,
dx.
'
dx.
2.33 A matrix-valued
3r\"
to.
A22
\\0
What are
fc
values
the
of
(a)
aH>
0\\
when i =
1; k
= 1 and
1; and
result.
yields a different
The rotation of coordinates
is also noncommutative; i.e., the transformation
matrices (|3,7) are noncommutative. Demonstrate this in a special case that is analogous
to the rigid-body
rotation of the book just considered.
First transform
x, y, z to x',
Then transform x\\ y', z' to x\", y\", z\" by a
about the y-axis.
y', z' by a rotation of 90\302\260
about z'.
Thus,
/0 0
y
-1 0
VI
Derive
the transformation
rotation.
2.35
Show that a
Infinitesimal
an
infinitesimal
rotation
/r\\
0/\\z/
matrix
different
rotations,
l\\
-1
VI
-10
\\0
in
1+
\342\200\224
yiUrr +I \"VV/IJ
<r,y)].
v(cr\342\200\236
fT-_
[a,:
longhand,
= x,Xl
the
form,
unabridged
0\\
0 1/ VI
the orderof
result
y,Xi
= 0, where
2.38
Show that
2 39
Writ!down?M lelof
a
system. Take good
3/
90\302\260
rotation
in
Xl
take a book,
rotation is noncommutative. For example,
with x-, y-, z-axes directed along the edges of the book.
a certain
90\302\260
about y; then rotate it 90\302\260
about z. We obtain
book
the
configuration.
~
+ <r\342\200\236)],
*\342\226\240\"
E
\302\260\"
6-\342\226\240\"
C
equation:
following
\\
fai
Let
First rotate
\302\273
i:\342\200\236\342\200\236.
3)r\".
6,24,2,3.
2.34 It
rotations
1 + v
= 2.
drawer.
out
given as follows:
/l
fl2l
2.37 Write
1x,x, = (n
+ nr\"
= 1, 2,3) is
a,;(!, /
quantity
of
1 +v
r\302\253g^^
V-(r\302\253r)=^(r%)
jr.
g22
dx.
+ n, ;jr'
the order
which
Br
= 3r\"
casein
dx,
%ixh
div(r\302\273r)
with the
equations
e\342\200\236
-g[(rx,-v(<r\342\200\236
dx,
results
...
set of
Express the Mowing
=
= V-r
divr
Problems
is reversed.
n(n
Example
Chap. 2
basic
physics
= z;
= \302\253'.
= v,\302\2533
=
\302\253,\302\253,\302\253J
is the permutation
e\342\200\236,
symbol
and
in tensor notation,
and
book
go through it from begmnmg
laws of physics
is a
symmetric
<r\342\200\236
using
the indicial
to end.
Sec.3.1
65
of Stress
Notations
in the direction
surface with an outer normal pointing
Similarly, let AS2be the
in the
three
has
components
on AS,, T,
of the x2 axis. The stress vector acting
denoted
be
shall
by
directions of xu x2, x3. These stress components
tractions,
Ta, r3
= %.
(3.1-2)
we arrange
If
three surfaces in
on the
acting
= t21, r2 =
for AS3.
is similar
The situation
r,
or
stresses,
Components of
Stresses
In Chapter 1 we introduced
the concept of stress,
and analyzed the Cartesiantensors.
In this chapter
of the
stress
In Chapter
Surface normal
Surface normal
defined
the properties
discuss
we
2 we
normal
Surface
3
t13
tn
t33
tu
t]2
to x2
t2i
Tn
to x3
t31
t32
to xx
tensor.
normal
stresses,
Tlb rn> t33 are called
3.1. The components
Each of these
stresses.
shear
called
are
t!2) t]3, etc.,
components
and the remaining
or MILT2.
of force
per unit area,
dimension
the
has
components
exists in the literature.
stress
for
components
notations
in
diversity
This is
3.1 NOTATIONSOFSTRESS
in Fig.
illustrated
A.great
The
(3.1-3)
in Sec.
Fig. 3.1.
1.6. Consider a
Let a rectangular
in a
continuum
frame
Cartesian
txy
literature
are,
in
reference
to a system
txz\\
(3.1-4)
frx
T2),
0%
ffi2\\
(3.1-5)
o>,
J
-*-AT2
Figure
3.1
Notations
of
stress
components.
axesxu
with coordinate
the
reference
be used.
Let the
surface
64
x2, x% parallel
AS, be a surface
T\\
Tlb
T2
T,2, I3
= T13.
Love*
(3.1-1)
Xx,
writes
is likely
reader
insist on
Yx
uniformity
use
Pearson*
and
for cr* and %y, and Todhunter
in the literature,
notations
these
all
to encounter
and
would use
whichever
notation
that happens
to be
no confusion.
to
that a stress will always be understood
to
again
emphasize
It is important
of a surface
side
the
on
positive
be the force (per unit area) that the part lying
exerts on the part lying
the positive side of the outer normal)
on
side
element (the
element
surface
of
a
points in the
normal
outer
the
if
on the negative side. Thus,
convenient.There
should be
of Elasticity.
Love. ^4 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory
1927.
ed.
4th
1892.
1st
Press.
ed.,
the Theory of Elasticity
and K. Pearson. A History of
fl. Todhunter
Press. Vol. 1,1886. Vol. 2,1893.
Cambridge: University
Materials.
*A. E. H.
Cambridge:
University
66
Stress
Laws
The
of Motion
of normal
component
Xrdirection.
axis
Sec. 3.2
of the
direction
positive
Chap. 3
direction,
*2-axisdirection.
(See
Fig. 3.2).
*-TlZ
Figure
moment
It-
*S
of momentum
domain B(t),
of
SK
about
element
r x
OF MOTION
space
occupied
be
9>
and
It is
by a
laws of motion.
Cartesian inertial frame
material body at any time t be denoted
on Newton's
a rectangular
Let
element
infinitesimal
integration
of the
is
and the
dv,
9
is the
linear
momentum
of the
body
domain
m
in
the
linear
Let
the
by B(t).
the coordinate
of reference.
momentum
B(t), i.e.,
Vpdv
configuration
V p
that
the rate of
about
the
easy to verify
choice of origin,
As we have
on material
forces.
dv,
dv
over the
(3.2-2)
by Euler
for a
is equal to
the
(3.2-3)
f,
of momentum
change of moment
origin, i.e.,
It =
system xu x2, x3
of momentum
the
that
assert
continuum,
torque 2
shear.
the origin, r x
is the moment
Similarly, positive values of tm, tb will imply shearing stress vectors pointing
to the positive xr, *3-axesif the outer normal
agrees in sense with x2-axis, whereas
the stress vectors point to the negative xr, ^-directions
if the outer normal disagrees
in sense
with the x2-axis,as illustrated
in Fig. 3.2. A careful
is
study of the figure
essential. Naturally, these rules agree with the usual notation
of tension,
Body
i.e.,
-XZ
and
compression,
the
3.3
is equal to
1.
the
total
applied
(3.2-4)
it is
bodies
in
the
mechanics
of
continuous
media:
of volume of
body.
(1) Body forces, acting on elements
on surface elements.
(2) Surface forces, or stresses, acting
forces.
Examples of body forces are gravitational forces and electromagnetic
on a body and stress
forces are aerodynamic pressure acting
surface
of
Examples
contact between two bodies, or between one part of a body on
due to mechanical
another.
To specify a body force, we considera volume bounded by an arbitrary surface
force vector contributed by the body force is assumed
S (Fig. 3.3). The resultant
the
(3.2-1)
of the
Sec. 3.3
in the form
representable
enclosed in S, viz.,
to
Chap. 3
Stress
68
be
of a
volume
taken
integral
69
Formula
Cauchy's
3.3 CAUCHY'SFORMULA
over the
domain
From
of
the equations
we shall first
motion,
T(+)
X*.
The vector
per
unit
X,
in
components Xh
M(LT)~2, is called
i.e.,
volume,
example,
with three
the
T<-) =
field,
a gravitational
Xt
To
pgi,
and
where
acceleration field
of a gravitational
are components
&\342\200\242
p is
and
the
density
prove
small
where
the
on dS
acting
2 =
Xiv,
is given by
whose outer
vector is v.
normal
Similarly,
the expression
pillbox. The
these equations, we
have
equations
(3.3-1)
(3.2-7)
reverses,that
Now
once the
xfdS
\302\243r
No demand was
the
same
material
jjjrX
+JflrxXrfv
made on
particles at
all
the
domain
times.
Vpdv.
that
it must
made about
(3.2-8)
particles, other
Equations (3.2-7)and
than
+ T(->
forces on
AS =
S.
the
of the
sides
for small
that
therefore,
of a
surface
AS,
0.
we
stress
of stating
stress vector is
r, =
consist of
the
denoted
by T,
with
components
A
v,T\342\200\236.
Tu
(3.3-2)
choice
(3.2-3) implies,
then follows.
Another way
vector
of the normal
of motion,
jt\\BY9dv,
\\BXdv
equation
of surface
contribution
across
(3.2-6)
jsidS
the
of motion
\"pillbox\"
T(+)AS
^r xTds +J^rxXdv.
Equation
Combining
>t'~!
as does the
of area
while AS
zero,
,,
(3.2-5)
the linear
surfaces
parallel
shrinks to
^^s
T(+)
/
= <>TdS+
9?
AS
remains
momentum and its rate of change
with two
\"pillbox\"
3.4. When 8
but finite,
4 (3.3-1)
_T(+).
Cauchy's
derivation.
Let us
to the
formula
consider
can be
derived
in
several
ways. We
shall
give an
elementary
coordinate planes
Chap. 3
Stress
70
Sec.3.3
71
Formula
Cauchy's
and e'
are
(-Tu
dS
6i)vi
+ (-Ta
+ e3)v3dS
+ e)dS
the
T,
Tm
Figure
3.5
tractions
Surface
on a
tetrahedron.
the area of the
surface
normal to v
be dS.Then
three surfaces
are
= dS
= vi
dSi =
dS3
and
the
volume
cos (v,
= area of
v2dS
= Vi dS
of
surface
= area of surface
the tetrahedron
parallel
to the
parallel
to the jc3Xi-plane,
parallel
to the
j^-plane,
x^-plane,
height
acting
of the
on the
vertex P from
three coordinate
+
(-T\342\200\236\342\202\254i)dSi,
(-T21
the base
surfaces,
e2)rfS2,
(-T31
the
\342\202\2543)dS3,
the
of
compared with
the
pV,
noting
| h dS.
(3.3-3)
eu e2, e3, e,
that
e'
(3.3-4)
t3iVj,
components
+ e3v3 +
terms that
positive
the triangle
-\302\273
0, and
limit as h
+ t2!v2
t\342\200\236v,
e2v2
Ti,
as
continua
defined
h dS,
is small,
where h is the
direction of xu
Errors
Acceptable
Checking
exvr +
3
=
e')H dS
Other
is
dv =
and
and a Umiting
variability
Xi)
dS = area of surface
{Xi +
of Eq. (3.3-2).
component
us that the nine
assures
first
In Sec. 1.5,we
dSi
point P,
is thus
follow similarly.
stresses
t,;-are
components of
Cauchy'sformula
in a body.
element
across
traction
the
any
surface
to define
necessary and sufficient
the set of quantities
characterized
is
by
a
in
completely
body
Hence, the stress state
vector vh it follows
valid
and
for an arbitrary
vector
Eq. (3.3-2) is
Since
T,isa
t,-;.
tensor.
a
stress
called
be
will
t,-;
Henceforth,
that tu is a tensor.
which is the
i* A
to the
dS
e2)v2
taking
refer
Xi
of motion
with
+ (I,
by dS,
through
Dividing
Tt and
Here,
infinitesimal.
again
+(-t3i
vanish
direction of xx.
in the
acceleration
are retained;
TUvi,
e + tfc(e'
(3.3-5)
pV,)
i.e.,
(3.3-6)
v2!v2, t3iv3,
if we are not
0 and AS -> 0. Now,
as h -\302\273
Eq. (3.3-3) to the limit
restricted to
are
we
->
instead
but
-*
0 and AS
as h
0,
to take the limit
allowed
a
constant
than
multiplied
smaller
no
AS
h*
and
constant
accept h no smaller than a
= h* and
be evaluated for h
must
in
line
listed
(3.3-5)
then the
when
we take
quantity
(Iff,
with the quantities listed in line (3.3-6).
AS = const. -(h*f and must be compared
and the comparison be
be defined,
A standard of how small is negligible must
line
in
(3.3-5) negligible
made under that definition. If we find the quantity
then we can say that Eq. (3.3-3) or Eq.
in line
by
compared
with
those listed
is valid.
(3.3\342\200\2242)
continuum
theory
(3.3-6),
objects of the
should
real
be done,
world.
in
principle,
to
apply
the
73
Stress
72
Chap. 3
Sec.3.4
where 0
3.4 EQUATIONS
We
OF EQUILIBRIUM
shall
differential
now
transform
equations.
small
Eqs.
in Chapter
formula, as is shown
to assure
clarity.
course
physical
elementary
with
parallelepiped
Consider the static equilibrium state of an infinitesimal
on the various surfaces
stresses
The
acting
surfacesparallel to the coordinate planes.
on the left-hand side, the force
are shown in Fig. 3.6. The force Tn dx2 dx3 acts
the right-hand side, etc. As it will be explained
+ (3tu/3jei) dxi] dxi dx3 acts on
[th
of continuity of the stresses.
the assumption
these expressions are based on
below,
The body force is X, dxx dx2 dx3.
and
Cauchy's
of Equilibrium
Equations
<a
be made arbitrarily
can
is finite, then the last term
small. With such
sufficiently
dx{
choosing
terms
by
with the other
s 1.If
compared
d2inldx\\
a choice, we have
Tn(x, +
dxu
x2, x3)
= ti,(x,,
component
+
~~
Bxi
body
dxA
dx-y
dx3
dx3 +
-tndxi
\342\200\224dx2\\
t2! +
- T3)dxi dx2 +
infinitesimal
stress
the
may be
explained
as follows.
We are
of
stress component is a function
x2,
x3).
Tn is a function of xu x2, x3: th(jci,
the stress component
position. Thus,
at (xt + dxu x2,
the
of
x7, x3), namely,
the
(xh
to
point
right
At a point slightly
+ dxh x2, x3). But if tu is a continuously
of the stress tu is t\342\200\236(xi
x3), the value
with a
theorem
to Taylor's
function of xh xlt x3, then, according
differentiable
dxu
x2, x3)
Figure 3.7
Componentsof
Dividing
we
by dx, dx2 dx3,
x2,
x3) +
dxi
dx3 =
0.
(3.4-1)
tractions
in ^-direction.
obtain
dXi
dX2
dX3
= tu(xi,
dx\\
Every
remainder, we have
tu(xi +
te3
*3
figure
stress field.
\342\200\224\342\200\224
dx3\\ dxx dx2
-W,
components on an
parallelepiped.
in
IT31
\\
Xi
dx3 dx%
dx2
\\
- in dx3 dx\\
Equilibrating
x2, x3)dxh
T23+3*rc&2
Figure 3.6
(xh
OX\\
In Fig.
Tn
\\
*2
\342\200\224
x3) +
x2,
dxi
-^
(xu
x2, x3)
dXi
+ xs
1 a2
+ dx\\--^j(xi+adxux2,x3)
2 oil
dXj
of
equilibrium
equations
*
set, wntten concsely,
similar
= 0.
of
(3.4-3)
This
If
is an
Sec. 3.5
Chap. 3
Stress
74
On dividing
The equilibrium
there do not exist
of moments
external
lead
will
proportional to a volume,
moments
conclusionthat
to the important
the stress
and
of Stress
Change
dx, and
by dxidx2
through
dx, ->
Components
in
Transformation
to the
passing
75
of Coordinates
as dxt -\302\273
0, dx2
limit
-> 0,
0, we obtain
the consideration
Tn =
tensor is symmetric,
t21.
(3.4-5)
of resultant
about Ox2 and Oxx lead to the general
moments
derivation will be given later, in Sec. 10.7.
by Eq. (3.4-3). A shorter
we have considered the condition of equilibrium.
If it is desired to
Similar considerations
i.e.,
result
Tf/
Ty,-.
given
(3.4-4)
So far,
the moment
as follows. Referring to Fig. 3.6 and considering
This is demonstrated
of all the forces about the jc3-axis,we see that those components of forces parallel
in planes containing Ox, do not contribute
to Ox, or lying
any moment. The
the
derive
to
T32+ajf^3
dxi dx2
dx, leads to
the
of motion,
equation
Sin
3t3i
3t2i
i.e.,
3.8
Figure
Components of
that contribute moment
tractions
do contribute
a moment
of the
moment arm
care
3t\"
j \\ j
j
+\342\200\224~dxAdx2dx,
Ti2
JT22
3xi
3tu
+ \342\200\224
dxA dx2
/
3*i
properly,
x3-axis
are shown
we have
a
a ^
+ Tn dx2 dx, \342\200\224
J** ,
\342\200\224
Tu
about the
dx, dxi
+ \342\200\224-dx2\\
dxidx,\342\200\224
t21
\\
|t32 + t^
ki
dx,\\
dxs dx2
dx,\\ dxvdx2
-y\"
-y-
3t2,
+ \342\200\224\342\200\224
dx2\\ dxi dx, dx2
I
dx2
in
Fig.
3.8.
3.5
OF STRESS COMPONENTS
OF COORDINATES
-j-
+ t,i
to a
the previous section, the components of stress
t,7 are defined with respect
rectangular Cartesian system xu x2, x,. Let us now take a second set of rectangular
but oriented
coordinates
Cartesian
x[, x2, x',, with the same origin
differently,
and consider the stress components in the new reference
system (Fig. 3.9). Let
be connected by the linear relations
these
coordinates
In
4 =
&\302\273
A
A
\342\200\224
dx% dx2
Xi
dxx dx2
dx, -^
X2
dxi dx2
(3tl- are
i,i is a tensor
to emphasize
the direction
M/.
cosinesof the
(Sec.
the importance
down
(A:
4-axis
(3.5-1)
1,2,3)
with respect
the transformation
law
to the
jc,-axis.
at once.
since
However,
dxx
dx2
-^
unit
(3.4-7)
IN TRANSFORMATION
CHANGE
T22dXidx,\342\200\224
t32
X,.
aXj
where
+
the Ox3-axis.
about
components that
Therefore, taking
pa,
dx,
\342\200\224^
=
0.
area
acting on
dS is a vector
T with
r, =
components
i,,vh
(3.5-2)
Stress
Chap.
77
Curvilinear Coordinates
in Orthogonal
Stress Components
Sec. 3.6
if we
In fact,
to use spherical coordinates.
natural
sphere, it is
into a spherical cap,
of a flat sheet of metal
to study the explosiveforming
want
for the original state of
reference
of
frame
to use a rectangular
it may be useful
state.
frame of reference for the deformed
a
and
spherical-polar
the plate
of the
directions
the
in
stress
of
to resolve the components
It is appropriate
For
example,
subscripts.
and denote them by corresponding
coordinates
curvilinear
are related to the rectangular
which
z,
0,
r,
coordinates,
in a set of cylindrical
x, y, z by
coordinates
in a
distribution
Cartesian
x =
Given
it
the normal
v is chosen
to be
parallel to
v, = pH)
v2
is natural
to denote the
v3 =
Pe,
the stress
has
of the
component
product of Ti
and
vector T'
in
direction
the
the stress
of
the
axis
x'm
is given
by the
component
k
O\"o
T02
Tor
projection of T
+
fipmI
T;,PyPra)
ISP*
on
the 4,-axis
direction
these stress
<rx,
rv, etc.,
increasing
x'-oxis
y -axis
to
components
+ T&a
+ TyjPt^
(3.6-2)
T2o
,)
Tzo
T/,pt/.
Hence,
p\342\200\236\342\200\236-.
t'km
Tr2\\
components
Tl =
The
or
Tor
Tor
vector T
Tr0
point (r, 0, z) by
T\342\200\236\\
^OV
P\302\273,
then
Tr0
at a
stress tensor
of the
components
hrr
(3.6-1)
+ y2,
z = z,
the
tan
r2 = x2
sin 0,
z = z,
= r
stresses
Desired
stresses
6-
r cos 0,
6 -direction
T/3Pt;P\342\200\236,3;
r-direction
i.e.,
Ttm
(3.5-3)
Tf/PyP,,;.
we compare
Euclidean space.
polar
cylindrical
COMPONENTS
3.6 STRESS
IN ORTHOGONAL
CURVILINEAR
COORDINATES
Orthogonal
curvilinear
coordinates
continuum
mechanics
For example,
are simplified by such a frame of reference.
conditions
if the boundary
tube or the torsion of a circular
a
circular
in
the
flow
cylindrical
to
if we want
study
to study the stress
to use cylindrical coordinates. If we wish
shaft, it is natural
stresses
TiV) T,y,
listed in
Txy,
coordinate systems
are
Eq. (3.6-2)by
Tr0
x',y',
...
!>/,
well
z' and x, y,
defined.
identifying
Te0=
components in
coordinates.
Stress
3.10
Figure
Now we can
r, S, z
with
y',
(3.6-3)
T,y,
z are both
x',
Cartesian,
we can
Stress
78
apply the
to x,
(3.5-3). The
of Eq.
law
transformation
y, z are (seeFig.
2.2 and
/ cos8
Sec.
3.7
Stress
Boundary
79
Conditions
axes
11
Eq. 2.4-3)
68
sin
of the
cosines
direction
Chap.
0\\
s.j;sof
\302\273\302\251-..\302\253\342\226\240:;\302\247
$4
(&/)
-sin
Hence,
of Eqs.
ax =
=
<ry
tX),
(3.5-3)
o> sin2 9
+ do cos2
= tzr sin
Spherical or
similar manner.
other
cr0 sin2 d
sin 0
(rs)
1/
- t^
sin
20,
\342\200\242f(ii-0...\302\253un
K - aIJ Vl
cos 6
- t!Ssin
(3.6-4)
we have
(3.6-3),
t2x = Tzrcos 0
t2),
and
o> cos2 6
(ov
cos 8
\\
by virtue
&
(a)
Tr0(cos2
1,(11
(3.6-5)
sin2
\342\200\224Jl\342\200\224
(b)
0),
0,
6 + tz\342\200\236
cos 0.
curvilinear
orthogonal
coordinates can
be
treated
in a
mm-
(0
fia-o^/a
3.7 STRESS
Problems
forces
inquire
building
in
mechanics
or velocities
into
known facts
appear
this
on the
displacements
way:
We
surface of a
use the
safe? To resolve
concerning the external world in the
beams?
Are they
differential
equations
body.
boundary conditions,
of the
usually
or
whose
columns and
then
CONDITIONS
BOUNDARY
then
complete
is found
information
stresses
questions,
form of boundary
to extend
the
(d)
acting in the
we set
such
(field equations)
If a solution
are the
down
the
conditions and
information
yg\\
to
to satisfy all
body.
o'xx
(el
Figure 3.11
Derivation
condition
at an
interface
between
a small
vertical
(a)
An interface
flat
small
Stress
80
f(j) =
[Fig.
stress
traction
3.11(d)],
oi?
o\302\273,
(3.7-1)
stresses in
on the
conditions
boundary
($ =
= og,
(!\302\273\342\226\240
the
media
and
(3.7-2)
2 at
their
interface.
that
Note
Indeed,
the compressive strain
the
these interface
components
boundary.
then,
is uniform,
og#oS,
That these
discontinuities
be seen
Fig.
in
negligible
Then the
surface
are not
as the
in
with
conflict
any conditions
of equilibrium
compared
is said to
which
medium
with those in
be free,
=
0,
and
medium
the boundary
=
o-\342\200\236
0,
(for
can
The
cleavage
surface?
the water
surface.
Velocity
profile
Wind
(3.7-4)
take
=
p3,
cr\342\200\236,2
(3.7-5)
set of
where pu p2, p3 are specific functions of location and time
normal.
the
outer
the
direction
of
in
local orthogonal axes with n pointing
it is a general
Although every surface is an interface between two spaces,
the other side
call
the
and
of
surface
one
side
to
attention
one's
confine
to
practice
For example, structural engineersspeak of the wind load on a building
\"external.\"
to the fluid dynamicist,
to the building.
as the \"external load\"
Reciprocally,
applied
a rigid border to the flow of air. The sameinterface
presents
the building is merely
to the two media. The basic justification
conditions
two different kindsof boundary
of the structure
elastic deformation
is that the small
for such a divergence of attitude
acting on
structural
tu t2 are a
boundary
water-air
Answer: A sphere.
to
the
Dynamic
conditions at the
interface.
and n,
unimportant
Figure P3.3
the form
o-\342\200\236\342\200\236
pi,
p\\,
<r\342\200\236h
is
failure?
other
on a solid body
words,
are approximations.
conditions are
= 0.
o>,
other
stresses are
example,
not. In
If you pull on it
a long string.
T acts on every cross section of
modeof
(3.7-3)
<$#<#\342\226\240
3.11(e).
<r22
On the
general,
\302\253$*o\302\256
in
it is
3.1 Consider
is the
elastician
PROBLEMS
More explicitly,
oS>
thin
is rigid,
T!2),
infinitesimally
requires that
fP).
81
Problems
tensor
of an
equilibrium
Chap.
the traction
z, the unit normal vector v(1) has three components (0, 0,1), and
vector T1'1has three components olj'vf >, {i = 1,2,3), where a}]'is the
in the hard material. For the soft material, there must exist a similar
x, y,
Chap.
3.5 Water
top of
in a reservoir is pouring
10 cm above
close to
point
(Fig. P3.5). Consider
it. Again (as in Prob. 3.4), consider all surfaces
over a dam
the
passing
82
Stress
Chap.
83
Problems
Chap.
x.\342\200\236
y
3.6
Label
is the stress
What
through this point, and describe the stressvectors acting on these surfaces. Is the locus
of all the stressvectors a sphere?
Now consider a sequence of points closer and closer to the solid surface on the
top of the dam, say, at distances 1 cm, 10\"' cm, 10~z cm, 10\"3 cm, and 10\"1 cm. Would
locus
to change as the distance becomes
you expect the stress-vector
very small? Pay
attention
to the viscosity
of water.
particular
vector acting
on the
x +
are the normal
What
T, =
Answer:
P3.6.
3y
+ z,=
i, j, k to
denote
/ + n>
ltN25
Hence,
vir
the
x-,y-, z-axes, respectively,
The shear (tangential
is T, v, = n \342\226\240
of
= n. Then
+ 49 + 9
3\"
vir
LcJ/
\302\273
_
2\" J_
we have
plane?
direction cosines(l,3,l)/Vll.
\302\273
vn'
we use
vector to this
= f -shear == 0.771.
question?
of the stress
vector with
has a normal
the origin) of
1.
(5,7,3)/VIT; T(\")
The plane
Solution:
83
ir
Ill)
83
11
hence
6V2
IP
(2)
The vector of the normal component plus the vector of the shear component equals
normal component lies in the direction of the unit normal
(li + 3j +
=
lk)29/(llVH). Let the shear component vector be xi + yj + zk; then 29/(llVLT) + x
and
5/VIT,implying that x = (55 29)/36.5 = 0.712. Similarly, y = -0.274, z = 0.109,
the shear = (j2 + / + z2)\"2 = 0.771.
3.8 With reference to the x-, y-, and z-coordinates, the state of stressat a certain point of
a body is given by the following matrix:
Figure
P3.6
Stresses.
in a body
may be presented
as
Find the
x + ly
/200
400
300\\
400
\\300
Answer:
= 0.
= 533i +
133j+
passing
33k.
kPa
-100/
through the
point
and parallel
to
the
plane
Stress
84
the following
exist for
a, =
<js
3r +
= Ix2
= \\ x2
i\342\200\236
if,
+ 3y2,
xy
ax
6xy
in
oriented
5,000kPa,
at
the origin.
A plane
a,
kPa,
5,000
tv
= a.
Figure P3.12
= t,: = Tjv. =
shear
maximum
stress in
3.13
Prove that
if crr
the material
stresses
is invariant.
as shown in Fig.
together
of plywood are spliced
be the minimum
must
what
1.4
is
MPa,
shear stress in the glue
+ nz = 0
on a shaft.
have
Eq. (2.4-3), we
sum of the two normal
system
+ my
Key
0.
be
pieces
if
P3.14. If
length
the allowable
of
the splice
a 40 kN load is to be carried?
(1)
.Glue
where
traction
is the component
key
If,
kPa.
Let a coordinate
Solution:
lcmxlcmx2cm shear
= t\342\200\236
=
= 0.
t,\342\200\236
directions.
all
85
Problems
force?
Chap.
to Eq. (3.4-2).
at a point is a, =
Axy
stress distribution in
Chap.
normal
of
(T!j in
the
stress)2
(5,000)2(/2
+ m2 + n2 = 1; hence,
I2
(shear
stress)2
(5,000)2[1
n2
of
Glue
of (v,),
40 kN
(1
Figure
Glued seam.
3.15A
(2)
n2)2]
P3.14
maximum,
windmill
square
0 = \342\200\224(shearstress)2 =
The solution is n2 = {. Hence, from
and the final result that
(5,000)2/4,
3.11
find
plane
If
the stress
Answer:
3.12
vector
x - xa + y
T =
and
+ 2(1 -
(5,000)2[-2n
3.16
n2)-2n].
50
3.17
0\\
0 kPa,
silicone Silly
-100/
- z0 = 0.
= 16.7
a\342\204\242
Putty.
3.19
the
+ z
y\342\200\236
-^ (100,50, -100)kPa,
is
(x0, ya, z\342\200\236)
/100
kPa, t =
81.7lcPa.
permissible
value
acceleration. Themaximum
equal to 20%
of
lateral
water
86
Stress
The
3.21
acceleration is
vertical
maximum
about
stressdistribution
in an airplane
Chap.
Discuss the
stress
and during
landing.
3.22
87
Problems
Chap.
and astronautical
is of great interest to aeronautical
in this problem
when light weight is mandatory.
structures are used extensively
Thin-walled
engineering.
these structures.
Elastic stability is a main concern in designing
Note. Thesubject
Solution:
concern
where g is
cr, = 0
pg(L
when *
- x).The
= 0
pg
the gravitational
cr,
But
ceiling.
= L, the
is
+ const.
-pgx
\\
the constant is
of the rope. Hence,
=
pgL.
tension is at the ceiling, where <r,
maximum
length
pgL.
Thus,
ov =
L_J
Figure
P3.22
Couette
flow
meter.
and the
3.23 In
desigmng
20,000
take?
a tie rod,
it is decided that
not exceed
tension the rod can
yielding). What is
the
maximum
Use steel.
Answer: 40,000
Answer: p
p0
the ground.
exp [-(glRT)z].
3.27 is unrealistic for the earth's atmosphere.
of the height z, what would the solution be?
kPa.
3.24 Take a thin strip of steel of rectangular cross section (say, 0.5cm x 1 cm x 100 cm).
find the ultimate strength
of the steel. Let the strip be used to
Using a handbook,
sustain
a compressive load in the direction
of the longest edge. On the basis of the
ultimate
strength alone, how large a force should the strip be able to resist?
Now
the strip. The strip buckles at a load far smaller than is
try to compress
this phenomenon of elastic buckling.
expected. Explain
3.25 Roll a sheet of paper into a circular cylinder of radius about 3 or 4 cm. Such a tube
can sustain a fairly sizable end compression.
Stand the tube on the table and compress it with the palm of your hand. The
will fail by buckling.
Describe the buckling
cylinder
pattern. How large is the buckling
load compared with the strength of the paper in compression
if buckling can be avoided?
Since the paper does not tear after buckling, nor does it stretch, the metric of
the deformed
surface is identical with that of the original
one. Hence, the
transformation
from the cylinder to the buckled
surface is an isometric transformation.
It is known in differential
that if one surface can be transformed
geometry
isometrically into another, their total curvature must be the same at corresponding
curvatures.
points. Now, the total curvature of a surface is the product of the principal
For a flat sheet of paper, the total curvature is zero; so is that of the cylinder,
and so
also must be the
surface. In this way, we expect the postbuckling
surface
postbuckling
to be composed
of areas with zerototal curvature,
namely, flat triangular portions that
are assembled
together into a diamond
pattern.
Compare this with the experimental
findings.
height z above
0. The
T is a known
state
two-dimensional
equations
of
equilibrium
!^ +
arbitrary
function
equations
are satisfied
\"'
-1
dy,
= ax
by,
ex
cr\342\200\236
<r\342\200\236
0\302\253fix
c and
identically
if cr\342\200\236
as, aX!
an
\"
T\"
4c\"
x,
y s 1,
(a, b, c,
the
\"
Bxdy
by infinitely many
following
solutions.
stresses hold:
d are constants)
\302\256zy0.
_ Q
By
What must
9a,
dx
y) such that
i(x,
3f
Thus, the
By
equations
\"*
=
=
= t\342\200\236
t.,
of stress in a thin plate in which t\342\200\236
of body force are
the
absence
in
in
the
plate
acting
!!s= o
3x
function
d do not
vanish?
89
Sec. 4.2
State
Plane
of Stress
To know
Principal stresses,
are
evaluate
stress
concepts.
important
numerical
way.
4.1
stressinvariants,
related
to the
therefore, we
and
deviations,
state
of stress
the
maximum
shear
the simplest
of materials.
strength
devote
in
One has
to
chapter to them.
INTRODUCTION
components
can
be
<ri2
Oa\\
OH
^22
0-23
\\03i
cr32
033/
(oV;
a body.
0),),
an introduction,
as the
transform
\302\260
\302\260\\
h
0
\\0
<r2
o-3/
is normal
particular
to the
set of coordinates
principal
shall
Finally, we shall
of
1.2 PLANE
stress
the
STATE
state,
proceed
as well
notation.
three-dimensionalcasein abridged
stresses to discuss some geometric representations
to the
detail. Then we
Let us
set of coordinates
/ffn
are
axes and
of finding
axes. Other symmetric
practical means
the existence of principal
for
is the basic reason
tensor
mathematical
process,
identical
an
and
analogy
such as the strain tensor, by
tensors,
we shall give
the proof
Indeed,
values.
axes and principal
must also have principal
into a principal one
a real-valued
symmetric matrix
of
reducing
We shall
for the possibility
dimensions.
n
to
can be extended
but
is not limited to three dimensions,
mechanical
consider
we
when
is of great importance
the
that such an extension
find
theory,
in general. In the vibration
acoustics
or
of elastic bodies,
vibrations
the principal
vibration frequencies, and
values correspond to the
these subjects
discuss
not
principal
shall
We
vibration.
the normal modes of
coordinates describe
to
study has much
out that the subject we are going
now; rather, we merely point
than to stress alone.
broader
applications
then neither the existence
if a tensor is not symmetric,
On the other hand,
form by
to diagonal
reduction
of
values nor the possibility
principal
of real-valued
is thus a great asset.
can be assured. Symmetry
rotation of coordinates
case in greater
two-dimensional
the
consider
we shall
As
We have seen that nine components of stress, of which six are independent,
at any given point in
the state of material interaction
necessary to specify
matrix
a
form
of stress
symmetric
These nine components
the principal
as to
introduce
OF STRESS
consider
a simplified
physical
situation
in which a thin
membrane
is stretched
is shown in Fig.
In this case,
example
its plane.
and
lying in
acting on its edges
= -h free (unstressed).
=
h and z
z
faces
the
4.1. We shall leave
are zero on the
cr\342\200\236
<r\302\253,
az\342\200\236
since the stress components
we can safely say that
by
An
forces
z=h
,z=-h
axes
is
no shear
component.
2h-
4.1
Figure
state
of
An
stress.
approximate
plane
90
surface, they
membrane is
are approximately
very thin;
that
in
of stress
the ry-plane.
Plane
= 0.
tr\342\200\236
azy
=
Since
(4.2-1)
these
which
in
symmetric
a plane
only
state of stress in
with the stress
we may
0 =
Tr,
oy =
Here,
for
we write
clarity,
oy
\"*
oy
0/
this
and
txj,
/oy
Try
0\\
Tr'v
ay
of direction
cosines
follows
equations, it
Cartesian
P21
P22
P23
\\P3I
P32
P33/
sin0
/cos0
0\\
Figure
in
(4.2-2)
1/
into Eq.
Change of coordinates
state of stress.
plane
of the
the
new
oy =
oy
Try
oy
= oy sin2
(-oy
oy
0 + oy cos2 0
oy)
sin 0
cos 0
(4.2-9)
(4.2-10)
^-=-2Txy,
etc., and
2ixy
sin 0
cos 0,
(4.2-3)
2txv
sin 0
cos 0,
(4.2-4)
iyy(cos2
sin2
0).
= 0 when
2t\"
tan 20
crx
(4.2-5)
(4.2-11)
a.
setting the
its extreme
derivative
value.
directions given
by
\302\261
Joy^]*
V\\
to zero, we can
be shown
and
(4.2-11)
Eq.
that
that
This
When
have
O'min
O\342\204\242
~\"
(42_12)
respect
to 0 and
+
2
Txy from
differentiating
equal
It can
to the
oy+_oy
Tmm
sin2 0
(4.2-8)
T\342\200\236cos2fl.
= o-x.+ oy,
+ ay
Jroax
hand, on
other
components:
cos2 0
(4.2-7)
\\
that
cr min
substituting
(3.5-3),
sin 20,
rxy
particular values of 0
are called the principal directions; the axes x' and y' are
by Eq. (4.2-11)
given
stresses.
axes, and oy, oy are called the principal
then called the principal
=
that
oy is
and
0,
Eqs. (4.2-10) show
are principal
axes, then iyy
Ex',y'
so is
of
0.
choices
all
to
with
Similarly,
minimum
or a
respect
either a maximum
we obtain
and
into
(4.2-7),
0
from
(4.2-6)
Eqs.
Eq. (4.2-11)
oy. On substituting
the result
On the
4.2
Writing x, y,
identifying
&sin20
The matrix
cos 0 0
-sin
\\
cr
= 2Txy,
Ty/
The directions
P\302\2532
0B\\
cos 20
o/
is
/Pll
(4.2-6)
\\
From these
cosinesbetween
the two systems of rectangular
can be expressedin terms of a single angle 0. (SeeFig. 4.2.)
coordinates
cos
for oyr
the direction
case,
oy
^-y-*
Ot-
In
\342\200\224
oy
\302\260*Uy
oy
\\0
+ cos20),
as
\342\200\236
\302\260V
oy
oy +
-~^
= 1(1
cos2 0
0\\
- cos20),
1(1
matrix
I&X
91
of Stress
State
sin2
Obviously,
in the
components
Sec. 4.2
is,
Vzz =
The state
Chap. 4
Axes
Principal
Eq. (4.2-8)
an angle
find
with
0 at
which
iyy
reaches
//Oy
-M
Oy
I
+ r;.
sy
(4.2-13)
maximum of the shear stress acting on all planes parallel to the z-axis.
some other planes may
inclined to the z-axis are also considered,
planes
is the
a shear
higher
than
this. (See
Sec. 4.8.)
92
4.3 MOHR'S
A
FOR PLANE
CIRCLE
representation
geometric
1882,
(Zivilingenieur,
normal
the
of Eqs.
(4.2-6)-(4.2-13)
was
in Fig.
a stress plane
is shown
on
ordinate the
shear.
given
4.3.
in
by Otto Mohr
The normal and
which
the abscissa
stress, a
needed.We
counterclockwise
4.2 is considered
rule, we
plot,
and the
\342\200\224txy
angle
as shown
CA,
line
with
C as a
center, we
draw
a circle
Fig.
prove
(4.3-1)
OC
^p,
a radius
and
about the
in
located at C, where
and
moment
93
Stress
for Plane
Mohr's Circle
Sec. 4.3
an
a compression
as negative. For the shear, a special
Mohr's
circle
construction
(for
specify
only) that a shear is
as positive on a face of an element
when it yields a clockwise moment about
center
a
point 0 of the element. (SeeFig. 4.2.) A shear stress yielding
is plotted
rule is
the
Chap. 4
STRESS
p. 113). An example
on a surface are plotted
as positive
tension
taken
Stresses
Principal
\342\200\224
From Fig.
4.3, we
through
the abscissabf
see that
=
cr,.
OC + GP
= ~OC+
But we see also from
the
lCP
these
Substituting
results into
is exactly
Similarly,
%y
20 cos
(4.3-2)
(4
2a +
sin
26 sin
3-
2a).
that
sin
Eq. (4.3-3),we
y
2a)
= ^ZJU,
oy =
which
(cos
ffj,\\
P is
cos (20 -
diagram
cos 2a
lax
(4.3-4)
=|.
get
cos 26 +
J~-2
2a
Txy
(4.3-5)
sin 26,
= GP sin (20
2a)
= -~\342\200\224-sin 20
Tj,
CP (sin 20
cos 2a
cos
20 sin
u 3
2a)
\302\253
cos 20,
is fixed
but differs in sign. The sign
which agrees with Eq. (4.2-8) in magnitude
according
A
circle.
Tjy,
Mohr's
positive-valued
here for
by the convention adopted
moment and would have been plotted
to Eq. (4.2-8),would be a counterclockwise
and the validity
agrees,
everything
ordinate on Mohr's circle.Hence,
with
negative
of Mohr's
of
To
with
obtain
the x-axis
the
stresses
acting on a
surface
in the counterclockwisedirection,
makes an angle 0
draw a radius CP that makes
whose
we
normal
the
circle is proved.
Mohr's
picture
of how the
to locate
the
stress varies
principal
are oriented
the maximum shear occurs
planes on which
calculation
direct
by
a
however,
planes. In practice,
stresses.
the
principal
4.5 is a faster way to compute
with the
orientation
axes.
solving
Eq. (4.5-3)
in
Sec.
94
Stresses
Principal
4.4 MQHR'S
FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL
CIRCLES
Let
<Ti, cr2,
<r3
vector acting
which
instructive
largest
plane on
is very
result
This
area bounded by
shaded
the
the largest
which
cr1 and
cr3)/2
result that
are plotted
if the
on a
plane,
with
cr
and
the principal
at 45\302\260
from
planes on
perpendicular to the x-axis, there acts a normal stress, say, ah and no shear. On
a plane normal to y, there acts a normal stress, say, cr2,and no shear. Now consider
all planes parallel
to the z-axis. For these
the normal and shear stresses
planes,
through
and
are
by Eqs.
exactly
(4.2-3) through
(4.2-8).
the circle
these planes.
given
passing through
or Eqs.
(4.2-5)
in Sec.
described
the totality of
all
(4.2-6)
4.3 applies,
stress
states on
other
corresponding principal
coordinates xu
cartesian
to a set of rectangular
to v has components w,, referred
where
the
is
vector
same
this
ttivh
expression
by
given
x2,x3. On the other hand,
=
these two
on
we
have,
v,equating
tensor.
stress
Hence,
writing
8,-,-vy,
t,7 is the
to the same side,
expressions and transposing
-
<fy)v,
(T//
surfaces.
cr3 act.
on them
95
Stresses
Principal
acting
Sec.4.5
surfaces
is the
STRESS STATES
be the principal
on any
represented by
a-axis.
Chap.4
Similarly,
three
These
with i
equations,
(i = l,2,3).
=,1, 2, 3, are to be solved
orthonormal
principal
negative,
or mixed
negative
definite,
of these
results,
axes. Whether
depends on
or uncertain,
we shall
the
derive them
positive,
is positive
inXiXj
of the
because
of
solutions
nonvanishing
vanishes,
value
expanding
in
equation
stress, a
of the principal
Eq. (4.5-2),
we
importance
cr;
its roots
normal
unit
v(,
v2,
v3 if
(4.5-2)
are the
principal
vector v can
stresses.
be determined.
have
Tl3
T12
Ta
T21
cr
T-B
Normal
^ stress
all
definite,
i.e.,
\342\226\240
= 0.
o-5\342\200\236|
a-8,/1
x!rQk
all
below.
anew
srfZffiTfrh.
