Chronology of Sociology Theory

Years
1798 - 1857

Names
August Comte
Father of Sociology

Theorys / Concepts
Positivism
Static and dynamic

1807 - 1882

Charles Darwin

Evolutions
Survival of fittest

1858 - 1918

George Simmel

Funglionalist
Theory of action

Books
On the origin of species
The preservation of favoured race in the
struggle for life
Philosophie des Geldes
Soziologie des Geselligkeit
Human Nature and the Social Order
Social Organization
Social Process
Conflict of modern culture

1864 -1829

Charles Horton Cooley

Individual and Society

- looking glass

1855 - 1936

Ferdinand Toennies

- Gesellschaft
- Gemeinschaft

Gesellschaft und Gemeinschaft

1857 - 1917

Emile Durkheim

Solidarity
Collective
Totemisme

De le Division du Travail
Les Regles de la Methode Sociologique
Le Suicide
LAnnee Sociologique Sociologique
Le Formes Elementaires de la Vie
Religieuse

Years
1864 - 1920

Names

Theorys / Concepts
Theory of social action

Verstehen

Max Weber
-

1902 -

Talcott Parsons

Fungsionalisme
Status: ascribe and achieve

1818 - 1883

Karl Marx
Ralf Dahrendoft
Lewis A. Coser

Conflict theory

Books
The social causes of the decadence of
ancient civilization
The protestant ethic and the spirit of
capitalism
Essay on some categories of
comprehensive sociology
The categories of comprehensive of
sociology
The economic ethic of universal
religious
The sociology of religion
Economic and society.
The Structure of Social Action
Toward a general theory of action
The social System
Family, Socialization and Interaction
Process
Economy and society
The system of modern societies

Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts (M)

The Communist Manifesto (M)
Das Capital
Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society
(D)
The Functions of Social Conflict (L)

Years

Names

1859 1952

John Dewey

1863 1931

George Herbert Mead

Theorys / Concepts
Symbolic Interaction

Books
-

Mind, Self and Society (J D)

Sociological Implication of the

thought of George Herbert Mead

Symbolic Interactionism:
Perspective and method

Herbert Blumer

1950s

Robert K. Merton
George C. Homans
Peter M. Blau

1960s

Neo-sociologist
After 60s

From economist to sociologist

- Exchange theory

B. F. Skinner
Peter L Berger

Sociologist to psychologist
- Behaviorism
- humanistic

Alfred Schutz

Phenomenologist

Harold Garfinkel

Etnometodolist

- The Human Group

August Comte (father of Sociology)

The history of the sciences shows that each science goes through three successive stage: the theological, the metaphysical and the positive.
Progress through the three stages was not only inevitable but irreversible. Progress is also asymptotic -- that is, we always approach, but never
obtain, perfect positive knowledge. Comtes view of each of the three stages is as follows: [1] the theological -- man views nature as having a
will of its own. This stage also contains three stages. (i) animism: objects have their own will, (ii) polytheism: divine wills impose themselves on
objects and (iii) monotheism: the will of God imposes itself on objects. [2] metaphysical -- thought substitutes abstractions for a personal will.
Here, causes and forces replace desires. The world is one great entity in which Nature prevails. And finally [3] positive -- the search for
absolute knowledge, the first cause, is abandoned. In such a scheme, each stage corresponds to a specific form of mental development. There
is also a corresponding material development.
Charles Darwin
The theory of evolution, formalized by Charles Darwin, is as much theory as is the theory of gravity, or the theory of relativity. Unlike theories of
physics, biological theories, and especially evolution, have been argued long and hard in socio-political arenas. Examples of evolution that are
readily apparent include the fact that modern populations are evolving and the fact that two closely related species share a common ancestor.
The evidence that Homo sapiens and chimpanzees share a recent common ancestor falls into this category. There is so much evidence in
support of this aspect of primate evolution that it qualifies as a fact by any common definition of the word "fact." Finally, there is an
epistemological argument against evolution as fact. Some readers of these newsgroups point out that nothing in science can ever be "proven"
and this includes evolution. According to this argument, the probability that evolution is the correct explanation of life as we know it may
approach 99.9999...9% but it will never be 100%. Thus evolution cannot be a fact.