1
form
However,
respectively.
Tn
tShear
stress
stresses are
principal
the quadratic
whether
On
+
Since v is a unit vector, we must find; a set of nontrivial solutions for which vf
as a matrix
Since
an
=
t,7
1.
problem.
eigenvalue
+
Thus,
vl
Eqs. (4.5-1) pose!
vf
of
is real valued and symmetric, we need only to recall a result in the theory
set
a
and
stresses
of
principal
matrices to assert that there exist three real-valued
tr3, en)
through
(4.5-1)
= 0,
T31
-cr3
7,cr2
T32
T33
+ 73 =
/2cr
CT|
(4.5-3)
0,
where
Fipre 4.4
Mohr's
circles.
h =
k =
a general
depends on the
stress vector and
show
normal
h =
Tn
+ T^
T22
+ t33,
Ta
T33
(4.5-4)
T3[
Til
T12
T21
Tn
+
Tb
T32
TM
Til
Tl2
Tl3
T21
T22
Ta
T31
;T32
Tb
tu
(4.5-5)
(4.5-6)
96
be
On the other
written as
hand, if a,,
the roots
of Eq. (4.5-3),which
can be seen
must hold:
Since the
that
the
*,)(<>\342\200\242
o-2)((r
<r3)
following
0,
Shearing
Stresses
/, =
or,
k =
o-,o-2
h =
or,o-203.
+ 020-3 +
(4.5-10)
are independent
of any coordinates
independent of the orientation of the coordinates
as Eq.
(4.5-3).
Therefore,
(4.5-9)
physical
state
of stress at a
of reference.Hence,Eq. (4.5-7)
1>
proof is
= 0,
v,Vi
i.e., the
0,
0,
= 0.
(T;y
0-,8;;)Vy
(t\342\200\236
cr2By)v;
(t\342\200\236
0-38f/)Vj
2
Multiplying
subtracting
(cr2
on account
of the
TijVjV:
the last
equality
second by
obtained
being
by
tjiVjVi
vh summing
over i,
(4.5-13)
implies
+ fp,
a2 =
where
a,
(5,
03 are
i stands
= a
the dummy
+ b\\ * 0.
each
other.
v,
(4.5-15)
If
o-,
= oy#
as the
axes.
principal
coincide
reference axes x,, x2, x3 are chosen to
becomes
stress
of
components
matrix
00
0\\
with
If the
the
0-3,
vf and
vectors
number of pairs
an infinite
fixed, but we can determine
'
3
=
of orthogonal axes may
=
set
then
any
a-i,
If
o-j
orthogonal to v,. rr,
of
be taken
the principal
axes,
/<r,
(ti/)
(4.5-16)
ff2
0-3/
indices/ and
if!,
for the
normal v (with
outer
=
T,
t;iv;). The component
tractionT
(with components
v;), there actsa
components
Let
is the normal stress acting on the surface element.
of T in the direction of v
in the
vector
a
of
the
Since
component
stress be denoted by o-(n).
normal
this
we
the scalar product of the two vectors,
is
vector
by
unit
a
given
of
direction
We
have
that on
seen
element
V-l.
surface
vof
= T/Vf
0\"(\342\200\236)
v
then,
On the
root
and
In
since
t,
o-(\342\200\236)
components
(see Fig.
other hand,
4.5),
the normal v
number
an
j.
0-3
imaginary
STRESSES
with a
unit
obtain
(4.5-14)
and
that
TijVjVi,
interchanging
b\\
will be
v,
2
4.6 SHEARING
b\\
(4.5-12)
= 0
ffl)v,v,
ibj)
orthogonal to
are mutually
vectors
principal
(4.5-11)
ibj.
a,-
= 0,
n
=
\342\200\224
VfVj
u,
v^i \342\200\224
0,
u,
:Vii>i
jViVi
+ ib){ai
(\302\253;
The
Vj
then
Ty
aj + ibj,
invarient
of the
Therefore,
of reference. But
(4.5-3)
Eq.
point,
is
Vj
(4.5-8)
ow,,
the
characterize
stresses
principal
+ cr3,
+ a2
to each
l, are conjugate
v, and
as
(4.5-7)
roots
that
show
this case, Eqs. (4.5-12)
vm
they
the same
can then
97
Sec. 4.6
written
(a
it
o-2,<r3 are
Chap.4
Stresses
Principal
we see
is given
the vector
where t
that
by the
of
(4.6-1)
T can
the
denotes
the magnitude
T(/V(V/.
be decomposed
equation
- 4>-
(4.6-2)
Principal Stresses
98
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
Sec. 4.7
99
Tensor
Stress-Deviation
$- = 0:
2v2v2(cr,
-arzf
+ 2v3vf(cr3 -
2v2v2(cr2
cr3)2
+ 2Xv, = 0,
(2)
a-,)2
+ 2Xv3 = 0,
(3)
dv2
\342\200\224
= 0:
2v3v|(cr2
tr3)2
flv3
= 0:
One of
the
+ vi
vi
v2
= 1.
(4)
obviously
v, = 0.
+ X = 0,
vl(o-2
of Eq. (1) is
solutions
On
vx
setting
0, Eqs.
(2)
and (3)
become
Figure 4.5
Notations.
vKoj
Let
axes be chosen
stresses. Then
V
T,
o-j
|rf|2
and,
from
into
(v,)2
M4 =
+ o-3v2]2.
(4.6-5)
(v,)2[(v2)2 +
(v3)2],
(v02(v2)2(a,
cr2)2
+ WWfa
4a
example,
if
vi =
=
v2
1/V2 and
(v2)2(v3)2(o-2
^,
fo
X=
<r3)2
\342\200\224.
we
(4.6-7),
Eqj
find
\\
<flY
,01
Or
Tmaj
Tm;n
_ J2 _ (T3
of
0 and
<r2
\342\200\224
(r3
a,
by setting, in
\342\200\224
\302\273!cr2
\342\200\224
a3
'
'
'
(4 6_?)
o-x)2.
=
v3
0,
then t
The
0-3)2
largest
=
* = \302\273/
\302\2615(0-1 o-2).
which
implies
inclination
45\302\260
the xr,
maximum
shear occurs
('*/).
Vf
*raxes.
=
Show that t\342\200\236\342\200\236
and that the plane on which t\342\200\236\302\253
acts makes an angle
2((r\342\200\236\342\200\236
o-\342\200\236,,\342\200\236)
of 45\302\260
with the direction of the largest and the smallest
principal stresses.
/= vji^(a,
cr2)2
+'vtv3(cr2
cr3)2 + v2v2(a3
By the usual
and
or
_ (^2
(4.6-6)
PROBLEMS
/!
sets
Other
turn, v, =
0 +
see that
t2 =
For
(v,)2]
v2rv3
into/,
'Tcjtt
(4.6-4)
that
noting
(v,)2[l
(T2vl
back
+ 0-3V3,
(j2vj
+ X = 0.
this
Substituting
[0-1 vf
o-(\342\200\236)
substituting
v, = 0,
(4.6-3)
Eq. (4.6-1),
(r3)2
+ (0-3v3f,
These equations
T3 = 0-3V3,
<r2v2,
+ (0-2v2f
(o-.v,)2
we
T2
vi,
o-i vf
o-(\342\200\236)
On
as the
the principal
principal
(r3)2
a,)2 +
derivatives
following
1).
4.7 STRESS-DEVIATION
The tensor
rj =
is called
to zero,
TENSOR
the
mean
the stress-deviation
f-
2v,^(ff,
(r2)2
+ 2v,p2(cr3
o-,)2
+ 2Xv, = 0,
(1)
where h
(4.7-1)
o-o8,7
in which
8,v
is the
stress:
equations:
Co
= 0:
tensor,
Tf/
is
the
l(o-, +
first invariant
cr2
+ 0-3) =
i(Tn +
of Sec.4.5.The
Tn
+ T33) = Ui,
separation
of t,v into a
(4-7-2)
hydrostatic
Principal Stresses
100
part
of
the deviation
and
0-08,7
t'u
is very
in
important
Axes
Principal
the plastic
describing
Chap.
behavior
metals.
of the
To
the
determine
The
followed.
to
is easy
in
the
verify
4.5
may
o'fitfl
(4.7-4)
h = 0.
/2tr'
equations
to the
h-
(4.7-6)
+
I2a0
to verify the
easy
verifies
reference.A
alternative
following
720o
(4.7-7)
a3,,
on account of Eq.
expressions
60?
(02
Eq. (4.7-7).
direct identification
yields,
(4.7-
cr2
(03
+ ct3)
- 3al
Oo)(o-i
cr0)
similar
Now we revert
as in
From Eq.
- /,,
= 3<rS
3ct2\342\200\236
~
ffo)
Oo)(cr3
0Wi) + 2o0(oi+
Eq. (4.7-6).
definite.
positive
have
Do)
of
an
to
Eq. (4.5-5),
h =
la
T23
T22
T22
T32 T33
I2, h
invariants
3(To2-/2!
2a3, = I} +
~
Oo)(ff2
(4.7-5)
J2, /3
relating
verifies
Eq. (4.7-4)
following
12)
+
-((TiCTi + o2or3
- -It
be
4.5:
Sec.
h =
also
of Sec.
procedure
we
substitution,
-(ffi
(4.7-3)
in the form
72
It is
= 0.
which
cr'3 -
defined
11),by
defined is indeed
J2 so
that
(4.7-8),
direct
h =
equation
|t&
may
T33
principal
determinantal
be expanded
+Tk
t'u
of Eq.
lines
101
Stress-Deviation Tensor
Sec. 4.7
always vanishes:
tensor
stress-deviation
I{ =
It
and
T33
IT33
T31
T3i|
I _
J
Tn
tj3
Til
(in
T12
112 j
J _
T21
Ta
(4.7-13)
\\
in
determinants yields the first line of Eq. (4.7-8).The primes
Expansion of the
because these quantities are equal to t12, T23, t31,
t{2, Ta, T31, can be omitted
if we add the null quantity
j(t{i
of
line
third
Eq. (4.7-8)is obtained
respectively.The
of
the results. To obtain the second line
to the first line and simplify
\"s'n
+ T33)2
Eq. (4.7-8), we
(4.7-3):
note first
Til
Tz.
that
=
(T|,
~
ff0)
(T22
Oo)
= Ti,
- T22.
Hence,
Jl
=
=
=
-t!iT22
-
- Tilis
Tnf +
(tB
l[(T\342\200\236
+ (ri)2
I[(t!,)2
T^Ti,
T33)2
(Ti)2]
(t,,)2 + (tb)2
+
(T33
+ (ti2)2
'
(Tn
+ (T12)2
T\342\200\236)2]
+ (T23)2
+
(t31)2
+ {taf
(t31)2
Toverify
all four
(4.7-8)
(4-7-9)
jtHthat
since J2, i3
= Cm -
Do,
=
J\302\273
tr2
-(crjoj
J3
rr2
(To,
+ ego* +
= o-Jc^oi
(r3
orJcrQ,
= o-3 -
Co,
(4.7-10)
(4.7-11)
(4.7-12)
negative sip
Eq. (4.7-11) because of our choice of sips in Eq. (4.7will become evident
if we observe, from the last two
The
reason
this
choice
for
5).
Note
the
in
T33)2
(T31
T\342\200\236)2
2(TJ? +
Tg +
T^2)
2(Ti,T22
+ T22T33 + T33tS,).
the sum
+ t^ + t33)2 to the right-hand side reduces
Adding the null quantity (tJi
second
the
with
line of Eq. (4.7-8)
third
to 3(t{? + Th + T33). The equality of the
restatement
a
but
is
line is then evident. The last equation, Eq. (4.7-9), nothing
is verified.
of the third line of Eq. (4.7-8). Thus, every equation
Example of Application:
in
a Pressurized
Testing
of Material
Chamber
If
o-J
invariants,
a particular
choice of frame
it is sufficient to verify
Eqs. (4.7-6) and (4.7-7) with
of reference.
We observe that the principal axes of the stress tensor and the stresscoincide. We choose xh x2, x3 in the direction of the principal
deviation
tensor
stress deviations, we have
axes. Then if cr{, oi, oi, are the principal
and
(Ta
(f31)2
Hence,
J2 =
Ta)2 +
we test a
Principal Stresses
102
and
Axes
Principal
Chap.
Sec. 4.8
103
and
V
Ti
T2
ffiVi,
T3
o-2n2,
(4.8-1)
0-3V3.
z
Since
(a)
v is a unit
vector, we
----^'^
On
(b)
are of great
these
components of T, satisfy
the
which is
load-deflection
Questions like
for
steel beam
(a) The
curve.
Deflection,
(vO2 + (v2)2 +
(4.8-1)
Eq.
solving
have
v,-
and
(v3)2
substituting
1.
into Eq.
equation
(4.8-2), we
see
that the
equation
<E\302\243
+
SI,
(M = 1
L'
(o-O2
H2
(era)2
of an
(4.8-2)
(4.8-3)
to a system
isxthe locus
of
of the
rectangular
end points
4.7.)
interest to
seismologists,
geologists,
has performed such a test in the
ocean depths, a simulated
test was done by Percy Williams Bridgman (1882-1961)
at Harvard.
He built a test chamber
in which high pressures that approach
those
engineers,
and
scientists.
material
words, yielding
that
is independent
t// defined
Yielding of most
LAME'S STRESS
there
P-8
of
curve
pressure.
in
materials
Eq.
part
ELLIPSOID
any surface
acts a
that the
indicate
tensor
is zero.
<\342\200\236
On
achieved.
unaffected
is related
stress-deviation
4.8
was
nobody
Although
v (with
componentsv,),
T, = tjiVj.
Let
x3,
the principal
and let
the
axes of the
principal
stress
stresses
tensor be chosen
be written
as <7i,
as the
coordinate
axes xu
x2,
as (he
Figure 4.7 Stress ellipsoid
locus of the end of the vector T as
v
vanes.
Principal Stresses
104
and
Axes
Principal
Chap.
Chap.
Problems
PROBLEMS
4.2
= 500 kPa,
= 0,
= 1,000 kPa, t\342\200\236.
tj: = -200 kPa,
Let t\342\200\236
-1,000 kPa, t\342\200\236
Tx,
whose
normal vector
on
a
surface
=
traction
of
the
0. What is the magnitude
acting
t\342\200\236
is
v = 0.10i + 0.30j + VOOk?
=
are the
What
Answer.
of the stressvector
the x-, y-, and z-directions)
What is the
stress acting on the surface?
What is the
acting on the surface?
resultant shear stress acting on the
(T,)
surface?
= (250,-440, -60),traction
stress
= -164 kPa,
shear = 481kPa.
4.3
In
of
the
4.4
the solution to
of the
surface
the
of a sphere of radius
a (Fig.
P4.4.) The
\"
'
2V''a'
~aPo
aPe'
OVo
acting on the
What is the
resultant
force
Fs =
force acting on
F,
\302\247tdS,
the sphereis
F=
yfydS,
jfjS.
p.b2
'
p,)
p\342\200\236b2
p,a\\-
'
b2\\a2
0.
where r is the
sphere?
Solution.
the sphere.
is the pressure
p\342\200\236
where
r(t2-fl2)
b2''-fl2
r2{b2-a2)
<fb2(p0
ff\302\260\302\260
*=~aP
p,a2
p,)
aV{p\342\200\236
are
\"
A sphere in viscous
problem).
an outer
tube with an inner radius a and
circular cylindrical
Fig.
external
(See
an
p\342\200\236.
and
pressure
p,
is subjected to an internal pressure
are
the
cylinder
stressesin
viscous
moving
x-axis. On
the problem
P4.3
(Stokes's
elastic
thick-walled
radius
1850,
P4.3)
Figure
fluid
normal
(2)
radial
location
By symmetry,
JxdS
the only
Hence,
F, =
charge
of
U
13
-dS
f~ |i
Andrew
an electron
jydS
with a
drops,the
used
tracks
(3)
force is
resultant
= W -3 |i-U
6irp.aU.
(4)
Figure P4.4 Thick-walled cylinder
and external
subjected to internal
pressures.
the
who won the Nobel Prize in 1923, measured
A chamber
was sparsely filled with tiny,
chamber.
were
in the chamber
Two parallel condenser plates
cloud
oil drops.
spherical
charged, creating an electric field. Uncharged
drops with an electron attached also moved in
measured. Millikan
= 0.
jzdS
Millikan,
approximately
a light on the
of the
component
nonvanishing
Note. Robert
of the charged
Stokes's
formula,
fell
in the
4.5
on each particle due to fluid friction. This force was balanced by the electric force acting
it
showed that the electron
on the electron. Millikan
charge came in a definite unit\342\200\224that
a basic
was quantized\342\200\224andthen measured what that unit was. In this way, he obtained
physical
constant.
to win the
was the second American
Nobel prizes were first given in 1901. Millikan
from a
Prize in physics.
Stake's formula, however, is not entirely
Nobel
satisfactory
have been suggested in the literature.
theoretical point of view. Many
improvements
The
such as a gun barrel.
chamber,
that you are designing a high-pressure
stress
circumferential
the maximum
the explosive is so high that
pressure generated by
stress at the inner
To reduce the tensile
tensile stress a\342\200\236.
allowable
the
exceeds
a\342\200\236
is put on hot,
shell
outer
an outer shell on the barrel. The
shrink-fit
wall, you may
load
a compressive
to
barrel
the
of
gun
it subjects the outside
and then, as it cools,
inside of the gun bore.
the
at
stress
<r\342\200\236
tensile
the
that tends to reduce
of pressure
p\342\200\236
stress. Present a multi-layered
the allowable
> a\342\200\236,
i.e., the stress exceeds
<j\342\200\236\342\200\236
results
Suppose
< tr\342\200\236
stress
by using the
principal
that will make the maximum
gun barrel design
Suppose
given
4.6
in Prob. 4.4.
A human
blood
vessel is a
remarkable
organ.
It
has
considerable
Principal Stresses
106
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
107
Problems
Chap. 4
there is no load acting on it. If a segment is cut in vivo, its length will shorten by 30
to 40%. If the segment is then cut radially, it will open into a sector. The open sector
to the zero-stress state of the blood vessel because any further
is a good approximation
measurable
change of strain in the vessel
cutting of the specimen yields no further
zero-stress
wall. The meaning of the open-sector shaped
state has been investigated,
stresses doing in our blood vessels?\", Annals
(see Y.C. Fung, \"What are the residual
of Biomedical Engineering 19:237-249,1991.)It is shown that because of the existence
of the circumferential
of residual
strain in the vessel wall is
strains, the distribution
the vessel wall at the normal
throughout
living condition. In the full
quite uniform
zero stress to physiological
the stress-strain
condition,
relationship
of the bloodvessel is nonlinear. But, if one considers only small changes of stress and
strain from the normal living condition, then the incremental-stress-strain
relationship
can be linearized. Now, if we assume further that the elastic constants
of the linearized
are constant throughout the vesselwall, then under the
stress-strainrelationship
restriction
to small changes from the normal condition, the Lame solution given in Prob. 4.4
a normal, healthy person
suddenly becomes hypertensive, he or
applies. Now suppose
range of strain from
Figure
[<-2o-|
4.8
in
4.7
sidesof
airplanes
for
alloy
of
tensile
where
axis and 26 is
to the
response
Stress
the windows
she incurs an abnormally higher blood pressure by an increment of A/7,. Plot the
incremental stressesin the blood vessel wall. Are they uniform? Where is the largest
incremental
stress? In Chapter
13, we shall see that the bloodvessel will remodel itself
the
Describe
concentration.
1+ / 1 -3-4
cos
20
rl
\\
2a is the major
the
minor
r
o-\302\273
|1 +
21
+
Trt=~2(1_?)(1
cos
S^Z
\342\226\240
Note.
phenomenon
You
see that
3rTin29'
the
stress in
principal
stress
maximum
Figure
4.9
the plate.
is increased around
conditions
horizontal
edges
and
the circular
On the
P4.8
*-
\342\200\224e -\302\253
\342\200\224e -\302\253\342\200\224
\342\200\224s0
\342\200\224>-
-*\342\200\224
\342\200\224I\342\200\224>-
_<_!
\342\200\224\302\273
Elliptical
the
hole,
are
=
a\342\200\236
0,
Trt
= 0
when r = a.
(b) a, reaches
principal
stress is 3p.
a, 6 = ir/2,
P4.8.)
1\342\200\224r-
of stress concentration.
maximum
2c
26-| p
Check
-4\342\200\224|
20
(a)
axis of
\342\200\224s
rl
\\
that the
states
'*
-\302\253\342\200\224
-, ~ 1 + 3t
r
the result
is
solution
Hl+4\\
conditions
boundary
P4.7
plate.
acting in a plane
Figure P4.9
Earthquake.
Principal Stresses
108
and
Principal
Axes
Chap.
109
Chap.4
Problems
4.10
be called a \"lubricated\"
latter components (in a case that might
as
written
be
hammer
may
condition under the
unit-impulse
in such a way that the
when t -\302\2730
1, e
F(x,
Dirac
a positive number.
being
Perhaps
in compression
strong
and
usually
F(x,j08(0
which is zero
integral
when t is finite,
-e to +e is
t from
of 8(f)
A
F(x, y) is unknown.
for
hammer),
simplifying
assumption
equal to
could be
there
between
must
specify
Package
drop.
local
them
thes^
slippage, etc. If
their consequences. /
precisely and then investigate
of
is a large expanse
of the preceding problem
4.13 Supposethat the semi-infinite body
will
water
The
an
P4.13).
airplane (Fig.
dropped from
water and the load is a package
conditions are|known in this case?
surely splash. What boundary
failure,
function,
fc
Hammer.
= const.
y)
Note.
rocks,
r, = 0,
t = 0,
instead?
4.11 Concrete,
Figure P4.12
r/////////////M////////////////r
Suppose
function in
specimens
tested in
compression.
Solution:
Initial
condition.
The
(b) For
of
the
conditions
caused
displacement
by
(c) On
the
(i =
1,2,3).
(i,; = 1,2,3).
= 0
have,
\302\253P \302\253f,
normal
by
to
(7) and
normal
v is the normal
=
to the table
is much larger
palm
body
weight.
treetop
weighs
diagram.
= Ty.
x=
z = f(x, y,
1.14 A
The normal
equals
the hammer:
(o-,7)
must be.consistent.
boundary
be the components
at infinity in the semiinfinite
body, let \302\253,
the deformation of the body, and let alV be the stresses; then
(4=0,
the interface
what
Figure P4.13
deformation
under
f, =
P4.12),
are:
conditions
but not
to'tlie
Bfldx:
BflBy:
Hence,
if we ignore
the
= L
tree
Figure P4.14 A palm
supporting its own weight.
110
Stresses
Principal
Chap. 4
t\342\200\236/3
represents
stress.
4.16 The
stressat
rectangular
/
=
((X,)
values
of the invariants
set of
with respect to a
1/
4.18 A plate is
stretched in
z-direction. Thereis a
4.19 Consider a
rod that
the critical
combinations
has a cross-sectional
the material
the rod
maximum
of
(b)
eilte,\342\200\236Tkl.
plate
cr,
the plate
fails.
area of 1 cm2.
has the following
breaks:
section?
(b) Answer
maximum
shear,
10.0 MPa.
4.20 A
and
or,
cylindrical
twisted
0,
=
t\342\200\236
Tr\342\200\236
0,
or.
= 1
kn/m2,
at that
point?
there
j-\342\200\236
principal
planes
point.
= -5 MPa acts on a
Answer,
with a normal
vector Vi = - v2 = V5/2,
cr,
plane
to the negative x,-axis.
The principal axis associated
0, which is inclined at 45\302\260
with
the principal stress o-2 = -10 MPa is the x,-axis,and that associated with cr3 = -15 MPa
is a vector inclined
at 45\302\260
to the positive
*,-axis.
v3
4.22 A
driver
of
car that weighs 1,600 kg made a sudden panic stop by
moving
slamming
on the brakes;
this promptly locked the wheels. Assume a maximum
coefficient
of
friction
between the tire and the ground of j, and assume that each of the car wheels
is attached to
ground.
(b) The
allowable
shear stress
of
allowable
safe?
the
combined
stress in the
the allowable
shear
it with
stress.
to the x-axis.
stresses
is hydrostatic pressure
due to the earth's weight
and there is a shear
stress due to strain in the earth's crust. At a point in the earth, the hydrostatic
pressure
is 10 MPa, and the shear stress,evaluated
with respect to a chosen frame of reference
= 5 MPa, in = t31 = 0. Find the
stresses and
at that
x2, x2, is Tu
bolts under
stresses.
Answer.
4.17 Let
In the earth,
bolts still
the principal
What
4.21
111
(c) The garage mechanic who put on the wheels for the car used a large wrench
and tightened the nuts most vigorously,
so that a tensile stress of 140 Mn/m2 was
on the bolts. This tensile stress was the initial stress in the bolts.Now when
imposed
the brakes are applied and a shear stress as computed in part (b) is induced, are the
0.
0
Problems
normal
0-1
0-1
|-1
Find the
components
the mean
Chap.
t\342\200\236
2kn/m2,
o-,
= 0.
Answer,
due to car weight
(a)
= 18.71 Mn/m2.
Shear stress
1,470 n. (b) shear stress due to braking
= 12.47 Mn/m2.
= 31.18 Mn/m2.
Shear in most severe configuration
It
150 Mn/m2; hence, the bolts are safe, (c) By Mohr's circle
the allowable
= 76.63 Mn/m2 and
or by Eqs. (4.2-12), Tm\342\200\236
am = 146.63Mn/m2. The bolts are
to tensile
clearly safe with respect to shear. But better check the handbook with regard
stress to see whether
is allowable.
cr\342\200\236,\342\200\236
is less than
construction,
of a deep-sea
drilling platform is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure
stress q in the vertical
direction due to the weight
of the platform,
p, an additional
and a shear stress t due to an earthquake.
Determine the three principal stresses and
the maximum
shear.
113
Sec. 5.1
Deformation
'T-rn
mm11
(b)
(o)
A
a
w
and forces applied to liquids
Forces applied to solids cause deformation,
an
cause flow. Often, the major
analysis is to find the
objective of
the deformation
this
in
our
It
is
deformation or flow.
chapter to analyze
objective
in those
to the state of stress
in such a way as to be relevant
bodies
solid
of
(d)
(c)
Bending,
(a) Stretching, (b)
Patterns of deformation,
5.1
Figure
shear.
bodies.
all
5.1
are different.
they
DEFORMATION
it shortens. If we
If we compress a cylinder,
rubber band, it stretches.
If we twist a shaft, it twists. See Fig. 5.1. Tensile stress causes
bends.
Shear stress causes shear strain. This is common sense.To express
strain.
phenomena
quantitatively, it is necessary to define measures of strain.
a string of an initial length L0. If it is stretched to a length L, as
Consider
in Fig. 5.1(a), it is natural to describe the change
by dimensionless ratios
bend a rod,
tensile
these
shown
it
as LJLa,
such
eliminates
and
and
Lo)/L0,
(L
consideration.
from
the
(L
be
is denoted
the
by
symbol
The
X.
LILa
felt
ratios
that these
string. This
is called the stretch
\342\200\224
La
for this
reasons
of
The selection
of
a curve
i We shall
have
reasons
be used, although
numerically,
X = 2, e =
La = 1, we have
and
(to be discussed
i2 ~
later)
r2
t2
E
21/
I
If
= 2 and
L\342\200\236
1,
then e = 0.01,e =
112
we
have
e =
e= 0.01,
0.01,
and
also to
and
e' =
or2
introduce the
1, and
e'
\342\200\242
the
tensile
formula
the
It
in
uniaxial
stress a
relating
the
stretching,
equation
The experimental results can
the stretch ratio
plotted
a to e can
different
engineering
against
then
be determined.
measures
of
materials
strain
be a Hookean
that
is called
a yield
or
just presented
subjected to an
as
strain e. An
infinitesimal
all
infinitesimal
coincide.
strain
a relation like
E is a
be presented
The caseof
(5.1-3)
o- = Ee
where
elongations,
at the
is dictated
constitutive
elongates.
simple because
was found that, for most
(5-l-2)
L\342\200\236
1.00,
more complex
by moments acting
into an arc. The \"fibers\"
beam
measures
t2
they are
to describe
later.
of strain
measures
proper
La
can
used
be elucidated
will
strain is
strain measures. Either of them
different.
For example, if L = 2,
can be
elongations,however,
bend a rectangular
on
the beam \"will deflect
in
5.1(b),
Fig.
ends, as shown
These
longitudinal
will be elongated.
and those on the bottom
top will be shortened,
beam.
the
on
moment
acting
are related to the bending
strains
as shown in Fig. 5.1(c).
a circular cylindrical shaft,
To illustrate shear, consider
distorted in a manner
are
shaft
the elements in the
When the shaft is twisted,
as a measure of strain.
taken
be
a
the angle
may
shown in Fig. 5.1(d). In this case,
the
a as the shear strain;
to take tan a or 5 tan
however,
It is more customary,
empirical
are
In finite
equal.
if we
example,
For
deformations.
the
ratios
measures
strain
The preceding
If we pull a
are approximately
strain measures
these
of
stress in
tension.
is valid
A material
if
Analysis of
114
for a Hookean
relationship
t = G
tan
Deformation
Chap.
(5.1-4)
Let a body
the shear
115
Strain
The
This is a
material
modulus or modulus
of rigidity. The
(5.1-4) is again bounded by a yield stress, this time in shear.
and in shear are different
The yield stresses in tension, in compression,
in general.
and
are
the
of
the
constitutive
(5.1-3)
(5.1-4)
simplest
Equations
equations.
cases will be discussedin Chapters
The more general
7, 8, and 9.
of most things in nature
and in engineering
Deformations
are much more
need a general method of
complexthan those just discussed. We therefore
treatment. First,
however, let us consider the mathematical
description of deformation.
range of validity
called
Sec. 5.2
the
transformation
inverse
unique
of Eq.
a space
occupy
S. Referred
to a
of
reference,
every particle
deformed,
every
oi =
for
point in the
every
\302\253!,
x2
a2,
x3
(5.1-6)
x3)
body.
The displacement
u is
vector
defined
then
= Xi
u-,
vector is associated
If a displacement
by its
components
(5-1-7)
a,.
with
every particle
in
the
original
may write
position, we
u:(ah a2,
particle
Xi
aj(xi, x2,
that
If
a3)
is associatedwith
displacement
the
- a,.
(5.1-8)
we write
Ui(xh xi,
x3) =
xt
(5-1-9)
a,(xh x2,x3).
PROBLEM
a3.
?3.*5
order
Robert Hooke
explained
Figure 5.2
the displacement
x,(au
a2,
a3).
(1635-1703)
in
1676
(5.1-5)
first
announced
by
ceiiinosssttuv.
He
in 1678 as
Ut tensiosic vis,
or \"The
The
power of any
of this
meaning
body is
springy
not directly
considerthe
transformed
related to
stretching
neighboring
to the
in
the same
statement is clear to
anyone
band.
a rubber
pulled
three
Xi
a body
Displacement vector.
it
stress in
the
no stress.
stress. To
and distortion
points
points Q,
P, P',
Q',
P\"
relate deformation
of the
in the body.
Q\" in the
deformed
(See
Fig.
configuration,
5.3.)
If they
are
the change
in area
116
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Sec.5.3
.he
Hm
The differ
?3,*S
in Terms of
Components
Strain
s,\302\273rES
.he
i\302\273
s\342\204\242r,l
chaw*
ta
of .he
for dummy
symbol,
117
Displacements
*\"
\"i'M'
\302\273tta<-\302\243\302\273\302\253
rota,
(5M)
*-\302\253-(*.sH**
or as
(i>,)
*-*-(\302\253.-\302\273.^**
the strain
define
We
tensors
\302\2602.*2
\342\200\236
l(.
\"1. *1
Figure 5.3
and angles of
the
triangle
determined
is completely
we know
if
the change
in
deformation.
neighboring point
of PP' in
the
F(fli
original
line
+ dah a2 +
dx2,
and
x3 + dx3),
connecting
da2, a3 + da3). The
configuration is given
dsl =
When P
element
da] +
square
of the
a2,
a3) to a
length ds0
by
so
that
T/ie
Green'sstain
strains and by
In
tensor.
da].
(5.2-1)
+ dx,, x2
element
QQ'
tensor
tfrawt
tensor.
and
dsl
is2
rfsi
E,7 was
The strain
2El7
da,-
2%
dx,-
with
in
terminology
(5.2-11)
&;.
Green
introducedJ>y
(5.2-10)
das,
Almansi
analogy
is2
Cauchy
for infinitesimal
strain
as Almansi's
often referred to as
is known
hydrodynamics,
Ei; is
as Eulerian.
a, and x,,
are tensors in the coordinate systems
and
to
(5.2-10)
Eqs.
rule when it is applied
follows from the quotient
respectively,
i.e.,
are obviously symmetric;
The tensors Etj and e,7
Lagrangian
+
da\\
(5-2-9)
length
is undetermined
sides. But the \"location\" of the triangle
by the change of
the sides. Similarly,
between any two arbitrary
if the change in length
of
points
the body is known,
the new configuration of the body will be completely defined,
except for the location of the body in space. The description of the change in
distance between any two points of the body is the key to the analysis of
an infinitesimal
a
s ^^Sl
1/
l|e
of a body.
Deformation
of the
Consider
(5.2-8)
a*\302\253!S_s.|
Ei'-=2l\302\260\302\260^^
That
Eij
e,7
and
e,7
thus
defined
(5.2-11).
is
E,j
(5.2-12)
e\342\200\236.
\302\243;,-, e\342\200\236
By
Eqs.
dXi
Hence,
on
introducing
the
dsl =
ds2 =
dx\\
+ dxj.
(5.2-2)
have
dx,
\342\200\224
da,
da\342\200\236
flfly
Kronecker
5/;da,
8,7
+ dxj
dx,
da,
delta, we
=
dx, =
da,
\342\200\224
dx,.
(5.2-3)
dXj
may
5.3 STRAINCOMPONENTS
If we
da, dam.
dam
OF DISPLACEMENTS
IN TERMS
(5.2-4)
rir- r)r
\342\200\224
\342\200\224-
da,
components
write
\342\200\224
\342\200\224-dx,
dxm
8,7
OX, 0Xm
8,7
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
ds2 =
- d*,20
(5.2-5)
introduce
the displacement
vector u
with
components
= 1,2,
= x\302\253a\342\200\236
(a
\302\253\302\253
-
3),
(5.3-1)
118
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
then
In
dxa
dua
daa
\342\200\224
= \342\200\224
=
+ o\342\200\236\342\200\224
oal
da:
da-,
dxt
the strain
and
Sec. 5.4
tensors reduce to
the
notation,
unabridged
dua
\342\200\224i
du
_
e\" ~
(5.3-2)
dXi
a?
lldll
_\"
6xy
3v
simple form
dv
Wy
7x,
lldu
dw\\
,,
l/flv
3jv
,
\342\200\236
(13-7>
e\"=2fc+ire~
\"\"'w
i% =
Strain Components
of Infinitesimal
Interpretation
Geometric
dw\\
(5.3-3)
1
flK;
3h,3ua 9ua
\342\200\224
\342\200\224+ \342\200\224
In the
3fl;
3fl;
3fly
3fl;-.
case of infinitesimal
strain
Eulerian
of the
and
the distinction
displacement,
since then
tensor disappears,
the Lagrangian
between
whether the
is immaterial
and
derivatives
at the
it
deformation.
*>
_1
-s+8\302\273l
(5.34)
In
a\302\253a
a\302\253,-a\302\253,-a\302\253a
~~2
ftc.
.a*<
dXj
Notation
Warning:
SHI
8*-4
books and
most
uu
notations
unabridged
\302\2532,
\"a),
(x, y,
we have the
z for
xu x2, x3; a, b,
c for au
az, a3;
and u,
v,
,-. =
,w
da
to
3a:
'tof
2l ^j
/3Wf
/3vf
+Ui
\\dx
(5.3-5)
1 to
3v
36
3a
1 du i dv
= \342\200\224
p\342\200\242\"
'
2{dy
Note
dx
/f\302\253to
[da db
/3a du
\\dx
dy
3v3i>
SivSw'
da db
da
dv dv
'
3xdyT
the shear
mathematical
db
books
dx.
2eiy
3v
ty
Sx
3v
dw
_
u
strains, denoted by
3w
te
a/_~??-^lf
ay'
to
dw
dz
dx
respectively. We shall
arid
together do not form a tensor,
difference
this
of
But
beware
is lost.
eyi, ezx,
convenience
are
e\342\200\236
%y, etc.,
twice
as large as
the
and papers!
5.4 GEOMETRICINTERPRETATION
dx dyl\\
dm
dUi
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
du
\342\200\236\342\200\224+ \342\200\224.
3tv dw*
u, v,
dx,
components exy,
components
w are considered
functions
of a, b, c, the position of
in the
points
in
unstrained
when the Lagrangian strain tensor is
body
configuration,
evaluated;
whereas
of x, y, z, the position
they are considered functions
of points in the
strained configuration, when the Eulerian strain tensor is evaluated.
If the components of
u, are such that their first derivatives are
displacement
so small that the squares and products of the partial derivatives of us are
negligible,
then e,j reduces to Cauchy's infinitesimal strain tensor,
that
3v
dz
In other words,
\\dx
_
\"
+WJ'
2 3xj
= \342\200\224>
1x,
dx
w for
e\"
*\"
are defined as
components
3k
dXj,
terms
typical
strain
papers, the
ex
In
Strain
for Shear
(5.3-6)
STRAIN
OF INFINITESIMAL
COMPONENTS
Let x, y,
z be a
set of rectangular
Cartesian
ds2 -
ds\\
0).
The
2exx(dxf.
Hence,
ds
coordinates.
= dz =
to the x-axis (dy
of length dx parallel
of this element due to deformation is
length
- ds0 = 2exx(dxf
ds +
ds0'
121
120
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Rotation
Infinitesimal
Sec. 5.5
which
differs from ds
But ds = dx in this case, and ds\342\200\236
second order if we assume that the displacementsu,
e,7 are infinitesimal. Hence,
ds
only
small quantity
of the
and the strain components
by a
v, w,
that
it is seen
of a vector
element
(5.4-1)
parallel
To seethe
in the body
with
in
meaning
edges
flu.
3v
Lay
ax.
5.5
= -
(5.4-2)
xOy).
i.e., 2el7,
doubled,
components etj (i t4/)
suggestive
The name is particularly
detrusions.
shear.
the case of simple
the
In engineering usage,
the shearing strains or
which is called
Fig. 5.4,
to the
.44
angle. Thus,
&o
e\342\200\236
represents
is illustrated
right
_1
ds
and
the ,\342\200\236gl\302\2530,,
\342\200\242**\342\200\224*.\342\200\242*\"\342\200\242\302\273\302\273
to\302\273i*
strain
are called
3 of
in Case
ROTATION
INFINITESIMAL
an
Consider
field u,(xu
displacement
infinitesimal
us, form
x2,*3).From
the
tensor
Cartesian
\\?
ft)i/
which is
2\\3x,-
Hence,the
dx
!:Jf>0,
v=0
Case1:J^<0,
always
vertical=
u,-,-
toa,
a dual
build
has
0)33
components\342\200\224o)K,
call
cot
field
displacement
Case3:f>0,f=f=0
\302\260Case2:f>0,f>0
Cose4:f<0,|>0
5.4
components.
dual
condition
for a neighborhood
that
el7ta>t
from
hand,
5(101,-
tensor
rotation
given at the
temor
strain
of a particle
Eq.
%),
(5.5-4)
e,7t(ot.
On the other
it follows
(antisymmetric)
\302\253,-.
the
2.3).
of
end of Sec.5.2will
is a
EVl or e,7
to be
moved
like
convince
necessary and
a rigid body.
is \302\253,-.
sufficient
strain
(5.5-3)
A slight
us that
Figure
be called the
(o,7, respectively,
and
and
we can
kt/;\302\253>i/,
(Sec.
symbol
w,7
<j>,7 may
0)23,
tensor,
vector
Thus,
(5.5-2)
Eq. (2.3-19),
the e-8 identity,
(5.5-3) and
is a),;.Hence,
(5.5-2),
which,
by Eq.
dy
SloPe=|
dxit
= -w/i.
% =
where
Slope to
tensor
mn,
(1)31-\342\200\224because
v=0
(5.5-1)
^.
i.e.,
antisymmetric;
u,7
Case
ife
dx-
of
infinitesimal
displacement
aXj
translation
122
of
Analysis
This can be
dll\\ ,
-lldUi
\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
dx, +
'
is the
in parentheses
quantity
lldu,
-M
dXil
2\\3xi
first
Components
E,
duh
ri
dx,l
2\\dXj
may be identified
in parenthesis
when En
strain tensor,
infinitesimal
is zero by
which
with
Eq. (5.5-1).
To
is small
get
line elements
compared
the
physical
ds0and
ds0
-Uijdxj
=
relative
(w
x dx),-
(5-5-6)
(5.5-1)]
produced
After
these line
deformation,
ds0,
STRAIN
original
da-,
= 0,
da3 =
0;
da2
= dsa,
da3 =
0.
(with
us
two
consider
state:
components
g_^\\
r^
<&;)
and
ds
we
deformed elements,
obtain
is exactly
an
ds ds
axis
cos6 =
dxk
da,
da,da/
dso
,
dsa.
da2
given in
definition
\342\200\224'\342\200\224da,
3a,da,
3fli
to the
dxk
dxk dxk-
But according
FINITE
angle
in the
5.6
Ea, let
component
elements becomeds
(by definition).
displacement
[by Eq.
significance of the
that are at a right
da{ = 0,
ds0:
tojidx;
= -*,#>* dx,
(5.6-6)
E\342\200\236
to 1.
.dai =
ds0:
dm
,
dx,. '
Hence,
Thus, the
123
Finite Strain
Sec. 5.6
This reduces to
as
written
dm =
The
Chap. 5
Deformation
Eq. (5.2-8),we
have,
since
8l2
= 0,
COMPONENTS
2'doi dai
When the
strain
components
for the
interpretations
components of the
is also
easy
to give
simple geometric
tensors.
strain
element be defined
Cartesian
Hence,
dsds cos9
coordinates
and
But, from Eqs. (5.6-1)
ds = VI
by
Ei
ds
ds0
\342\200\224:
Hence,
(5.6-1)
dsB
+ 2EZ
cos e
ds =
From Eq.
(5.2-10), we
(1 + Ei)
- dsl
(5.6-3),
da-, das =
2Eij
of En
2En{dalf
(5.6-3)
- 1 = 2En
(5.6-*)
These
2EU
1.
(5.6-5)
VI +
2En
dsa.
the
angle
(16\"9)
wrmwrm
between
the line
of angle
of En and
elements ds and
ds after
deformation.
state
are
(5.6-9),
{16-10)
VTT2lfvTT^-
equations
is not as
interpretation
VI +
ds =
ds0,
sinai2 =
Ex =
6 is
we obtain
(1 + Erf
meaning
The angle
The change
have
ds2
gives the
(5.6-2)
ds0.
we have
or
which
(5.6-5),
(5.6-8)
in these
\302\24322
equations.
124
Analysis
A completely
components.
extension
the
Defining
ex
ds
we find
for
be made
can
analogous interpretation
of Deformation
(d) If the
strain
Eulerian
the
Sec.5.8
Chap.
strain
as
length
- dsp
Strain
Infinitesimal
tensor
assumes the
if the
Furthermore,
original state
which,
2e\342\200\236.
(5.6-12)
between
two elements
angle
become orthogonal is denoted
by
deformation,
(e) We can
the
in
and
e'tj
have
the following
p12> we
l\\
In case of
(5-6-13)
___|5__.
(5.6-10)and
reduce
(5.6-13)
PRINCIPAL STRAINS:
al2 = 2Ea,
\302\243, En,
e\342\200\236,
/e,
0\\
e2
\\0
ej
axes,
then the
to the
= suh-
p,2
2en.
\\e,kelk,
h = \\elkekmemi.
familiar
circle may
(f) Mohr's
is also applicable
ellipsoid
be
tensor
deviation
e[s
e^
\\
e,v
invariants:
independent strain
h =
results
5.7
a strain
define
have
sinPi2 =
principal
\302\253\302\243i-n
a right
from
deviation
after
1 - VI -
with the
coincide
form
canonical
that
e, =
x2,jc3
axes xu
coordinate
125
in Polar Coordinates
Components
Ji =
eI/8(;
h =
|44,
J%
= 0,
(5.7-3)
= ie\\ke'kme'mi.
graphical
analysis
of strain.
Lame's
to strain.
(5-.6-14)
MOHR'S CIRCLE
5.8
INFINITESIMAL
STRAIN
COMPONENTS
IN
POLAR
-\342\200\224-\342\226\240-.,
COORDINATES
much ado, we can extend the results of Sees. 4.1 through
4.8 to the strain,
becausethese properties are derived from the simplefact that the tensor concerned
Without
is
All we
symmetric.
determinantal
to do
have
exist
(a) There
three
is to
principal
strains
the word
eu e2, e3
stress
that
with
are the
strain.
- e
8y|
= 0.
Thus:
roots of
the
equation
\\e,j
The roots
exchange
(5.7-1)
of this
Associated
e,
0,
(e\342\200\236 B\342\200\236>f>
The three
sets
components
of three
(i=l,2,3).
axis,
(5.7-2)
of solutions
coordinates
curvilinear
is often desirable to introduce
indicated in Sec. 3.6, it
frame
can be referred to a local rectangular
for reference. The strain components
For
example,
coordinates.
the curvilinear
in the direction of
of reference oriented
err, em, ezz,
may be designated
strain
the
components
coordinates r, B, z,
in polar
tensor
the
ezx
by
are related to exx, eyy, eIZ, esy, eyz,
ero,fin, e2o, and they
cases of stresses.(SeeSec.
law, as in the
in the
transformation
into components
vectors are resolved
if displacement
However,
relationship involves
coordinates, the strain-displacement
directionsof the curvilinear
by the
and therefore is influenced
components
derivatives of the displacement
relations
may appear
system. The strain-displacement
curvature of the coordinate
coordinates.
in rectangular
formulas
from the corresponding
is that of general
coordinates
quite different
curvilinear
for handling
A truly general method
treatises. An introduction
is referred to more advanced
Prentice
tensor analysis. The reader
Mechanics, (Y. C. Fung, 1965,
of Solid
Cartesian
to
is given in the author's Foundations
book
the
in
present
Limiting ourselves
N.J.).
manner.
Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
coordinates in an ad hoc
of curvilinear
set
each
treat
must
we
tensors,
polar
the case of cylindrical
ad hoc approaches in
We shall illustrate two
enumeration. The
detailed
and
by
of coordinates
coordinates: by transformation
the latter in Sec. 5.9.
in this section,
discussed
will be
former
As we
3.6.)
126
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
sec.,8
infinitesinna.
*
In the
r, 6, z
and
first
approach,
the
rectangular
coordinates x,
relations between
the polar
coordinates
ix =
\\y
= r
dr
dx
sin 6,
\342\200\224
= -
It follows
may
that
d6
3x
be transformed into
3
Now,
u by
in
polar
(5.8-1)
= sin 6,
(5.8-2)
+ y2,
3r
cos6
r2
3y
r1
with
to x
and
y in
to r
respect
3
36 3 _
~ cos 6
3
dr
3x 36
dr
30 d
in
z.
dy
dx
coordinates,
z =
y
\342\200\224
= -
with respect
and
3y dd
erM
6 3
(5-8-4)
of the
of the
+ ^os20-^sin20,
e\342\200\236stf0
-(e
0 +
ezo= _e2Isin0
displacement
+ ^(cos20-sitf0),
-e\342\200\236)cos0sin0
=
cos
\302\243zre\342\200\236
\342\200\242
36
+ e>,sitf0 + eiysin20,
err=e,lCos*0
6 by
3
cos
\342\200\236
transformation
The tensor
d6
dr
have
law holds, and we
(5.8-3)
sin 6 \342\200\224
+
(5.8-7)
6 3
sin
dr
.
(5.8-8)
sin 0,
ezy
+ e2ycos0,
vector
Finally,
e\302\253
a\302\253z
3Hj
e\"
ey),
3x'
dz
3y
l/a\302\253y
= -F^
+
6\"
Displacement vector in
polar coordinates.
Figure
directions of rectangular
that these displacements
seen
coordinates
related
are
ux
uy
by
ur cos 0
sin 6
= ur
are
u\342\200\236
uy, uz. From the figure,
the
equations
it
is
a substitution
Now,
3
/
= I cos 0
e\342\200\236
sin 6,
H\302\253
u0
cos 0,
components
= cos20
in polar coordinates
Bor
are designated
er0
erz \\
em
e0.
as
eyy
n
(5.8-6)
e'!
\\ezr
ez0
eZi
sin0
d\\.
\342\200\224
cos
(\302\253r
_~
sin20
-~ + cos20 -
\\r
dr
Sm2flfd\"r
~2\\17
Uo
, a.
sm 0)
r 30/
+ cos
+ \342\200\224
rdBI
0 sm
\302\253A COS20/3\302\273O
_
*\302\253\302\243
2
W
r36~ r)+
(5.8-9) yields
into Eq.
(5.8-3)
- cos 0 sin
\342\200\224
- + -13u0\\
\\r
dr
(5.8-9)
8z
of Eqs. (5.8-4)and
, Jur
3\302\253r
,
,\342\200\236
\342\200\224
+ sitffl
(5.8-5)
uz = uz.
The strain
2\\3x
5.5
a^
fc+ay)'
eiy\"2\\ay
in the
\302\253j*
iucu
witnz.
are:
36
dy dr
3y~~
y
->
sin 6
derivatives
'_3r
dx
= x2
r2
\342\200\236
= cos 6,
derivative
any
6 = tan\"1
r cos 6,
ceding
\342\204\242SZ\302\243ZXL,
0-direction,andz
f
\342\204\242wPd
to
\342\204\242
\302\253*
y,z:
127
in Po.ar Coord.nates
Components
Strain
ih
3ur
ldu0 \342\200\224
+
0 \342\200\224
r
rdd
\\dr
\342\200\224
+
0 \342\200\224
rdd
\\dr
dllr
Up
r30
(5.8-10)
128
Analysis
these and
Substituting
into Eq.
results
similar
of Deformation
(5.8-8) and
reducing,
Chap.
Sec.5.9
Direct
Derivation
of the
Strain-Displacement
Relations
in
Polar
Coordinates
we obtain
dur
e\342\200\236
flr'
1 3UB
Ur
~
e\302\273o
r 36
SrO
l/l
dur
2\\r 36
ezr ~
e*o ~
ri
flr
(5.8-11)
lw'
a?
l/l
flu\342\200\236
\"
dllA
l/flu,
2\\
'
3\302\253z fluD\\
2v!e
~te}'
flu2
e2Z
~~flz\"
Thus, we
see that
In the
language
7r2,
OF THE
IN POLAR
The results
the shear
yr0,
DERIVATION
RELATIONS
is tedious but
be warned
for the
5.9 DIRECT
of coordinates
the fundamental
ordinarily
that the
Note
straightforward.
STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT
COORDINATES
of the
definition
in Fig.
shown
Consider
5.6.
first
the displacement
in
the r-direction,
ur.
We see from
Fig. 5.6(a)
that
+ (diirldr)dr
\302\253r
dr
From
ur
flu,
flr
circumferential
element
direction.
E.
coordinates. (From E.
polar
in cylindrical
Displacement
Sechler.) A
Mrs.
Magaret
Courtesy
and two
Sechler, Elasticity in Engineering,
element of material
of an infinitesimal
diagram
free-body
(a) Radial
left corner,
lower
the
at
are shown
coordinates
field in the radial
systems of
of the radial displacement
due to variation
strain
of circumferential
strain due to variation
Circumferential
direction,
(b)
dujdr and (l/r)3\302\253,/38
direction,
(c)
in the circumferential
shear strain e,,.
displacement
and Bujdz cause
(d) SuJdr
cause shear strain e\342\200\236.
strain
e!0.
shear
and 3u,/3z cause
(e) (llr)SujB6
Figure 5.6
129
130
Analysis of
and becomes of
displacement
(r
length
dd.
ur)
(r +
- rdd
dd
ur)
rdd
On the other
in Fig.
equal to
as shown
hand,
strain
tangential
5.10 OTHERSTRAIN
radial
this
(5.9-2)
the tangential
5.6(b),
dB -Ue
displacementu,
gives
ldUn
(5.9-3)
rid
MEASURES
suitable
not think that the strain tensors we have defined are the only ones
we
base
when
ones
natural
most
They are the
for the description of deformation.
between
distances
the
of
of
the
the
square
change
of deformation on
our
analysis
of distances is a convenient
starting
point
The
square
any two particles (Sec.5.2).
the hypothof
the
that
states
which
square
theorem,
because we have Pythagoras's
this
is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs. Using
enuse of a right triangle
+
and
two
x-,
x-,
between
points
theorem, we state that the square of the distance
is
of
frame
reference,
Cartesian
to a rectangular
dxi, with coordinates referred
ds1 =
in the
axial
Ijr
1 fop
r dd'
direction
In
(5.9-4)
is
case of rectangular
The shearing
we based our
tensors.
strain
Deformation doesnot,
may
point,
insist on
or on
using
on this
analysis
Sec. 5.2,
the
(5.9-5)
equal to one-half
Fig. 5.6(c). A direct
in
that
\"
change of angle
examination
of the figure
of the
du
du
dx
dy
dz
3v
av
av
dx
dy
dX
shows
- ill
^?Lr
dd
tr
+i
flu\302\260u\302\273
\" ~
(5.9-6)
dx
in
the
^-direction,
tangential displacement in the radial
direction, and the last term appears since part of the
change in slope of the line
a'C
comes from the rotation of the element
as a solid body about the axis
components,
be derived
with
reference
We have
\\dujdd)id
6z0\342\200\224
rdd
antisymmetric
dz
13\302\253z
tot
dz
dB
starting
displacementfield:
\\
(5.9-7)
dz
tor
3\302\2532
dr
dz
~dr
picture
preceding section.
(5.9-8)
the
than
a_w
\302\245
~~3z
sum
lldu
av
lldu
dw\\
2\\3v
3*
2\\dz
dxl
3v
l/to
Bw\\
dy
dy
2\\3z
dyl
dz
\\2\\dx
lldu
an
3v
l[3w
dz
2\\dy
lldu
3v
2\\dy
dx
av
2\\aj
dx,
lldu
dw
i/av
2\\dz
dx
2\\az
direct
the
-dw
to
du
lldw_
(dujdr)dr
For example,
as our
ljflv
2\\dx
(du0ldz)dz
dX
(du,ldxj) into a
0
(8ur/dz)dz
algebraic method
of df)
part:
and
=
e\342\200\236
this way.
definition
(5.10-1)
\"deformation
called
matrix
through
0.
(e).
was a natural
LC'a'V
strain
of the
du
The remaining
be described
ds (instead
derivatives
first
dW
to Figs. 5.6(d)and
result
of distance
change
set of nine
equation; the
have to
however,
the
using
+ dx],
+ dxl
dx\\
coordinates.
er0 is
strain
LCab, as illustrated
of
we
dz
in the
131
Measures
Strain
strain is
tangential
strain
u,
duz
as
Other
5.10
Sec.
We must
rdd
The normal
to
~~r'
+ {dllpldd)
U\342\200\236
eff
The total
due
Chap.
is, therefore,
m =
rise to a
Deformation
(5.10-2)
dw
133
132
Then it
the
of Deformation
Analysis
is evident
of the
matrix
Other
part of the
the symmetric
measures
strain
When the
as defined
strain,
infinitesimal
well-known
tensors.
strain
that
deformation
in
Sec.
Chap.
gradient
matrix is
5.3.
is given by
mapping
Chap. 5
Problems
as a pure
a simple shear may be regarded
= \\(k - k~'). Equivalently,
at \\it
with Ox, Oy if s
inclined
+ s and the major axis of the strain ellipsoid
shear with k = V(s2 + 1)
- I tan-' s = tan\"1 (/r1) with Ox.
in J. C. Jaeger,
these two cases can be found
of the strain ellipses for
(Drawings
&
32.)
London: Methuen Co., 1956, p.
Fracture and Flow.
Elasticity,
r =
''
dxk dxk
Cm \342\200\224 '
flo,- da,-
dak
dtlk
dXi
dXj'
(5.10-3)
displacement
under
the
field
transformation
= x, + h, =
x]
whereas
dXj
dXj
Bak 8ak
where
da,
dQj
dxk
dxk
(5.10-4)
Now,
to
(a)
the
increase
in which the
displacement
Cartesian
of coordinates from
frame
of reference.
(2)Simple
shear:
consider
(See Fig.
= kx,y'
P5.2.)
=
k~'y,z'
the
following
of which refer
linear
to the same
x' =
y'
foe,
two transformations
The
similarity
Pure shear
[k > I)
Simple
(s >0)
simple
shear.
regarded
(2)
equations
and can be
(3)
Eq. (4),
+ Asxy
x2
Let us simplify
The coefficient
the coefficient
of curves in
the *y-plane.
By
ellipse
(5)
\302\243
t
+ (1
(6)
=1.
4f)y2
By Eq.
a rotation of coordinates.
Eq. (6) by
t| through an angle 8,
But in fact,
ellipsoids.
an
is transformed
(4)
= 1,
JW +
if a-,
(2.4-2),
to \302\243,
y is rotated
we have
| cos0 t| sin
9,
8 +
4s cos8 sin
-
shffl)
ij
sin 8
i\\
4s2)sin2
- 2 cot
= 1
- 2cos20+
(8)
+ 4s2)] = 1.
+ (1 + 4 cot2
=
cos2 20/cos2 0
20 sin 20
cos 6 sin 8
8] + t~t\\[-2
4r)cos2
-cot 29, or
0] + Tf[sin2
(7)
cos 8.
we obtain
8 + (1
(1 +
if s =
vanishes
of \302\243r|
We
pure
= r
z' = z.
y,
transformations
+ 4s(cos2 8
and
z\"
= r.
in the figures.
appear
shear
y'
to consider
Since z' = z, it is sufficient
= 1 is transformed into
+
x'2
circle
y'2
a
Eq. (3),
On substituting
Pure
z' = z.
quite different
the strain
considering
shown
by
is best
The
Figure P5.2
+ y'2
shear:
?[cos2
shear
x11
in Fig. P5.2.
= ylk,
x' = x + 2sy,
whereas by
a!kxt]
by the following
defined
represented graphically
Pure shear:
x =
= z.
= z.
y, z'
are
shear
simple
fl\342\200\236iJtuf x,
of the
field w, is a linear function
of a surface
What is the equation
deformation.
coordinates x, is called a homogeneous
= r2
[Use
after a homogeneous deformation?
that will become a sphere x2 + y2 + z2
= 0, in which x, y, z are rectangular
Cartesian
an equation of the type fix, y, z)
transformations
pressure.
A state of deformation
coordinates.]
(b) As a special
and
pure shear
Simple
changes
a sphere
transformation,
this
(1)
+ a:kxk,
uf
to an ellipsoid
+
5.2
Under
corresponds
PROBLEMS
blood
u!0'
[\302\253P>x,
of C,7 or
the absence of strain is indicated, not by the vanishing
For these tensors,
=
=
S,v.
8,7, B,v
B,v, but by d,strain measures any further, except to note that
We shall not discuss these
in advanced theories of continua.
some
for
convenient
specialpurposes
they may be
in
x, +
are
tensors
strain
Finger's
in which the
x, is moved to x':
as a deformation
a homogeneous deformation
a point
of the coordinates, so that
function
h, is a linear
Solution: We define
20)sin2 0.
tan2
0.
this value
of 0,
Analysis of
134
the coefficient of if in Eq. (8)
Similarly,
can be
Deformation
reduced to cot2
Chap.
Chap. 5
135
Problems
Eq. (8)
8. Therefore,
becomes
tan29f
If
we write
strain
k =
9 if
cot2
ellipsoids
of pure shear and simple shear.
To find the relation between k and s, we
(9)
Locus_of
0 on BC
these two
exactly to Eq. (5). Therefore,
the other by an angle 8. This verifies the
8, then
tan
= 1.
equivalence
cot
28 =
cos 29
cos2
sin 18
=
-\342\200\224r
note that
8 -sin2
2.54 cm diam.
steel rod
1.
\342\200\236 \342\200\236.
cot 8 - tan 0.'
\342\200\224
. \342\200\236 =
\342\200\236
sin 9 cos 8
2L
4545
Locus_of
B on BC
kg
(o)
Therefore, since s
= -cot28
-.5 =
5.3 A
steel pipe of
0.010 cm
the strain
5.4 For
and k
^-4
60 cm,
length
8, we have
tan
k =
and
j + V(s2 +
1).
(10)
0.001 cm in
expanded
in the pipe.
components
axially,
(c)
(a) The
(b) The
(c)Assume
the
of determining\"
Figure P5.4 A simple truss and a method
The locus of the
displacement at the joint B. (a) A simple truss, (b)
of the point B on the arm BC, namely, BB'B*; and that on
movement
the arm AB, namely, BB'B*. (c) The area of the shaded region is
in a bar when it is stretched.
proportional to the strain energy stored
a one-dimensional stress-strain
for steel is E
e in the rods.
(d) Determine
the displacement
vector at
(d) 0.640cm
B.
MPa
(-12,800
To compute
lb/in2)
(0.252 in)
BB* =
Solution: The loads in the rods are determined by static equilibrium, as in Chapter
1. We obtain a tension of 6428 kg (V2 x 10*lbs) in AB and a compression
of 4545 kg
(-10,000 lb) in BC. The stresses are obtained
by dividing the loads by the cross-sectional
area
of the members.
A further division
= -0.425 x 10\"3.
eBC
by Young's modulus
eAD
the displacement
consequence of shortening
the rod
BC,
the
we note that
point
we see from
JBB'1+ (B'P
+ PB*J
PB'f = jBBn+
(B'P
+ PQ +
QB\"f
= 2.405
=
at B,
jBBn + B'B*1=
BB'1 + (B'P +
x HT3and
To determine
= eL
Displacement
C, so that the locus of the possible location of B lies on an arc of a circle with
swing around
C as center and BC as radius.
For very small A BC (as compared
with BC), this locus is a
line segment perpendicular
to BC. Similarly,
the bar AB extends A AB in length, and the
locus of B on AB lies on an arc perpendicular to AB. The intersection
of these arcs, B*, is
the final location of the displaced
joint B.
+ (BQ +
JBB'2
BB'+ QB'f.
Now,
~BB' =
B~Q
Similarly,
gF
B~Q
|e,c|-121
cm
= 5.26 x 10~2 cm
= 0.293 cm
= eABAB cos 45\302\260
= ~BB' cos 45\302\260
= 0.293 cm.
Hence, we
obtain
~BB*
= 0.640 cm by substitution.
137
Analysis of
136
Deformation
Chap.
Note: Alternative Method of Finding Displacement at B. The work done by the load
is equal to the strain energy stored in the rods.When a rod is subject to a gradually increasing
= TLIEA,where L is the length
tension from zero to T, its length changes
by amount eh
strain
area.
The
its
cross-sectional
energy stored in the rod is equal to
of the rod and A is
onto the bracket,
a
load
W is gradually applied
when
Now,
[See Fig. P5.4(c).]
j(T2LIAE).
of the load,
the work done by it is equal to |W8 where 8 is the displacement in the direction
of the displacement. The factor
\\ is necessary because, the
the
vertical
i.e.,
component
the force-deflection
relationship is linear, so that the area
structure
being linearly elastic,
x deflection. Hence, on
work
the
done, is 5 of load
under the curve, which represents
the work
equating
done with
we obtain
Problems
Chap.
5.6 Derive
Cartesian coordinates
can find a set of rectangular
According to Sec. 5.7, we
not
summed), where e,,
the
form
ek%t
(k
assumes
with respectto which the strain tensor
a body undergoing strain and choose a unit
consider
us
Let
strains.
e2, e-i are the principal
of
Each edge, originally
axes of strain.
along the principal
cube whose edges are oriented
therefore,
volume
is,
new
The
deformation.
1 + e, after
length 1, becomes
+ = 1 + e, + e, + e3 + higher order terms.
(1 + e,)(l + e,)(l e3)
we seethat the change of volume per unit volume
on ignoring the higher order terms,
Solution:
Hence,
On
numerical
substituting
5.5 A
of
displacement
8 = 0.635cm. The
total
= 0-640cm.
the following
assumptions
hold:
= 0.555 x lO'VC.
coefficient of expansion is a = 10-5/\302\260F
on
the
side facing the sun is
the
of
rocket
the
on
The
maximum
body
temperature
(b)
on the shady side.
hotter than the minimum
20\302\260F
temperature
is uniform along the length (longitudinal
distribution
axis) of the
(c) The temperature
x-axis.
the
but
varies
along
linearly
rocket,
section of the rocketremains
a
of
plane in thermal
As a
(a) The
thermal
linear
(d)
(c),
consequence
to the
reference
that /,
Eq. (5.7-3)
axes. Hence,
principal
of reference. Thus,
frame
heating
by thermal deflection caused by nonuniform
the rocket is a circular
tower is affected
rocket-launching
of
e3.
We know from
obtain
we
e, +
is e, +
2 EABC'
EAAn
are
strains
/, =
means
e,fi,j
small.
(b) What is
how the principal
(c) Describe briefly
in principle.
determined
be
can
axes)
Answer:
is unloaded
the thermal
a
(d) Consider
determine the
'(e)
If
strain
tensor
eH
referred
Thermal strain
strain
and then
difference
to obtain
integrate
= aT
the
= 20x
deflection.
10~5.
= 26.3cm.
Tip deflection
X.
= \\etfiu
principal
5.8 In a study
to the same
*,,
How do you
directions?
2|ie\342\200\236,
axes of stress
of
equations of
axes.
coordinate
x2,
of the principal
directions
principal
strains and the corresponding
relation
and strain tensors are related by the
or,7
where
(i.e., the
*,,
principal
the stress
plane
to a system of coordinates
directions
+ e3with
to any Cartesian
when the
per unit volume
volume
of
referred
5.7 Given a stress field cr,7, with components
stresses?
of principal
the definition
is
What
(a)
axes?
of principal
the definition
expansion.
the change
to e, + e,
u = Ae'b> exp[ik(x
v = Be''\" exp[;/c(.i-
a solution
coincide with
of
the
the
linearized
ct)],
a)],
w = 0.
and
while y represents the depth into the earth,
solution
then
the
of
Rayleigh's
earth,
the
of
particles
u, v, w are the displacements
with a speed c and an amplitude that
in the A--direction
wave
a
propagating
represents
to be generated
surface. The wave is assumed
from the ground
decreases exponentially
on the ground
vector
stress
the
acting
is
i.e.,
surface
free;
the earth. The ground
inside
conditions,
the
and
boundary
of motion
the equations
surface is zero. After checking
the solution
obtained
c
and
and
constants A, B, b,
Rayleigh found the
cos k {x ~ cnt),
u = A(e'\302\260m5k> 0.5773e-|1-39M-')
If
32
360
ft
90\302\260
F
15 ft
diom.
B
(b)
of
a launching
temperature
the ground,
v = A(-0.8475e-|uu,5'f
w = 0.
+ 1.4679e-OJ\"\"'0 sin
k{x-
c\342\200\236t),
138
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Problems
Chap. 5
The constant
the
shear
wave
represents one of
the
most
prominent
Figure
<tf-d\302\243
of this strain.
4+K
BaJ
dfl! 3a2
Ba, da, ,
,,
\342\200\236
dx]-2-+-1dxidx2
Figure
P5.8
Rayleigh
surface
wave.
Partial Solution:
exponential
will occur at y
derivatives
= 0,
only the strain components
function e~\", with b > 0, shows
e\342\200\236
ax
= -Ak(l
0.5773)
e\342\200\236
[(-0.8475 +
But
are not
e\342\200\236,
e\342\200\236,
e\342\200\236
that the
t = 0, we
sin kx,
- 1.4679x
0.5773
0.3933]
sin kx,
+ (-0.8475 +
x 0.3933)
x, =
coskx
1.4679)]
Hence,
maximum
principal
dx\\
6,i -\"
6;
Hence,
Enda%
l
~~6'
'iVi^l
are zero.
but this
time shear to
the
only a very
right
small
so that
amount,
s, + O.Olfl,,
a, = xt
0.01*2,
x2
x2
= a,.
Then
= 0.
ds1 the
2V3'
whereas
(-f
+ 2 (\302\243\342\200\236
+ \302\24321)
da, da2 + 2
-i
uu ~
_J_
~
it
Ea
have
- 1 da\\\\
\\dazl
\\P^-^dx^2-l-dr2.
5.10 Consider
= \342\200\224
=
Ak[{0M15f
e\342\200\236
Ak
~
= 0. On
-^^-
~ 1 -
dx, dx.
dxj
iv
of a
Deformation
Hence,
_ dx, dx, .
., . ,
- Ida]+
\342\200\224
2 \342\200\224
da,rffl2 +
(d) Since
P5.9
square plate.
d4 = 0.01
da\\
= 0.01 dx,
dx2
(0.01)2
dx\\.
are
strains
Hence,
= \302\2610.14094Ak.
e\342\200\236
= \302\2610.4227
e\342\200\236
Ak,
of
can be described
\",
+ \342\200\224s
x,
a2,
Ea =
by the following
= a2,
Find
equations:
the
0.0025,
In this case,
1.2a2,
= *3fl3
e,2 = 0.0025,
en
-5
10\"5.
Ev
and e\342\200\236
measures
are
approximately
the same.
x3
the strain
strains,
The
Answer:
= *'->
\"l
10'5,
in Case 1 is x,
=
Ol
X,
TffXl,
the
x, = a3,
or
\302\243s 5x
strain
as
transformation
*, .=
1.4a\342\200\236
given by
Eq. (5.3-7).
140
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
1.2
(1,1)
values
(1.4,1.2)
5.14
*3
Cosel
)
(a)
141
Answer
*2
\302\2602
Problems
Chap. 5
of
Find the
infinitesimal
components
transformed into
the other.
radii are
same.
the
and e\342\200\236
when one of
E\342\200\236
The first
wedge
has
an
P5.14 is
*1
o2
I.7,1.2)
(1,1!
Case 2
deformable
(a)
given
1.
body
by
(1,1)
'\342\200\224(1.03,1.01)
*3
Case 3
(a)
\302\2603
What
0 0.02
Three patterns
P5.ll
is the change in
Answer: AC changes
\302\260\\
1
Figure
2
1
0
\302\2602
length of the
by 0.00423;
3
0
2
x 10\"
lines AC and
AE
changes
In
AE1
by 0.00290.
I.0I
of deformation
of
a square plate.
5.12 A unit
changing
angle.
square
of the
each
the simplified
obtain
the
expressions
lengths
OC
of
are
the strains eu if \342\202\254\342\200\236
e2, 8, \302\273|)
of
x2,o2
*2'\302\2602
of OA,
of length
Figure P5.15 Change
line segments in a plate of known
strain.
-1 \302\243
x \302\243
5.16 A square membrane,
1, -1
is described by
the displacement
*2.\302\2602
\302\243
1, is
y \302\243
u = a{x2 + y2),
4
A
.0*
e2
\\
Bp
Figure
unit square
P5.12
*1.\302\260l
5.17
to a distorsion,as
the
of
OABC
to OA'B'C.
OABC is first
P5.12(c). After
Deformation
(b)
(a)
5.13 A
tp~~
x.,a.
-*i.\302\260i
bxy,
w = 0.
\"7s'
J^
v =
B-f
principal
strain at the
origin
(0,
the load?
subjected
Answer: Solve
deflection
is 5.828PLME.
method illustrated
in Prob. 5.4.
The
142
of Deformation
Analysis
Chap.
Chap.
143
Problems
and strain
What
\342\231\246 +
of the
of a
invariants
of this displacement
DP
where
fl2
truss.
= 4
+ 4 + *t
and
o water the
of situations, such as the flow
a number
may happen in
The
The material is incompressible.
membranes.
forming of metals, and in cell
v are
\302\253,
The
vanishes.
displacements
w in the z-direction
displacement component
we know that
infinitesimal and are functions
of*, y. If, in a certain domain,
5.18 The
following
=
\302\253
(1
v in
the displacement
(Fig.
problem
P5.19),
it was
found
a is the angle
b = 1 cm. Compute
where
shear
Figure
P5.21
1.23).
Here
is another classical
is shown
drawing
Borelli's observations
is a and
outer
the y-direction.
u =
maximum
5.21
radius
- y){a + bx + ex1),
where
5.19 In the
field?
shear
strain
oay,
azx,w=
\342\200\224.r\342\200\224v.axy
a + b
cm and
of the bar. Let a -2
per unit length
= 0, y = &)\342\200\242
A
the
at
(i
acts
that
point
the strain
J^\342\204\242
tension and maximum
at A? On what plane do the maximum
of twist in radians
act?
Partial Answer:
= J.
\302\253\342\200\236
a, ey!
= 0, max
shear
strain =
8
a, max
-^
normal
strain
x.
\302\2615
the
Figure P5.19
section.
5.20
function
fau
By differentiating an arbitrary analytic
the equation
\302\253j,
k3) defined by
displacement field u(u\342\200\236
x\302\273
x3),
An
elliptic
one can
cross
obtain
by
surface
of the heart.
144
Analysis
Take
up
heart muscle
Add
theoretical
of Deformation
or experimental
Chap.
details as far
D.
in Streeter,
Jr., \"Gross
61-112.
observationto
in
6.1
define
tensor. Then
strain componentsor the
the strain-rate
of the
components.
FIELDS
VELOCITY
concerned
with the velocity
For the study of fluid flow, we are generally
field, i.e.,
We refer the location
with the velocity
of every particle in the body of the fluid.
of each fluid particle to a frame of reference O-xyz;then the field of flow is described
the velocity at every point {x,
defines
by the velocity vector field v(x, y, z), which
field is expressed by the functions
y, z). In terms of components, the velocity
u(x, y, z),
v(x,
w{x, y, z),
y, z),
or,
if
(6.1-1)
dv^^dxh
aXj
where
the partial
derivatives
^
dXj
dvildx,
^
l\\bX;
^_lte_^.
dX,l
P.
Now,
(6.1-2)
2\\dX;
dXjj
145
and Compatibility
Velocity Fields
146
Let us
the rate-of-deformation
define
Chap. 6
Conditions
the spin
tensor SI,,as
Sec.6.2
The
Condition
Compatibility
cannot be integrated
147
the condition
unless
3/
This condition, a
is satisfied.
bg
condition
is also called
of integrability,
an equation
of compatibility.
Then
Vn
(6.1-5)
SI,,
bx,
It is
evident
is symmetric
V\342\200\236
that
Vtl
Hence,
the
(1,7 tensor
to ft,7;
vector SI dual
has
that
and SI,,is
independent
as
presented
i.e.,
exx=f(x,y),
(6.1-6)
-0,,,
V\342\200\236,
Sl\342\200\236
three
only
antisymmetric;
Now considera plane state of strain, such as may exist in the solid propellant
grain of a rocket. Suppose that an engineer made a laboratory model and obtained,
by various instruments such as strain gauges, photoelastic equipment, laser
with Moire pattern analysis,
data that may be
etc., a set of strain
holographycombined
exists
en
= g{x,y),
ea = ez,= 0.
ezz =
e\342\200\236
h{x,y),
(6.2-4)
question
checked?And
is,
fti = eM/%
i.e.,
tensor
permutation
vector.
voriicity
defined
il = curlv,
in
Sec.
(6.1-7)
2.3, Eq.
question of integrating
differential
the
(6.1-7) and (6.1-1) are similar to Eqs. (5.5-3) and (5.5-5). Their
the analysis of the velocity
are also similar.
Therefore,
interpretations
deformation field. Indeed,
an
infinitesimal
of
the
field is very much like
analysis
the
result is an infinitesimal
of
time
interval
an
infinitesimal
if we multiply
dt,
v, by
equations
Equations
geometric
displacement
u, = v, dt.
6.2
we learned
Hence, whatever
extended
replacing
correspondingly
bv
\342\226\240qBgfc,y),
of strain,
Suppose
we were
given
a set of
two
partial
differential
equations
for one
if
we differentiate
the
dx
3y,
x\\
first
third
equation
with
,2
partial
differential
equations are
b3u
given,
the
question
of
dx
Substituting
by2
Eq.
|-\302\253fry)
to y
twice,
v once
(6-2-6)
fl3v
(6-2-2)
d2h
\342\200\236
7\342\200\224\342\200\242
bx by
+ Zrr;=2
bx2 by
(6.2-7),
we
(6.2-7)
have
b2h
dbr = 2-\342\200\224\342\226\240
fl\302\245 b2g
ri
df
equations
|\302\273/fr>).
and
a\342\200\2362'
aja\342\200\236
--j' bx2
by1'
b^by\"
are unequal.
when
to x
(6.2-1)
by
with respect
respect
unknown
We know
Therefore,
(-2^)
\302\243-2fcfc,).
dxdf
^ =*+
2x. They
function
(6.2-5)
(=\302\253*,)
strain
v(6.2-8)
bxby
this equation.
If not,
the data
are not
consistent
'
14S
the
Expressing
results
preceding
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
in
of strain
terms
Chap. 6
Conditions
components, we
Sec. 6.3
have
are
fl2e*x
3\\y
r- 1
_ _ 3\\
r- = /
Bx2
3/
>
(O.Z-y)
K
'
of Strain
Compatibility
Of the 81 equations
either identities or
to i,
32exr
3 (
3eyl
By Bz
3x\\
3x
3h\342\200\236
_Bl
Bz
are
however,
mechanics,
Thus, compatibility
6.3
COMPATIBILITY
of the
the components
\342\200\236\342\200\236,m
this
and
tensor.
rate-of-strain
integrability
OF STRAINCOMPONENTS
1 -JBu,
to determine \302\253,?
Inasmuch
as there are six equations
a single-valued
of Eq. (6.3-1) will have
By
of compatibility.
of Eq.
differentiation
where the
indices k
differentiations
with
respect
/ following
and
to
xk
and x,.
eu.ij
how
(6.3-1)
dx,.
have
+
!(\"/,/\302\253
\";,!\302\253),
a comma
indicate
(6.3-2)
successive
Interchanging subscripts, we
=
dimensions,
(6.3-1), we
%*/
three
Bii;
\342\200\224
2[BXi
2(Uk,lij
7\\Uj,lik
\302\243;*,;<T\\Ui.kjt
From
This
these,
is the
we
verify
at once
that
Cf/.w
+ eki,ij
partial
get
specified
equation of compatibility
+ Ul.jik),
eikiil
either
of St.
with respect
in unabridged
e,7
fle^
de_v
3z
p fle,,2
'
Bx
3%,.
3\\y
32eZ!
'ByBz'
Bz2
By2
3e.
'
3y I'
(6.3-4)
32e\342\200\236
B2eZ!
Bz2
Bx2
and
Fig.
By glueing
strains.
then along AD
with a
gap
and
5.4).
we might
them or
between
with
end at
together,
the points
an overlapping
of
first along AB
C and E separated,
material
and
somewhere.
+ Mjt.i//).
ejliik
3z
Bx2
3a-
'
Bx
By1
By
to those
similar
+ Ul.klih
equations,
Beyz
3eXi,
B\\ _
guaranteed
of
BC
fyl.ik
written
3z
3(
Bhx:
. B2ea
IN THREE
6 are
symmetry
3e\342\200\236
3ev
By
dz\\
flz
eH
the
By
3y\\
By
Bx
,
DIMENSIONS
conditions
'
to as the
mean the same thing.
is referred
equation
Bx
3\\z
\342\200\236
3%
Bx
Vr,
to k, I. The 6
respect
of
equation
similar
discussion
where
of
149
Dimensions
Three
notation, are
dxdy
3%
in
(6.3-3), only
on account
repetitions,
which is the
32y*r
by Eq.
represented
of eUiU with
and
Components
= 0.
A
strains.
(6.3-3)
this
Following
from an arbitrary
C along two
kind
of
point A in
arbitrarily
starting
one may construct a line integral
at point
to find the displacement (u,, u2, \302\2533)
results are the same.
paths and demand that the
reasoning,
the body
different
150
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
Conditions
Chap. 6
Chap.
151
Problems
Note:
3$(r, 9)
in the radial
133>(r,
'
3r
B)
(1)
BB
Theserelations
6.1
Illustration
for
the requirement
of
= tan\"1 ->
(2)
x = r cos B,
= r sin
(3)
5x
compatibility.
8.
3y = \342\200\242
\342\200\236
\342\200\224
sm B,
a
8,
Br
Br
3v
Bx
.
\342\200\224
= -rsm
\342\200\224
= r cos
fl,
6,
36
BB
we
'
\342\200\224
= cos
Figure
I2 = Jt2 + /,
have
happening.
that the
shown
uniqueness of a
for the
conditions
sufficient
solution
are exactly Eqs. (6.3-4) if the region enclosed by the arbitrary
paths is
if the region is multiply
additional
connected,
simply connected. However,
conditions of sufficiency
are required. (See Fung, Foundations
of Solid Mechanics,
for details.)
Cliffs, N.J., Prentice Hall, 1965,pp. 101-108,
Englewood
of a
motion
body
while
the component
3$ Bx
3$
Br
Bx Br
By Br. _ _
13$
3$
r BB
Bx
3$
3$
Bx
By
\302\253
and
v derived from
By
sm 8 +
u cos B + v sin 8.
3*
\342\200\224
cos B
-it sin
(4)
+ v cos B.
(5)
By
u, =
PROBLEMS
6.1 Considerthe
potential $
3$
follows
cos 8
-u sin 8
\302\253\342\200\236
sin 8,
cos 9.
(6)
= \342\200\224v =.\342\200\224>
potentials:
(a)*
\342\200\224log(r+
/)
\342\200\224logr,
(i2
= xz +
f)
(b) * = x
9
(v\\
= tan\"1-
t|i
of an incompressible
as follows:
3|
Bx'
H>
= 0.
be derived from
a stream
152
the lines i|i
Sketch
results
and Compatibility
Fields
Velocity
= const,for
Conditions
and compare
Chap. 6
them with
the
of
(a) i|i
v(x,
= c6
(d)
i>
(a)
= At\" sin nB
(avldx
then fi12
Derive
Prob.
in every case.
the rate-of-strain tensor.
for
flow,
Bit
dili
By'
Bx
is
-(-
^.
(2)
we have
1 di|>
1 flfy\\
llB^
t. .
= d\342\200\2247
\342\226\240
+ - \342\200\224
+ - \342\200\224^
vorticity 1
r Br
lW
r1 BO2!
casesin
6.2 are
Prob.
can be verified
irrotational
derived
derivation,
128.By
e>y
are
constants.
All other
strain
k'xy,
Icxy,
components
are zero.
= -k.
(c): It is, if k'
6.7 A rectangular
plate of width a and height b rests on a rigid base, Fig. P6.7. The plate
law. Its density is p. The plate is subjected to
material is isotropic and obeys Hooke's
load in the vertical
direction,
distributed
a uniformly
pressure on top and gravitational
Answer to
vort,c,ty =
y2),
listed
vanishes
two-dimensional
In polar coordinates,
e\342\200\236
k(r
functions
iv,
where k, k'
vorticity
expressions
listed in
the
plane-strain field,
the z-axis,
coordinates.
along
the potentials
by
Hence,
Cartesian
Express
(6.1-4).
(c) Is
two-dimensional,
(b) Derive
sine
rectangular
(\302\260H=}<
(c) i|>
,.. ,
6.6 In
153
Problems
Chap.
rti
(i)
obtain,
of
method to obtain an exact solution? Are there restrictions to the statement
are
problems
boundary conditions in step (a)? Can we~sa)rthat some boundary-value
well posed,whereas others are not well posed?What should be the criterion for wellgeneral
by direct substitution.
stress distribution
boundary conditions, (b) Derive a possible
(a) State a set of possible
and those boundary
conditions
in which the
the equation of equilibrium
that satisfies
stressis specified, (c) Compute the strains and check whether the conditions of
in the plate. Are the
(d) Determine the displacements
compatibility are satisfied,
in
and single valued? (e) Are all the boundary conditions specified
continuous
displacements
If they are, can you claim that the stress distribution
you have just obtained
(a) satisfied?
then
an exact solution of the problem? If all the boundary conditions are not satisfied,
a
solution.
Two
can
be
done.
can
did
obtain
not
First,
things
you
modify
you
obviously
the boundary conditions in such a way that you can now claim to have found a solution
of a different
problem? Next, returning to the original problem, and step (b), can you
that has a chance to be an exact solution? Is there a
find a different stress distribution
according
posedness? For
(c), use
Hooke's
law, Eq.
(7.4-7),
p. 158.
\342\200\224
- \342\200\224\342\226\240
+ -\342\200\224>
v\342\200\236
vm =
Br
r
r 30
*
With these
6.4 Suppose
equations,
2lr BB+
we were given
the following
u
Is there
any
the
question
displacement
of
displacement
= ox1
v =
6.5 Suppose
Bi
bxy
by2 + ex
field defined in a
unit circle,
+ c,
Figure P6.7 A
weight and
+ mz,
plate
loaded
by
pressure.
= mz1.
compatibility?
field in a
unit circle
is the following.
u = ar log 8,
v =
iv
at2
= 0.
+ c sin fl,
FURTHER
Is it compatible?
Eeingen,A.
C,
Nonlinear
Theory
READING
of Continuous Media.
1962,
pp. 44-46.
Handbuch
der Physik,
Sec. 7.2
7.2
CONSTITUTIVE
fluid is a
nonviscous
...
FLUID
NONVISCOUS
THE
155
Fluid
Nonviscous
The
for
fluid
which the
stress tensor
is isotropic,
i.e., of the
form
EQUATIONS
oi; = -p5,7,
where
is the
8f/
the components
fluid
=0
exhibit
the material
is isotropic. Since
is usually
to it.
be simplified
greatly
if
and
ofisotropy is very important
8
devote
shall
we
Chapter
by beginners,
9.
materials
are discussed in Chapter
the concept
\\
j
by
\\
an
is the
equation
describing
an almost infinite
variety
of materials. What
variety
is
9.
154
the case of an
in
(7.2-3)
Thus, the
pressure p is left
is determined
solely
by the
an incompressible
example,
any pressure,
Since
a liquid,
it is often
possible
to obtain
(7.2-4)
incompressible
fluid,
for which
the
merely
p =
surprising,
considered
state is
exists
OF MATERIALS
to the
= 0.
/(p,P,r)
equationof
constitutiveequations
is related
of state
An anomaly
-pi
gas constant.
OF THE PROPERTIES
SPECIFICATION
(7.2-2)
0 .
- = RT,
\\
where R
7.1
form,
matrix
0\\
-p
\\0
are presented. They
most commonly used constitutive
equations
to
are mathematical
abstractions and are given here in the barest outline
(7.2-1)
'
(<r\342\200\236)
three
called pressure. In
as
may be displayed
a scalar
l-p
The
depending on
hydrodynamics
(7.2-5)
const.
as an arbitrary
variable for
equations of motion
fluid in the
cylinder
an
and the
of a
incompressible
fluid. It
assume
fluids, we
shall
in
by boundary
pressure is controlled
calculated
are
gradient)
pressure (the pressure
For example,
problems.
as nonviscous in many
Air and water can be treated
of
in the ocean, the flight
-waves
the
earth,
around
concerning tides
in problems
results
excellent
combustionin an automobile engine,
an airplane, flow in a jet, and
and treating it as a
the
viscosity of the medium
can be obtained by ignoring
in which the viscosity
other hand, there are important problems
nonviscous fluid. On the
such problems are
Among
be
not
neglected.
of the medium, though small, must
whether a flow is turbulent
the drag force acting on an airplane,
of determining
see that
those
or
laminar,
engine.
the
heating
of a reentry
spacecraft, and
the
cooling
of
an automobile
156
7,3
Constitutive
Sec.7.4
Chap. 7
Equations
for an
to the
rate
fluid
by the
specified
is a
If
a,,-
= -pbiS +
9<,mVh.