Ferdinand Toennies
Tnnies distinguished between two types of social groupings. Gemeinschaft often translated as community refers to groupings based on
a feeling of togetherness. Gesellschaft often translated as society on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by an
instrumental goal. Gemeinschaft may by exemplified by a family or a neighbourhood; Gesellschaft by a joint-stock company or a state.
His distinction between social groupings is based on the assumption that there are only two basic forms of an actor's will, to approve of other
men. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a Gemeinschaft. The other will is the "arbitrary will" ("Krwille"): An actor sees a
social grouping as a means to further his individual goals; so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called
Gesellschaft. Whereas the membership in a Gemeinschaft is self-fulfilling, a Gesellschaft is instrumental for its members. In pure sociology
theoretically , these two normal types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology empirically they are always mixed.
Emile Durkheim
Durkheim was concerned primarily with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as
shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. In order to study social life in modern societies, Durkheim sought to
create one of the first scientific approaches to social phenomena. Along with Herbert Spencer, Durkheim was one of the first people to explain
the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in keeping the society healthy and balanced
a position that would come to be known as functionalism.
In his 1893 work The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim examined how social order was maintained in different types of societies. He
focused on the division of labor, and examined how it differed in traditional societies and modern societies[1]. Authors before him such as
Herbert Spencer or Otto von Gierke had argued that societies evolved much like living organisms, moving from a simple state to a more
complex one resembling the workings of complex machines. Durkheim reversed this formula, adding his theory to the growing pool of theories
of social progress, social evolutionism and social darwinism. He argued that traditional societies were 'mechanical' and were held together by
the fact that everyone was more or less the same, and hence had things in common. In traditional societies, argues Durkheim, the collective
consciousness entirely subsumes individual consciousnesssocial norms are strong and social behavior is well-regulated.
In modern societies, he argued, the highly complex division of labor resulted in 'organic' solidarity. Different specializations in employment and
social roles created dependencies that tied people to one another, since people no longer could count on filling all of their needs by themselves.
In 'mechanical' societies, for example, subsistence farmers live in communities which are self-sufficient and knit together by a common heritage
and common job. In modern 'organic' societies, workers earn money, and must rely on other people who specialize in certain products

(groceries, clothing, etc.) to meet their needs. The result of increasing division of labor, according to Durkheim, is that individual consciousness
emerges distinct from collective consciousnessoften finding itself in conflict with collective consciousness.
Durkheim also made an association of the kind of solidarity in a given society and the preponderance of a law system. He found that in
societies with mechanical solidarity the law is generally repressive: the agent of a crime or deviant behaviour would suffer a punishment, that
in fact would compensate collective conscience neglected by the crimethe punishment acts more to preserve the unity of consciences. On
the other hand, in societies with organic solidarity the law is generally restitutive: it aims not to punish, but instead to restitute normal activity of
a complex society.
The rapid change in society due to increasing division of labor thus produces a state of confusion with regard to norms and increasing
impersonality in social life, leading eventually to relative normlessness, i.e. the breakdown of social norms regulating behavior; Durkheim labels
this state anomie. From a state of anomie come all forms of deviant behavior, most notably suicide.
Max Weber

Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects.
Sociology seeks to formulate type concepts and generalized uniformities of empirical processes. (History, on the other hand, is interested in the
causal analysis of particular events, actions or personalities.)
Action is human behavior to which the acting individual attaches subjective meaning. It can be overt or inward and subjective. Action is social
when, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual(s), it takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby
guided. Social action may be oriented to past, present, or predicted future behavior of others.
Weber's other main contributions to economics (as well as to social sciences in general) was his work on methodology. There are two aspects
to this: his theory of Verstehen, or "Interpretative" Sociology and his theory of positivism.
His Verstehen doctrine is as well-known as it is controversial and debated. His main thesis is that social, economic and historical research can
never be fully inductive or descriptive as one must/should/does always approach it with a conceptual apparatus. This apparatus Weber
identified as the "Ideal Type". The idea was essentially this: to try to understand a particular economic or social phenomena, one must
"interpret" the actions of its participants and not only describe them. But interpretation poses us a problem for we cannot know it other than by