<r0-
X8,A,
(7.3-2)
contraction
of Eq.
assumed
that
the mean
dilation
the
constitutive
formulation
iscalled
a Stokes
suffices
to define
2^.
-3p
(3X
+ 2|i)Vtfr-
of the
= 0;
is due
+ 2|tV9
-p8\342\200\236
to George G. Stokes,
one material
to be
\302\247|iVb8i/.
and
a fluid that
term p
variable,
new
this
exists
difference
it is
a fundamental
marks
To accommodate
of state
determined
Fluids
pressure p,
the
T, i.e.,
P, T)
= 0.
(7.3-9)
are
Eq. (7.3-1)
that are
by terms
represented
equations
by
obeying
Newtonian
called
or Eq. (7.3-3),whose
in the
linear
Fluids
fluids.
otherwise
behave
that
of viscosity
7.4
A Hookean
is a solid
solid
elastic
that
constants,
of the
is the
or moduli,
is the
contraction,
we
ek,
states
Cijk,ekh
that the
(7.4-1)
follows
As a tensor of rank 4,
must have
since
law, which
tensor; i.e.,
strain
are independent
which
constants CiiU
the
= e,k, and
in
Eq.
the indices k
(7.4-1)
respect
(7.4-1) as
an
5(Q\302\253
cr,7
crj;,
(7.4-2)
= Cm,
with
C,7W
of viscosity,
as
Ci/H
Qik,
for
depends
discussion.)
Hooke's
obeys
proportional to
is linearly
oy
<r,7
further
of deformation,
are said to be nonon the basic
rate
SOLID
ELASTIC
HOOKEAN
effects are
viscosity
components of the
coefficient
Furthermore,
(7.3-6)
(7-3-8)
~PK
and elasticity.
(7.3-5)
A
nonviscousfluid:
for an ideal
example,
we
+ 2(a
of the
(7.3-7)
For
rate of
set
equation
pressure
(7.3-3)
(7-3-4)
is independent
static
f(p,
equation becomes
cry
This
p, and
density
where
3X
thus,
\\Vk&j
(7.3-3) gives
\302\253rtt
it is
equation
constitutive
that an equation
assumed
stress tensor
-phu
a\342\200\236
If
+ 5(/5/t),
KBttfy
we obtain
and
we obtain the
constitutive
-ph\342\200\2362|iV,7.
o-i/
is the
%u =
= 0,
p,
(7.3-1)
op,,
equation
fluid:
incompressible viscous
A Newtonian
Vkk
is incompressible,then
a fluid
If
FLUID
NEWTONIAN
1B7
Solid
Elastic
Hookean
=
Q,*)e\302\253
Cmelk,
and
to k
/ are
and
dummies
/ without
(7.4-3)
158
Constitutive
Chap. 7
Equations
Qh =
If such a
(7.4-4),
Ctjti
has
Or,
Gii*-
has
symmetrization
a maximum of
36 independent
under
conditions
the
(7.4-2)
and
c% =
azz =
\\(ea
equations
= IGe^,
can be solved for
ayz
e,7.
(7.4-8)
E, v,
(5.1-4).
2Ge\342\200\236
!<>\342\226\240\"
In the
linear
to
meantime, the
material,
the stress:
e.n
also
is the
to
case
in
which
o-\342\200\236,
crw, as
and linear
(so
that
is
Hence,
Eq.
ov, =
2Ge\342\200\236.
as
Eq.
lateral
induces
crzz
is the
only
(7.4-10)
stress.
nonvanishing
blockis subjected
If the
material is isotropic
then the influence
3.1, p. 00,
are linearly superposable),
must be the same as the influence
in Fig.
and
if the
and effects
of
o-2Z
on em
(7.4-9) becomes
one of the
(7.4-7).
is in a
eyy=--uzz.
-pCW,
e\" =
which is
and
bulging; a tension
illustrated
causes
(7.4-6)
But customarily,
For a
sense opposite
out somewhat.
bulge
crH
write
\342\226\240x
This
lateral
induces
compression
Hence, we
shrinking.
block will
to
is proportional
sides of the
lateral
2Ge,z
2Geyz,
(7-4-9)
\302\253=
+ 2Gext
+ e\342\200\236
+ ezz) +
vv
These
and
eyy.
+ ezz)
+ e\342\200\236
X(e\342\200\236
1 +
v
v
~
vtj
p o-oa 8,7.
\342\200\224\302\243\342\200\224
The constants
(7.4-5)
The constants
X. and
In engineering
(x are called the Lame constants.
literature,
the second Lameconstant
u, is practically always
written
as G and identified
as the
shear modulus.
It will be useful to write
out Eq. (7.4-5) in extenso.
With x, y, z as rectangular
Cartesian
we have Hooke's law for an isotropic elastic solid:
coordinates,
=
eti
constants.
\\ea&j + 2|ie;y,
+ e\342\200\236
+ ezz)
cr\302\253 X(e\342\200\236
notation,
index
in
159
Solid
Elastic
Hookean
(7.4-4)
Sec.7.4
of Eq.
equations
\302\260a
\302\243
stress
CTxt
(7.4-7), and
and
v
~E
am
similarly
shear strain,
for other
each component
equations in
produces
its
own effect.
ea
eyy
ezz
--
--
lr
1 + V
v(oyy
+ tr.,2)],
\302\253,-
1 + v
v(fTa
+ (Txr)],
v((Ta +
1 +
621
(T\342\200\236)],
cr\342\200\236-2Gc^,
(7.4-7)
For
an isotropic elastic
material,
Hooke's
(roa
in
the form
= 3Keaa,
(7.4-11)
(7.4-12)
^'IG^'
crtf
2G4
160
Constitutive
where K
constants and
G are
and
and
o-,7
the stress
are
e,7
and
deviation
strain
deviation, respectively;i.e.,
We have
strain were
invariants.
|e\342\200\236\302\2538f/.
strain,
= 0%z =
Vyy
aaa =
that
of
special case
the
~P,
^xy
(7.4-11)may
compression,
hydrostatic
0>z
G(E-2G)
\342\200\224
v
= \"
K.
an isothermal
in
volume,
respectively,
A
-f\342\200\242
v~ =
1 +
Xfl
3- lv
(K
2V\"
2v)
2v
X
X
__
2(X
+ G)
(3K
G(3X + 2G) _
E =
X + G
=
2G(1 + v)
^ = x +
G
X
+ G
2
3
G=
\"
=
X(l
X(l
v)(l
the
when
ell=a,,(Tstates that
(7.4-15)
2(3K + G)
-3AT
= 3/C(l
v) _
of the
body
T0 to T, then a
strain e,7
restrained
is so
For
that
e,7
if
state at T0.Conversely,
= 0 when the
temperature
(7.5-2)
of material
p,7 are symmetric tensors
at
strain, respectively, temperature
with
Hooke's
constants
Tu.
Duhamel-
an
isotropic
that
follows
T\342\200\236),
also be
p,7
p,y must
material, the second-order tensor
must be of the form p8,7 (see Sec. 8.2).Hence,
for
(7.5-3)
isotropic. It
an isotropic
Hookean solid,
-
+ 2Ge\342\200\236
Xeu8\342\200\236
a\342\200\236
'
6K
to the
stress
is induced
9K-E'
3K -
(7.5-1)
To)
relative
al7= -P,7(r-r0)
When
(7.4-16)
Here,
X)
details
X)
and
G are
can be found
Lame constants
in
Fung,
measured
Foundations
P(T
(7.5-4)
r\342\200\236)5(/.
at constant
of Solid
temperature.
Mechanics, Chapter
(Further
12, esp.
p. 355.)
7.6
_
GE
3(3G -
\302\243)
3(1
E
-
2v)
UK
EI3,
2v),
2G(1 + v)
3(1
2v)
+ 2G
9K(K
v)(l-2v)
^g
3K -2G
2G
'
will have a
body
from
changes
3KE
2(1 + v)
+v)
the
the configuration
2v)
3ff(l-2v)
_
~
X)
3v
E
2(1
as
Cmekl
-.\342\200\236<%
A.)
\"'
1/2, then G
experiment.
'
9K-
If a body
liquid.
Ev
(1 +
_3K(3K-E)
~
G. When
thermal
induces
Neumtmn
3Kv
OF TEMPERATURE
EFFECT
0,
1\342\200\236
\342\200\224
3G-
2v
= 0.
Heat
K is
coefficient
2Gv
1-
eaa
=
tr\342\200\236
0, and
1/4,
(7.3-1)
be written,
and change
volume
f
Thus, the
v is
under
ffir
have
161
Behavior
are determined
or strain-rate relations
the stress-strain
In the preceding sections,
of a fluid, however, varies with temperature
at a given temperature. The viscosity
of a solid. In other words, the coefficients %jk, in Eq.
as does the elastic modulus
of temperature
and are determined
and CijU in Eq. (7.4-1) are functions
in
i.e., when
we
When
Complex Mechanical
(7.4-14)
mean stress at
change
proportional
more
(7.4-13)
7.5
cy
\\uaa is the
is the
eua
infinitesimal,
\302\2607/l\302\260\"\302\253\302\2608<y>
eij
with
o'u
Materials
Sec. 7.6
Chap. 7
Equations
v\"
Institute of Physics
Handbook,
New
York: McGraw-Hill
MATERIALS
As
WITH
we have
said before,
the
nonviscous
fluids,
BEHAVIOR
the
Newtonian
fluids,
and the
Hookean elastic solids are abstractions. No real material is known to behave exactly
and strain,
in limited ranges of temperature,
stress,
as any one of them,
although
well.
laws
these
one
of
follow
some materials
quite
may
paints
Real materials may have more complex behavior.For fluids, household
as are wet clay and mud. Most colloidal solutions
are non-Newtonian,
and varnish
162
are
Constitutive
also.
non-Newtonian
Hookean
Hooke's
in
useful
the
most structural
range of stresses and strains;
For solids,
Chap. 7
Equations
materials
are, fortunately,
7.9
can be broken
or strains; but
the vast
mechanics is centered
around
been remarkably
useful.
We shall
discussmore complex
behavior
of liquids and solids in Chapter
9, but we shall
leave the mathematical treatment of the
elastic or
non-Newtonian,
nonlinearly
inelastic
solids to specialized treatises.
Nevertheless,
these idealized
the
results have
determine whether
and asked to
7.3
7.5
instruments,
and
of the
concrete.Propose
dough
and
are two
spaghetti
hands
Take a string and a pair of scissors. If the string is slack, and the scissorsare
dull, you
is not easily cut. Now, stretch the
may find that the string
string taut, and then apply
the scissors.The cutting is then very easy. Why?
7.7
constitutive
for the
of
state of fresh
and sea
water is very
understanding
(1888)
of sea
One
(1967) at
way to do it yourself.
of the data with regard to wave motion, marine
life,
warfare.
acoustics, antisubmarine
the
geological
All
depend
importance
terms,
on forces,
dune
glaciers
and
equations
of
know
of the planets,
kind
structures,
certainly like to
would
core,
on the
us deducing information
constitutive equations
An
7.15 A
way
to explore
that a
of the lunar
materials
landing
surface.
rockets
is planned to study
the
with remote-controlled
of the
properties
that will yield the desired
mechanical
information.
In terms of
Arthritis of the knee, hip, elbow, and finger joints afflicts many people.
what
the
articular
of
happens?
the constitutive equation
cartilage,
to investigate the mechanical
a biomechanics laboratory
7.17 Suppose that youare.planning
from the point of view of determining that muscles'
the
muscles
of
properties
to be investigated. Make a list
Make a list of the desired properties
constitutive
7.16
equations.
the experiments that should be
needed
done. I am pretty sure that all the instruments
do not exist. Here is your opportunity to invent.
experiments
and go ahead to invent. Make sketches,
of key significance
Select someinstruments
the cost, and the pay off.
the
Consider
calculations.
feasibility,
designs,
of
7.6
7.8
In
instruments.Suppose
sand
a mathematical
formulate
system to do this.
excellent materials
measurements.
7.12
7.14
equations?
continuum mechanics,
pros
verify
an instrumental
equations?
living
there to do some
two ways to
the method
of
7.4
of the design,
of the
7.13 We
of ways. Propose
materials
volcanos
involved?
terrible
an accurate answer?
provide
of great
the occasional
describe
in the Gobi desert in Sinkiang and Mongolia
sandstorms. How can sand flow like a fluid? Speculate on a constitutive
that can be taken
for testing.
Design an instrument
equation,and design an experiment
7.10 People
PROBLEMS
7.1 You
explosions
constitutive
on continuum
literature
materials, and
The'
are the
law no
163
Problems
Chap. 7
desirable
7.18 There are three very different kinds of muscles: the skeletal, the heart, and the smooth
uterus, and other internal
organs. There
of the blood vessels, ureter, bladder,
muscles
from
humans.
and
animals
from
test
of
the
in
differences
are
specimens
availability
between the testing of isolated
There are differences
specimens and in vivo specimens.
down to more specific
So the answer to the preceding
problem has to be narrowed
down is indeed a crucial step which
this narrowing
As an investigator,
categories.
7.19 A
today.
similar
problem
biomechanicslaboratory.
in a
for other tissues for investigation
can be formulated
No living tissue is unimportant. People take the health of their
164
Constitutive
bodies
disease strikes.Realizing
Chap. 7
Equations
of a tissue
other than
1)1
where
fc(p,
Pi
IT,
+ TT2)
of water (g/sec/nf),
p, and
the
hydrostatic and osmotic pressures on one. side of the membrane, p2 and ir2 are those
on the other side, and k is the permeability
constant, with units of seconds per meter.
In considering
water movement acrossthe endothelium
of the bloodvessel, we realize
that the flowing blood will impose a shear stress on the membrane,
and the endothelial
cells will respond to the shear stresswith internal
stresses. Many recent papers have
effects of the shear stresson blood vessel remodeling, and on
reported the important
the transport
of ions and enzymes acrossthe endothelium.
It may play a role on the
of water also. Hence, propose a generalization of Starling's
law to include
transport
stresses in the media
the proposalexperimentally.
the
and describe a
plan
to verify
in
is used frequently as a simplifying
The conceptof isotropy
assumption
and isotropic
continuum mechanics.First, we shall define material
isotropy
tensors. Then we shall determine isotropictensors of ranks 2, 3, and 4 and
equations of isotropic materials.
apply them to the constitutive
8.1
THE
Materials
Discussion.
k(Lp
m = /c(Ap
m = k{Lp
Here,
A means
the
difference
of the
Mechanics
Love, A.
Press,
esp.
Chap.
J. E.
+ c
Air)
+ c At/iPy.
AtJtJ.
Ait) +
c At^,-.
Since orthogonal
reflectionsof
+ Ac,/r,,.
Air)
two sides of
the
Deformations.
pp. 151-165.
on the
Mathematical
ed. (1927);
Theory
axes, the
definition
of the
translated,
Cartesian
coordinates.
p. 145.
Oxford:
University
Press
E. H.,A Treatise
1st ed. (1892),
4th
coordinate
transformations
constitutive equation
unchanged,
or reflected. In particular, the array
rotated,
same values in any right-handed or left-handed
membrane.
READING
Elastic
Large
Qwe*;,
remain
Adhns,
we make a
transformation,
the new coordinates.
quantities on the
FURTHER
Eringen, A. C,
Air)
mechanical
if
relationships
m = k(Ap
OF MATERIAL ISOTROPY
CONCEPT
of Elasticity.
University
(1963), Chapter 6,
Cambridge:
8.2
ISOTROPIC
TENSOR
Definitions
An
isotropic
rectangular
tensor in Euclidean
Cartesian
space is a
by
tensor
whose
orthogonal
in
components
transformations
any
of
coordinates.
165
166
Isotropy
By definition
(Sec. 2.4), an
transformation
orthogonal
from xh
Chap.
x2, x3
to\"xu\"
Sec.8.2
167
Tensor
Isotropic
Isotropic Tensors of
and 2
0,1,
Ranks
Xi, Xj IS
X,
where
p,y
a, are
and
fyx, +
(i =
a,,
constants, under
PA
(8.2-1)
if
A, =
5,7.
the
is the
Jacobian
det |ftj
For example,
all rotations
determinant
\302\2611.
Hence,
orthogonal transformations.
the jcraxis, we
would
a reflection
but
pi
1*3
is orthogonal,
handed one.
= ~xu
= xi,
= jc3,
but
improper,
1-1
0\\
1/
=010,
(p\342\200\236)
because
it
|p,-J
\\
(8-2-9)
M/
a right-handed
turns
-1
(8.2-4)
Au
A2
A3 =
-At,
-A3.
= A}
8y
=
=
about
rotation
180\302\260
becomes
a left-
system into
for a
In particular,
= 0. Similarly,
by the same process but with the role of xu x2,
= 0. Thus, the nonexistence of any isotropic tensor of
x3 permuted, we obtain Ai
1 is proved.
rank
For tensors of rank 2, the Kronecker delta 8,7 is an isotropic tensor, because
Hence,A2
equation
have
A, =
in
the x2*3-plane
1. For,
(8.2-10)
(8.2-3)
of rank
to
to
Eq. (8.2-9)then
= 1.
of coordinate
A,
isotropic tensor
to satisfy the
(8.2-2)
transformation (8.2-1),
scalars
the
that
restriction
the
All
1,2,3)
(bythedefinitionofatensor)
p,mP/n8,\342\200\236\342\200\236
(since
PtaPim
= h
Isotropic
0 if
8,\342\200\236\342\200\236
[by
m-tn)
Eq. (8.2-2)].
Material
We
shall
prove
By
transforms
(8.2-5)into
the
CijU
of material
definition
comparing
obtain
is a
tensor of
rule.
rank
Now,
Ciiueu.
4. Hence,
Cijki
(8.2-6)
Eq. (8.2-6)
with
QiueuEq.
transforming Eq.
Hence, by
(8.2-5)
is an
quotient
o>;
But the
Ciikie\342\200\236
isotropic tensor.
rule (Sec. 2.9), C,m
according to the tensor transformation
new coordinates
xh we have
is isotropic, then
Proof:
We propose toshow.that
every isotropic tensor of rank 2 may be reduced to the
form pbih where p is a scalar.
it must be diagonal.
For the proof, we note first that if a tensor 5,7is isotropic,
as specified by Eq. (8.2-10), we
about the Xi-axis,
the 180\302\260
rotation
For, imposing
Thus,
Ctjki
is an
isotropic tensor.
\342\200\224
Cjjti-
= 0.
Similarly, B,7 = 0 if
consider
(V
7.
the transformation
(8.2-7)
Xj
(8.2-7), we obtain
(8;/ +
rf8e3,7)X;,
(8;; +
d%\342\202\2542l!)
d%
0\\
-dQ
0,
/
Qjki
~Bj2-
\342\200\2428l2
PlmPli\302\260mn
(8.2-8)
(p;/)
(8.2-11)
168
Isotropy
%i
+ <ffle3;\342\200\236)Bm\342\200\236
+ d0e3/m)(8;\342\200\236
(8\342\200\236\342\200\236
dBfeh^A.
8,\342\200\236,8;\342\200\236Bm\342\200\236
But
we
5l7
1, /' =
1; then
6312-D21
But
what
Hence, Bu =
but arbitrary
It is
(8.2-13)
components jjt)
= 0.
evident that
an
entirely
Take i
permutation
an
that
implies
arbitrary
components.
the indices
of
permutation
Use of these arguments
may
of the
coordinate axes.Hence,B12
the
proof.
0.
cos 8 - 1, sin 8 \342\200\224
the rotation matrix of Eq. (2.4-5), and note that when 0 is very small,
of the
the
furnishes
here
dB
with
interpretation
2.4
geometric
Identifying the angle 8 of Sec.
*See
transformation
of Eq.
(8.2-11).
hence,
+ ie^uw
for small
of the
the quantity
d%,
higher order.)
+
+ fesjnUink
Thus,
tAkpUfo
fe\302\2532i* &\"\302\253*
(burnt
and
put
k =
0(dB2).
vanish.
= 0.
(8.3-2)
+ hfiskVm
2. Then,
since
are
&, \302\2435
\302\243,,
iesB\"n3
\302\243am\302\273h2
I
Now
ifiapUij,}
= 1. Then
-
-&K311-
Q.E.D.
transformations.
= 0
+ <*8{i;,wtm#
p8,7.
coordinate
Cartesian
system to
one rectangular
any rotation from
coordinate
about
rotations
infinitesimal
can be performed by repeated
another
are the only conditions
examined
imposed by
axes. Hence, the conditions just
= p8,7 for
transformations.
Thus,
B/;
to
proper orthogonal
isotropy with respect
all proper
orthogonal transformations.
in the Airplane,
Eq.
For the second-rank
isotropic tensor p8,7,a reflection
the
the value of the tensor. By
argument of arbitrary
not
does
change
(8.2-4),
in any plane would not affect its value.
rotation, we conclude that a reflection
to all orthogonal
is
found
isotropic with respect
Hence, the form we have
tensor
uljk
i&inttmjk
would yield
to the form Bn8,7.
law,
+ d^fiskp)u,\342\200\236\342\200\236p
+ d6|se,\342\200\236)(8tp
+ d6\302\243A&\302\273)(8j.i
Xi-axis
*2-axis
(8.3-1)
fc^x-,.
(8(m
about the
d8
tensor transformation
the
By isotropy, \302\253,7*uljk;
(We can ignore quantities
similar rotation
the origin:
x, = (8,, +
arbitrary
an angle dB about
through
passing
%ik
Now
tensor,
of
rotation
infinitesimal
Then, according to
= 0.
= 0.
= B22 \342\200\224
+ \342\202\25432iBn
Bh
obtain B,7 =
p for Bn, we
Writing
d%,
an
would
B3i
B22.
isotropic
the permutation tensor etjk
3, we can verify that
transformations).
axes
orthogonal
(proper
of coordinate
with respect to rotation
a
in a coordinate plane, because
reflection
to
with
respect
It is not isotropic
=
-1.
= 1 into lw
turns
6,23
such as Eq. (8.2-4)
reflection
of coordinates, the only isotropic
rotations
all
to
We can show that with respect
similarly
of eijk. The proof can be constructed
tensors of rank 3 are scalar multiples
3.
Consider
rank
of
tensor
tensor. Let uijk be an isotropic
to that for the second-rank
with
axis \302\243
(a vector
an
of rank
tensors
we have
+ 6312012 \342\200\224
-\"21 + Bl2
OF RANK
TEMSORS
8.3 ISOTROPIC
169
I Q
is
small
* D
of Rank
IsotropicTensors
Sec. 8.3
For
63,A,
e3(\342\200\236,Bm/
of rotation
+ 0(i62).
+ de(\302\2433,m5mi+ e3/\342\200\236B,\342\200\236)
=
for
isotropic, we must have B,7 B,7.Hence,
must have
= 0.
+
Take i
Chap.
+ d62e3,.me3/\342\200\236Bm\342\200\236
(8.2-12)
e3/\342\200\2368imBm\342\200\236)
B,j is
if
angle
arbitrary,
= 0.
(8.3-3)
vanish,
we obtain
U212
+ Ut22 = Mni,
\"312
\"132
= 0,
Km
= 0.
(8.3-4)
= 0 if two of i, j, k
uljt
From the last equation, and by symmetry,
first
the
equation of Eq. (8.3-4),uijk
the third is unequal. Then, by
shows that
The second equation
all of i, j, k are equal.
Uijk
If, in
we
Eq. (8.3-3),
put
fc =
1, then
are
equal and
is also
zero
if
_%/tevery
term
vanishes,
yielding no
new
We
fc are all different in Eq. (8.3-2).
consider the case in which i, j,
because
holds
m = j. Then it is clear that Eq. (8.3-2)
note that umjk is zero when
tensors of rank 3
vanish. It follows that the only isotropic
coefficients
all the
of e,7t.
scalar
are
multiples
to rotations, not reflections)
Q.E.D.
(isotropic with respect
information.
Finally,
170
8.4 ISOTROPICTENSORS
OF RANK
of
It is
materials.
seen
readily
8tt8;-i
S//8W,
are isotropic.
it is of the
We propose to
+ 8,;5/fc,
8,7 is
tensor
8,t8/;
that if
show
to the constitutive
interest
unit
is an
\302\253,7H
8w8;a
equations
(8.4-1)
Sec. 8.4
and
\\l,
v are
|i(8lA8/;
scalars. Furthermore,
Uijkl
2ox3
yields
4, then
information.
if uljk, has
\342\200\224
Ujlkh
\">/W
the symmetry
properties
(8.4-3)
Uijlk,
then
^i
^(SftS;, +
Utfiu
(8.4-4)
84-,).
of
the results for isotropy with respect to both rotation
in coordinate planes.
order.
we note that the coordinate axes may be labeled in an arbitrary
First,
cannot
affect
the
values
of
the
the
indices
a
in
1,2,3
Thus, permutation
components
of an isotropic tensor. Hence,
Proof:We
establish
shall
reflections
\"mi
take
q = r
-\302\2532112 \302\2531212\"1122
No new
we note
Next,
= \"2332 = \"3113
a rotation
that
of
\"2112
180\302\260
about
\"2211
\"2121
\"3223
=
=
\"3322;
(8.4-5)
for any
These conditionsreduce the
this is true
symmetry,
corresponding
to
the
(8.4-6)
i.
maximum
number of numerically distinct
tensor uijki to four, namely, umu uim, uaa, \302\253isi.
Now, let us impose the transformation
given by Eq. (8.2-11) corresponding
transformation
law requires
infinitesimal
rotation about the^-axis. The tensor
components
to an
index
Since, for
therefore,
appear,
obtainable
by taking
to be three
each of X,
U-pqn
+ ZVqUpin
+ dBfofpUijn
an isotropic
tensor
ZlipUiqn
upqn
+ %r\"M\302\273
+ ^isUpqn}
upqri,
the terms
in the
0(<ft2).
braces must
|i>
\342\200\224
V.
= 0.
+ \342\202\2543f>\302\253Mrf
in
turn
equal
tensors
to 1 and the
= v =
obtained by taking X=l,|x
=
in
k
I
and
vanishes
all
other
cases.
Therefore,
j,
0has
of order
others to
components
uijU
to
by taking
Utfti
3*8/* +
Thegeneral
vanish,
equation,
(8.4-3).
isotropic
follows
under
i =
Ujk.
uijk,
/ = /
(8.4-13)
0, v =
= 1 when
1 has elements \302\253;;w
=
k, i^j. All other components
l,j
Mj*.
4 is therefore
81*5//
tensor of rank
Eq. (8.4-4)
jx
(8.4-12)
|x =
1; X = v = 0, the component
=
=
=
=
= 2 if
and
if
i
1 if i
I, j
k, j
/, i r /',
k, i\302\245=
/; whereas uijU
k = I. Other components
are zero. This is exactly
In the tensor obtained
4,
0.
it is equivalent
(8.4-7)
(8.4-8)
(i, v
(8.4-11)
independent isotropic
\"\342\226\240/\302\253
8l78w.
this
+ &3i9\"pfa + tHrUpqis
vanish.
(8.4-10)
The tensor
if i =
of the
that
Upqa
terms
Eq7(8.4-9) says
Ipsa
There
\"t331-
= \"1223 =
= 0.
\"1222
\"2212
By
e3;>
given by Eq. (8.2-10), changes the sign of any term with an odd
of the index 1. But these terms must not change
sign on account of isotropy.
they are zero. For example,
Hence,
the
(8.4-5)
(1 + V,
\"2112
Eqs.
X + 2(i.
\302\253\342\200\236\342\200\236
transformation
number
because
this
2, which
^>
=
\"1212
\"3232j
the ;traxis,
\"1122
(8.4-9)
2,s = 1,because
and (8.4-6).
from one rectangular coordinate system
Since a rotation
to another with the
same origin can be obtained by repeated infinitesimal rotations about coordinate
on upqrs by isotropy.
axes, no additional conditionsare imposed
Now let
'
=
= 0.
=r=
=
by setting
p
q
of indices 1 and
is obtained
information
get
+ Kllll
= \"2222 = U3333,
= 1,s = 2.We
(8.4-2)
8l78y,),
171
1.
In Case b,
+ 8,-,8,-fc) + vfSttfy
of Rank 4
Tensors
Isotropic
Becausethere are only three possible values (1, 2, 3) for each of the four indices
the
pqrs, at least two of them must be equal. Hence, we may consider separately
cases where (a) all four are equal, (b) three
are equal, (c) two are
and the
equal
and (d) two are equal
other two are unequal,
and the other two are equal.
In Case a, takep = q = r = s =
Then
we see that all terms in Eq.
(8.4-8)
=
= r = s=
vanish
on account of Eq. (8.4-6). Similarly,
no
p
q
form
X8,7B,, +
where X,
4 are of particular
that since the
of rank
Isotropic tensors
Chap.
Isotropy
given by Eq.
the symmetry condition
(8.4-14)
(8.4-2). From
given
in Eq.
Q.E.D.
172
Isotropy
Chap.
Sec. 8.8
eigenvalues
8.5 ISOTROPIC
MATERIALS
tensor
the
Cy
in Eq.
Clik,
(8.1-1),
(8.5-1)
Cijkfiu,
that C(jU
it has been shown generally
must be isotropic
(Sec. 8.2). Furthermore,
=
the
~
because
and
that
is
tensor
Cf;/t
the
stress
C,7H
symmetric
Cjiti because
without loss of
is symmetrizable
and the sum CijUekl
strain tensor is symmetric
according to Eq. (8.4-4),
Hence,
generality.
Cukl
and Eq.
+
H-(8\302\2538;/ 8\302\273fy)
+
AV\302\253
principal
directions,
are the
way s of
simply
a-
of principal
coincidence
The
2\\ke'ij.
directionsis then
evident
factor.
=
oij
Xett-8// + 2fie\342\200\236.
(8.5-3)
This is the
an
vh
(8-5-2)
(8.5-1) becomes
the
different,
same.
the coincidenceof the principal directions
recognizing
There are other
construction
(Sees.
we recognize in Mohr's circle
of stress and strain. For example,
not
does
x-axis
the
depend
and
axes
the principal
between
4.3, 5.7) that the angle
determined
angle can be
of the circle. The principal
center
the
of
location
the
on
is
by setting
to the origin. Such a translation accomplished
if the center is translated
becomes
relationship
stress-strain
the
condition
= 0, under which
=
o\"\302\253:0, ekk
solutions
by the
given
If an
are
and strains)
stresses
(principal
173
its Microstructure?
Isotropyfrom
a Material's
We Recognize
Can
= -p8l7 +
(8.5-4)
+ 2|iVfr
WtA,
ISOTROPY
METHODSOFCHARACTERIZING
8.7 OTHER
are other
There
an elastic
property of
body
is a function of
relation
by the
which
isotropy. For
to characterize
ways
through
strain
the
example,
one
function W(e,i,e12,...,
the strain-energy
the stress
defines
which
and
components
e33),
components
8.6
OF PRINCIPAL
COINCIDENCE
AND OF
An
AXES
STRESS
OF
STRAIN
important
attribute
of
of an elastic
the isotropy
of strain
axes
fluid)
is that
coincide.
Then isotropy
only on the
may
as the fact
the strain. For
be stated
of
invariants
axes
the principal
rate)
principal
the direction cosines of the
This follows from Eq. (8.5-3)or Eq.(8.5-4),because
axes of stress and strain are, respectively, the solutionsof the equations
principal
and 5.7)
4.5
(Sees.
ofyh
(<r\342\200\236
= 0,
= 0,
e8,>,
(e\342\200\236
Eq.
(8.5-3),
= 0,
o%|
= 0.
e8\342\200\236|
lo-;,-
By
|e/(
h
h
(8.6-1)
we may specify
(8.6-2)
W(elh en,.
2|ief/
ofyfy
the invariants
Since
0,
function
the strain
(8.6-3)
the sameattribute
depends
invariants
ke',^,1
iCifiifiki,
. . , e33)
to be a
function
(8.7-2)
W(h, h, h).
\\
strain-energy
using
example,
or h
- hifia,
=
that the
under
retain their form (and value)
to
Eq. (8.7-1).
applies
all
rotations
of coordinates,
or
-
<t%)vj
2|i(e\342\200\236
if
we introduce
a new
= 0
(8.6-4)
Xett
(8.6-5)
the
(8.6-2). Thus,
although
the
A MATERIAL'SISOTROPY
RECOGNIZE
ITS MICROSTRUCTURE?
material
is said
2(jl
(8.6-4) is of precisely
WE
FROM
variable
Q\"
But Eq.
8.8 CAN
material
to be
isotropic
if its
of reference is rotated.
a test (e.g., a strip
and perform
not
change
stress-strain relationship does
from an isotropic
test
a
cut
specimen
If you
for a compression
for a tensile test, a block
174
Chap.
Isotropy
test, a beam for a bending test, a shaft for a torsion test, a plate for a biaxial
loading test, a plate with holes or notches for a stress concentration or fatipe
for a triaxial loading test), then
the results
test, or a cube or a cylinder
strength
be
and
strains
should
the
same
no
in which
stresses
matter
the
measured
relating
orientation you cut the specimen, provided that the size of the specimen is large
so that the stresses and strains are well defined according to the limit
enough
nonhomogeneous,
concept discussedin Sees. 1.5 and 1.6. If the material is spatially
so that its mechanical
then it is usually
vary from one place to another,
properties
small
in
size
so
advisable
that
the properties
to cut the test specimens
sufficiently
in
each
This
wish
be
uniform
not
be
realizable
in
considered
specimen.
may
may
some cases; for example,
in biology, the skin, the blood vessel wall, and the cell
membrane are layered materials with different mechanical
in different
properties
layers, but in general, we cannot peelthese layers off by surgery without damaging
the tissue.
Now, one can examine the structure of the material with a light or electron
a nuclear magnetic resonance
or an X-ray diffraction
machine,
microscope
Sec.
Can We
8.8
Recognizea Material's
a positron
with
Lattice
a Cubic
e22
Y-^(o-33
fe
The shear
stress 07;
the shear
produces
=
HH_I((ru
2Gen,
0-23
a crystal
Consider
frame
in a
stress described
by a
Now,
can we
in the
Suppose
to the
xrdirection
stress, the
due
that it was
strain
(8.8-3)
(g.8-4)
ffj?).
that
e,j. Suppose
2Gea,
assert that
have
G=
response
+ ou)
o-31
it
was found
= 2Ge3t
that
(8.8-5)
the mechanical
three
material
tensor
o-ii
In
strains
property is isotropic?
constants:
The answer is, in general,
E, v, and G.
can
two
have
constitutive
and
to
Sec.
only
8.5,
equation
isotropic
According
were isotropic, then the
stress-strain
if
the
constants.
Indeed,
relationship
independent
constants G, E, and v would have to be related by the equation
where G is a constant.
no. We
Let the
yield the
^-directions
and
\"0-12
Solid
deformations
the
the allowable
Example 1. Crystalline
crystal
cubic
similarly,
Mechanical model of a
in a
8.1
Figure
*3
and that,
175
Isotropy
to aH
found
0-13J
(r2l
0-22
023
0-31
0-32
0-33/
crystal
deforms.
the ^-direction
or experimentally that
=Y~-!(o-22
(8.8-1)
In particular, the
and shortens in
theoretically
en
ff|2
+M,
crystal
due to
lengthens
0-22
and
o-33.
(8.8-2)
7.4-16.)
(See
Eq.
Eqs.
(8.8-1)
If
experimental
to (8.8-6)
coincide
results show
with
*\">
2tTT7
that
an isotropic
Eq.
(8.8-6)
constitutive
does hold,
equation
then
in one
atoms
is isotropic.
176
Isotropy
Example
2. Lung
Chap.
Tissue
blood
septa,
vessels. The
which are
capillary
thin
blood
membranes
capillary
space
177
Problems
Chap.
of the
interalveolar
septa.
or 14-hedron.
hedron,
Under stress,
have been measured. (SeeFung, Biomechanics
[1990], pp. 405-416.)
these fibers and connective tissues will deform, leading to the overall stress-andstrain relationship of the lung tissue. Such a relationship is useful for understanding
the stress and strain distribution in the lung under a gravitational load in normal
and under
life, under zero.gravity in space flight, under acceleration in sports,
the distribution
of ventilation
and blood
conditionsof disease, as well as analyzing
flow
in the
lung.
In spite of the
cubic
figure 8.2
mathematical
model
of the
pulmonary
alveolar
duct
complex geometric
structure of the
becauseeach 14-hedron
corners
from
rather
is clear,
symmetry
1, that
Example
in
is obtained
intrinsic
the small-strain,
lung
could
shear modulus,
PROBLEMS
8.1
Distinguish
and
isotropic.
Consider
the
atmosphere
of the
earth:
(a)
If you are
atmosphere
concerned with
homogeneous
or
a high-altitude
isotropic?
sounding
rocket,
178
Isotropy
(b) If the problem is concerned with the flow around the immediate neighborhood
the rocket, which is flying at such a speed that no shock wave is
generated, could
air be treated as homogeneous or isotropic?
(c) If shock waves are generated in part (b), what then?
8.2
that the
Show
tensor
theorem proved in
a, p, 7 are
8.3
Show that
8.4
Form someisotropic
the
of
8.13
Are
there
other
isotropic tensors
6. Generalize to isotropic
rank
tensors
of
rank 5?
of even
order
Name
three
not isotropic.
is isotropic.
Design a
testing
program
provide
a definitive answer.
8.8
you are
program
testing
8.9
concerned with
it is very important
materials, such as concrete and plastics,
for the
whether a material is isotropic
or not. Suppose
you are establishing
a laboratory for testing structural materials. Present a
plan of experiments, and describe
For
industrial
designer to know
the neededinstruments.
8.10
A single
crystal
long-chain
single
isotropic. Explain
in Sec. 1.5, with
8.14
this from
the point
dimension,
and
from
statistical
8.11 An
heat
treatment?
that does
is nonlinear.
law, such
of a
as
test program
The
can we follow
to
isotropy?
the equations
are linear, and the principle
infinitesimal, then
governing
of the continuum
of superposition of solutions
apply. In this case, the
to
a
load is the same as that of the same
residual
stress
with
of
a
given
body
response
without residual stress to the same load. In other words, if the material of the
body
8.15 Residual
is usually anisotropic,
by
ascertain
of
179
Problems
attention to a material
stress-strain relationship
+ 78i\342\200\2368/*,
ot8,y8ta + p8\302\2738/\342\200\236
is isotropic.
e,-M8,\342\200\236
tensors
Name
a certain
Would
constants.\"
tensor
be affected?
the
In.
8.5
8.6
8.7
Chap.
form
%,\302\273
where
Chap.
stressesin
in
down in
some
strength
and
composite
compression,
Design
as objectives.
isotropy
of their bodies.
Cell membranes and stress
use cells as basic structure
stress
the pressure
can
harbor
tensile
residual
against
(actin molecules)
in the cell contents. The matrix material in the interstitial
space
(compressiveresidual stress)
or shear. The overall
between the cells can be stressed in tension, compression,
of the living tissue (at a scale much larger than the individual
mechanical
cells)
properties
of
of the tissue. Discussthe isotropy or anisotropy
structure
depend on the cellular
the tissue in relation to the three-dimensional
geometric
shapes of the cells. Discuss
of the tissue (at a scale much larger than the cells)
the overall mechanical properties
to the intensity of the residual stresses; i.e., in relation to the degreeof
in relation
8.16 Living
creatures
fibers
swelling
8.17Animal
of the
cells.
cells inside
the body
pervasive:
The blood
within a few
Isotropy
180
Chap.
MECHANICAL
microns
of
REAL
OF
PROPERTIES
distance
SOLIDS
ANP
FLUIDS
properties
blood
system
i.e.,
is pressurized;
with
organ.
preceding
Y. C, Biomechanics: Motion,
(1990),
Flow, Stress,
we consider real
in order to
materials
fit into
the
see how
the idealized
world.
real
Then
We
begin
we consider
solids,
Chapter 11.
Tensors.
Jeffreys, H., Cartesian
Thomas, T. Y., Conceptsfrom
Academic
READING
and Growth.
this chapter,
7 and
constitutive equations of Chaps.
molecular
a
point of view.
from
with gases and liquids
and biological materials.
bodies,
viscoelastic
problems?
FURTHER
Fung,
In
Press
(1961),
pp.
Chapter
Cambridge: University Press(1957),
Tensor Analysis and Differential
Geometry.
7.
New York:
9.1
FLUIDS
65-69.
of the pressure-volume
as gases or liquids on the basis
of carbon
relationship
of the pressure-volume
A typical example
horizontal
relationship.
have
curves
in Fig. 9.1. The lower
shown
temperatures is
dioxideat constant
the liquid
have
we
the
step,
To the left of
certain values of the pressure.
a small change in
steps/^t
to
produce
takes a large increase in pressure
\"state, wherein it
A point on the horizontal step
state.
or
the
gaseous
is
vapor
To the right
of
volume.
a heterogeneous state consisting
represents
actually
as AB in the figure)
(such
the pause in the C02 liquid-vapor
and vapor. At 31.05\302\260C,
a mixture of liquid
this critical value, the isotherm
above
is reduced to zero.At temperatures
isotherm
between
gaseous
division
to low pressure with no marked
better
becomes
state
passes steadily from high
of
the
equation
At a higher temperature
states.
and
are usually classified
Fluids
\\
liquid
and
better
approximated
by
the
\"perfect
of view,
law,
gas\"
Eq. (9.1-1).
to
propose
studies of gases led Avogadro
point
From the molecular
numbers of molecules at
contain
equal
of
volumes
gases
the hypothesis that equal
whose weight
A mole of molecules (a sample
and
pressure.
6.025x
the same temperature
contains
of the molecule)
the molecular weight
equals
of 1 mole
in grams exactly
number
(Na). The volume
This is known as Avogadro's
1023
particles.
at the
of gas
pressure)
normal temperature
is 22,400
cm3,which
and
corresponds
pressure
181
182
Mechanical
of Real Fluids
Properties
and
Chap. 9
Solids
Sec.9.2
183
Viscosity
of Van der
Here p is
V is volume, T is
Figure 9.2
Waals
A family
isothermals.
pressure,
Figure
9.1
Isothermal curves
of
volume-pressure
relationship for
C02 near the critical
point, C. At
liquid-gas critical point of C02,
the temperature is 304.2\302\260K,
the
pressure is 72,9 atm, and the
volume
is 94 cm3 mole\"1
the
Volume
in molecular
of a
impacts and rebounds, the kinetic theory derives the equation of state
the pressure (p), volume (V), and absolute
perfect gas relating
temperature
pV = RT.
(9.1-1)
Here,
damage to trees,
For 1 mole
of gas,
The constant
k and R are
universal
Not
(9.1-2)
constants,
the same
for
all
substances.
k is Boltzmann's
= 1.38 x 10~16
constant
erg deg\"1, and R is the
= 1.986 cal
x 107 erg deg-1mole\"1
mole\"1.
deg\"1
For the condensed state,
Van der Waals
the
celebrated
proposed
equation
gas constant
= 8.313
other
problems.
9.2 VISCOSITY
The concept
R
and
with
in a
of viscosity
a uniform
fluid
gradient,
velocity
in
which
accurately,
\342\226\240
=
P)
^fy
forces
while
RT,
between
flow
of the
fluid
a rectangular
average
,.t
(9.1-3)
the gas particles
(not
Figure 9.3
particles.
Figure 9.2 shows a family
like the curves of Fig. 9.1, but the horizontal line AB in
Fig. 9.1 has become a
continuous curve AEDFB in Fig. 9.2. The parts of the curves below the
abscissa,
the
of a shear
coordinates x, y,
z represent
p +
viscosity.
just before
Newtonian
concept
of
184
Mechanical
Properties of
T=
Real
Fluids
and Solids
U,
(9.2-1)
Let the
of viscosity
of air
and of
A comparison of
The effective
occur
in 1
second through
of such
losses
there
be N
before
related to
colliding
molecule
travels
calculations
by David Enskog
and
that
(9.2-2)shows
(9.2-3)
= IpcL.
mean free
the
another
with
average distance a
and more accurate
/ (the
path
molecule),
show
Chapman*
Sydney
that
u, = 0.499 pel.
(9.2-4)
in such a manner
increases
of a gas decreases, the mean free path
As the density
constant. Then u, is proportional to c, which in
the product p/ almost remains
that
Thus, the
root of the absolute
temperature.
turn is proportional to the square
the
with
not
but
the
with
temperature
of viscosity of a gas changes
coefficient
free
the
mean
path
59\302\260F)
standard conditions (sea level,
air under
pressure. For
give
/c = 1.91|xC\342\200\236,
The
that
unit area
stress t.
molecules per unit volume.
that
one-third of the
Suppose
molecules
are traveling in each of the three coordinate
directions.
If the average
molecular
of the molecules move
speed is c, and if one-third
to
perpendicularly
AA, \\Nc molecules will pass through AA each second.Each
of these molecules
Let
with Eq.
= 1.2^
represent
L is
height
carry
with
from
(9.2-1)
Eq.
|x
'
and
dy
(9.2-2)
.,
across
dur
I
^~39cLJy
At
pressure and 20\302\260C.
In liquids, u.
gases, u, increases as the
it originates.
density p. Therefore,
is the
1.8
of the
momentum
average
The product Nm
interesting
loss of ordered
it a
\\3
8.7 poises.
with
f1^
of the coefficient
of viscosity from the kinetic
interpretation
of gases was given
theory
with a uniform velocity
by Maxwell. Consider a flow
as shown in Fig. 9.3, and imagine
a surface AA normal to the
gradient
as
y-axis,
in Fig. 9.4. The shear stress exerted
by the gas beneath AA on the gas above has
a retarding
effect. The shear stress is equal to the rate of lossof ordered
momentum
An
Viscosity
will carry
du
dy
The
185
Sec. 9.2
Chap.9
from
atomic
that of the
structures.
*See
The
interpretation
of gases.
viscosity
atoms are
Chapman,
Cambridge,University
of the
viscosity
Solids in
arranged
in
order
of liquids
by the
Press,
(9.2-5)
is different
have long-range ordered
and solids
long-rangeinteraction.
Theory of NonUmform
On the
Gases.
186
Mechanical Propertiesof
interact
Real
Fluids and
when
only
Solids
Chap.
short-range attractive
between the gas and the crystal.
other than those properties
such as X-ray diffraction,
Generally
speaking,
anisoof a liquid, just above the melting
tropy, etc., the structure and properties
point,
are fairly similar to those of its crystal. Metals expand
3 to 5% on melting
only
like ice, contracts), so that the packing of the atoms cannot
(bismuth,
be too
different. It is as if 3 to 5% of the crystal sites became vacant and their free volume
were taken up by neighboring particles in such a way as to destroy the
long-range
order of the structure.
A picture of the cause of viscosity for a
is
simple
liquid
proposed by Cottrell (1964), as shown in Fig. 9.5. Here two atoms which gained
some free volume are shown
as enclosed in a \"cage\"
of other atoms. The
figure
shows how a relative motion of the two atoms will allow
the cage to have a shear
or molecules.The liquid
state
is an interpolation
while the
relative
positions
4 is
the
length
original
of the
Properties
Wiley,
1964.
After
of the
essentially
unchanged.
The surrounding
9.5
Cottrell, TheMechanical
deformation
187
of Metals
movement
Plasticity
(7f%l
(om
Sec.9.3
rest of the
two atoms
Mixtures,
solids or glass,
colloidal
solutions,
can have many
suspensions,
9.3 PLASTICITY
If
polycrystalline
solids,
\\
Figure
metals:
amorphous
OF METALS
a rod of a
load applied
other
(c)
(b)
\\
copper;
relaxation
Elongation
Elongation
9.6
(a)
Typical
of
curves
load-elongation
steel; (b) of
the
curves of Fig.
9.6, the
specimen
breaks.
188
Properties
Mechanical
Chap. 9
Solids
9.4 MATERIALS
WITH
Rubber, the
NONLINEAR
law. The
Hooke's
uniaxially
most
material
to be
qualified
stress-strain
in a testing
Hookean approximation
ELASTICITY
is shown
machine
called
obtained
curve
only
is applicable
in Fig. 9.7.
in
cannot
elastic,
be described by
It
is nonlinear.
of strain
much
is
stretched
A linear,
smaller
24 h
16
than
Sec. 9.4
rubber bands
sense that its
incremental
rubber is not
normally
The
in the
range
in which
one
one wishes
finds some
of
Extension
ratio
to emphasize
their
ability
load is removed.If
features
also.
one
tissues
are
to a unique
looks at their
a living
When
animal
to return
develops
a steady-state
tissue is subjected
stress-strain loop
is not
that
that
Figure
larger
and unloading,
periodic loading
between the
rate. The hysteresis (the difference
very sensitiveto strain
unaffected
is
by the
largely
curves in the stress-strainloop)
loading and unloading
the
i.e.,
is
stress-strain
repeatable,
loop
the periodic loading. The
frequency of
feature
This
may
of
uniqueness.
and unloading legs have a certain degree
loading
On the other hand, the
be described by the term pseudoelasticity (Fung, 1971).
with the past stress seems to be
that links the present stress
function\"
\"memory
is nonlinear; hence, the term quasirelationship
linear, even though the stress-strain
was introduced.
linear
viscoelasticity
(Fung, 1971)
connective tissue in an animal: the
consider
us
typical
let
an example,
As
that connects the
a
The mesentery is thin membrane
mesentery of the rabbit.
it has
naked
good, uniform
the
to
eye,
transparent
Nearly
rabbit's intestines.
because its twoof physiologists
favorite
a
is
and
thickn6ss\"(about6 x 10\"3 cm)
blood vesselsis ideal for observation and experimendimensional
array of small
width was cut
a strip of uniform
property,
. tation. To obtain the gross mechanical
tension
in
tested
and
simple
ends with fine silk,
from the mesentery, tied at both
with
bubbled
7.4,
at room temperature,
pH
while immersed in a saline solution,
to
similar
ions
other
and
Ca
of
concentrations
a gas of 95% 02, 5%C02, with
those in blood plasma.
a repeatable stress-strainloop
and unloading,
a few cycles of loading
After
as shown in Fig. 9.8. Note the difference between
for each strain rate was obtained,
constitutive
equations
and 9.8, showing that the
the shapes of the curves in Figs. 9.7
different.
are very
of rubber and the rabbit's mesentery
we can treat loading
is
loop of the tissue repeatable,
Since the stress-strain
in
it as one elastic material
consider
and
tissue
and unloading
separately for this
in unloading, i.e., as two pseudoelastic
material
elastic
loading and another
to a
\"high\"
9.8, the one marked
is seen
It
\"low.\"
marked
rate 10 times faster
The abscissa
strain.
of
rate
the
on
much
very
did not depend
hysteresis loop
done
from an arbitrary length. This is
the
of
specimen
extension
is
fipre
the
origin
were taken at the zero-stress state,
if the origin of extension
the
For this specimen,
small.
too
be
would
scale
the
and
be far to the left
two typical
was produced at a strain
special
Human and
normally.
function
it
Of the
they
configuration
materials.
than the
also exist.
stress, and hysteresis in periodic oscillation
is a nonlinearly viscoelasticmaterial.
viscoelastic
and animals are also nonlinearly
soft tissues of humans
if
generally called elastic
viscoelasticity,
in the
incompressible,
106times
is 104 to
at constant
living
strain
is practically
unique.
rubber
Hence,
Soft rubber
creep
strain,
undergo.
189
Elasticity
Nonlinear
with
Materials
the
this
because
would
hysteresis
loops shown
in
than
Fig.
that
190
Mechanical
m-6
Rabbit
mesentery
L0=0.864,
Lph=2.77cm
Strain
Properties
Chap. 9
Solids
Sec. 9.5
Stress-Strain
Nonlinear
Relationships
of
Rubber
and
Biological
Tissues
191
100
rate:
6. 80
%N
<?
60
0.05
0.15
0.10
0.20
Extension,
Figure 9.8
curves
of
0.25
0.30
cm
36.5P(1-0,0377P)
40
obtained at two
mesentery
The high rate was 10 times that of the low rate.
Only a
slight
change in hysteresis curves was obtained.
From Y.C. Fung,
of Soft Tissues in
\"Elasticity
Simple
American J. of
Elongation.\"
Physiology
213(6): 1532-1544,1957.
strain
length at zero
cm, and the
Hysteresis
rabbit
rates.
was
stress
initial
state
^f
(7
dynes/cnr'
20
was
2.77
cross-sectional
Load
JO
6
P, grams
Lagrangian
to a straight
T + (3 =
(r + p)^-\",
Several other
and
the exponential
type
Further
(for
experiments
experience that,
the
skin,
<
on these
within
a
in
equation is common
tissues over
104-
the
wide
to 106-fold
physiological
ranges of strain
variation
in
strain
(9.4-2)
differ
ureter,
it appears
rates has
rate,
strain
tissues are
rate
not
affects the
sensitive
to
stress-strain
of a
is a
9.5 NONLINEAR
justifiable description.
STRESS-STRAIN
BIOLOGICAL
RELATIONSHIPS
OF
RUBBER
TISSUES
the stress
biological
the
to
AND
X,).
relationships.Thus,
of constitutive
of this
x 10-2cm2,
3.21.
X\342\200\236,
(9.4-1)
where
a and p are constants and
Xj, is an upper limit of the
applicability
equation (about 3.2 in the case of the rabbit's
mesentery).
A simple
integration of Eq. (9.4-1),together
with the condition that
is equal to T* when
X = \\y, yields
speaking,
in which
= 1.93
cm, A\342\200\236
0.865
stress T, dynes/cm2
factor of 2 or 3. Hence,roughly
strain rate. The precise manner
insensitivity
(forX<X,),
400
200
Lagrangian
line,
^=a(r+B)
elastic
Figure 9.9 The tangential
modulus (the slope of the stressstretch ratio curve) of rabbit
is plotted as a function
mesentery
of the tensile stress T based
on the
cross sectional area of the specimen
at the zero-stress
state.
Note that
the elastic modulus is not a
constant as the linear Hooke's law
assumes. For this figure,
La =
that
tissues.
led to the
the stress at a
by more than a
Mechanical Propertiesof
192
initial
hence,
state;
zero-stress state.
p0Wis the
strain
energy
Solids
of the
material
Linear Viscoelastic
Sec. 9.6
Chap.9
at the
which
in
constants
of material
Thus,
(i, 7
jf
(9.5-1)
1.2,3).
If the material
is incompressible,
Sec. 16.7) for theoretical
details.]
on a pressure that is independent of the deformation of the body.
to the right-hand side of Eq. (9.5-1).
In that case, a pressure term shouldbe added
The value of the pressure can vary from point to point, and it can be determined
[SeeFung
then
only
it
(1965,
can take
of motion,
the equations
when
continuity,
Hence,
the
1. Soft
rubber
is incompressible,
and
and C2 are
C,(/,
has
constants,
3) +
C2(/2
been found
(9.5-3)
3)
valuable
in
the
study
of large
deformationsof rubber.
blood vessel wall) are not isotropic.
Most biological tissues (e.g., skin, muscle,
The linear form of strain energy,
Some (e.g.,the lung tissue) are not incompressible.
data
of
not
fit
tissues.
does
biological
Eq. (9.5-3),
experimental
strain energy functions have been
Based on known experimental data, several
If the blood vessel wall is treated as an elastic
for the blood vessel wall.
proposed
shell without
then only the averagecircumferential
and longitudinal
stresses
torsion,
and strains are of interest.
the vessel wall can be treated as two dimensional
Hence,
and the strain
strain
is a function of only two strains: the circumferential
energy
have
strain Ezz. Patel and Vaishnav
used
Em and the longitudinal
(1972)
polynomials
et al. (1971) have used logarithmic
of Em, En for p0W. Hayashi
functions.
Fung
function. A detailed comparison
of the polynomial and
(1973) used an exponential
is given
functions
in
et al.
Fung
(1979). In the
the form
P = fc, El
Q is
which
in
gives
LINEAR
the sameas in
(9.5-4)
PoW^expQ,
where
= a,
E2m
+ a2El
+ a,
(9.5-6)
|exPe
Eq.
+ b2 El
(9.5-5) and bu
h3
(9.5-7)
E08 EZI
b2,and
63 are
additional constants,
accuracy.
a higher
VISCOELASTIC
The features of
BODIES
Ew
E\342\200\236
(9.5-5)
relaxation,
hysteresis,
common
to many
materials.
HE
-Gr
[J\342\200\224ty\\AAi\342\200\224>1
S
Fipre
(c)
9.10
standard
(c)
(b)
(a)
(a)
Maxwell,
(b) Voigt,
linear
all of which
the
= P
where
Collectively,
linear form
PoW
where
then 13 =
is seven.
to
PoW(2)
9.6
is incompressible,
(9.5-4)
(9.5-2)
PoW(/\342\200\2364/3).
material
Eq.
all
conditions
If the
in
third-order
the
zero-stress state
the pressure in
and equations of motion.
of p\342\200\236F
can
A material is recognized
by its specific p0W. The determination
For example, Green and Adlcins (1960)
be helped by theoretical
considerations.
in all forms of crystals and determined what kind
studied the symmetry
conditions
have if their p0Ws were polynomials
of terms each crystal
should
of the strain
reached
is
that
if
the
material
conclusion
is
then p0W
One
components.
isotropic,
must be a function
of the strain invariants
/,, I2, h (see Sec.5.7);i.e.,
satisfied.
are constants,
at
polynomial expression
constants
shown that the exponentialform
have
of skin, muscle, ligaments, etc.,
Studies
zero-stress
state, it is found that
the
of
In the neighborhood
equally well.
applies
or a strain energy
law
stress-strain
linear
a
to
fitted
be
data can
the experimental
for the full range of strain from the
Hence,
of a second-order polynomial.
function
function
in vivo values, the strain energy
in
Su
193
Bodies
are composedof
load F
Maxwell
model:
combinations
of linear
194
Mechanical Propertiesof
Real Fluids
and Solids
Chap.
Voigt model:
Voigt
F =
Standard linear
+ T|\302\253, u(Q)
\\m
0,
ER(u +
t\342\200\236\302\253),
TeF(0)
ER%u(0),
k{f)
T)8(f) +
|ll(f),
(9.6-9)
linear solid:
(9.6-3)
195
Bodies
Viscoelastic
solid:
Standard
%F
Linear
(9.6-2)
model:
F +
where
Sec.9.6
= ER
k(t)
\\e
//re
(9.6-10)
1(f).
are constants,
te, t\342\200\236
Here,
we
have
delta function,
used the
8(f) to
symbol
8(f) = 0
p.
indicate the
as a function
is defined
which
J_\302\243/ff)8(f)df
with
(for
< 0,
unit-impulse
a singularity
and
function,
> 0),
(9.6-11)
(e>0),
/(0)
model:
Maxwell
(9.6-4)
C(o=H#),
at
that is continuous
9.11 and 9.12, respectively.
function
in Figs.
f = 0.
The
functions
Voigt model:
c{t) =
-(1 -
(9.6-5)
e-<M%(t),
I1
linear
Standard
model:
c(t)
where the
unit-step
function
Er
(9.6-6)
Time
when
fl
f
when
|0
when
(c)
as
1(f) is defined
1(f) =
A
TE
1-1-
t >
f =
f ipre
0,
(9.6-7)
0,
t < 0.
9.11 Creep
like
Maxwell
(9.6-1) through
(9.6-3)
are, respectively,
phase
of
.i)8 (/-/o)
function
for Eqs.
(a)
\302\243
to an elongation
response F(t) = k(t) corresponding
u(t) = 1(f). The relaxation
function
k(t) is the force that must be applied in order to produce
an elongation,
that
at f = 0 from zero to unity and remains
changes
unity thereafter. Relaxation
functions
negative
unloading.
of
function
0
form.
0)
Time
Time
(a)
(b)
solid:
k{t)
|ie-w'l(f),
(9.6-8)
function
of
(a)
Maxwell,
(b) Voigt,
and
(c)
c(f)
196
Mechanical
For the
deflection
other hand,
Maxwell
a sudden
solid,
Properties
of a
application
Chap. 9
Solids
load induces an
Sec.9.7
similar
immediate
On the
which is followed by creep of the dashpot.
by the elastic spring,
the
immediate
reaction
an
a sudden deformation produces
by
spring,
law given in
to the exponential
by stress relaxation according
a relaxation
be
called
dimensionof
the
with
time,
may
tj/jx,
Eq.
of the force.
time: It characterizes the rate of decay
of force will produce no immediate
For a
solid, a sudden application
(9.6-8). The factor
Voigt
deflection,
the standard
linear
More general
model.
Kelvin
creep function
The most
general
c(t
since
-
Voigt,
Boltzmann formulation.
More
the
doubling
t)
respectively.
The Maxwell,
of loading
element
depends
add
of the
the assumption
loading up to
then in a
of linearity
and
k(t
and Kelvin
the
load doubles
t) are the
creep
generally, we can
examples
relaxation
the
write
vice
and
elongation
the
in
k(t)
is a
which
with each
lines
generalization of Eq.
an optical
discretespectrums.
section.
function.
A generalization
?2
we plot
1/,
i/2
the
frequency axis, we
examples
9-13.
Hence,
shown
in
associated
a\342\200\236
amplitude
on a
v\342\200\236
spectrum, Fig.
The
(9.6-15)
a,,e-
(9.6-10).If
characteristic frequency
resembles
that
= E
Eqs.
to a continuous spectrum
obtain
a series of
is called a
a\342\200\236(v\342\200\236)
are
in the next
(9.6-8)-(9.6-10)
is given
\302\2603
K3
vA
Frequency
cause
between
small
the
time
time
t.
interval
If
the
function
dt at time t,
F(t)
the
increment
remains acting on the bar and
at
time t, with a proportionality
the
to
elongation
du(t)
t - t. Hence,we may write
on the time interval
is (dFld^dt. This
= c(t
t)
dr.
(9.6-12)
on
summing
\302\253(r)
(9.6-14)
function.
du(t)
form
9.7 QUASI-LINEAR
J'ocO-T)^T.
(9.6-13)
OF BIOLOGICAL
VISCOELASTICITY
TISSUES
mentioned in Sec.
tissues
viscoelastic features of biological soft
stress-strain
the
shows
9.14
9.4.Take the lung tissue as an example. Figure
Each
rates.
strain
cycle was done
different
at
tissue in loading
of the
Let us
clarify
relationship
at
a constant
in strain
Let
linear,
are
under
formulation
due to Boltzmann
simple bar subjected
contributes an
constant c that
laws
be built by
we may
Equivalently,
or to the relaxation
is caused
increment
These
model.
models may
and effect is
consider
, duh)
gives
u interchanged,
f\302\253
is followed
which
argument,
197
of Biological Tissues
Viscoelasticity
Quasi-Linear
hysteresis
the
lung
rate. The period
only
of each
is noted in
a minor change
as the ratio
of the
area
in
Over a 360-foldchange
stress-strain relationship. The
the figure.
the
of the
by the
process
198
Mechanical
CYCLE
80
Properties
Solids
Chap. 9
60 05
111
Quasi-Linear
18
SEC, H = 0.2?
rx\342\200\224WW\342\200\224*-F
$i\342\200\224WVv\342\200\224'
2ZOSEC,H = 050
(b)
(a!
\342\231\246
900 SEC, H =
'
of Biological Tissues
Viscoelasticity
TIME. HYSTERESIS
\342\200\242
60 SEC, H = 0.32
A
9.7
6500SEC,
028
H=
035
co ~*
<
<n
40
5 z
(E
Inf
20 -
<
i\302\273W
0.8
I.0
X,
Figure 9.14
lung
A set of
I.I
(STRETCH
T\" \342\200\224,
j
I.2
RATIO
I.4
,
I.6
r-w4~F~
L,/LM).
of the stress-strainrelationship
of the
cyclic biaxial loading are shown in the loading
phase was not recorded on this graph to improve
|\342\200\224
\342\226\240w~\\
-w-|
|\342\200\224
r#-[\"r\342\200\224
records
'\342\200\224wvH \"-^vww\342\200\224'
'\342\200\224vww\342\200\224'
\342\200\224wwv\342\200\224'
tissue subjected to a
(the unloading
clarity.) The viscoelasticity of the lung tissue is revealed by the effect of
This set of curves cover a
strain rate on the stress-strainrelationship.
of strain rates varying
over 250-fold. It is seen that the stressrange
strain relationship
is not greatly affected
by strain rate. The energy
dissipated per cycle divided
by the work of loading per cycle is called
strain rates
hysteresis, and is denoted by H. The values of H at various
of cycles) are shown in the inset. Hysteresis
is due to
(periods
viscoelasticity, and is seen not to vary much with strain rate. For
see D.L. Vawter, Y.C. Fung,
and J.B. West, \"Elasticity
of
details,
Excised Dog Lung Parenchyma,\"
Journal of Applied
Physiology
phase,
th
(e)
Id)
13)
45(2):261-269,1978.
ih)
Fipre 9.15 Several standard viscoelastic models are shown in the top
row, and a mathematical model of the viscoelasticity of biological soft
tissues is shown in the third row. Figures in the secondrow, panels (d),
between the hysteresis (H) and the
(e), and (f) show the relationships
of frequency (In f) of the Maxwell
model (a), Voight model
logarithm
The figure in the bottom row
(b), and Kelvin model (c), respectively.
the general hysteresis-log frequency
of most living
relationship
soft tissues, corresponding
to the model (g) shown in the third row.
Living soft tissues usually have a nearly constant hysteresis over a very
shows
Properties of Real
Mechanical
200
bodies whose
of Kelvin
is shown
in Fig.
Chap,9
characteristic
in the bottom
is flat over a wide
201
9.15(g). It is composedof a
i
S(q)
tensor),
fits
the
qlt
= .
(9.7-6)
0
mathematical
into
< q<
for 5,
characteristic
(a
Fluids
range.
frequency
these observations
To put
Stress Tw
Non-Newtonian
9.8
Sec.
series
long
suitable
model
and Solids
Fluids
skin, arteries,
forg<<j,,q>q2,
ureter,
and teniae
coli.
to the
which
function.
function of time,
a normalized
Gljm\342\200\236(t),
assume that
component of strain,
of time t, is, for
instant
t>
is called
stress response to
on a specimen
8\302\243,7,
superposed
We then
the
an
in
(9.7-1)
change in a
state of strain E at an
infinitesimal
a
t,
FLUIDS
Newton's
many
Gy\342\200\236,\342\200\236(()r\342\200\236\342\200\236/\"'(E),
Gl7\342\200\236,\342\200\236(0)
1,
in
9.8 NON-NEWTONIAN
\"No
flow],
varnishes
10,000
(9.7-2)
G,7,,,,,(f-T)ar\"\"^E(T)18\302\243,(T).
Most paints,
for household
\"1
that
is most important
the strain
that the
we assume
stress
each governed
a nonlinear
1000
that
\342\200\224
T)
k\302\253\302\2734'
_\342\200\236
so
applies,
TM
principle
superposition
at.
^r
(9.7-3)
rate.
Figure
9.16
1\342\200\224Ir-|
Whole blood
e\342\200\224\302\253
blood
Ringer suspension
x\342\200\224x
o\342\200\224
Defibrinated
Finally,
enamels, and
solutions.
are non-Newtonian,
of
cells
100
at time t
by the same
function
is called a quasi-linear
is written
as -\302\260\302\260
to mean the beginning
of time.
The reduced relaxation
function
of a one-dimensional
10
(9.7-3)
model
+ Se-'\"].
G\302\253
Kelvin
^[l
is
0.1
(9.7-4)
0.01
0.1
q are
where
S and
series,
we can
G(0 =
S(q)is called
a specific
a relaxation
spectrum,
If we
constants.
get a reduced
with
put
relaxation
1+
an
infinite
function
number
1+
\\^S{q)e-\"\"dq
constants
of Kelvin
models in
in the form
S(q)dq
It has
(9.7-5)
been shown
that
10
1
Sirain
rate,
100
sec\"1
(Paris:
Masson,
1967).
to
our
shows
Mechanical Propertiesof
202
Real
Fluids and
Solids
Chap.
with
in
the coefficient
a Couette
are discussed
viscoplastic materials
The world
fluids
that the
the
in
landscape is yet
Viscoplastic
largely
so much
203
Materials
a viscoplastic material
(1922)* with the relations
Then,
in a
state of
0
2ui =
next section.
fluids is
of non-Newtonian
Sec. 9.9
than that
is defined
by
ifF<0,
ifF>0.
Ft
larger
shear
simple
Bingham
'
of Newtonian
Hohenemser and Prager (1932)*
generalized
of stress in the form
unexplored.
states
9.9 VISCOPLASTICMATERIALS
2u.Fy
obeying Newton's law of viscosity must flow under the slightest shear
stress deviation).
Materials such as
(more
precisely, under a nonvanishing
who
and molding clay do not follow such a rule.
sourdough,
paste,
Bingham,
to describe the scienceof flow (Greek,
invented the word \"rheology\"
peas flow),
formulated
a law for a class of materials
known as viscoplastic, to which
sourdough
seems to belong. A viscoplastic
material is often called a Bingham
plastic.
A viscoplastic material
can sustain stresses with a nonvanishing
stress
deviation
when in a state of rest. SeeFig. 9.17. Consider first a body subjected to simple
shear, i.e., a state in which all components of the tensors of stress and strain rate
Bingham's
definition
to
forF<0,
arbitrary
(q9_A\\
V '
Fv':i
forF>0,
\342\226\240>,,
A material
stress
with
where
= coefficient
of viscosity,
Vjj
= strain-rate
rj/;-
= stress-deviator
p.
a Newtonian
stress
as t
and
an absolute
value proportional to
0
|t|
- K.
Thus,
it\\r\\<K,
2pi
1-
K =
yield stress,
h =
second
022)2
(9.9-1)
For
simple
shear,
p,
differently
coefficient of viscosity.
This formulation
may be
with the introduction of a yield function F defined as
F=
1-
(0-22
<sr,
5o-\342\200\236,8l7,
stress deviator
o-b)2
(0-33
+ oi2
o-\342\200\236)2]
+ oi,
+ oil.
written
(9.9-2)
(9.9-5)
reduce
to Eqs.
(9.9-3) and
(9.9-2),
tensor of a viscoplastic
According to Eq. (9.9-4),the rate-of-deformation
is incompressible. When the yield function
is a deviator; i.e., the material
the yield function has a positive
is rigid. Flow occurs when
is negative, the material
=
F
forms
the
0
which
stress
for
value. The state of
yield limit at which viscoplastic
flow sets in or ceases, depending on the sense of direction in which the yield limit
material
is crossed.
instead
slightly
and
respectively.
if|T|>\302\243,
is a
Eqs. (9.9-4)
example,compressibility
where
of the
invariant
l[(on
tensor =
fluid.
rate Va = Va
vanish, except the shear stress o^ = o-2i = t and the shear strain
= e. As
the
as
the
of
shear
stress
t
absolute
value
is
smaller
than
a certain
long
= 0. As
constant K, called the yield stress, the material
remains
so
that
e
rigid,
soon as |t| exceedsK, however, the material flows, with a strain rate e having the
same sign
('*-5\302\273
'-&
of Eq.
yield
(9.9-5).
Kontinua.'
Mechanical Propertiesof
204
TRANSFORMATION
9.10 SOL-GEL
Real
THIXOTRQPY
AND
or junction
without
flow)
be called a sol.
both of which
of the gel may
interpreted
as
points
a network held together by
bonds that cause
attractive
forces, or secondaryvalence
valence bonds, long-range
or the formation of submichains
of
between
an association
polymer
segments
Each of the junctions is a mechanism for relaxation
crystalline regions.
croscopic
of all these relaxation mechanisms is
under
stress. The statistics of the totality
bonds
forming
by the
viscoelasticity of the
be converted
or
agitation,
temperature,by
by
formed
by primary
material.
into
versa by
of
a change
chemical
can
If a
reversible gel-sol
The gel
the material is said to be thixotropic, according to Freundlich.
vibration,then
to a gel when
into a sol by mechanical
agitation, and the sol reverts
is transformed
the agitation is discontinued.
inks, iron oxide sols,
substances are paints,
printing
of thixotropic
Examples
materials
black.
carbon
and
pervail in the
of kaolin,
Thixotropic
suspensions
agar,
the best known example.
in an amoeba is perhaps
world. The
transformation
biological
system is thixotropic
G.
Vt =
or not
9.5
examples.
interesting
the
aluminum
for the
following
alloys,
VtJ
+ W\"y
of an aircraft is a
the velocity of sound in the material of construction
air
clear
as
turbulence, gust
such
problems
dynamic
criterion for its safety against
identical in geometry
two
consider
this
For
airplanes
flutter.
and
purpose,
encounter,
the problem to consider only the
in material. Simplify
but different
and construction,
the
material cr; Young's modulus E;
of
the
density
following four typical parameters:
U. Use dimensional
the density of air p; and the velocity of flight of the airplane,
refer to one plane
and
U
Let
o-, E, p,
to construct the similarity
parameters.
analysis
we must
that
for
Show
the
other.
similarity,
to
refer
IP
dynamic
and
and cr', E', p',
have
If
that
Show
E.=
U represents
preceding
IE/
The
velocity
the rigidities
the
critical
A cone-plate
viscometer.
(speedof
longitudinal
9.6
Assume
pressure.
solid obeying
Hoolce's
for
comparing
simUarity parameter
designer selecting mateyou are an airplane
concrete column
rods of 1-sq-in
law is {.
Figure P9.5
fi
waves in a rod).
9.2
equation
PROBLEMS
9.1
for construction.
magnesium alloys,
magnesium,
materials: pure
structural
materials
titanium carbide, and the rather exotic
titanium,
steels,
stainless
carbon steels,
lucite and phenolic
the plastics
with
Compare
oxide and pure beryllium.
beryllium
along the grain. Are
balsa, and bamboo,
laminates with the woods spruce, mahogany,
of sound in
velocities
the
between
differences
at the rather small
you not surprised
view?
of
the best material from this point
of these materials? What is
many
a
in Prob. 9.1 would be reached if you considered
as
9.3 Show that the same conclusion
wind.
in
original
(The
dangerously
be induced to vibrate
bridge that may
suspension
failed by flutter
spectacularly
Sound,Washington,
Tacoma Narrows Bridge on Puget
in a wind speed of 42 mph.
it was opened to traffic,
on Nov. 7,1940, four months after
37
from
of
the
bridge changed suddenly
of oscillation
On that morning, the frequency
tie rod. The
of a small reinforcing
because of a failure
to 14 cycles/min, probably
occurred half an hour later.
mode, and failure
in the torsional
motion
grew violently
the bridge
oscillation
induced
(flutter),
If there had not been this aerodynamically
100
mi/hr.)
a steady wind of at least
should have been able to withstand
in a Couette flowmeter
(Fig.
measured
blood
of
the
on
viscosity
data
9.4 The experimental
by Casson's
can be expressed approximately
9.16,
in
shown
as
Fig.
P3.22, p. 86),
protoplasm
a colloidal
Whether
Problems
aluminum,
age.
described
205
Chap.
rials
stress
to shear
A colloidal solution
may possess rigidity (subjected
and
without
a
fluid
as
behave
or
it
rigidity
a
and be called
may
gel,
a dispersed component and a dispersion medium,
A gel contains
extend
throughout the system. The elastic property
continuously
of a gel is usually
The dispersed
component
with its
change
Chap. 9
concrete
206
Mechanical Propertiesof
Real
Fluids and
Solids
Chap.
jected to a
ratio
9.8
Consider a
Eq.
What
material
viscoelastic
characterized
as
Maxwell's
= a
varying force F
u at steady state?
sin
arf
small diameter.
of
(b) A
circular
wound
spirally
sin
parallel
area
When the
of
is a fraction
the fibers
of
tube of inner
cylindrical
fibers. The helical fibers
the manner
Young's
the effective
a) +
are
cross-sectional
total
of the tube.
moduli
Co
and the
area
cross-sectional
the total
\302\273
The fibers
\302\243\342\200\236.
Ef
distributed,
uniformly
of
= \342\200\224
[sin (cof
Young's moduli
with
respectively,
Answer:
u
207
References
Chap. 9
a],J
(c)
where
A =
, tan
cylinder,
J*.
matrix.
t](i>
9.9
that the
principal
feature
the stressdistribution
A torque T is
(f) Torsion resistance is also important.
in the fibers and matrix then?
the stresses
is
rate of 10cm3/
column
9.15To measure
and other
to the tube.
applied
Lyman
liquids,
What are
perpendicular
until the liquid in the capillary
of the Z. The speedof rotation is increased gradually
tube that is open at both ends for this experiment, the
\"breaks.\" If one usesa straight
The bent-back short arms
will not be possible.
fluid will fly away and the experiment
the stability of the fluid. Examine this stability
of the Z provide
problem and present
of the experiment.
a theoretical analysis
9.10When
S.
chalk
infer
Again, break
9.12 Take a piece of nylon
9.14
REFERENCES
Cottrell,
A.
Fung, Y, C,
Foundations
Y. C,
\"Elasticity
Fung,
high-strength
Properties
of Solid Mechanics.
of Matter.
Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Cliffs, N.J.,
Englewood
1964.
Am.
J. Physiol. 213(6):
1532-1544,1967.
Y. C, \"Stress-Strain-History
Biomechanics: Its Foundations
Relations
Fung,
Anliker, N.J.,
Fung, Y.
C,
Fung, Y. C,
of
Verlag,
Fung,
Prentice-Hall,
\"Biorheology
Fronek,
Its Mathematical
Fung, Y. C,
Many engineering and biological structures are made of composite materials consisting
of stiffer
components embedded in a softer matrix. Consider the following
two models:
(a) A circular cylindrical
tube, in the wall of which are embedded
fibers
The Mechanical
H.,
of Soft Tissues.\"
K., and
1981,2nd ed.,
Tissues
in Simple
Biorheology
Am. J. Physiol.
Mechanical
In
Elongation.\"
Perrone,
and
M.
10:139-155,1973.
of Arteries and
the Choice
237: H620-H631,1979.
Properties of Living
Tissues.
1993.
2132-2141,1988.
Soft
Expression.\"
Biomechanics:
of
Structure and
Its Validation.\"
/. Appl. Physiol.
64(5):
Mechanical Propertiesof
208
Fung,
Y. C, Biomechanics: Motion,
and Growth.
Flow, Stress,
Solids
Chap.9
NewYork: Springer-Verlag,
1990.
Deformations
1960.
Behavior of Vascular
K., Handa, H., Mom, K., and Moritake, K., \"Mechanical
Walls.\"/. Soc.Material Science Japan 20:1001-1011,1971.
of State of Water and Sea Water.\"
J. Geophys. Res. 72(10):
Li, Yuan-Hui,
\"Equation
Hayashi,
2665-2678,1967.
M.,
Pulmonary
Fung,
Y. C,
Alveolar
In the
Press, 1972.
Sobin,
S. S.,
Fung, Y. C,
and
Tremer,
H. M.,
\"Collagen
(strain
Human
body
of a material
to derive differential
describing the motion
equations
use this information
must
Our formulation
conditions.
under
specific boundary
of the continuum
and
conservation
mass,
the
of
law
of
motion,
principle
of
obey Newton's
is concerned with expressingthese
the laws of thermodynamics. This chapter
a continuum.
laws in a form suitable
for the treatment of
on these
elaboration
One may wonder why there is a need for further
between parts
have
preceding chapters, we
rate) and their relationship
Alveolar
The answer
laws.
well-known
If we
have
states
that the
a single
particle,
mass of the
the individual
particles.
to consider the
distribution,
velocity
etc. It is the
a circumstance
that
principle
in
the
following
of conservation
example.
of mass merely
as the
such
number of particles,
requires some thought.
be illustrated
may
the
field, the
is a
water
density
descriptionof
the
distribution,
classical
our attention
on the fact that
will occupy
the temperature
conservation
in this
laws
in
such
chapter.
these
10.1 GAUSS'STHEOREM
We
shall begin
with
the
derivation
bounded
by a surface S that
normals form a continuous vector
V
of Gauss's
consists
field
of a
(e.g.,
a convex region
theorem. Consider
finite number of parts whose outer
the one shown in Fig. 10.1). Such a
209
210
of Field
Derivation
Equations
Chap. 10
where dV and
applies
to
211
Gauss's Theorem
Sec. 10.1
dS denote
of V and
the elements
integral of dAldx2
volume
the
A similar argument
Thus, we obtain Gauss's
S, respectively.
or 9Aldx3.
theorem,
formula
This
Figure
10.1
Path
of
holds for
a finite
be decomposedinto
Now let us consider
integration
of
surface
S be
any
region or for
regular
any
regular
regions.
Let the region V with boundary
field AjU....
of Aja
of AjU.... Let every component
definition
isapplicable
in V. Then Eq. (10.1-4)
differentiable
be continuously
of the tensor, and we obtain the general result
region is said
V and on the
the volume
to be
surface
dx2 dx3.
dx\\
The
is the
integrand
respect
to
xx
along
partial
of A
derivative
a line
segment L, we
dA
dx2 dx: =
VdXi
with respect to
xx. By
integrating
with
obtain
was
Example 1
Let
dxi
\\\\s^
(10.1-1)
Am)dx2dx3
a vector.
V,- represent
A, =
v,-,
J Js
as
{A*
to Eq.
Then, according
and
written
(10.1-5)
theorem
BA
component
in applied mathematics.
theorems
forms
various
in
(1762), Gauss (1813),
by Lagrange
This
given
best
known
in this country as Green's
It
is
and
(1831).
Green (1828), Ostrogradsky
or Gauss's theorem.
theorem
is one of
which
vdxt
to every
\\v^Am...dV=\\sviAikl...dS,
A(xu
integral
a tensor
the region of
within
convex
number of convex
(10.1-5), we have, on
identifying
surface S,
the
\\vdidv=\\sv'n'dsIf
we write
w; and the
the coordinates xu
direction cosines nh
x2, *3 as
n2, n3 of
v,
v,, v2, v3 as \302\253,
x, y, z; the components
to the surface S as /, m,
the outer normal
n, then
III
In
another
+
v
(to
popular
S)
& dy
dZ =
\\L
vector
{lU
+ mV
+ m) dS-
by v and the
(101-7)
scalar product
v,/i/
by vn and define
dx2 dx3
- A** dx2
dx^
dS*
\\\\s (A*vf
A**vt*
dS**).
The asterisks may be omitted because they merely indicate the appropriate values
of A and vi to be taken in a surface integral accordingto conventional
notations.
side of Eq. (10.1-1) reduces
to Js Avx dS. Now, if we write
Thus, the right-hand
the volume integral
on the left-hand side as JV (dAldxi)
dV, then we have
M '
\342\200\224dV=
\"
AVldS,
divv =
(10.1-2)
(10.1-3)
to
dy
\342\200\224\342\200\242
(10.1-8)
dz
]vdwvdV
Equations
theorem.
(10.1-6), (10.1-7),
and
(10.1-9)
)srndS.
are the
best known
forms
(10.1-9)
of Gauss's
Sec.
212
of Field
Derivation
10.2
a
Material Description of the Motion of
213
Continuum
Chap. 10
Equations
^.\"3
2
Example
>1=j?,(o\342\200\236o2,o3,rt
is identified
If A
the
in
a potential
with
<|>, then
function
Eq.
is usually
(10.1\342\200\2243)
written
vector form
grad<j>aT =
iu|>
dS.
Configuration at t=r
Example
Let eijk
be the
eijtUkjdV
etik
Uk.jdV
%. J uknjdS
at /=0
-^2,\302\2602
eijkuknjdS;
i.e.,
Figure
*1.\302\2601
curl u dV
u dS.
OFA
OF THE
DESCRIPTION
a2, a3, t)
particle be Xi
the label for
Conservation
of reference
au
that
x2
particle.
be chosen.
t =
0-X\\X2x3
= a3 when-time
a2, x3
As time goes on,
the
Let the
of a material
use (au a2, a3) as
moves. Its location
has
location
We shall
/\342\200\236.
particle
the history
Xi
*,(<?,,
referred to
the
a2,
same
a3, t),
x2
coordinate
=
Xi
x{au
x2(au
a2,
system or,
a2,
in
x3 =
a3, t),
x3(au az,
short,
such
in
the
dx2 dx3
p(x) dxi
the
t)
dt
(10.2-2)
f\302\253l.\302\2532.\"3)
as follows.
p0(a)dax
density
-p(x)dxidx2dx3=
where |3x,-/3flj
matrix
is the
(10.2-4)
da2 da3,
(10.2-1)
(10.2-5)
p(s)det
3fl;|
the
of the
determinant
(dxjldaj):
det
dxJdOi
dX\\lda2
dxilda3
dx-Jdax
dx2lda2
dx2lda3.
dxjdai
dx3lda2
dx3lda3
fl
\342\200\224
=
i3a'
Identifying the right-hand
the result must hold for
sides
any
(10.2-5)
see that
(10.2-6)
and realizing
the
integrands
that
must
be equal:
Po(a)
'(01,12.03!
body,
Sf2
(n,nn)
be expressed
may
= 1, 2,
(i
3).
a3, t),
of mass
a3, t)
(10.2-3)
Bt
MOTION
CONTINUUM
of particles.
3%
av,
MATERIAL
Labeling
and
a,{fli,
10.2
10.2
p(x)
det
-j
(10.2-7)
214
of Field
Derivation
Chap. 10
Equations
The Material
Sec. 10.4
Derivative
of a Volume
215
Integral
....
Similarly,
p(x)
det
p0(a)
(10.2-8)
dXj
relate
These equations
that
transformation
the
in different
density
of the body
configurations
method
used
OF THE
In the
material
water
in
of water
is not
f0. This
a river,
we do not
comes.
Instead,
and its
convenient.
always
we are
leads to
time. This
with
evolution
in hydrodynamics. The
It is natural
independent variables.
used
v,(M) =
which
every particle
where
s again
v;(x,
f)
A
v;g(M),
and
by
dt)
v, dt, t
reduces
to Eq.
Accordingly,these
acceleration,
respectively.
(10.3-1).The first
dependence of the
motion
terms
time
t +
dt
t)
vt(xj,
v,dt
dV
which reduces to
10.4 THE
Eq.
v\342\200\236
term
velocity
in
velocity field.
convective parts of the
the nonhomogeneous
local and
the
dx
Ix
(10.3-2)
by
DERIVATIVE OF A
MATERIAL
integral
Let I(t) be a volume
domain
V(xit
over a sp
spatial
implicit
dx,
F(ah
t)
(10.3-3)
of a\342\200\236
a2, a3,
function
dF,
dF
dx3\\
dt la
dx-
fl*3
.dt
virtue
of Eq.
\342\200\224I
x2, x3, t)
la
have
(10.3-4)
(10.2-2).
function
differentiable
occupied
t, we
INTEGRAL
VOLUME
of a continuously
by a given
A(x, t) defined
set of material
particles:
(10.4-1)
of the time /
The function
I(t) is a function
the
parameter
the domain V(x, t) depend on
because both the integrand A(%, t) and
rate of change of I(t) with
is
the
What
ask:
we
and
varies
also,
t. As t varies, /(f)
of /, is
derivative
called the material
denoted
by DIlDt and
This
Here again,
we write
x for xh
x2, x3.
rate,
to (?
particles.
given set of material
is of primary
importance. The
The phrase \"for a given set of particles\"
the value of J changing. To
body itself \"sees\"
is how fast the material
question
t will have
S of the body at the instant
this rate, note that the boundary
evaluate
V
domain
the
bounds
surface
5\", which
moved at time t + dt to a neighboring
as
defined
The material derivative of I is
defined
transformed into
3F\\ ax,
respect
dXj
of the particle
dt at the
the higher-order
omitting
flv,(x,
t)
\342\200\224*-^
dt
x{ + v:
coordinates
dv,(x, t) ,
= v, + -\342\200\224^dt
+
which
(10.3-1)
in the formula
xu x2, x3, and every quantity
follows from the fact that a particle located at (xh
dt = v,(x;
t) as an
fJA
variables
is evaluated
at (x, t). The proof
to a point with
x2, x3) at time t is moved
and that, according to Taylor's theorem,
infinitesimal terms
as dt -> 0,
x2, xh t) is
the spatial
+
\302\247fcO
\342\200\224
\342\200\242
A
(10.3-2)
v
dt
location
v3
to2
tai
instantaneous velocity
in the
description traditionally
and the time t are taken as
because measurementsare more
for hydrodynamics
of
what
in terms
and
made
happens at a certain place,
easily
directly interpreted
rather than following the particles.
is
motion of the continuum
In a spatial description, the instantaneous
vector field Vj(jti\", x2, x3,t), which, of course, is the velocity
described by the velocity
at (xu x2,x3) at time t. We shall show that the
of a particle instantaneously
located
of the particle is given
instantaneous acceleration
by the formula
field
F(xu
coordinates at a given
When we describe the flow of
interested
generally
v2.ri
W/x=const,
by its
location from
to identify the
desire
CONTINUUM
is identified
every particle
description,
of time
instant
MOTIONOFA
\342\200\224
+
+ v,
hr
other hand, if
transformation given
On the
DESCRIPTION
SPATIAL
in
particle
10.3
F = TT
Dt
description
to the
to another.
configuration
for a
(Fig. 10.3).
DI
..
\342\200\224
= lim \342\200\224
Dt
<m dt
f A(x,t+dt)dV-
\\A(x,t)dV
(10.4-2)
of Field Equations
Derivation
216
Chap.
10
Sec. 10.5
The
last integral
Transformingthe
\302\243[
Dtiv
?17
of Continuity
Equation
theorem and
by Gauss's
using
J v dXj
J v ^dV+\\vj-{Av!)dV
dt
AdV=\\
+
JkU+V/^
Figure 10.3
Continuous
the boundary
of a region.
change
h\\Dt
of
time
V.
We note
interval
difference
to the
that
dt. Since
AV
is swept
V =
in
the domains
out
+ AV,
by
V\"
the motion
we can
write
of the
surface S in
(10.4-2)
Eq.
domain
formula
DI
Dt
lim -.
*-.odt\\
jv
A(x, t
dt)
dV
J w/
A(x,
(10.4-5)
ax,!
will be
the small
as
OF CONTINUITY
This important
Attention is drawn
t + dt) dV
The
of conservation
law
Sec. 10.4,we
can
The mass
of mass was
now give
contained in
discussed in
some alternative
V at
a domain
Sec.
results of
forms.
a time
t is
A{x,t)dV
(10.4-3)
I V
limljl
v [A(x,t+dt)-A(x,t)]dV
m
[dt J
where
law
For a
differentiable
continuously
function
A(x, t),
the
first
term on the
by
contributes
noting
the
value
p(x,
t) is
the
JV SAIdt
J v jtdV
SA
AdV
\342\200\224
v dt
dV
Js
' '
Av,n,dS.
(10.4-4)
4 +
Js
dS
pv,\302\253,
= 0.
(10.5-2)
a 00,-3,
^-o.
POM,
^p^\302\253.
These are
called
the
equations
of continuity.
The
integral
form,
Eq. (10.5-2),
be assumed.
the differentiability of pv; cannot
Then
identically.
are satisfied
these
of
equations
statics,
In problems
or
(10.2-8).
Eq.
conservation of mass must be expressed by Eq. (10.2-7)
useful
Dt
of the
of conservation
D_
density
right-hand
when
is
the
218
10.6THE
of Field
Derivation
Sec. 10.7
Chap. 10
Equations
OF MOTION
EQUATIONS
219
of Momentum
Moment
the celebrated
obtain
Eulerian
of motion
equation
of a
continuum:
Newton's laws
of motion
of change
rate
forces applied
in a
of the
state
that
in an
momentum
linear
inertial
of reference,
frame
a body
is equal to
momentum
of all the
of
the
the
material
of the
resultant
to the body.
At an instant
domain V is
of time
I, the
linear
9i =
is subjected to
the resultant force is
X\342\200\236
9, = Js f,
According
in
terms
by
jv
10.7
X, dV.
Newton's
law states
may be expressed
integral
into
a volume
along
to Eq.
equation must
be equal.
a(/v;-
case
of angular momentum to the particular
of the law of balance
An application
tensors
are
leads to the conclusionthat stress tensors
symmetric
of static equilibrium
to the motion of
restriction
now show that no additional
shall
We
Sec.
3.4.)
(see
the
momentum
in dynamics
postulate, which
is introduced
angular
by
a continuum
with
of
momentum
the
of
moment
of
respect
rate
change
states that the material
the
about
forces
of
all the applied
moment
resultant
the
to
is
to an origin
equal
same
origin.
At an
boundary
(10.4-5),
= 9i-
with
\"
dXjVK
hold
A identified
with pv;, we
region
Eq. (3.2-2)]
[See
of space
with
(10.7-1)
\\yeiikxiPvkdV
for an
domain
arbitrary
% =
\\v
eilkXjXk dV
Js
dS.
eijkxJTk
(10.7-2)
have
(ia6-5)
dv=L[^+x)dv-
V, the integrands
on
the
dav\\
dXjj
law
states
\\v
Tk
integral
eiikXjXk dV
o-;it/z,,
into
by Gauss's
+
\\v
theorem, we
obtain
dV.
{eijkxFlk),,
(10.7-3)
jt%
to
Idvi
HU
dvl
'dxp
set of parentheses
vanishes
according to the equation of
is the accel(10.5-3), while that in the second set of parentheses
Evaluating
(10.7-3),
the
material
derivative of %
= %.
according
(10.7-4)
to Eq.
(10.4-5) and
using
Eq.
we obtain
in the first
Eq.
a regular
occupying
momentum
Thus,
\\dt
continuity,
the moment of
S has
(W.6-4)
Ida
The quantity
t, a body
of time
instant
do.\302\253)
Euler's
The left-hand
be
traction
surface
with respect to the origin of coordinates. If the body is subjected to
about
the origin is
resultant
moment
the
volume
unit
Xh
force
a
and
per
Tj
body
dt
sides must
can
OF MOMENTUM
MOMENT
integral
that
dpVi
Since this
traction
z)dv.
jr9i
Hence, according
(10.6-2)
l[%
(10.6-7)
volume
unit
* =
two
T/ and a
to Cauchy's formula,
Eq. (3.3-2),the surface
of the stress field a9, so that T, = o),v/, where
dS
(10.6-1)
jypv,dV.
tractions
surface
particles contained
If the body
+ X,
p-
eijkXj-
at
(pvt)
\342\200\224
(eiikxfivkvi)
aX[
e,ikXjXk
eiik(xp,k),,.
(10.7-5)
\"
Derivation
220
in
Eq.
can be written
(10.7-5)
Field Equations
of
Chap.
10
as
of
etjkPm
because
term
and
is antisymmetric
eijk
in
can be
(10.7-5)
Eq.
= 0
G =
enkX,
By
the
as %.o>
with respect to
/, k.
eijkxfxik>l.
The last
Eq. (10.7-5)
Hence,
Hence,
(PW) ~Xk-
Eq. (10.6-6),the
to
reduced
is
Eq. (10.7-6)
10.8
THE BALANCE OF
= 0.
eijkaik
(10.7-6)
in the
sum
square brackets
vanishes.
= 0;
balance of moment
The
expression
law
for a
the
kinetic
be governed
must
continuum
by the
further
of energy
is
law of conservation
the
energy K,
the
energy
gravitational
= K
Energy
energy contained
in
= Q+
there
are three
G, and the
internal
a regular
K=
+ G +
domain
E.
V
at a
(10.8-1)
-pv,v,-
dV,
Jp<Kx)
dV,
(10.8-6)
W.
Q +
E)
W,
(10.8-8)
F; in
at which work
V and the
surface
is done
the body
on the body by
T; in
tractions
Fit, dV
volume
S is the power
f
FiV,dV+
f,n,
dS
jq
cr^mdi
(10.8-2)
(10.8-3)
(10.8-7)
<2=-Js/wdS=-jKgdV.
work
rates
TV
time t is
by
of rates, we have
E. We
where v,- are the components of the velocity vector of a particle occupying
an element
The gravitational
of volume dV and p is the density of the material.
energy depends
on the distribution
of mass and may be written as
=
the
forms of energy:
energy
of heat Q and
The rate
kinetic
terms
by absorption
changed
states
of thermodynamics
have
The
in
W are
Q and
Now, the heat
of conservation
this
(10.8-5)
dV,
p\302\243
~t{K + G +
mechanical
If
^--Expressing
identically.
mass.
unit
energy per
a system can be
of
the
energy
that
W done on the system:
the internal
(10.7-7)
the law of
the gravitational
A energy
ENERGY
of a
The motion
CT,M
tensor is symmetric,
if the stress
o*y. Thus,
of momentum
is satisfied
opposite to
dV,
pgz
form
where E is
Wit
i.e.,or,-*
in a direction
E =
T, (PV*) + 7at
aXi
plane
in the
of motion
equation
aX)
becomes
\342\200\2421
field, we have
(pv*v,)
e,ikXj
is symmetric
VjVk
written
gravitational
\342\200\224
\342\200\224(pw)
aXi
etikXj
a uniform
of Energy
The Balance
Sec 108
221
Fjt,dV+
(<r,n,)jdV.
(W-8-9)
v
222
of
law
thermodynamics,
material
Dv2
^PT^
of Field
Derivation
Dt
v2
v2Dp
, nDp
+ p\342\200\224+ E~
Dt
+ p
div v
Ep
result
equation
and
motion:
can be simpliied
Equations
of Motion
DE _
the
(10.8-10)'
DA
Dp
\342\200\224 \342\200\224+ A
+ Ap div
- _
obeys
piVi
+ (rwW,
h,=
+ ff,7Vf,;.
J is the
where
of continuity
Here, X, is the
is the gravitational
total
v = 0,
body force
force and is,
= X,
\302\260%
per unit
temperature,
then the
between X,
and
(B) The
F,
by deleting
definition,
by
of heat
conduction, which
(10.8-18)
-J\\\342\200\224.
aX,
X
equation
energy
T3
is the
becomes
BT\\
(10.8-11)
<rw.
The difference
mass.
consists
of heat,
equivalent
mechanical
DE
|\302\243
usual
of heat
equation
a continuum
conduction in
A, v,-, and
V,j and
at rest
X,-F,=
-pQ-
(10.8-12)
OX,
where
(10.8-20)
_~ 3A_
Dcj)
for the
3A/flf
0 for a gravitational
a field, and
with
field
(10.8-11)
Eqs.
V'dx-
Dv,
dh,
P^=-^+PV'^
2p-D7
of time, we
that is independent
and (10.8-12),
DE
Dv2
pcEdt = JLLE).
dxk dx,j
3A_
dt
Dt
Then
Eq. (10.8-19)
...Dv,
Dv2
and
o*v,v
^(v,-,; +
v/V)
+ l(vy
vtf)]
<r,V,
+ 0,
(10.8-15)
where
V,j
contraction
of the
can
Hence,Eq. (10.8-13)
equation:
last
product of a
l(vy +
term
symmetric
be simplified,
in Eq.
OF MOTION
POLAR
AND CONTINUITY IN
\"
~ = 0,
vy)
(10.8-16)
(10.8-15) vanishes
because
it is
the
an antisymmetric one.
and we obtain the final form of the energy
tensor
cr,j
'
COORDINATES
,,\342\200\236\342\200\236,\342\200\236
(10'8-13)
(1o.8_21)
K
have, for
But
is the
the specificheat
becomes
Since
and
c is
is obtained
setting
E = JcT,
such
223
(10.8-17)
+ a.y..
all the
(A) If
greatly
p div
dA
Specialization
absolute
in Polar Coordinates
Continuity
and
Dt
=
This
The
DE
\342\200\236
+ -pdivv
2 Dt
2
+ TTT
using
Sec.10.9
Chap. 10
Equations
(10.9-1)
dXj
i.e.,
with
+.~I
dx
dy
\342\200\224
3z
'
224
of Field
Derivation
etc., and
(5.8-3) to
use Eq.
\342\200\224
.)
l^\302\243
Since
0 =
30
for
we obtain
derivatives,
r 30
dr
\\
the
transform
!2i\302\243)sine
= 0.
of 6, we must
have,
at
6 = 0 and
flcr^
at
2ovo
is arbitrary,
with
\\
dz
-^f
r 39
is subjected to
continuum
of motion,
equation
sin 0)
v0
-s
= cos
dvr
v03vr
v\\
dr
30
id\\'r
,
\342\200\224
+
+ vr
6\342\200\224
\\3f
. [dvt
- sm
+ vr
0\342\200\224
\\dt
dv\\
+ v.
\342\200\224
dz)
nn q_7x
(U).y-i)
3v0\\
vrv\342\200\236 \342\200\224
3v8
v\342\200\236
3v0
\342\200\242
\342\200\224\342\200\224
+ v2
+ \342\200\224
dz
(10.9-3)
Comparing
the
third
equation
= a,
ax
cos 0
aD
(10.9-8)
sin 0,
equation
the
sm 9)
v0
must
3, we obtain the
l(vr
225
dz
so Eq.
3,
3z
cos
\342\200\224(vr
Coordinates
of equilibrium,
If
(10.9-3)
_
3\302\243jo
Eq. (10.9-1)
dz
3r
30
^-direction
values of 0. Similarly,
Ow
\302\243Ejo 3_\302\243rfi
from
r 36
3r
of the
QV
0)lsm 0
in Polar
Continuity
and
cos0 \342\200\224
3
fl\\,
\342\226\240
\342\200\236
\342\200\224\342\200\224
\342\200\224
cos
\342\200\242
\342\200\236
Vo cos
sm 9
3^,19ovo
the choice
/
(vr
of Motion
Equations
I
,
(10.9_2) '
K
dzl
ir/2, respectively,
But
+ vz
dr
values
The
cos 0
3z /
+
+ !\302\243\302\243
+ 2\302\243\302\243
all
Sec. 10.9
Chap. 10
Equations
^dr
= 0.
an acceleration
r 39
r 30
dr
dt
i'o3ve
3v0
\342\200\224
+
3v0
- \342\200\224
-). v
Eq. (10.6-7),is
dvr
v\\
v\342\200\2363vr
dr
dt
the
then
3vr
3vr
(10.9-4)
'
K
3z
(10.9-9)
3v0
vrv0
+ v * \342\200\224,
+ \342\200\224
dz
Similarly,
(uuo
*\342\231\246*-,\302\243-p*
volume
unit
a2 =
the
relate
that
Hence, by
d;
dx
3/
ax,
+ (vr
of motion
v0
dvz .
+
v/-i\302\261
sm 0)
= i!Z!!
ofl \302\260
p
30
+ !Zi
+^
;\342\200\242
3cr22
pflz
\\
sine
dr
S\\,
\342\200\224
30/
(vr cos 0
(10.9-10)
v0
.
s
sin 0)
OV
TOO
3^
r.
3z
dr
13cr20
r 30
\342\200\224
+
dr
dz
3cr2r
ov,
3r
Fo,
(10.9-11)
from the
straightforward, but not very instructive
balance
the
of
examination
on
an
based
A second
point of view.
physical
the
into
Figure
further
equations.
insight
element
supply
may
of forces acting on an
the stress pattern
with
element
isolated
an
for
shows the free-body diagram
Thesederivations
cos 0
3z
velocity v\342\200\236
vy, vz are
coordinates by the same Eqs. (5.8-4)
u is replaced by a and v, respectively.
into Eq. (10.9-6), we obtain
(5.8-4)
sin 0)
\342\200\242
J
v0
\342\200\242
v.\342\200\224
rS6
1 3ffrt
are again
derivation
cos 0
3v2
v0 3v2 .
^r^
+
'Sr
are
(10.9-6)
related to
ay, az and of
(vr cos 9
dz
dy
az and v\342\200\236
v0, v2 in polar
ar, a\342\200\236,
\342\200\224
dt
8vx
dvx
dvx
3v, ,
= \342\200\224
+ vz \342\200\224\342\200\242
+ v, \342\200\224+ vx \342\200\224
of acceleration
components
must
in
SO-n-
ax
The components
a,-
is
coordinates
91
F0, Fz
components F\342\200\236
3v2 .
^i
+
10.4
226
of Field
Derivation
Chap. 10
Equations
Sec. 10.9
The
Equations
Iff*)
+ ~-T^0)
+ -r-dz
k\342\200\236
of Motion and
Barr
9+
^*
dr dz
(Tx,
rdti
227
Coordinates
in Polar
Continuity
dr dz
+ (r +
dr) d0
an
dr.
(10.9-12)
38
Expanding,
dropping
higher-order
infinitesimal
quantities,
and dividing
through
angle
we obtain the
first
equation
of Eq.
d0.
similar
for
2lL
\302\260te
1a / ,
(prVr)
3<r.
interpretation
graphical
The term
acceleration.
3z
rdrw
'
ISP'.
5p\",
r 90
dz
at
Figure 10.5
in cylindrical
JP
H
0.
(10.9-13)
3trT.
Figure
10.4
Stress
in cylindrical polar
field
coordinates.
Area
{r+dr)dBdz
dz
V\"
am,
r dQ
+ (r
flow
17 JT
dr dz
sin
dr)d%
forces acting
Fr
+ ^d9 dz
\342\200\224
a-00
that the
indicates
the
dr dz
\"
ff,rr
d0
in
r d6
i9
acceleration in
the
the
radial direction.
radial
Thus,
+ (r + dr)d8
&
dr dz
sin -
Conservation
polar
of mass
coordinates.
Derivation of
228
Field
Chap. 10
Equations
Problems
10
Chap.
229
PROBLEMS
10.1 State
line
(b) a surface
integral,
where X(t),
integral,
are
10.3
valid.
Evaluate the
line
conditions
where
and
C is a triangle
with vertices
+ .rdy,
(1,0),
(1,1),
(See Fig.
(0,0).
Derive
the radius,
P10.7.)
water moving
integral
J fdx
of time.
(See Fig.
Show that DFIDt = 0.
integral.
10.2
\\i.(t),
functions
P10.3.)
Answer: 1/3.
any
I.
if we consider the fluid (air and water) around
more significant
contact with the balloon remain in contact with it (the
no-slip condition of a viscous fluid in contact with a solid body). Hence, the
conditions of the flow field are F = 0 and DFIDt = 0.
boundary
(0,0)
10.4
Evaluate
10.5 Derive
<P
Green's
smooth simple
be
functions
partial
(r
(1,0)
ds, where C is
y2)
P10.3
Figure
the
x1 +
circle
Path
of
Fluid particles
once in
integration.
f = 4.
Then
derivatives in D.
fc'*+fl*=JL(?-f)**.
where
10.6
R is the
closed region
Interpret Green's
theorem
Figure P10.7
by C.
to derive the following
bounded
vectorially
theorems:
10.8
V uTds
(a)
curl,
The
of a flag fluttering
surface
udxdy,
y, z, t)
F(x,
where
u, v are
vector fields,
rubber
iwydxdy,
v\342\200\236ds
J J
to the
curve
and v\342\200\236
is the normal component of v on C. Equation (a) is
theorem. Equation (b) is the two-dimensional form of Gauss's
theorem.
10.7
Solution:
surface
spherical
Let a particle on
is quickly blown
be located at
balloon
the
balloon
x = x{t),
Let the surface
of the balloon
F(t) = (x
\\f
up in an angry
y(t),
sea
u-)2
+ (z
by
F =
As in
Prob.
a ditched pilot.
BF
V
z =
z{t),
vf
where u
=
\302\243
0,
the
10.7,
condition
boundary
of the
airstream
on the flag
0 is
Bl
= 0.
Write
(b)j>
balloon.
Expanding
the
(\302\253\342\200\236
uy, u:) is
velocity
u,
BF
BF
BF
\342\200\224
= \342\200\236
+ \302\253\302\273
V u. \342\200\224
0
3x
Bz
'By
'
vector.
For the
with components
bf
aF
aF
Bx'
By' Bz
surface
F (x, y,
z, t) = 0, the
(1)
vector
Derivation of
230
is normal
to the surface.
Eq. (1)
Hence,
Field
Chap. 10
Equations
be written
may
\342\200\224
+ u-n
= 0.
(2)
v'
dt
normal
velocity
10.9 Two
components
of the
field
velocity
of a
are known in
fluid
the
region
-2
2:
x,y,zs
=
\302\253
(1
The fluid
is incompressible.
f)(a +
bx
What is the
w = 0.
+ ex2),
velocity
v in the
component
direction
We
of the
Let the
temperature
field of
the fluid
T =
Find the material
= y = z =
origin x
10.11For
The
Most
described
in
Prob.
follows
10.9 be
proper
T0e'k'sin
ax cos 0v.
many
10.12
acquired
problems.
y-axis?
10.10
have
a particle
of
- z =
located at
and
conditions,
boundary
problems
physical
of some
formulation
the
1.
expressed in
11.1
THE
NAVIER-STOKES
EQUATIONS
entropy
entropy
of the material
enclosed in
this
Let us derive
the basic
X\\,
crv
Xi, Xj or x,
-phtl
+ 2M
\\VAf
-p8,? +
+ J&
p.8,
oX/c
+ *S \342\200\242
m.M)
\\dXj
dxj
i.e.,
du
\342\200\236
<r\342\200\236=
-p
Cvy
n
+ 2u.-
~Py +
+-
dw
dv
\\dx
\342\200\224
dz
dy
dv
dv
\342\200\236
dwS
Jdu
\342\200\224
+ A. \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
2|X
p
dy
ff\342\200\236=-F +
, Idll
+ \\-
dx
dw
\342\200\236
2,-+K(-
jdu
dv\\
[dw
du
\\dx
dz,
\\dx
Jdu
dz
dy
-dv
dw\\
+
-J,
jdv
\342\200\236,
, ^
(11.1-la)
dw
231
'
232
Field
Substituting
Stokes
Conditionsin
and Boundary
Equations
Mechanics
Fluid
(10.6-7),
Eq.
Chap.
we obtain the
Sec.11.2
11
5a
Dt
St + \302\261
(jM
= pZ..
p '
+1-
dxj
ax,-1
ax,-
[M
TdxJ
dXk
+ A ( *},
dxk TdxJ
where
Xt
stands
*\302\243+\302\253
dt
dxk
are to
These equations
of energy,
If
by the
be supplemented
(10.5-3),
(11.1-3)
equations of
thermal
state, balance
is incompressible,then
the fluid
and no thermodynamic
continuity
0.
Eq.
ourselves
(1L1_2)
for the
The velocity
to an
(H-1-4)
const.,
introduced explicitly.
need be
considerations
we see
incompressible homogeneousfluid,
Limiting
233
physicalinterpretations.
11.2 BOUNDARY
3x
is simplified
equation
Dv,
in extenso,
d2v,
dp
Dt
is the
+ M,
I dp
\342\200\236
Dt
paz
viscosity
a2
V2 =
+ v\\-u,
(11.1-7)
pdy
Dw
kinematic
dp
-\342\200\224
pdx
KyAf.
Dt
v = |x/p
(11_6)
these are
Du
\342\200\224
=
_,
and
a2
a2
+
\342\200\224.
+ \342\200\224.
dx1
f?
dy2
dz2
(U.l-8)
equation
A SOLID-FLUID
INTERFACE
to
pDrp*-te+,li^
out
CONDITIONSAT
dz
dy
that
where
at a Solid-Fluid Interface
becomes
dxk
Written
Conditions
Navier-
equations,
Boundary
the
boundary
fluid must
conditions
not penetrate
234
Field
Equations
and Boundary
Conditionsin
Fluid
Mechanics
Chap.
11
11.3
Sec.
Interface Between
mental evidence.
of the
condition
mean
certainly
not
will
nanometer range.
(a)
(b)
Figure
It is
represented
known from
body,
measurements
wind-tunnel
by Fig.
shown; i.e.,
flow can be
that the
flow
field
is well
the immediate
except
obtained as though
for
air had no
viscosity. Yet we know that air has viscosity, even though
very small. Therefore,
the no-slip condition
must prevail. How can we resolve this conflict?
The answer to this question
and the resolution of the conflict are a triumph
of modern
fluid mechanics.
The modern view is that the illustration
shown in Fig.
in
the
is
an
indication
what
immediate
of
11.1(b)
happens
neighborhood of a solid
We should consider that figure as an enlargement of what happens
in
boundary.
a very small
of a flow next to an interface.
This region is the boundary
region
nonviscous.
The dramatic
layer. Beyond the boundary
layer, the flow is practically
of
the
importance
boundary
layer will be seen at the sharp trailing edge of the
airfoil.
It dictates the condition that the flow must leave the sharp trailing
edge
in the velocity field. If we insist on idealized
smoothly, with no discontinuity
could differ on the top and bottom sides
nonviscous
flow, the tangential
velocity
of the trailing edge. In the theory of nonviscous
fluids, such a discontinuity can be
eliminated
either by permitting the flow to round the sharp corner
with an infinite
or by introducing an exact amount of circulation so that the traihng
velocity
gradient
edge becomesa stagnation
point. The latter conditionwas proposed
by the German
mathematician
Kutta (1902) and the Russian mathematician
Joukowski
(1907) and
is known as Kutta-Joukowski hypothesis, which is the basis for our modern theory
of flight. Thus, we see that the fluid viscosity, no matter
how small, has a profound
neighborhood
of the
on flow.
influence
established?The molecular
theory
the molecular hypotheses,
Navier
u. duldn for flow over a solid wall,
along
the normal
viscosity.
calculated
that
u/fi
molecule\342\200\224probably
condition?
On
what
basis
is this condition
away
The ratio
no-slip
u/p
from
is a
235
free path
of the
temperature is about
be questioned
may
m; and
10\"6
Sincethe
at room
earth
Two Fluids
molecules
5 x 10~8
the
of water
flow
containing
there is
Irraddition,
small
particles
agreement between
theory
no-slip condition.
of motion at small
Reynolds
and observations on the stability of flow between
rotating
cylinders.
All these experiences, taken
together,
support the conclusionthat for a liquid, the
is too small to be observed
slip, if it takes place on a solid boundary,
or to make
difference in the results of theoretical
any sensible
deductions.
theories
Oseen's
calculations
11.3 SURFACE
AT AN
An
TENSIONAND
interface
specific
chemical
THE
BETWEEN
INTERFACE
between
CONDITIONS
FLUIDS
fluids
two
composition
of a soap bubble in
a layer of fluid
BOUNDARY
TWO
example,
which
has a
the surface
The surfaces of
layer of surfactants.
pulmonary alveoli
that reduce the surface tension between the
tissue and the lung gas. A cholesterol vesicle
lung
have a single layer
of lipid
may
molecules on its surface or a lipid bilayer. Cell membranes
are lipid Mayers. Even
at the free surface
of water in air, the water molecules at the interface
are not in
the same state as those in the bulk, and the interface can be
as a layer
regarded
of different
material.
Hence, if one studies the flow of two fluids separated
by an
conditions
interface, the boundary
of the fluids
at the interface must take the
of the interface
into consideration.
properties
A membrane is a very thin plate. The stresses in a
plate have been discussed
in Example
4 of Sec. 1.11,see Fig. 1.6. If the membrane is
very thin, we are
interested
more on the resultant
force per unit
in the membrane than in the.
length
distribution of stress in its thickness. In thin membrane, the
product of the average
stress in the membrane and the thickness is called a stress
or a surface
resultant,
tension, which has the units of [force/length].
have
air
has a
with
surfactants
236
Consider
bounded
by
a soap bubble in
two
air-liquid
Conditions
Boundary
the air,
interfaces
as shown
which
have
Sec. 11.3
in Fluid Mechanics
in
Fig.
Chap.
If
a layer of liquid
tension. Assume that the
11.2.
surface
Between
Interface
237
Two Fluids
11
It is
the
we note
soap bubble
is spherical, then
Rx
i?2.
If
the
bubble
is not
spherical,
\342\200\224\342\200\224
=
is invariant
As a
zero
governed
Figure 11.2
A soap
particular
surface tension
is isotropic.
Denote
the
surface
tensions
of the two
the
11.3
membrane
element
(11.3-1)
soapbubble.
But d9
the normal
earlier by
Thomas
where
dxlRh
force is y
Young
i?i is
dx dylRi.
(1804):
24+i
Vo
tension
indicates
becomes
that the
pressure
if the
very
large
if Ru R2 -\302\273
0, the pressure
radii
difference
required
R{ and R2
become
to balance
very
small.
Equilibrium of
forces acting on an
of the
surface
For a constant
one must
Figure
formed
case, let us consider soap films
by boundary curves
difference. Then the surface is the so-called minimal
surface,
bubble.
Hence, the
pressure
by the equation
Equation
resultant of the
(11.3-2)
directions
under
mean curvature
(11.3-1)
-y,
and Boundary
Field Equations
238
Fluid
Mechanics
11
Chap.
Problems
11
Chap.
239
du'
Lung
extract
Conditionsin
Plasma
dwL
dv'
,...\342\200\236.
Water
Consider
identical
the
and
and the
in
Figure 11.4 The variation
surface tension with strain for
several fluids. From J. A.
Surface
11.4
The Physiologist,
11-28.
tension,dynes/cm
SIMILARITY
DYNAMIC
50
30
10
Clements, \"Surface
Relation to Pulmonary
AND REYNOLDS
in
Phenomena
Function,\"
5(1) (1962),
NUMBER
we
form. For simplicity,
in dimensionless
Navier-Stokes equation
a
characteristic
Choose
fluid.
velocity
shall consider a homogeneousincompressible
I. For example,if we investigate the flow of air around
V and a characteristic length
and I to be the wing chord
an airplane
wing, we may take V to be the airplane speed
flow speed
V may be taken as the mean
a
in
the
flow
If
we
tube,
investigate
length.
and L the tube diameter. For a falling sphere, we may take the speed of falling to
be V, the diameter of the sphere to be L, and so on. Having chosen these
we introduce the dimensionlessvariables
characteristic quantities,
Let
us put the
z =
\342\200\224i
p-
(11.1-7) for an
flu
Eq.
dx'
w',w'
(11.1-5),
9x'
then
(3V
-(-
.
+
Therefore,
different
but
same Reynolds
size),
The
are
the
number
about
flows
force:
pF2,
shearstress:
is
ratio
shear stress
be put
(same shape
differential
identical
V
large
number
(11.4-2)
fluid can
--\302\245.+
governed by
inertial force
The
wide
pV2
\\iVIL
pVL =
Reynolds
in the
number.
(11.4-5)
\\i
Reynolds
signals
occurs
effect.
A small
in practical
Reynolds
problems is
following examples.
-flV +, *\"']
-J
djr\\
PROBLEMS
(11.4-3)
two additional
v' into
fin' , flu' =
w>flz
3v'
+
+ \342\200\236
\342\200\236^
df
and
,3b'
incompressible
similar
inertial
illustrated
Equation
similar
in a moving
fluid under
considered a prototype
geometrically
Vt
VL
VLp
two
are
bodies
may be
conditions
equations and boundary
(in
bodies
at the
geometrically similar
numbers
are completely similar
same Reynolds
in the sense that thefunctions
u'(x',
z',
z',
y', z', f), v'(x', y',
f), w'(x', y',
t'), p'(x', y', z', f) are the same for the
various flows. This kind of similarity of flows is called dynamic similarity.
Reynolds
of steady flows. For unsteady
number governs dynamic
flows the
similarity
requirement
for the simulation of the differential
and boundary
equation and the initial
conditions may require the simulation of other dimensionless
parameters.
the ratio of the inertial
The Reynolds number
force to the shear
expresses
force due to convective acceleration arises
stress. In a flow, the inertial
from terms
such as pu2, whereas the shear stress arises from terms such as u, du/Sy. The orders
of magnitude
of these terms are, respectively,
identical
immersed
(11.4-1)
be
bodies
similar
The
conditions
boundary
pv'
=
Reynolds number
a model.
dimensionless form).
The
other,
because
will be
and boundary
two geometrically
initial
11.1Smokestacks
force
depends
=
(each mi/hr
m). Compute
on the
Reynolds
0.44704m/sec)
the Reynolds
number
of the
flow.
diameter be 20
ft
= 0.3048
(each ft
240
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
5.46 x 106.
is |j, = 1.808
The coefficient of viscosity of air at 20\302\260C
the kinematic viscosity
v is 0.150 Stoke (cmz/sec).
Answer:
11.2Compute
for a submarine
(g/cm sec),
10\"\"1 poise
of diameter
periscope
16 in
and
satisfies
conditions
1.308 x
10~2
= 1.308x
10~2
cnf/sec.
equations, the
boundaries y = \302\261h:
= 0,
Answer:
7.6 x
dhi
dp
(11.5-4)
by
(11.5-5)
0.132 cnr/sec.
Equations
and (11.5-5)
only.
differentiate
at body
temperature, |i
is
about
~ =
dtydx2
then becomes
\342\200\224.
number
Reynolds
for a large
airplane
m/s) at an
altitude of 7,500ft
length of 10 ft
which has a
solution
6.2 x 107.
Answer:
to
IN A
problem
in
easily
as shown
in
terms disappear,
in a
problem
simple
particularly
incompressiblefluid
planes,
easy to solve.If,
are not
the nonlinear
which
sometimes.
CHANNEL
HORIZONTAL
Navier-Stokesequations
ay
By
horizontal
channel
yield
and B
can be determined
(11.5-7)
by the
boundary conditions(11.5-2)
OR TUBE
one can
however,
then
find
be obtained
is the steady flow
2h between two parallel
of this nature
of width
(11.5-8)
u^ifr-f).
a special
the
Thus,
A
velocity profile is a
corresponding
tube of radius
11.5.
Fig.
A +
u.
parabola.
problem
a. (SeeFig.
u =
11.6.)
is the
flow
through
We search
u(y, z),
a horizontal
circular
for a solution
0,
w =
0.
\342\200\242mimumuuuiwuaiwimwm.
Figure 11.5
'wimi/wiwwmmiiw/iM/Miww/.
We search
(11.5-6)
df
sec).
If we
obtain
10~2.
of an
(11.5-3)
blood
Answer: 1.4 x
LAMINAR
no-
(11.5-2)
of continuity,
10\"4
v =
For air at 0\302\260C,
11.5
= 0.
u(-h)
1 knot
number?
Reynolds
cm) at
equation
241
11.4For
or Tube
Channel
106.
u. =
on the
u(h)
Obviously,
in a Horizontal
the Navier-Stokes
that
slip
whereas
Answer: 2.4 x
Flow
Laminar
at 15
knots.
= 1 nautical
Sec.11.5
parallel
Laminar
flow in a
/\"
channel.
for a flow
u = m(v),
v = 0,
w = 0
(11.5-1)
Figure
11.6
Laminar
flow
in a circular cylindrical
tube.
cylindrical
242
In analogy
with
the Navier-Stokesequation
(11.5-6),
Eq.
dhi
convenient to transform
coordinates
polar
from
x, r, 6,
with
that
assume
=
32\302\253/aoz
(11.5-9)
5.8.)
(See
d2\302\253 13/
the flow
is symmetric,
immediately to
B=
constants
u is a
so that
(11.5-9)
solution
is the
function
Fig.
mean velocity,
number\342\200\224where u\342\200\236
is the
diameter,
from laminar
(see
um dlv\342\200\224the
Reynolds
entire length
the
to
is taken,
only; then
--r-
+ Alogr
B are determined
centerline, r = 0:
by the
+ B.
conditions of no
= 0
\302\253
at
r =
T\"=0
dr
at
r = 0.
a.
(11.5-12)
slip at
r = a
and
(11.5-13)
(0
Figure 11.7
turbulence
profile
of the
(11.5-15)
Hagen-Poiseuille flow;
the
by Stokes.
of the
-J2$$%)cD$fT
(11.5-14)
is
(a)
yield
^(c?~>2)-
innumerable
d is the
throughout
parameter
(11-5-11)
u =
theoretical
cylindrical
Eq.
= -~
A and
on the
symmetry
This
diffused
through
be integrated
The final
and
governing
1 fl2u
du\\
^y
The
remained distinct
speed of water was slow, the filament
tube. When the speed was increased,
the filament
^=T
243
Problems
13,000,depending
32k
can
becomes
Chap. 11
of the
becomes
Let us
11
Chap.
dzu
^
It is
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
observations.
Turbulence
mechanics. It is
is one
friction, resistance to
because it
of the
technically
flow,
laminar
in fluid
important and most difficult
problems
not
because
turbulence
affects
skin
important
only
heat generation and transfer, diffusion,
etc., but also
most
Reynolds
PROBLEM
by
through
ira'p
(11.5-16)
244
Sec. 11.6
245
Layer
Boundary
velocity is
the mean
that
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
(11.5-17)
that the skin friction
and
is
coefficient
shear stress
H
where
BOUNDARY
11\302\243
If
mean
pressure
dynamic
16
-|i(a\302\253/3r)\342\200\236,
1 2
5P\302\253\302\273i?\302\253
(11.5-18)
Fipre 11.8
= 2aujv.
RN
\302\253
in the
we let RN -\302\273
homogeneous incompressiblefluid,
for a
(11.4-3)
namely,
of
We notice
unity.
0(1), and
and x1 is finite,
out unless the
drop
second derivatives
become
simplified
in a high-speed
the Navier-Stokes
flow
the
the solid
that
= 0(5).Then,
0(l)-0(5)
Prandtl
dimensional
of the
nature
the
flow over a
flat plate.
fixed
w along
a\302\253'
*
dv'
+
,
m'
\"a?
,dv'
(See
11.8.)
We
dp'
-i
dp'
,av'
l/av
ids5
l/aV
8V\\
/H
,
(1L6\"2)
W'
av\\
By the
of continuity,
equation
Eq. (11.4-4),we
^=-^=0(1).
dx'
we take
dimensionlessvelocity
as the
the
(outside the
boundary
layer).
have
(11.6-5)
'
Hence,
V
flv
ofly
the vertical
velocity is at
-dy' ~JoO(l)dy
most
on the
Since
v'
differentiation
order
0(5)
while
of magnitude
of that
= 0(5).
order of 5, which
1.
(11.6-6)
is numerically
small:
(11.6-7)
dv'Idy'
of a quantity
with
M,^
free stream
(11.6-4)
By'
%-mZ-m.
If
0(1),
7 0(1).
8<
,a\302\253'
VV\"
Fig.
dx'
\302\243-<*\302\273.
Thus,
to t'
du'
let us
equation,
boundary-layer
~ =
0(1),
(1904)
boundary-layer
0(5)
we have
equation.
To see
of
surface
+ 0(1)
0(1)
very large. In
layer
thickness
would
boundary
= 0 to 1 at v' = 8, where
8
y'
and
dimensionless
is
numerically
(which
boundary-layer
in Eq.
of magnitude of the terms occurring
the order
small). We can now estimate
= 0(1) to mean that u' is at most on the order
u'
write
We
as
follows.
(11 6-2)
from 0 on
varies
\302\253'
The velocity
denotes the
LAYER
flow.
(11.6-8)
Field
246
Equations
But the
layer.
those on the
hence,
0(1);
is of the
term
in
Mechanics
Fluid
same order
terms on
left-hand
Sec. 11.7
Laminar
Answer: At
boundary-layer
Layer Over a
Boundary
20\302\260C,
8.
thickness =
= 0(4.018
xlO-4).
247
Plate
With
a chord
length of 3.048m,
the
0.12cm.
particular,
11.7 LAMIWAR
0(1) =
dx''
(11.6-9)
l /aV
\302\260(1)
Since
first term
the
in
+ OL
0(1)
dy'2)
RN
is much smaller
the bracket
Prandtl's
the
than
boundary-layer
as in Fig.
dx is
other terms
with the
(11.6-10)
Ol^
estimate
Eqs.
Substituting
(11.6-4),
all terms
thickness:
boundary-layer
8 =
(11.6-11)
we see that
term dp'ldy' must also be
0(8); hence,
the
Eq.
remaining
(11.6-12)
O(8)~0.
dy
constant
words,
M'
du'
+
\302\245
Navier-Stokes
M'
U*
dp'
i
i
i
i
i
the boundary
layer.
equations are reduced to
fory'
\302\253'=1
for/
dV
,\342\200\236
r
(1LW3)
boundary-layer
(30.48
m/s).
thickness
of
,\\\\\"''
/'
*j
\"*\"7
u*y'
boundary
Figure 11.9 Laminar
layer over a flat plate, showing the
growth in thickness of the boundary
L^
layer.
t?
\\S
\\
>/
we return to
the
and drop
quantities
physical
= 0,
= 8.
Equation
(11.7-2) is satisfied
primes.
The equation
of
(11.7-2)
if u,
identically
are derived
from a stream
function
i|i(x,y):
it is
\302\253=-\302\243\342\200\242
dy
Then Eq.
fdx
(11.7-3)
\"77
(1L7-4)
(11.7-1) becomes
(11.6-14)
-~
,2
dx
boundary
stream outside
m) long
the
is
v =
equation;
PROBLEM
the boundary-layer
f+f=0.
dx
dy
The
at 100 ft/sec
.H\"
continuity
t
i
through
-M+R-NV
VV
and
11.7Estimate
>J
Here
\302\245
(11.6-3),
0(8). Thus,
other
\"
0'
_ .,.
.,\342\200\236
(11.7-1)
dy*
dy
of the
boundary-layer equation.
d2u
du
du
u-+v-=v-1dx
Thus, we obtain an
in the
becomes
(11.6-13)
Hence,
=
scale
11.9,
plate,
compared
negligible,
Eq.
\302\260n-jM*
RN
fluid
an incompressible
is magnified to
outside
the boundary layer
is assumed
make the picture clearer. The velocity
constant, u. Weshall seek a steady-state solutionfor which duldt = 0. An additional
assumption will be made, to be justified a posteriori, that the pressure gradient dpi
3V'
RN \\dx'2
BOUNDARY
To apply
Then
In
Flat
be also 0(1);
side must
right-hand
as the
side of
of magnitude
the
11
Chap.
dy2
boundary
u
= v
a\342\200\236
\342\204\242\342\200\236
dy
dy dxdy
slip on
at the
free
layer; i.e.,
= 0
=
or\342\200\224
\342\200\224
=
fory =
0,
(11.7-5)
249
248
Field
u =
Blasius,\"
Following
which
a,
shows that
if
the
we seek a
we choose
= a/p. A
=
u if we choose -y
relations
similar
fS. Hence,
(3
y)
<|i(x,
(11.7-9) into
the transformation
(H-7-7)
7*.
(11.7-7)
has the same form
(11.7-6)
shows
With
this
into
Eq.
as Eq.
that
choice,
are solutions
5=
(11.7-4)
=
(117_81
form
(H-7-9)
^^-
yields the
(11.7-4)
Eq.
of the
(11.7-4)
-b^lSy
we have
J_ = A.
jl,
there
that
suggest
of Eq.
11
(11.7-6)
of Eq.
+ =-/\302\251VHE,
Substitution
8.
Consider
* =
pj,
substitution
function
the
JL =
These
Chap.
;<>So-e-\302\253,\302\256^>*'\"
solution.
\"similarity\"
constants. A
for
equation
Mechanics
NonviscousFluid
ot-j-=u
and -y are
(5,
Fluid
fory =
x = ax,
in
Conditionsin
and Boundary
Equations
Sec. 11.8
ordinary
differential
equation
= 0,
2f\"+//\"
to a
solvednumerically
/(0) =
which
say that
outside the
<*>means
u = 0 and
boundary
that ylL
5.The velocity
with respect
differentiation
0,
the plate
is large,
compared
yielded by the
evidence,*
experimental
distribution,
and
equation
the boundary
distribution in a laminar
Blasius's solution of velocity
with
and comparison
incidence
at zero
Figure 11,10
layer on a flat plate
boundary
has been
conditions
= l,
fH
(11.7-9),it
with the
to (j.This
under
= 0,
f(0)
v = 0 at
(11.7-10)
Nikuradse's measurements.
(11.7-11)
reaches a critical
number is on
free-stream velocity,
-\302\273
seen that for fixed xlL, j
thickness
Vv/Lu, or
-\302\273
u, the
is
as seen
in
Fig.
11.10, except
the
of the
critical
exact value
transitional
depends
Reynolds
on the
surface
etc.
Mach number,
a
layer and
boundary
between a laminar
In
etc.
There is a tremendous difference
heat generation,
to heat transfer, skin friction,
one with respect
turbulent
importance
is of supreme
transition
of laminar-turbulent
our space age, the question
by
the heat
generated
the
atmosphere,
As a satellite reenters
for reentry vehicles.
layer
boundary
a turbulent
is tremendous\342\200\224but
in the boundary layer
survival
skin friction
one. For most reentry vehicles,
laminar
a
than
much more heat
if the flow became
generates
is
laminar;
cone
over the nose
is possible if the boundary layer
be burned out.
could
cone
turbulent, the nose
boundary-layer
value.
roughness,
(11.7-11),
near
very
curvature,
\302\2538
R = \342\200\224,
v
Math. u. Phys.,
mit kleiner Reibung,\" Zeitschriflf.
Blasius, \"Grenzschichten in Flussigkeiten
56 (1908), 1.
Zender langsangestromten platte. Monograph,
Laminare Reihmgsschichten an
'J. Nikuradse,
translated
by
Theory,
See H. Schlichting, Boundary Layer
trale i Wiss. Berichtswesen, Berlin, 1942.
124.
p.
Book
(1960),
Company
J. Kestin, New York: McGraw-Hill
\"H.
11.8
NONVISCOUS
FLUID
A great simplification
Then the stress tensor
the
is obtained
if
is
i.e.,
isotropic,
to
coefficient
of viscosity
vanishes exactly.
(11.8-1)
~p5,v,
Field Equations
250
and
of motion
Conditions
Boundary
Mechanics
Chap.
11
Sec. 11.9
density of the
and Xu Z2, X3
T
dx
A vector field
satisfying
general theory
of potentials,
dw
dv
+ T- =
T
dz
dy
defined
function
stream
for the
p is the
fluid;
flow of an incompressible
equation
is the
251
Circulation
PROBLEM
11.8Show
Here, p
and
Vorticity
to
be simplified
can
Fluid
in
\342\200\2363\302\253,\302\260
or
\302\260-
rdx-,
(11.8-3)
v
'
flow
is
j(
The circulation
VN,
ay
sy
- \342\200\224.
+ \342\200\224
(11.8^)
CIRCULATION
of circulation
and vorticity
7(^6) in any
closed
circuit
I{%)
field for
of continuity
viscous
is
Eq. (11.8\342\200\2245)
W% = vV^
+ %V%
by
vdl
(11.9-1)
j:iVidxh
J<e
where
the
\342\200\242
3v
-a\302\253
+ -.=
it is
Then
according
obvious that
to the rules
Eq. (11.8-4)will
be
if we
take an
\342\200\236
0.
i|i(;t, y) and
function
arbitrary
identically. Such a
satisfied
(11.8-4)
function
t|i
derive u,
is called
a stream
function.
Substituting
the
governing
equation of motion,
Eq.
(11.8-2),
we obtain
Figure 11.11
equations
ii4
dp
dx
_d\302\261d^_x
3%
dy
dx
dxdy
dy2
(11.8-6)
line
By means of Stokes'stheorem,
can be transformed into
integral
13/7
dtdx
If
the
dy
3t
in
dx dxdy
dx2
i?yV%
which
a2
\342\200\236.
dx2
/(eg) =
p3y
yields
i?xV%
32
= o,
(11.8-7)
|s
where S is any
surface
in the
to the
and curl
surface,
if %
partial
encloses a
a surface
x v)ndS
(V
simply
connected
region,
the
integral
J s (curl
v)iVidS,
(11.9-2)
bounded
fluid
eijkvjik.
The
field.
the circuit % is & fluid line,
of circulation with time, when
The law of change
as time changes, is given
by the same set of fluid particles
i.e., a curve 1 formed
If the fluid is nonviscous and the body force is
by the theorem of Lord Kelvin;
conservative,
then
df
,DI
Circulation:
Notations.
differentiation.
Dt
dp
J\302\253
p
(11.9-3)'
v
2Kr
Field Equations
252
If, in addition
to the
prove
the foregoing
D dxJDt
is the
rate
(U.M)
note
that since
at which
^ is a fluid
and
line composed
integration
may
be
Irrotational
Sec. 11.10
every
\302\243!.\342\226\240*-1>
But
11
density
= 0.
theorems, we
Chap.
function
p is a unique
vanishes
last
the
and
integral
barotropic,
We then have
curve.
a
closed
is
1
and
valued
f
To
in Fluid Mechanics
the
conditions,
preceding
is called
fluid
of the
Conditions
Boundary
and
Flow
dxf
-1.(f
is increasing
<\302\273\342\226\240\302\253>
*-!?)\342\226\240
as a consequence of the
of the velocities parallel
to xt
^y
motion
at
airfoil
/>
of
Direction
curve enclosing
the airfoil, f
motion*
^-=5)
kcxiS-:;:*'\"^
equation of motion,
that
K
fluid particles
Curve formed by
the original curve
constitute
\"[[(-!*+
Dt
h[\\
xU+
pdx,
an
\302\273,*,\"
airfoil
line enclosing
Fluid
11.10
v2 is single valued
side, the last vanishes because
terms on the right-hand
Hence,
is
conservative.
force
X,
the
if
vanishes
body
in the flow field; the second
as a special
follows
immediately
theorem
Kelvin's theorem is proved. Helmholtz's
side vanishes if the fluid is barotropic.
casebecausethe integral on the right-hand
lies its importance. For
theorem
conclusion of Helmholtz's
In the clear-cut
J = const. Hence, if
have
we
then
to a barotropic fluid,
if we limit our attention
for all times. If this
vanish
must
it
of time,
at one instant
vanishes
the circulation
the
to
Eq. (11.9-2),
a
then,
according
in
field,
is so for any arbitrary fluid lines
will
which
to a great simplification,
in the whole field. This leads
vanishes
vorticity
flow. To appreciate the
irrotational
the
be discussed in Sec. 11.10, namely,
of the
one need observe only that a vast majority
importanceof this simplification,
flows.
irrotational
on fluid mechanics deals with
classical literature
constant
not have to remain
circulation around a fluid line does
the
that
Note
this category
Into
to
addition
in
pressure.
on other variables
if the density
p depends
the temperature enters as a parameter
which
fall most geophysical problems in
not
flows, p is a function of location,
both p and p. Also, in stratified
affecting
alone.
necessarily a function of p
and Helmholtz
term fluid line in the theorems of Kelvin
the
of
The significance
in the air. The
airfoil
thin
a
of
moving
the problem
may be seen by considering
the circulation J about
Hence,
are satisfied.
theorem
Helmholtz
the
of
conditions
Of the
Figure 11.12
FLOW
IRROTATIONAL
to
A flow is said
if the
be irrotational
V x
v =
curl
or
emv!ik
For a two-dimensional
the
If
fluid is
introduced,
then
flow,
irrotational
incompressible
a substitution
of Eq.
i.e.,
if
(11.10-1)
v = 0,
= 0.
we must have
a stream
and
everywhere,
vanishes
vorticity
function defined
(11.8-5) into
Eq.
by
(11.10-2)
Eq.
(11.8-5)
is
yields the
equation
fi
'
u v
+ ^i
dy
on
applied
mathematics.
(11.10-3)
Field Equations
254
We can
and
show that
by a Laplace equation
of irrotationality, the
even in
the three-dimensional
three
following
If,
into Eq.
in addition,
the
(11.1-5)yields
dz
dx
if the
z) according
Chap.
fluid is
case, because by
must hold:
^_^
identically
y,
Mechanics
Fluid
in
incompressible
fly
(111(M)
}
K
v, w
are derived
is incompressible,
If
Eulerian
nonviscous, the
fluid is
the
1 3d
flv,-
flv,-
have, for
an
ideal
to the
related
if the
p dxi
T=
if the
flow
is isentropic
potential
The incompressible
solution can be found
equation
of motion
nonlinear
convective
the
pressure
/11in
(U.lO-6) '
K
the
difficulty
of fluid
flows of an incompressible
mechanics, does not
fluid.
This is why the potential theory is so simple
and so important.
To realize the usefulness of the potential theory, we quote the Helmholtz
theorem (seeSec.ll.9):If the motion of any portion of a fluid mass is irrotational
at any one instant of time, it will continue to be irrotational
at all times, provided
that
the body forces are conservative
and that the fluid is barotropic (i.e., its density
is a function of pressure
These conditions are met in many problems. If a
alone).
solid body is immersed in a fluid and suddenly
set in motion, the motion generated
in a nonviscous fluid is irrotational.*
Hence, a whole classof technologically
important
problems
is irrotational.
have
the
7 is the ratio of
of the gas
specificheats
Small Disturbances
Let us
fluid
as an
example,the
of
in the absence body force.
consider,
of small
propagation
Let us
write
disturbancesin
a barotropic
\\
Ct =
Cll.11-5)
\\
The velocity
of flow
will be
assumed to
with
small
quantities
are linearized
FLUIDS
(11.11-4)
const.,
\342\200\224jp1\"1
at constant pressure,
Cp, and
= CPICV. Both cases are barotropic.
i.e., 7
constant volume, C\342\200\236;
as a
the temperature explicitly
to introduce
is
it
necessary
other
cases,
In
and T
of
state
p,
p,
the
relating
equation
variable. Then we must introduce also
and T.
of state relating Cp, C\342\200\236
and the caloric equation
where
all
11.11 COMPRESSIBLENONVISCOUS
we
(11.11-3)
const.,
= const,
a potential equation.
this equation is also called
is
the
flow
governed by
potential
Laplace equation. If a
that satisfies all the boundary
then the Eulerian
conditions,
which causes
acceleration,
hinder
the solution of potential
(isothermal),
(11.10-5)
function,
yields
be constant
we
(adiabatic and reversible),
p1
Since $ is a
temperature T is explicitly
if the
is known to
gas,
equation
fl'-$
d1\302\256 d29
\342\200\236
\342\200\224\342\200\224r
\342\200\224= 0.
+
+
dz2
dx2
dyz
(11.11-2)
*/\342\200\242
whereas
of Eq.
pressure only
temperature
,\342\200\236
in c,
(11.10-5)
K
'
then a substitution
~
\342\200\224
+ vi7i=
77
flt
dXj
is
of motion
equation
- = const.,
d\302\256
\342\200\224
\342\200\224>v = \342\200\224. w =
dz
dx
dy
Laplace
governed
255
Fluids
CompressibleNonviscous
Sec. 11.11
the definition
= 0,
velocities u,
11
to the rule
fl*
3$
fluid
the
equations
3v_^
dz
a potential
from
flow of an
an irrotational
*\302\273-\302\273.,,,
dx
fly
These
Conditions
Boundary
of
be so small
that
first-order
the
higher
to
Basic Equations
If
a fluid is
^ + ^/
fli
'See H.
Lamb,
Hydrodynamics,
New
Eq.
= 0.
dx,
(10.5-3),
is
(11.11-1)
_!!\302\243=
flf
P flX;
_l'4Pi\302\243
pdp
^i=
werjbtain
dXi
to t and
and
J-<!1.
(1111-7)
dX;
Eq. (11.11-7)with
eliminating
the sum p
respect
to
A2V//3f
dxh
257
Field Equations
256
and
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
32p
fl2p
(11.11-8)
7T-;
i.e.,
c2 dt1
wave
dx2
dz2'
dy2
equation
It is the
disturbances.
basic
, ,
d2p
from Eqs.
Further,
(11.11-9)
'
x
c2dt2
dxkdxk
xkdxk
(11.11-7) and
or (11.11-9), we
(11.11-8)
deduce that
~
C2
Hence,
wave
in
dt2
theory, p, p,
the linearized
vu
by the
same
equation.
Propagation
of Sound
Let
these equations
us
apply
located at the
a spherical
origin
to
the
and radiating
a2
dx2
Hence, Eq.
of a source
problem
symmetrically
radial
s2
+ Tl
dy2
in
a2
+ 71
dz2
of
disturbance
all directions.
We
(sound)
visualize
may
we have
symmetry,
a2
= T1
+
dr2
2d
(11.11-11)'
-Tr dr
(11.11-8)becomes
1 fl2p
92p
\342\226\240L2TL2=TLi
dr2
dt2
c2
is
~
\342\226\240
)
dxkdxk
It can be verified
by direct substitution that
functions / and g:
sum
of
two
the
arbitrary
=
Po
\\f{r
a wave
p0
is a
function,
we have,
from Eq.
(11.11-4),
c=
(11.11-14)
P.P
of sound
about the propagation
there was a long story
made
by
was
sound
of
In the history
of the velocity
investigation
=
in a
theoretical
c
first
Vp/p
The
obtained
and
in air.
assumed
Eq. (11.11-3)
who
from Newton's formula
Newton (1642-1727),
calculated
value
the
that
found
was
It
of
in 1687.
sound by a factor
publication
value of the speed of
the
experimental
until Laplace (1749-1827)
falls short of
was not explained
This discrepancy
a sound wave is so fast
approximatelyone-sixth.
and expansion in
rate of compression
thus,
conduction;
out that the
interchange of heat by
pointed
if we
for any appreciable
time
no
is
becomes
plausible
that there
This argument
adiabatic.
the
considered
For a step wave,
the process must be
in the preceding paragraph.
be
discussed
must
wave
front sweeps by
think of the step
wave
take place as the
that
Heat
and
time.
in
p
and
p
changes
sudden
region of space
in an infinitesimal
at the wave front
the gasflows isentropically
Hence,
accomplished
is negligible.
time interval
of such step
transfer in such a small
sound wave is a superposition
As a general
and Eq.
discontinuity.
the
across
Therefore, Eq. (11.11-4)applies
is isentropic.
flow
entire
the
was
right.
waves,
have verified that Laplace
with
results. Experiments
et seq., are associated
(11.11-14)
(11.11-8),
wave
equations
the
then,
isentropy,
Generally,
conditions that guarantee
must be
To apply these equations,
isentropic flows.
small thermal diffusivity,
and
shock waves
of
strong
absence
the
such as
observed.
of mechanics,
2 3p
11.11-12)'
-T-
r dr
a general
solution of this
equation
lct) + g(r
ct),
(11.11-13)
Here,
unit-step
density.
and
pressure
SUPERSONIC
AMD
11.12 SUBSONIC
Basic Equations
P
Flow
- ct < 0 and
which is zero when r
of
a small jump across a line
is small and l(r
is, therefore,
disturbance
The
0.
disturbance
ct>
=
the
0,
is 1 when r
r - ct - 0. At time t
= ct.
by the equation
described
is moved to r
discontinuity
discontinuity
of
time
t, the line
At
case follows
The general
is located at the origin.
of the disturbance.
of propagation
the
is
c
speed
the
velocity of sound.
Thus,
In acoustics, c is called
between
of superposition.
relationship
the
the
on
principle
by
= {dpldp)m
depends
is
of sound c
condition
the
and
The velocity
ideal
gas
concerned with an
If we are
isentropic,
of acoustics.
equation
Subsonic
Supersonic
- ct) is the
-rl
This is the
Sec. 11.12
and
in
Laboratory
FLOW
Frame
of Reference
is referred
changing
appear
only in
the boundary
conditions
to
a frame
of
reference
that is at
on where
no restriction
equation imposes
be
moving
disturbances may
The sources of
would
sources
the
of
holds. The nature
and initial
conditions.
258
Field
Conditions
and Boundary
Equations
of disturbances
Fluid
in
in still
Mechanics
Chap.
11
come
as sound waves governed by the wave equation. As we all know, the nature
of the disturbances changes
as the aircraft's flight speed
drastically
changes from
subsonic to supersonic.
In the latter case, we hear the sonic boom.
It is convenient
to study the nature of flow about an aircraft in a wind tunnel.
We shall therefore write
down the wave-propagation
in
equation for disturbances
the air flowing
in a tunnel as they appear
to us standing on the ground.
to us
Consider
U at
infinity.
to be
components
and the
U +
pressure and
v =
\302\253',
v',
U =
w',
The whole
investigation
disturbances
are
infinitesimal
Hence,on
This is the
po + p',
would be simplified
quantities of the
velocity
the velocity
(11.12-2)
assume
order;
v/
components
(11.11-8),
same equation.
v; =
$,,,
flow
and
Under
This equation
called the
now
Mach
on
depends
derive Eqs.
p' and
pressure
irrotational, then
32<D
+
TI
dx2
with
by the
respect
a2$
a2*
to time t
equation
\342\200\236\342\200\236\342\200\236
TT + TTdz2
(11.12-7)
v
'
dy2
dimensionless
one
only
simpler cases.Consider
derivatives
$ is governed
is denoted
and
number
Then all
rest.
c2 dx*
(11.12-3)
in some
(11.12-6)
tfd2\302\256
TTT
p'<\302\253po.
'
this equation.
satisfies
also
the
flow is
the
basic equation
around a model at
us examine the
vanish,
(11.12-6)
K
Flow
the
that
If
have
dz2l
dy2
the
which
for
i.e.,
p'<p0l
Eq.
satisfy
potential $,
Eqs. (11.12-4),we
+ %+*\302\247.
M
dxz
(11.12-1)
p'.
we could
if
first
u',v',w'<U,
po +
(11.12-6)
(11.11-10)
(11.11-9),
velocity
dw'ldz with
dv'ldy
equation
from
steady
basic
to Eq.
If,
Let
du'ldx
eliminating
'
259
Flow
Supersonic
.%^+U&=
dxdt
3f2
Steady
const.
and
Subsonic
velocity
density
Sec. 11.12
parameter,
Vic,
which
is
by
linearized
new
IdU
du'
dv'
dp'
\342\200\224
dw'\\
.\342\200\236..dp'
+ Po \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ v(V
+
u')\342\200\224
dt
dx
K\\flx
'dx
dy
dz)
which
is linearized
,dp' = \342\200\236
w'\342\200\224
0,
dz
The nature
less than
of the
solution
call a
1. We
flow
to
flp'
dt
dv'
dw'\\
dzl
[du'
\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+
p\342\200\236
\\dx
dy
are linearized
dp' =
*Hr
dx
\342\200\236,_
\342\200\236
\342\200\236
v
(11.12-4
;
(1~MV
whereas, for a
to
supersonic
flow,
32<fi
dx
dt
po
dx
po
^+U^=-l\"t'
8W'
dt
Po
,r^_
dx
dx
Differentiating
the three
respectively,adding,
dldu'
dt\\dx
dv'
dw'\\
dy
dz
equations
(11.12-5)
rrdldu'
dx\\dx
a1-12\"5)
dy
_^\302\245_
po
(11.12-9)
dy
a2$
fl2$.
=0
^xti?
Steady
Flow
over
(1L12-9)
(M<1)'
we have
a2$
is a partial
of the
Equation(11.12-10)
the difference between these
is one
Example:
if M
a2$
(M>1)-
differential
hyperbolic
equation
type. Let
of the
us consider
elliptic
(1U2-10)
type.
an example
showing
equations.
a Wavy
Plate
dz
with respect
second-order terms,
dv'
^-^-^-tf\"0
Equation
M is greater or
> 1. We write, for
whether
\\
32$
\342\200\236
\302\260-
(11.12-8)
on
Eqi\\(11.12-7) depends
if M < 1, supersonic
subsonic
to
a subsonic flow,
-f-
Similarly,
,3p'
v,JL +
dy
M = -\342\226\240
dw'\\
dz
to x, y,
sinusoidal
wavy profile be placed in a steady
plate with a small
U at infinity. (See
to the velocity
flow, with the mean chord of the plate parallel
the equation
described
are
of
the
by
plate
11.13and 11.14.) The waves
Let a
and
z,
we obtain
very
thin
Figs.
c2ld2p'
ay
32p'\\
p0\\3y2
df
dz1
/'
z =
%x
asin\342\200\224-
(11.12-11)
Field Equations
260
and
Conditions
Boundary
flow
Supersonic
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Subsonic
on the plate.
flow
-7\"-^\342\200\224/r^-^T-^\342\200\224^7-^\342\200\224'
<r~-~
11.13
steady
supersonic
plate in a
wavy
flow.
plate in a
we
(11.12-11),
w> =
Qijf
u\342\200\224
cos
a is assumed
to be
the
wave length
a \302\253L.
(11.12-12)
The fluid, since it is assumed to be perfect, can glide over the plate,
cannot penetrate it. Therefore,
the velocity vector of the flow must be tangent
the plate. Now the velocity
vector
has the components
+ u',
v', w'
For small
z, all
z)
11.15):
Ttz\\
= a sin
\342\200\242
of the
function
(11.12-16)
w'(x, y,
(dw'\\
. . ..
z),
(11.12-17)
z^\342\200\224]
w'
the first
Consistently
the boundary
simplify
(11.12-14)
cos
IF-
\342\200\224
The boundary
solution to
elliptic
z =
(11.12-18)
0).
at infinity
Condition
the
(when
i~i
Lj
problem,
on
be specified.
must
infinity
and hyperbolic
conditions
boundary
given in
condition
our
the conditions at
when z
w'(x, y, 0)
(11.12-10),depending
dx
to
1.
but
(11.12-13)
Sz
fix
-y-
and differentiability
continuity
in
3z
this is
L:
neglecting
261
can write
w'(x, y,
The amplitude
Flow
Supersonic
Eq.
counting on the
Again,
Figure
From
--\"T^
\342\226\2407^~7~~-
Subsonic and
Sec. 11.12
equations
with
be specified,
that may
There is a
respect
and we
to the
great
between
difference
appropriate types
of
in some
detail.
Subsonic case.
of the
For
the elliptic equation (11.12-9), the influence
and
it
is
reasonable
to
assume
in all directions,
out
that, for any
spread
zero at distances infinitely
far away from
finite body, the disturbancestenditoward
the body. A rigorous
argument may be based on the total energy that may be
in a certain fashion, and
the fluid velocity is distributed
fluid.
If
to
the
imparted
zero at a certain rate as the distance
from the body
toward
if it does not tend
to
increases toward infinity, an infinitely large energy would have to be imparted
is impossible.
further
the fluid in order to create the motion, which
details,
(For
we impose
differential
see texts on partial
equations or aerodynamics.)Accordingly,
on our problem:
conditions
the following
(a) The flow is two-dimensional and parallel to the xz-plane, and there is no
disturbances
is
Fipre
*-x
If the
velocity
vector,
to the
surface
of the
11.15
condition.
scalar product
vanishes:
on the
dependence
(b) All
v
Jdx
we obtain
w' =
boundary
dx
w'
-\302\273
0;
\302\261\302\260\302\260.
zero as z -\302\273
In particular,
i.e.,
$ ->
const,
as z -\302\273
\302\261\302\273. (11.12\342\200\22419)
condition
Jz
U-
tend toward
u', v',
by
the
y-coordinate.
disturbances
(11.12-15)
Supersonic
case.
that the
disturbances
argument of decreasing
Turning
can
now
amplitude
to the
be carried
262
Field
must be replaced
by
disturbances and
that
This
Conditionsin
radiating condition:
disturbances radiate
the
the
source. For
a single
that
Fluid
the
from
the
radiation condition is
of the
description
with
concerned
and Boundary
Equations
of the
example,
Mechanics
11
Chap.
easy
Solution
Wavy
the
subsonic
Wall
to our
Problem
problem.
case, Eq.
(11.12-9)
Eq. (11.12-20)into
-(1
Af*
M2)fc
TTX
\342\200\224
\342\226\240
(11.12-9),
Eq.
cos
by direct substitution
a
by function of the form
verified
easily
be satisfied
= Ae>* cos
On substituting
It is
can
(11.12-20)
we obtain
+ Atf**
that,
cos
j-
= 0,
or
(11.12-21)
|i=\302\261HVi>FIf
the
grow
plus sign
is used
exponentially
is used, Eq.
in Eq.
without
(11.12-19)can
limit
be
Ae -vWi=io, cos
$ =
(11.12-22)
Li
The
computed from
\342\204\242
setting
z =
Eq. (11.12-18),
we
obtain
1 y/iZTtf
Ae
-w\302\253vi^ft
dz
On
$ is
in
Eq.
(11.12-23)
and applying
\342\204\242
cos
(H.12-23)
Figure 11.16 (a) How past a flat plate with a beveled, sharp leading
being aligned with the free stream of Mach
edge, the top surface
number 8. On the top side of the plate, a laminar
boundary
layer is
revealed by the lighter line. A shockwave is induced by the
are seen on
layer. Similar features
displacement effect of the boundary
the lower side. Schlieren system. Flow left to right. Courtesy of Toshi
Kubota,
California Institute of Technology;
(b) Scale mode of the
Nimous spacecraft in a 50-in hypersonic
tunnel, at Mach number 8 and
Reynolds number of 0.42 x 106/ft. Schlieren system. Flow left to right.
Gas Dynamics Facility,
ARO, Inc.
Courtesy of Von Karman
Field Equations
264
all the
Now
the solution
for the
and
boundary conditionsfor
case is
subsonic
$ =
Ua
case are
subsonic
the
Chap. 11
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
satisfied.
Sec. 11.13
From Eq.
Hence,
solution,
e-w^:
H.
CoS
In
decrease
disturbances
the
that
we can
deduce the
exponentially
increasing z. From this
the
field,
pressure field, and the density field.
velocity
with
obtain, when
Eq. (11.12-32)
z = 0,
- VM2-
flu'
1 dp'
dx
(11.12-26)
dx'
Hence, on
integrating
* =
have
-pUu1
(11.12-27)
-pf/^- ox
The
streamlines
$ = /(*
g are arbitrary
where/and
VM2
1 z)
+ VM2
g(x
functions, because if
i =
x-
y/M2
- l
that it can
be
(11.12-10) is satisfied.
The
z),
undiminished
intensity.
wind-tunnel
boundary
condition,
= \342\200\224r\342\200\224
=
cos \342\200\224
1.hi
-7-cos
L
L
L
4\302\243/
(11.12-29)
l z,
waves, along
1z)
the
are inclined
basis of the
o,
dg
VM2
1z
= const.,
(11.12-30)
are propagated
with
direction, as revealed by the
the Mach lines for the function
hand,
in the wrong direction. Hence,the function g must
which
These lines
the disturbances
radiation
the correct
condition.
<S>=f(x-VMr^lz).
Therefore,
we
and
returning
/ = \"
to Eq.
(11.12-29),we
Eq. (11.12-18), we
(11.12-33)
have
Ua
Z(%~
yjjjs\342\200\224isin
^P^l
z),
(11.12-34)
11.13 APPLICATIONS
lines
are inclined in
photographs. On the other
VM2 be rejectedon
g(x +
with the
(11.12-28)
we set
}dg
i.e.,
\302\243const.,
3z2
the
us
hence,
(11.12-32
. which
the
see
then
and Eq.
_
df
VHF^l-j--
\342\200\236
2 =0
[/-=--A
we
obtain
(11.12-25)
since
particular,
(11.12-31),we
3$
,
= w1 = \342\200\224
Comparing
We see
265
to Biology
Applications
may
try
(11.12-31)
TO BIOLOGY
mechanics
boundary
is as
airway
conditions
are,
in
general,
nonstationary.
Field Equations
266
and
Conditions
Boundary
Fluid
in
Mechanics
Chap.
11
The
The examples considered in this chapter have applications to biology.
relevant
to
the
blood
flow
is
tube
channel
or
of
in
a
the flow
problem.
analysis
vessel varies with
are elastic. The diameter of a blood
The blood vessels,however,
of the
elastic deformation
In biology, solid mechanics
interesting
phenomena.
.
closely knit together.
of fluid mechanics
some insight into the broad subject
references listed at the end of the chapter.
gain
and biomechanicsfrom
the
Chap. 11
Bw
267
Problems
v 3w
Bw
\342\200\224
+
+ u\342\200\224
Bt
Br
r
36
3w
lflp=
iv\342\200\224
Bz
p Bz
\342\226\240\342\200\242
-,
+ F.
vV2w
where
between
rBr
Br
The equation of continuity
r2 392
Bz2'
is
.13,.
.r
Br
1 Bv
Bw
r 38
Bz
PROBLEMS
11.9
Derive
the Navier-Stokes
an incompressible
for
equation
fluid
in cylindrical polar
11.10
coordinates.
represents acceleration.
In polar coordinates, the components
are a\342\200\236
on p.
a,, az, which are given in Eq. (10.9-9)
of the stress tensor. In polar coordinates,
225. The right-hand
side is the vector divergence
these components are given by Eq. (10.9-11). It remains
to write down the stresses in terms
and axial directions, respectively.
of the velocities u, v, w along the radial, circumferential,
On p. 128, we have em e\342\200\236,
between
\302\253\342\200\236
uz. The relationship
etc., expressed in terms of \302\253,,
the strain rates e\342\200\236,
w, v, w are the same. Hence,
em, etc., to the velocities
Solution:
The
the
side of
left-hand
Therefore,
o-\342\200\236
-p
for
we have
3m
\342\200\236
+ 2|i \342\200\224.
or
lit
\342\200\236
2|ie80
or.. =
-p +
2|ie\342\200\236
-p
+ 2|i I-
-p
13v\\
+ -\342\200\224li
38;
Br
^7-
-3v'
Bw
.
Idu
\342\200\236
= u, \342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
a.r - 2ae=r
r
r
A substitution
Bu
Bu
v Bu
\342\200\224
+it\342\200\224
+
Bt
dr
r 39
dv
Bv
v Bv
\342\200\224
+ u\342\200\224
+
Bt
Br
r 36
Bu
v2
dz
Bv
uv
+ w
dp
Br
11 3d
=
+ \342\200\224
w\342\200\224
r
Bz
p
r 39
would
an
airplane
be able to fly?
problem
of tides induced
on the
What
the
about
differences
earth under
birds
and
in the
the influence
pp. 358-362.)
Hydrodynamics,
are generated
/_,
vlVhi
\\
-u
r2
2 3v\\
-\342\200\224
+ F,
r2 30/
L,
Bu
v\\
\\
r 36
r/
+ v Vt +
0,
at,
and
w =
-ae'k' cos kx
sin at.
parameters.
run up a sloping beach and create all the panorama
on the seashore:
and foam. Analyze the phenomenon
surf,
mathematically.
riptides, waves, ripples,
and
Give an appropriate choice of variables. Write down the differential
equations
Make simplifying
if you think they are appropriate,
conditions.
assumptions
boundary
but state your/assumptions
clearly.
11.18 Water
problem
(See Fig.
to
analogous
of blood flow
dimensionless
Br
\\dz
form
11.17
.
llBw
\342\200\236
= 2u.e\342\200\236
=
mathematically the
rate.
strain
in a
Bz
law'
a0l
v=
+ 2|i \342\200\224.
.
/ ao*)
\342\200\236
=
+ - \342\200\224
a,, = 2p,e\342\200\236
p, \\r\342\200\224\342\200\224
r
\\
with the
water
arguments
11.13
Formulate
varies
of motion of blood
2\\s.e\342\200\236
-p
-p +
11.12 If
viscosity
heart.
11.14 Waves
rae'et\302\260-
an incompressible fluid,
am =
in a living
13v
6w~r
e\"~dr'
equation
_ u
Bu
Navier-Stokes
fluid whose
Blood is a non-Newtonian
9.15 and Prob. 9.4.) Derive the equation
; + F,
waves
Field Equations
268
and
in Fluid Mechanics
Conditions
Boundary
Chap.
11
Chap.
Further
11
269
Reading
11.20When
the wake.
aboveground
Smokestacks,
to take account
11.21 Generalize Prob.11.20
of
vibrating
cylinder.
11.22 Using
derived in
the equations
P3.22,
Let
Answer:
p.
the Navier-Stokes
cylindrical
pipe
radius
0.04
Prob.
11.9,
find
in a
READING
= a
and
&2)\"'[(wia2
= 10,6 at r
(o26!)r
S. (ed.), Modern
University
Lamb,
Press
of a flow
Explain
Liepmann, H.
Prandtl,
Schlichttng,
W., and
L., The
H.,
poise,
in a long
cm, density
1,
= 0.04
poise,
=
of viscosity p,
= 0.07cm/sec.
velocity v
= 2
= 750. In
In (a), R\342\200\236
the Reynolds number
RN
VLI\\i.
Compute
= 3.5 x 10\"3. The
boundary layer thickness 8 is on the orderof (R^)'\"1.
Note:
(b),
Development
1st ed.,
RN
the pipe and the pillars, what fluid mechanical problems should be
a mathematical theory for an important problem
that you
considered? Formulate
conditions.
Outline
identified. Write down the differential equations and the boundary
a method of solution.
fluid. To design
A. Roshko,
Essentials
(1984).
Springer-Verlag
and Growth,
New York:Springer-Verlag
1879,6thed.,1932,
New York:
London:
Oxford
Dover Publications
Elements of Gasdynamics,
New York:
Boundary Layer
Theory,
Fluid
River
which it is applicable.
p,
Stress,
(1938).
Hydrodynamics,
Horace,
Assume a viscosity
coefficient
(a) Blood flow in the aorta.
r = 3 mm, density p = 1, and velocity v = 50cm/sec.
(b) Blood flow in small blood vessels. Assume a coefficient
=
and mean
radius a = 10~3
Flow,
Cambridge University
(1945).
u,)/r].
distribution
Motion,
New York:
Cambridge:
(1990).
Goldstein,
= b. Then
fl262(w2
to Fluid Mechanics,
Circulation,
Biomechanics:
3530 W. Huron
Couette
Introduction
Y. C, Biodynamics:
Fung, Y. C,
of rectangular
whether
problems.
problemsto
Fung,
86).
= co,a at r
v = (a2 -
11.24Discuss
Batchelor, G. K.,An
Press(1967).
Yih, Chia-Shun,
flowmeter(Fig.
11.23Using
FURTHER
water
two-dimensional
Mechanics,
McGraw-Hill
Theory,
(1960).
West River Press,
Sec. 12.1
BasicEquations
of Elasticity for
The conservation
of mass
The conservation
^q. (10.6-7),
of momentum
is expressed by
is expressed
law for a
Basic equations,
some remarks
waves, torsion
biomechanics.
of shafts,
elastic
about
bending
oil
A.
and
the Eulerian
G are
+
Xe\302\253&7
Eq. (10.5-3),
equation of motion
.02.1-5)
of beams, and
where
by
of continuity,
+ *-
P*
\\
Hooke's
the equation
271
Isotropic Bodies
Homogeneous,
is
2Ge,h
(12.1-6)
Lame constants.
describe
a theory of elasticity.
(12.1-1) through (12.1-6) together
with the
compare these equations
corresponding equations for a viscous fluid,
as given in Sec. 11.1, we see that their theoretical structures are
similar,
except
that here we have
a nonlinear
relation [Eq.
strain-and-displacement-gradient
(12.1-1)],in contrast to the linear rate-of-deformation-and-velocity-gradient
relation
for
the fluid. Hence, the theory of
is more deeply
[Eq. (6.1-3)],
elasticity
nonlinear than the theory of viscous fluids.
/
The nonlinear problem is so wrought with mathematical
that
complexities
only a few exact solutions are known. For this reason, it is common to simplify
the theory by introducing
a severe restriction, namely,
that the displacements and
velocities are infinitesimal.
In this way, Eqs.
can be
(12.1-1)through
(12.1-3)
linearized. One tries to learn as much as possible
about the linearized
theory and
then proceed to discover what features are introduced
by the nonlinearities.
Equations
If we
12.1 BASICEQUATIONS
OF ELASTICITY
FOR HOMOGENEOUS,
ISOTROPIC
BODIES
the preceding chapter, we discussedthe equations
governing the flow of fluids.
In this chapter, we shall consider the motion of solids that obey the Hooke's law.
A Hookean
state. All strains and particle
zero-stress
body has a unique
displacements
are measured from this state, in which their values are counted
as zero.
The basic equations
can be gleaned from the preceding chapters.
Let u{xu
= 1, 2, 3, describe the displacement of a particle
located
at xh x2, x3
x2, x3, t), i
at time t from its position in the zero-stress
state. Various strain measures
can be
defined for the displacement
field. The Green strain
tensor
is expressed in terms
of ufau x2,x3, t) according to Eq. (5.3-3):
In
e,i
1 dUj
-r
dx-t
dUi
dXj
dllk
duk
dXi
dXj.
We linearize
that
the nonlinear
the equations
terms
in
ourselves to
by restricting
(12.1-1)
Eqs.
v, so
of\302\253,-,
values
be neglected.
(12.1-1)
(111-7)
*=2te+d*
The particle
velocity
v,v,-
du,
dv,
= _.
\342\200\236
(i^g)
\302\245,
du,
dt
is given by the
dUi
(12.1-2)
'dXj
material
(10.3-7),
3V;
dt
270
small
Thus,
Equations (12.1-4)through
unknowns p, \302\253,-,
v,-, a,,
Eq. (12.1-6) into Eq.
Navier's equation,
e\342\200\236,
cr,7; i,
(12.1-8)
(12.1-5)and
using
are 22
together
= 1, 2, 3. We
may
Eq. (12.1-7)
to
for
equations
eliminate
obtain
a,,
by
the
the 22
substituting
well-known
dV,
(12.1-3)
'dXj
GV%
+ (X +
G)|-
X,
r~,
(12.M)
SomeSimple
272
e is the
where
divergence of the
vector u;
displacement
dui
But
diii
e = -\302\261=-\302\261
+ -^
oXi
0X2
dXj
V2 is the
Laplace operator.
If we
write x, y,
r\\1
If we
v, as
By
in Eq.
jci,
x2, x3,
we have
32
V2 = \342\200\2242
+ -j
dx
(12.1-10)
dx$
of
(12.1-11)
-;\342\200\242
flz
(7.4-8),we
Sec. 12.2
can write
(12.1-9)as
273
Waves
Elastic
Plane
i.e.,
3\302\2533
+ ->.
z instead
a2
Chap. 12
in Elasticity
Problems
a velocity
of the wave
with
plane
waves.
Next, let
Navier's equation
us consider
the motion
v =
u = 0,
2n
w =
ct),
Asm~-(x\302\261
0,
(12.2-3)
which
represents
of the
is the
This
(1)
Ic
are usually
conditions,which
cr=
of displacement
z<,-are
prescribed
on the boundary.
(2) Specified
assignedon the
In most problems
of the
surface
convert
the
surface
tractions.
The components of
traction
surface
T, are
boundary.
the
are such
conditions
boundary
that
over
one part
boundary
first
derivatives
is said
generated
of elasticity,
displacements
(12.2-4)
/\342\200\224
V P
to
be
longitudinal
on the elastic constants
depends on
Poisson's
and
The
wave.
characteristic
depend
a transverse
cL and
transverse
the density
is given
speeds
wave speed,
of
the
material.
of u,.
If
PLANE
ELASTIC
WAVES
in
To
the
respectively.They
The ratio cTlcL
by
{i22-5)
ct=c^W^)
12.2
wave
cT are called
v =
the use of
where A, I, and
cL are
= A
sin
2ir
v =
\342\200\224
\302\261
cLt),
(x
the
\"
CL~i
The pattern of motion
constant. Hence, if
Vd
+ v)(i
constant
0,
(12.2-1)
cL
is chosen
to be
(m-2)
2v)p-
when x \302\261
by Eq. (12.2-1) is unchanged
ctf remains
expressed
the negative sign were taken,
the pattern would move to the
u = 0,
v =
0,
iv
= A
sin
2ir
\342\200\224
(x \302\261
cTt).
(12.2-6)
in Eq. (12.2-3)
The plane parallel to which the particles move [such as thery-plane
or the xz-plane in Eq. (12.2-6)] is called the plane of polarization.
elastic continuum. In a finite
Plane waves may exist only in an unbounded
a plane wave will be reflected when it hits a boundary. If there is another
body,
retracted waves occur in the second medium.
elastic medium beyond the boundary,
to those in acousticsand optics;
of reflection and refraction are similar
The features
an incident longitudinal
in elasticity,
wave will be
the main difference is that,
reflected and refracted in a combination of longitudinal and transverse waves, and
of both types
an incident transverse wave will also be reflected in a combination
of these waves
of waves. The details can be worked out by the proper combination
so that the boundary conditions are satisfied.
Some Simple
274
Problemsin
Chap. 12
Elasticity
Sec. 12.4
stress
12.3 SIMPLIFICATIONS
of a Circular Cylindrical
Torsion
in the shaft.
distribution
of the
to the equation
simplifications
linearized
theory of elasticity
may
cross sections,
from
come
and
geometry.
and
shells.
then
it is
difficult.
us consider the
Let
isotropy.
(1) Homogeneity
forces.
(2) The absence of inertial
(3) A high degree of symmetry in
(4) Plane stress and plane strain.
(5) Thin-walled structures\342\200\224plates
275
Important
Shaft
dependent
variables
constant.
equations
degree of symmetry
High
of the
problem.Reduction
the number
reduces
Example 1. A
general field
of independent
State of
Plane
of independent
number
the number
reduces
equations
and
constants.
material
of geometric
in a
parameters
to two dimensionsor one dimension
dependent
variables.
Stress
plane-stress
in a thin
oa =
the
whereas
Example
2. A
stress components
Plane State
If the
o-\342\200\236
av
am c>,
= 0,
are independent
a\342\200\236
(12.3-1)
of the
coordinate z.
of Strain
z-component of the
u, v are functions
displacement
of x,
displacements
only,
in
a plane-strain
that
exists
strain state,
we
12.4 TORSIONOFA
must
have
CIRCULAR
circular when a
\302\243
=
flz
3z
* =
the
considering
shaft is
now
0.
'
(12.3-2)
K
CYLINDRICAL SHAFT
illustrate
problem
employed. The
problem
is to
is obvious
applied.
that a
circular
But what
cross
about the
section of the
axial
shaft
displacements
section? Consider
is applied.
of twist.
We shall
it
torque is
of such a
* =
of symmetry,
reason
By
remains
theory
place to
to be,
by
another,
to obtain
Therefore,
in
polar
the displacement
of a particle
located
at (x, y,
z) would
appear
coordinates,
the
ur
0,
\302\2530uzr,
uz =
0,
(12.4-1)
or,
Simple Problems
Some
276
in
Cartesian
rectangular
ux
as is shown
in
Chap. 12
Elasticity
Torsion of a
12.4
flff^
-azy,
uy
uz =
uzx,
0,
(12.4-2)
which
The boundary
no tension
/
/
free and
the
the
that
0-^ = 0
/
This
the
is satisfied
by Eq.
The stress
vector
vector
normal
stress components
problem
ends are acted
Setting i
12.2
We
shall
given, there is no
check the
From
show that
now
Eq.
to check the
need
equation
conditions.
compatibility
We must,
the three
have
(12.4-2),
exr
ldux
Buy] = 1.
\342\200\224
= -\342\200\224
-laz
+
lidux
e* =
*
The stress-strain relation
fc
2K
dxj
2\\dy
8uz\\
HI
Now,
0,
0,
e\342\200\236
0,
coincides with
Consequently, the
the
yields
modulus
equations of
(12.1-5). We
= 0,
(12.4-8)
= 0,
ctsv2
.1
boundary
0.
(12.4-9)
conditions
t\302\243 *-\302\273)-?\"\342\226\240
dy
cfyZ
The
+ crwVj, + ayzvz
v,
<X\302\253V20,
surface.
the direction cosinesof the normal vector to the lateral
v
vector
normal
the
that
12,2
from
evident
it
is
Fig.
surface,
v
are
of
the
vector.
Hence,
components
radius
- az)
'
\"I\"*'
OyXvx
(12.4-3)
v denotes
(12.4-7)
v,a\342\200\236.
+ <Vj,
corresponding
on the
circumference C are
xaa + y<Jv
0,
xo,x +
0,
(Tyy
= CT;
(12.4-10)
0,
which
(12.4-4)
ends
z =
using
Eq.
Gax,
of the
equilibrium
ycfyy
=
cr^
-Gay,
shear
the
T,, where
l|9Uy
ffxt
where G is the
vz are
vx, v\342\200\236
on the lateral
by
(12.4-6)
equations,
cy* + azyVy
where
is
By Cauchy's formula,
VxxVx
however,
conditions.
we have the strain components
= L).
is given
surface
lateral
surface.
lateral
are
displacements
(12.4-4).
Notations.
is indeed
this
-L and z
z =
(on
^y
Figure
on by a
(12.4-4).
that the lateral
ends, we have
acting on the
to the
= 1,2, 3, we
in Eq.
given
of the facts
consists
f, =
\\/
\342\200\224
U.
flz
of our
on the
or compression
dy
by
conditions
are stress
surfaces
flo-22
a<rz).
dx
277
Shaft
Cylindrical
Circular
coordinates,
12.2.
in Fig.
Sec.
shaft
are
material.
obtained
by omitting
a;
and
Z;
in Eq.
obtain
Hf-H
Figure
shaft.
12.3
Stresses in a twisted
Some Simple
278
the
of the
resultant
Problemsin
stresses acting
Chap. 12
Elasticity
on the
are
= -Got
dxdy
Jcr\302\253
o>, dx
cr2Z
dy
dx dy
Hence,the
= Got
J j
= -Ga
dx dy
I \\y
x dx
dx
(12.4-11)
= 0.
as desired. The
force vanishes
resultant
resultant
about
moment
the
J J
On
Eq. (12.4-4), we
from
substituting
y<ra)dx
(xo\342\200\236
moment
dy.
(12.4-12)
have
= Ga
(x2 + y1)
dx
beam, how to
that act on the
= 0,
y dy
\\_\302\260Z\342\200\224
dy = 0,
dy
utilize
be chosen
d&^r'dr
In Sec.
supports
beam
beam
plane of symmetry
Gajo
279
Beams
Sec. 12.5
as in Sec. 7.7, with the origin located at the centroid of a cross section.
in the beam
7.7, we were led to the conclusion that the stress distribution
2irGafl4
Thus, we
see that
the
resultant
moment is indeed a
_
T =
The
checking
is now
torque
of magnitude
ira4Got
(12.4-13)
~y~
cB, =
R'
T:
and the
complete. All the equations of equilibrium
The solution contained in
Eqs. (12.4-1) through
where c is
of
of inertia
R'
distance
the
o-xr
from the
cross
the
section,
<jn
is
ffzi
0,
(12.5-1)
= \342\200\224.
o-\342\200\236
o-\342\200\236-,
to the
Young's
is the
o-\342\200\236
(12.5-2)
surface
neutral
and
bending moment, E
M is the
section,
M _
El~
<r\342\200\236
vxy
of the
fiber\"
\"outer
modulus,
/ is the
areal
cross
moment
strains
are,
therefore,
PROBLEM
=
12,1Consider
longer
satisfy
the
fi\302\253
boundary
(12.4-4)
no
conditions.
p,
= -vr-
= fin,
ev
eyz
= ea
= 0.
(12.5-3)
we see
these,
The
lateral
12.5 BEAMS
vanishes;
When a
member
is used to transmit
moment and transverse
bending
called a beam. Beamsare used constantly
in engineering and, therefore,
are important
The floor we stand on is
on beams. An
objects for study.
resting
is
a
beam.
airplane
wing
Bridges are made of beams, and so on. An engineer
should
know the stress and deformation in a
beam, how to choosethe materials
shear,
structural
it is
surface
i.e.,
is perpendicular
= 0 on the lateral
vx
to the
axis x,
longitudinal
surface.
Thus, the
following
conditions
are satisfied: .
I/
Tx
= 0
ovvj;
+ <rvv,
<JfxVx
+ VyyVy + 0>V2,
<rnvx
+ ayzV: + rr\342\200\236v2.
<i\342\200\236vz,
= 0 =
Ty
v
= 0 =
Tz
(12.5-4)
280
SomeSimple
in Elasticity
Problems
Chap. 12
Sec. 12.6
The boundary
281
Biomechanics
Hence,
must
M, =
-EP
(12.5-8)
-\302\243-*\342\200\242
In case the
moment acts,
we choose
Pyz
and the
moment vector
The product
of
Q,
My
Q,
(12.5-9)
to
Mz.
axes of
in the
sectionA:
inertia.
Our
by
Figure
12.4
a principal
An unsymmetric cross
plane
M2 =
j^v,M
nikoff's
\302\247[^=f.
On
substituting
Eq.
(12.5-1)
into
My
The integral
is the
negative of the
Pyz
|
this
uaz
equation,
-jjzdA
(12.5-5)
we obtain
E
(12.5-6)
j]AyzdA.
of inertia
product
dA.
-jjA
yz
of the
dy dz.
cross-sectional
area:
(12.5-7)
12.6
if y
The stress
complete. We have
is measured from
system satisfies
and the
compatibility,
sections remain plane
More refined
It
My
axis.
equationsof
section.
is now
verification
Mathematical
theories
boundary
is verified
the equations
conditions.
in this
of bending can
Theory of
that the
found
the neutral
Our
axis in the
case.
be found
in many
books, e.g.,
Sokol-
Elasticity.
BIOMECHANICS
mechanics.
SomeSimple
282
in Elasticity
Problems
Chap
PROBLEMS
283
Problems
Chap.
12
12.5
Consider
Formulate the
mathematical
problem
of
gong
vibration.
12.2 An
elementary
theory
z be the
of
a circular cylindrical
axis of
frame of
rectanplar Cartesian
in the x-, y-, and z-directions
the
shaft.
reference
x,
shaft subjected
Let the ends be
y, z is used.The
to torsion.. is
z = 0
displacement
where
12.3
12.6
theory
The elementary
theory
Formulate a mathematical
move,
components
daily
12.7
12.8
of equilibriun (Navier's
find the equation satisfied
Using the equation
equation),
by
is known as the warping function.
the function \302\247(x,
y). This function
The following
situation reminds a composite-material
designer to pay attention to the
of a structure in operational
of the stability
condition. Consider a cantilever
question
The beam is made of two strong rods embedded
beam with a rectanplar crosssection.
to the line joining
in a matrix. It is loaded by a force P parallel
the two rods in the
cross section, as shown in Fig. P12.3. In practical application under a load,there is
a probability
that the beam will be twisted to failure.
Twist will occur when the load
P exceeds a critical value. Formulate a theory that will determine the critical value
of the load P that will cause a torsional
instability.
According to your theory, how
should such a composite beam be designed?
the
great
in the sky.
variety
How do
they
An airplane flies in the air at a forward speed V relative to the ground. How does
the wing maintain this flight? To answer this question, write down the field equations
conditions
at the interface
between
the
for the air and the wing, and the boundary
to furnish a
air and the wing. Present a full set of equations that would be sufficient
theory in
principle.
as a train approaches
are typical of waves in many
of the wheels of the train (if we
dynamics problems. We can easily hear the impact
can be seen. Then, as the train comes
put our ears to the rail) long before the train
of the rails under the wheels. Formulate
the problem
by, we can see the deflection
:The elastic
waves
in the rails
mathematically so that
<x<j>(*i y).
description
; mathematical
vanish
iv
in
azx
elementary
rives
gives
-cay,
given
z =
and
both
of these features
can be exhibited.
12.9 Feel the pulse on your wrist. It is a composite elastic wave in your artery. The most
is undoubtedly the elastic response of the artery to the pressure
component
important
wave in the blood.To a lesser extent, there must be other waves that are propagated
furtiher upstream
or downstream.
along the arterial wall and caused by disturbances
Our arteries are elastic. Formulate a mathematical theory of pulse propagation. Leonthe problem
formulated
and presented an analysis
hard Euler (1707-1783)
as early
as
1775.
obeys
Hooke's law.
problem.
12.12
Figure
narrow
P12.3
beam
of very
12.4
rods.
Consider a string
(e.g.,
and boundary
conditions
for
equation
the frequency of vibration of the beam.
12.13A
axis at an angular
circular cylindrical shaft spins about its longitudinal
speed m
at both ends. Lateral vibrations
are always
radians/sec. The shaft is simply supported
when the shaft spins. However, if the rate of spin reaches a critical value,
possible
the lateral deformation becomes excessive, and so-called whirling sets in. Describe
with which the critical
the phenomenon
mathematically. Formulate the equations
whirling speed can be determined.
12.14The
would
measure the
power
to
propeller
measure
delivered
is subjected to both a
the stresses in
the
shaft
tension and
in flight?
a torque.
How
would
How
you
284
Fung, Y. C,
Fung,
Y. C,
in
Biomechanics:
Motion,
Flow,
Stress,
and Growth,
N.J.:
Prentice-Hall
New York-
Sokolnikoff,I. S.,Mathematical
Theory of
Theory
of
Elasticity,
Elasticity,
(19ik\\
v i
^\"\"sw-Verlag
' StinWr
(1990).
rjha
READING
Foundations
Elasticity
New York-
ed ' 19?7'New
m
' McGraw
mi
m
(1956).
Ttmoshenko,S., and
1934,
N. Goodier,
Theory
*
' ntl eQ>
issues of
biological examplesto bring out some fundamental
the zero-stress state, the changes in the zero-stressstate
and the constitutive equation due to remodeling
of a material, the effect of
and
the
on
and
strain
stress
feedback dynamics
of growth and
remodeling,
have
these
also.
systems
features
physical
resorption. Nonliving
We use
continuum
mechanics:
13.1 INTRODUCTION
of changes in materials.
From the
chapter, we discuss the mechanics
there are three aspects of a solid body in which change
of mechanics,
and the
state, the constitutive
equation,
plays a fundamental role: the zero-stress
overall geometry of the body. Our discussion will focus on these aspects.
In
this
last
point of view
The literature
on
of flow and deformationis called rheology.
The mechanics
with
flow
and
a
or
in
material
a
concerned
is
only
change
given
Theology usually
in
which
and
is
The
science
in
materials
a
set
materials.
of
growth
change
given
In continuum mechanics rheology and biology are united.
central concernis biology.
To illustrate
the material-change aspects of continuum
mechanics,
examples can
be picked from biology, because they are ubiquitous. In the discussionthat follows,
we often use the blood vessel as an example.
13.2
How
to
Discover
the Zero-Stress
State of Materials
in a
Solid
Body
there is no external load acting
the preceding chapters, it is assumed that when
We know, however, that this
on a body; the stress in the body is zero everywhere.
does not have to be the case; for example, we can sit, but tense up our muscles
In
when
cause
create
there
a lot
is no
a meltdown.
28S
286
and Active
Stress, Strain,
The simplest
way
to discover
there is
Takea blood
Remodeling of Structures
Chap.
13
surfaces
new
residual
residual stress.
equilibrium,
in the open
we know
sector.Whatever
that
the stress
stress
remains
Sec.
How to
13.2
in a
Solid
Body
287
that
characterize
we
subtended
angle
State of Materials
Thus assured
vessel,
the Zero-Stress
Discover
tips of the
inner
of the opening
Figure 13.2 Definition
angle. Sector represents a
circumferential cross section of a bloodvessel at zero-stress state.
subtended
between two lines originating from the midpoint
to
Angle
the tips of the inner wall is the opening
angle.
the common iliac artery down a leg of the rat, we found that the
in the iliac artery, dropped down
in the popliteal
angle was around 100\302\260
to about 100\302\260
and then rose again
in the tibial artery. In the
to 50\302\260,
region
artery
of the rat, the microarterial
vessel of 50 mm diameter had
medial plantar
artery
Following
opening
angle on the
There are similar,
an opening
1 cm
of
100\302\260
(Liu
and Fung,
1989).
of opening angles
1991a). Also, there are significant
and Liu, 1991), systemic and
opening angles in the pulmonary arteries (Fung
and
trachea
of rats.
veins (Xie et al, 1991),
(Han and Fung,
pulmonary
1991b)
Thus, we conclude that the zero-stress state of blood vessels and the trachea is
as sectors whose opening angles
vary with their location on the vessel or
shaped
trachea and with animal species. In other words, the zero-stress state in a body
may vary from place to place.It then follows that the residual stress also varies
in
OUTSIDECUT
order
the aortas
although
variations
and Fung,
dog (Han
spatially.
In industrial
body in the
engineering, residual
process.
manufacturing
is a common
cause
deformation
or creep in
stress. Forcedfitting
of residual
stresses
Welding or
stress in
airplanes,
and machining
metal-forming
is also a common cause. Straining
the
and
machinery.
process
Plastic
causes residual
stressed
288
Stress, Strain,
and
Active
Remodeling
of
Structures
Sec.
Chap.
13.3
OF A STRUCTURE:
THE ZERO-STRESSSTATE
OF ACTIVE REMODELING
EXAMPLE
TO CHANGE IN STRESS
REMODELING
BIOLOGICAL
DUE
aorta
In one study, hypertension was created in rats by constricting the abdominal
The
with a metal clip placed right above the celiac trunk.
clip
(See Fig. 13.3.)
and reduced the normal cross-sectionalarea
constricted the aorta locally
severely
lumen
by
97%
(Fung
pressure
13.3
A Biological
Example
of Active Remodeling
Due to
Change
No-load
In vivo
in
Stress
289
O-Stress
0-
Stress
abdominal
St
2.0
Q.
HI
in
o
Figure
13.4
of blood pressure
\342\226\240a
\"a
imposed
below the
i.
celiac
Number
of Day
Postsurgery
From
on the aorta
diaphragm
at a site
and above
the
290
Active
of Structures
Remodeling
Chap. 13
value
asymptotic
Sec.
13.4
Change of Zero-StressState
with
291
Temperature
made into
1991).
the zero-stress
Thus,
biological process
13.4 CHANGE
state of the
THAT
The mechanical
of changes
STATE WITH
ZERO-STRESS
OF
MATERIALS
be remodeled by
an active
stress.
homeostatic
in
TEMPERATURE:
THEIR SHAPES
\"REMEMBER\"
properties
vessel may
blood
the influence
under
of a material
may
on many
depend
physical,
chemical,
a physical
factor:
in
temperature.
sometimesit
remains
changes
temperature
needs surgery.
open and
folded up,
opened
umbrella
Materials
materialswhose
such as these,
zero-stress
nickel, copper-zinc-aluminum,
polymers like
which
appear
polynorbornene
have
this
by
temperature.
property.
an endoarterial
shaped
catheter,
to \"remember\" their
iron-manganese-silicon,
above is
device named
fairly
state changeswith
The
to the duct
threaded
shape, are
Alloys of copper-aluminumand
nickel-titanium,
For example,
one
nickel-titanium
Fipre
alloy
in the
the
crystal
structure
is
martensite crystal
is by twining
and is reversible
when the
shear stress
which occurs under suitable
shear stress is reversed. If the temperature of the deformed martensite
structure
of the
is raised to a level above a critical value, the crystalline
to austenite and to the original shape of the body. From
alloy reverts
Tom Borden, \"Shape-memory
alloys: Forming a tight fit,\" Mechanical
by permission of the author
Engineering, Oct. 1991,p. 68. Reproduced
and publisher.
292
Stress, Strain,
the
heating
and
Active
Remodeling
body
deformed
of
and
Structures
Chap. 13
by twinin
the martens't
reversibly
at which
is transformed
into austenite, the crystal reverts to its original
shape
becaus
austenite cannot accommodatethe twining type of deformation.
The stress-strain
curves
for martensite and austenite are illustrated
in Fie
13.6. Deformations of martensite
at strains greater than
about 7% and
austenite
at strains greater than
about 1% are plastic and irreversible.
So for practical andi
cations, one has to know the stress-straincurves, the ranges of elasticity and
at which austenite is first formed in martensite
plasticity, the temperature
when heated
and the
at which martensite
is first formed in austenite
temperature
when cooled'
With
this knowledge,
people have used Ni-Ti alloy for fastening machine
parts
wiring teeth for orthodontic
purposes,
simulating the erection of an organ, and
other phenomena
crystal
Sec. 13.5
right
13.6
The
crystals (tested
By permission.
13.5
VESSELS
BLOOD
stress-strain
different
AND
MORPHOLOGICAL
OF
at
relationship
temperature).
STRUCTURAL
DUE TO A
CHANGE
REMODELING
IN BLOOD
PRESSURE
The pressure
What
is
normally
between the
of circulating
pressure
referred
This is the
atrium.
circulation
of Blood
Vessels
pressure difference
Due
to a
that
Change
in
Blood
Pressure
293
\"systemic\"
throughout
corresponding
driving
pressure.in
Figure
Remodeling
the pressure
294
Stress, Strain,
PULMONARY
RAT
Remodeling of Structures
ARTERIES
12 Hours
2 Hours
Normal
and Active
96
Hours
IN
240
Chap.
13
HYPOXIA
Hours
720 Hours
Sec. 13.6
of Mechanical
Remodeling
expect that the constitutive equation, or at least its coefficients, will change with
tissue remodeling. This is indeed the case, as we shall illustrate with an example.
formulation
of the constitutive
For the blood vessel, the pseudoelasticity
9.4
and
We
assume
in
Sees.
that
a pseudoelastic
described
9.5,
applies.
equation,
strain
nine
function
energy
of the
to
13.7
Photographs
of a
artery
pulmonary
periods of hypoxia.
Liu (1991).
normal
Specimens
were
fixed
can
~SE~- x
Figure
stress components
so that the
md,-EJi,
\302\243,7
is symmetric
be derived
by
namely,
differentiation,
urn
as a function
- 1,2,
components
with respect
100
295
Properties
at the
condition of
technique
(13.6-1)
-\"\"
This
incompressibility.
may be
a hvo-dimensional
called
approach.
section of the main pulmonary artery two hours after exposure to lower
of small fluid vesicles and some accumulation
oxygen pressure. There is evidence
of fluid in the endothelium and media. There is alsoa biochemical
change of elastin
The
shows the wall
time.
third
this
at
on
the
vessel
wall
photograph
staining
structure
10 hours later. Now the media is greatly thickened, while the adventitia
shows that at 96 hours
of
has not changed
photograph
very much. The fourth
has thickened
to about the same thickness as
exposure to hypoxia, the adventitia
wall structure when
arterial
the media. The next two photos show the pulmonary
of
30
lowered
and
to 10
the rat's lung is subjected
days
oxygen concentration.The
the continued
is
in
these
later
thickening of the adventitia.
periods
major
change
in the second row show the progressive changes in the wall
The photographs
rows are photographs of arteries
of a smaller pulmonary
artery. The third and fourth
of the arteries in the fourth row is
diameter
of even smaller diameter. The inner
The
on the order of 100 u,m, approaching the range of sizes of the arterioles.
The
sizes.
all
of
in pulmonary
arteries
evident
is
of
the
vessel
wall
remodeling
maximum
rate of change occurs in a day or two.
a cross
For the
approach, a
analytical
polynomial
form
logarithmic
by
When the
properties
described
OF MECHANICAL
in a
material
change.
by the
PROPERTIES
during remodeling, its mechanical
of soft biological tissues can be
properties
discussed in Sees. 9.5 and 9.7. Hence, we
blood vessel is
The
constitutive
mechanical
equations
changed
at the
for arteries
p0W
used
seereferences
(1973,1979,1981),
Patel
by
in the two-dimensional
and Vaishnav
an exponential
(1972), a
et al.
form by Fung
to Fung
et al.
(1979),
p0W
exp(fl,
+
\302\243?,
a2 Eh
2a4
\302\243\342\200\236
\302\24322)
(13.6-2)
where C, au az,
strain, and
constants, Ea is the circumferential
the
two
to
the
last
referred
zero-stress
state.
is
the
strain,
En
longitudinal
Experiments have been done on rat arteries during the course of development
The results with the vessel wall
of streptozocin.
of diabetes
after a single injection
are presented in Table 13.1, from Liu and
material
treated as one homogeneous
and
a4 are material
TABLE 13.1
COEFFICIENTS
RELATIONSHIP
C, a\342\200\236
a2, AND a4 OF THE STRESS-STRAIN
OF THE THORACIC AORTA OF 20-DAY DIABETIC AND NORMAL RATS, a, WAS FIXED
AS THE MEAN VALUE FROM THE NORMAL RATS.*
Group
13.6 REMODELING
of
representation
form has been
a,
{n/cm2)
s2
s4
Normal Rats
Mean
\302\261
SD
12.21 \302\261
3.32
1.04
\302\261
0.35
2.69 +
15.32 \302\261
9.22
1.53
\302\261
0.92
3.44
0.95
0.0036
\302\261
1.07
0.0036
296
Fung
(1992).
Clearly,
the
Active
constants
material
of Structures
Remodeling
Chap.13
Sec.
Stress
13.7
development of
and obtain
the Zero-Stress
State Taken
and LjL,
L\"\342\200\236llmi!
LoHm*,
\"outer.\"
diabetes.
with
Analysis
stretch ratios
Tim
13.7
STRESS
ANALYSIS WITHTHE
ZERO-STRESS
_.
the
zero-stress
on the
state of a
solid
body
(Wioad
^no-load
\342\200\224
j (o8) >
riot)
(normal,
superscripts i
in vivo)
indicating
state be
Lg!slrea,
\"inner\" and 9
liioad,
indicating
and LJL,
respectively,
\"circumferential,\"
with
and the
the
subscripts
inner
wall
and
and
,\342\200\236
__.,
I Lj
yiJ,
STATE TAKEN
INTO ACCOUNT
If
rf/8)
^no-load
_Mmn_
.,,\342\200\236)
*^hom
fthora
rrfiO)
t:a\\
')
T^
T|\302\273)
^O-stress
\342\226\240^0-stress
\\im
^no-load
297
into Account
\"no-load,\"
Ileal Artery
=
\"-horn
Rhom
xffi
iSr
m)
Jt O-sIrcss
If
(13'7-2)
outer wall.
and a
of an ileal artery, a medial plantar
artery,
Typical raw data of the L's
ratios
stretch
The
13.2.
in
Table
are
computed
given
pulmonary artery (branch 1)
obtained by
are also listed in the table. These results may be compared with those
homeostatic
and
no-load
the
of a hypothetical case in which
a theoretical calculation
are zero,so
strains
but
the
residual
real
ones,
are identical with the
configurations
as the
the
same
is
zero-stress
the
and
zero
configuration
the opening angle is
that
ratios
of the no-load case are unity,
stretch
the
that
In
case,
no-load
on
the
configuration.
but
those of the
homeostaticvessel are
1m
\\[(o)
Niom
These
are listed
in
the
last two
LJhom
vfoo)
'Miom
!
\302\273p)
^no-load
too)
\342\200\242\"\"\302\253\"
;\302\253
7
\\i3-'
r (M
columns of
Table
13.2.
stretch
TABLE
Length, jim
Re zero-stress
States
Figure
13.8
Zero Stress
cross
D)
'-'no-load
BP:120mmHg
o\\
80 mm Hg
120 mm Hg
*Data
743
Wall
Inner
state
Wall Outer
Wall
963
590
1,091
0.79
1,017
1,281
1.37
1,023
1,286
1.38
Re no-load state
Inner
Wall Outer
1.13
1.0
1.33
1.34
1.72
1.73
Wall
1.0
1.17
1.18
298
Stress, Strain,
0 mm
and
Active
Remodeling
Structures
Chap
120 mm Hg
80 mm Hg
Hg
of
Chap. 13
299
Problem
factors
things: nutrition, growth
by many
environment, and diseases, as well as stress
law will emerge.
and strain. If other things were equal, then a stress-powth
in the understanding of
A stress-growth relationship has clinical
applications
If a stress-growth
law is known
and rehabilitation.
for certain
diseases, healing,
it
to
can
use
on
can
then
those
plan
surgery
surgeons
organs, engineers
organs,
manufacturers
of prostheses will have guidance, and
use it for tissue engineering,
athletes, and educators will know the relation between exercise
therapists,
physical
Biologicaltissue
the
(enzymes),
and
!b)
(a)
(C)
13.9 Circumferential
stretch ratio distribution
in an ileal artery
Fipre
(branch
residual stretch ratio
1) whose dimensions are listed in Table 13.2. (a) Measured
at no-load state. Residual strain can be read from nonlinear scale shown on
right.
inner and outer radius of vessel wall, respectively.
R, and R\342\200\236
Strain is compressive
in inner wall region and tensile in outer wall region, (b) Thick, nearly horizontal
line joining the solid dots shows measured circumferential stretch ratio (relative to
the zero-stress
at a blood pressure of 80 mm Hg; thinner inclined line
state)
joining
circumferential stretch ratio when
open circles shows computed
hypothetical
was
strains
at
blood
opening angle
ignored, (c) Corresponding
pressure 120 mm
Hg. Thesecurves show that huge errors result if residual strain is ignored. From
Fung and Liu (1992). By permission.
pressure is 80 mm
stretch
circumferential
= 1.
(13.7-4)
Xr X\342\200\236
\\,
Thus,
the
For
if stresses
strain state
arteries,
were plotted in
in Fig. 13.9, a
ignoring
of the
the
vessel
is completely
much
opening
determined experimentally.
functions of strains.
as exponential
body
growth
physical
angle.
chemical
development.
to making artificial
for living
substitutes
Tissue engineering is a field dedicated
and
cell
tissues. It is a technology based on molecular
biology,
biology,
organ
of tissues
.one must know how the health
physiology. To master tissue engineering,
is maintained, improved, or failed in relation to stress and strain.
but such
Machines, in general, do not have the ability to remodel themselves,
in some circumstances.It is not beyond the engineer's
desirable
an ability is clearly
but
to conceive of machines with the ability to remodel themselves,
imagination
new one for engineers to think
about.
the direction is a totally
Readers interested in this subject may find the references listed at the end
introduction
to the mechanics of
of this chapter helpful. A fairly comprehensive
is given in Fung (1990), which
contains
an extensive list of
tissue
remodeling
has been studied for a long time.
references.In the medical field, bone remodeling
law was proposed in 1869. Papers by Carter
Meyer's paper was dated 1867.Wolff's
and Fukada (1977) may serve as entry to the
and Wong (1988),Cowin
(1986),
we used blood vessels to illustrate
the
literature. In the preceding sections
current
and arterial
features of tissue remodeling:
changes in the zero-stressstate, structure
and stress and strain distributions. We could
equations,
composition, constitutive
but changes in soft tissues are more visible
and
have used bone for this purpose;
of the time constants
take place faster than those in bone. The getting
together
strain creep, fluid movement,
and mass
for tissue remodeling, stress
relaxation,
The papers by
transport serves to bring biology and mechanics closertogether.
and Fung (1986), Fung
Hayashi and Takamizawa (1989),Taka(1991),
Chuong
and Vossoughi (1987), and Omens and Fung
and Hayashi (1987),Vaishnav
mizawa
to soft tissue mechanics.The book edited
by Skalak and Fox
(1990) are relevant
at
a
tissue
conference.
There
of
is
a
collection
presented
engineering
papers
(1988)
on the biology and medicine of tissue
is a large amount of literature
remodeling.
areexcellent
The papers by Cowan and Crystal
(1975), and Meyrick and Reid (1980)
examples.
Hence,
PROBLEM
graphs
greater
and
13.1
Membranes
mechanical
within
properties
301
and Active
Stress, Strain,
300
Remodeling of Structures
Chap
13
may
J. Biomech. Eng.
every
point.
may
Gaussian
in
surface
the surface;
One
that the
assume
state
energy
curvatures
is called
curvatures
is
of the
membrane
Fung, Y.
at
for an intracellular
Now, propose a strain energy function
find a minimal surface
of finite area
solve a mathematical problem:
curvatures.
membrane.Then
but
of Biological
Properties
6:121.
P13.1. Do you
surface
think
C,
\"Change
S. Q. (1989).
Liu,
and
Circ.Res. 65:1340-1349.
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Biomechanics:
Verlag.
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Are the Residual Stresses Doing
\"What
Fung, Y. C. (1991).
237-249.
19:
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of Biomedical
State of Rat Pulmonary
\"Changes of Zero-Stress
S. Q. (1991).
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Liu,
Y.
C,
Fung,
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\"
with
Strain Distribution in Small Blood Vessels
Fung, Y. C, and Liu, S. Q. (1992).
and
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Circulatory
J.
American
Physiol:
State Taken into Consideration.\"
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pig
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J.
Y. C.
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Eng.
Biomech.
H. C, and
Han,
Trachea.
\"Residual
K.
Takamizawa,
In
and
Fung, Y. C,
Y. C. (1989).
Fung,
\"Stress
(1989).
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24: 307-315.
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Hayashi, K.,
Stresses in Arterial Walls.\"
Liu,
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446-451.
Y. C. (1991).
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and
State
and Opening Angle of Zero-Stress
Biomech.
Eng. Ill: 325-335.
Y. C.
Fung,
surface
one
of
of
surface
Are
curvature
all
surfaces
everywhere? Is a
with zero Gaussian
surface.
developable
curvature
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13
Chap.
R. F.,
J. Biomech. Eng.
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113: 36-41.
Y. C. (1991).
\"The
Zentralblatt fiir
Zero-Stress
State
of
Author
Index
S., 185
Chapman,
Almansi,
Avogadro, Amedeo,181
Batchelor,
269
Bridgmah,
Briggs,
299,300
Cowin,
S.C., 299, 300
Cowling, T.G., 185
R.G., 299, 300
Crystal,
R.M., 144
H., 248-49
Borden,T., 291,292,299,300
Borelli,
235
C.A.,
Cowan, M.J.,
G.K.,
186,207
A.H.,
Cottrell,
Coulomb,
295,299, 300
C.J.,
Chuong,
38,143
P.W., 102
L.J., 207
G.A.,
E
Echigo, S., 301
Enskog,
D.,
185
Eringen, A.C.,
EuleiyL.,5,67
Carter,D.R.,299, 300
Cauchy, A.L., 5,69,132
Cesaro,E,, 150
F
Fage,
A., 235
Finger, J.,
132
149,153
304
Fox,
Author
299,301
D.F.,
Fronek,
Fukada,
207
300
9,11,106,150,177,180,192,
207, 208, 269,286, 287,
198,
295, 299,
300, 301
236
A.E.H.,
Green,
192,
P., 38
M., 9,208
T., 290,301
Macquet,
208,
Matsuda,
211
Matsuda,
117,211
Green, G.,
Maxwell, J.C.,
Gregersen,M.I.,201,202
299, 301
B., 299,301
R.A., 104
Meyrick,
G.H.L., 235
Hamel, G,
Han,
117
287,299, 301
H., 208
H.C.,
Handa,
Jeffereys,
J.C.,
Oseen,C.W.,
235
Ostrogradsky, M.,
211
T., 301
Karman,
196,197
P
Patel,
192,208,295,299
D.,
Lamb,
J.L.,
H., 269
Lame, G.,
103
117,190,211
S.S.,
Sokolnikoff,
Sperelakis,
W., 193-95
Vossoughi,J.,299,301
9,11,208
I.S., 281,284
N., 144
164
E.H.,
Starling,
Voigt,
W
West,
I.B.,
198
Lagrange,
Skalak,
Sobin,
Vawter,D.L.,198
E.E., 129
R., 299,301
Sechler,
K., 65
J.L.M., 235,240
Poisson,S.D.,159
Prager,
W,
Prandtl, L.,
203
244,
Barre de,
246,269
117,148
P.G.,
208
Xie,LP.,299,301
Takamizawa,
K., 299,301
Tanner, R.I.,
208
Taylor,
Thomas,
201
T.Y., 180
H.M.,
Timoshenko, S.P.,
Todhunter,
I., 65
284
R., 149,153
301
vanderWaals,J.D.,182,183
Mow, V.C., 37
H., 168,180
Vaishnav, 192,208,295,299,
Toupin,
133
H., 248,269
Schultz, A.B., 37
Wolff,
L.M.H., 271,272,231,232,238
Newton,
Isaac, 12, 43, 67,156,183,257
Nikuradse,
J., 248,249
K
Kamiya,
St-Venant,
Navier,
J
Jaeger,
Tait,
StreeterD.,Jr.,144
H. von, 252
K., 203
Hohenemser,
A., 269
Roshko,
Mohr, Otto, 94
K., 208
Mori,
Moritake, K., 208
Hayes, W.C., 37
Helmholtz,
238,243
Whetham, W.C.D.,235
K., 192,208,295,299,301
Hayashi,
C., 149,153
Truesdell,
Millikan,
Hagen,
184,193-97
G.H.,
Meyer,
H
Osborne,
Reynolds,
259
Mach, E.,
183
137
Schlichting,
-M
31,32
(J.W. Strutt),
J.L.,201
Lundberg,
Galilei,
Lord
Reid,L.,299,301
65,158,164,284
G
Galileo,
R
Rayleigh,
H.W.,269
Liepmann,
299,
Fung, Y.C,
M.de,
305
Author Index
Index
Yang, R.F.,
Yih,
301
Chia-Shun,
269
Young, Thomas,113,236
307
Subject Index
Subject
Continuum:
Index
abstract
\342\226\240
axioms,
Prandtl's
components in
material, 212
Achilles
coordinates,
polar
thickness, 246,249
214
convective,
Acceleration,
225
Bulk modulus,
160
tendon,
Austenite,
291,292
Avogadro
number,
181
Cartesian tensors,
definition,
analytical
69
Cauchy's formula,
Cauchy's strain tensors, 132
251-53
Circulation,
s
fluid, 252
Barotropic
Beams:
149
Compressibility:
18
moment,
bending
classification,
simply-supported,
clamped, free, 28
curvature of, 28-30
deflection,
neutral
surface
outer fiber
of, 26
stress,
27
17
simply-supported,
Blood
viscosity, 201
289
Body force, 67
Boltzmann constant, 182
Boltzmann equation, 196-97
conditions:
234
fluid, free surface,
solid-fluid interface, 233
solids,272
of liquid,
of
angular
of
energy,
of
momentum,
Boundary
306
219
244-49
non-Newtonian
in
critical
gases,
183
points,
182
156,157,172
isotropic viscous,
non-Newtonian,
201
relation, 146
and surface, 5, 67,
diagram, 14
Free-body
12
223
154-62
162
155
of metals, 186-88
equation, 182
193-97
material,
202-3
materials,
coordinates,
227
68
112-32
Deformation, analysis,
Deformation gradients, 131
Dirac-delta
fluids,
fluids,
der Waals'
polar
geometric
Detrusions, 121
218
260
layer,
D'Alembert'sprinciple,
G
195
function,
117,119
126
polar coordinates,
relation to velocity, 145,146
in
61
Divergence,
Duhamel-Neumann
\302\243
viscoplastic
49,53
tensor, 132
components, 112,122-23
123-24
interpretation,
strain
strain
Force, body
235
Finite
Dynamic
two
Finger's
214
Coordinates, transformation,
curvilinear, 76
supersonic
44
181
Avogadro's number,
Boltzmann, L., 182
Lame,
G., 158
van
indices,
Convective acceleration,
256, 259
255,
in polar coordinates,
Constants:
nonviscous
of
'.
momentum,
of
viscoelastic
velocity,
summation
119
rate-of-deformation-and-velocity-gradient
254-65
laws:
22
mass, 217
flow, 260-62
fluids,
55
equations
64-66
notation,
182
Compressible flow,
basic equations,
plasticity
flow, 260-62
subsonic
(tensor),
Curl, 61
181
Constitutive equations,
Blood
Boundary
of gas,
Conservation
28
concept
Contraction
stress
conditions,
of, 1,3-6
60
Continuum,
Convention:
strain notation,
13,14
of, 72-75, 223
space, 149,165
necessary
Equilibrium,
Euclidean metric
32
Acoustics:
basic equation
of, 256
velocity of sound,257
Almansi strain tensor, 117
Equilibrium, 13
6,7
mechanics,
86
Buckling,
220-23
equation,
lung, 7
material, 3
equation, 246
of, 220-21
conservation
Energy,
copy, 5,6
7
law,
thermoelasticity
61
Gradient,
288
238
similarity,
H
Hagen-Poiseuille
Elasticity, of solids,157-61
effect
Gel,204
161
e-8 identity, 47
basic
Gauss theorem,209-11
270-72
equations,
of temperature, 161
nonlinear, 188-93
of, 270-82
Elastic stability,
86
theory
Elliptic equation,
259
flow, 235
blood
pressure, 293
Homeostasis, 288
Hooke'slaw,
113,115,271
Laminar
layer,
operator, 232
boundary
Laplace
Ideal gas, 155
of continuity, 232,238
dummy and free, 44
equation
Indicial notation, 44
Inertia force, 12 Inertial frame of reference,
of
units,
20,21
95
Invariants,
isotropy, 173
strain,
125
stress,
95,
flow, 253
Mach,
rank
2,167
Minimal
materials,
rank 3,169
surface,
fluid
line, 251,253
193-95
moment
of, 67,219
of, 75,218
Motion, equations
polar
223-26
coordinates,
Lagrangian
tensor, 117
stress, 190
strain
103
271,272
equation,
dimensionless, 238
Neutral plane, 26
Newtonian
fluid,
156
function,
189,
Q
Quasilinear
231-32
189
viscoelasticity,
R
planes,
85
transformation,
262
condition,
Radius vector, 42
Rayleigh
wave, 137
Relaxation function,
194-97
Relaxation time, 197
Radiating
50
137
Relaxation
Remodeling, tissues,288-99
due to diabetes, 291,295
of mechanical
294-97
properties,
181,182
tensor, 47
with Kronecker
Plane strain,
274
of
blood,
201
Potential equation,
Potential
flow, 254
254
axes, 88, 95
of strain, 124,172
Principal
morphology,
with temperature,
292-94
290
of zero-stress state,
Residual
stress, 285
number,
Rotation,
288-90
233, 238
285
Rheology,
Rubber
184
Polarization,
wave,
Reynolds
delta, 47
47
symbol,
energy
Poise,
Navier's equation,
strain
191-92
Lagrange
Pseudoelasticity, 189
233, 238
Reynolds,
connection
92-94
66
linear,
Kelvin's model of viscoelasticity,
Kelvin's theorem, 251,252
limit,
Pseudoelastic
181
Permutation,
54
250
160
bulk,
Mohr'scircle,
determinant,
194
Orthogonal
237
shear, 114
Jacobian
motion,
deviation, 100
188
stress
Principal
Proportional
elasticity, 160
relaxed, 196
rigidity, 160
165-77
155, 249-51
96
259
Octahedral
190
Mesentery,
Modulus,
4,170
Isotropy,
function,
of shape, 290-92
Memory
157,201
fluids,
strain
Avogadro,
rank
rank
of existence, 96
proof of real-valuedness,
stress invariants, 95
Numbers:
46
Isotropic
proof
stress,
Principal
(see Strain)
Normal stress (see Stress)
233
condition,
No-slip
46
69
of
equation
Normal
165
Material isotropy,
290-92
Material with memory,
165,166,172,173
tensor, 165
1, nonexistence, 167
Isotropic
Non-Newtonian
Nonviscous fluid,
291,292
orthogonal,
flow, 255
Isentropic
Matrix,
stress deviations, 99
Irrotational
main
124,125
88, 91
95
theorem,
strains,
Principal
188
rubber,
88, 95,124
planes,
Principal
259
number,
\\
88
Principal directions, 91
viscosity, 156,183
of motion, 12, 67
coordinates,
Principal
of
laws
12
78-79
law
43
components, 119,120
119,120
geometric
interpretation,
125-30
coordinates,
polar
145
condition,
Integrability
Interface-condition,
law of gravitation,
Ni-Ti
strain
Infinitesimal
of stress,95-97,172
Newton's:
247
61
Laplacian,
155
fluid,
Incompressible
Index,
Subject Index
SubjectIndex
308
infinitesimal, 121
188-89
elasticity,
s
Scalar
triple
product, 41
310
Subject
simple, 132
Shear stress,97
notations, 64
Shell:
24
cylindrical,
Skin
friction
coefficient,
Soft
tissues,
191-93
Sol,
204
Stress
Stress-strain-rate
Sound,speed,
Spatial description, 214
197
Spectrum of relaxation,
Standard linear solid, 193-95
fluid,
117-18,122-24
finite,
infinitesimal, 119,120
Symmetry
Strain-rate tensor,
Strain
tensor, 4
146
117,118
Eulerian, 117
132
Green's, 117
Cauchy's
165-71
conditions,
formula,
60
221
Thixotropy, 204
Torsion, 274-78
Traction (Stress vector), 5
Transformation
of coordinates,
54
admissible,
78-81
69
components, notation,
65
definition, 4
ellipsoid, 102-3
of motion and
equation
Jacobian,
equilibrium,
72-75,219,258
invariants,
96, 99,100,101
66-61
54
orthogonal, 50
proper
rotation,
and improper,
49-51
54
137,138
transverse, 273
Surface,
56
89
49
Velocity of sound,256
193-97
197-201
tissues,
Yield
function,
202
Yield stress,187,188
189,197-201
Z
cone-plate, 205
86
Couette,
56
Thermodynamics,
couple-stress,
39
Shear,273
56
Viscometer:
spin, 146
250,251
function,
Stress, 4, 64
boundary
notation,
55,
rotation, 121
117
Lagrangian,
definition,
Velocity
75,
273
Rayleigh, 137,138
analytical
Visco-plastic
notations, 58
partial derivatives,
quotient rule, 59
rank, 56
256
Polarization, 273
transformation,
60
isotropic,
equation,
Waves:
Longitudinal,
biological
definition,
dual, 121
Almansi's, 117
Stream
5, 68
tension, 235-37
of stress tensor, 74,
contraction,
Wave
194
quasilinear,
function,
Vectors, 39
tensor, 125,160
173,192,193
deviation
Strain-energy
Finger's,
(see
shear, 121
(Dirac delta
Acoustic, 256
relationship
125-30
coordinates,
124
principal,
polar
146, 251-53
195
function,
Viscoelasticity,
274
plane state,
Cauchy's
Unit-step
125
invariants,
function
function),
99-102
299
force,
Surface
Voigt solid,193-95
Unit-impulse
flow, 261
Summation convention, 44
flow, 261
Supersonic
Surface,
minimal, 237, 300
Surface
Subsonic
104
186
liquid,
Vorticity,
Constitutive equations)
156
gas, 183,185
lattice, 291
atomic
185-86
201
blood,
235
Stress resultant,
256
law, 285,
Stress-growth
of
75
tensor,
Viscosity:
atomic interpretation,
Turbulence, 243
Twinning
105,106,107
concentration,
Stress-deviation
Stokes'fluid,
77, 78,223-27
tensor transformation,
244
Strain
coordinates,
principal
238
dynamic,
SI units,
state,
polar
spherical, 22
Similarity,
89,274
plane
311
Index
vector, 56
Transverse wave speed, 273
Truss, 14-17
31
indeterminate,
statically
19, 65
normal,
98
maximum,
65, 97
matrix,
Subject
Index
material,
Zero-stress
202-3
change
state, 285-87,296-98
due to hypertension,
286