trying to classify behavior as belonging to some prior "Ideal Type". Weber gave us four categories of "Ideal Types" of behavior: zweckrational
(rational means to rational ends), wertrational (rational means to irrational ends), affektual (guided by emotion) and traditional (guided by
custom or habit).
Weber admitted employing "Ideal Types" was an abstraction but claimed it was nonetheless essential if one were to understand any particular
social phenomena for, unlike physical phenomena, it involved human behavior which must be understood/interpreted by ideal types.
Economists prick up your ears - for here is the methodological justification for the assumption of "rational economic man"!

Talcott Parsons
Parsons developed a theoretical system centered conceptually in equilibrium, evolutionary universalities, and the identification of properties that
are common to all societies. In his theory, societal evolution parallels biological evolution, with modem societies evidencing greater "generalized
adaptive capacity" than earlier ones (1971: 2-3). Thus, society is no less a system than are its biological and natural counterparts. For Parsons,
social systems have moved historically toward greater adaptation (adjustments that maintain the systemic order), differentiation (the
specialization of social institutions and the division of labor), upgrading (greater freedom from want), inclusion (normative diversity), and value
generalization (values that are more reflective of the needs of an increasingly complex system).
Parsons entertained the Weberian focus on social action. (See Chapter 10.) However, his theory rejects the essentially voluntaristic image of
the actor advanced by Weber in favor of the more systemic and deterministic view of Pareto.
The fundamental starting point is the concept of social systems of action. The interaction of individual actors, that
is, takes place under such conditions that it is possible to treat such a process of interaction as a system in the
scientific sense and subject it to the same order of theoretical analysis which has been successfully applied to
other types of systems in other sciences. (1951: 3)

If we focus specifically on the fourth component of the social system (repetitiously called the social system), we find that Parsons
identified the following subsystems (1971: 10-28). First is the societal community, the core subsystem that is composed
structurally of norms that "define the obligations of loyalty" to the society for its actors (1971: 12). Matters of loyalty, however, are
not matters of law. Second, we find the pattern maintenance or fiduciary subsystem composed of values that legitimate the
culture and impose moral obligations on actors. Next comes the polity subsystem made up of powerful collectivities that interpret

the sanctioned norms that are binding on society (such as the courts) or that enforce the sanctions for violations of norms (such
as the police). Finally, Parsons presents the economy subsystem of the social system, composed of the practical, rational, and
technological roles that allow the actor to effectively adapt to the environment. Practical and rational role action is regulated by
the institutions of the contract (binding agreements upheld by the power of the state) and property (both definitions and rights).

Ogos Comte (bapa Sosiologi)

Sejarah sains menunjukkan bahawa setiap sains akan melalui tiga peringkat berturut-turut: teologi, metafizik dan positif. Kemajuan melalui tiga
peringkat bukan sahaja tidak dapat dielakkan tetapi tidak dapat dipulihkan. Kemajuan juga asimptot - iaitu, kita sentiasa pendekatan, tetapi
tidak pernah mendapatkan, pengetahuan positif sempurna. Pandangan Comte ini setiap satu daripada tiga peringkat adalah seperti berikut: [1]
teologi - lelaki melihat alam semula jadi sebagai mempunyai kehendak sendiri. Peringkat ini juga mengandungi tiga peringkat. (I) animisme:
objek mempunyai kehendak mereka sendiri, (ii) syirik: wasiat suci mengenakan diri mereka pada objek dan (iii) tauhid: kehendak Allah
mengenakan dirinya pada objek. [2] metafizik - dianggap pengganti pengabstrakan untuk kehendak peribadi. Di sini, sebab-sebab dan kuasakuasa menggantikan keinginan. Dunia ini satu entiti yang besar di mana Alam wujud. Dan akhirnya [3] positif - mencari pengetahuan mutlak,
sebab yang pertama, ditinggalkan. Dalam skim ini, setiap peringkat sepadan dengan bentuk tertentu pembangunan mental. Terdapat juga
pembangunan material yang sepadan.

Charles Darwin

Teori evolusi, dirasmikan oleh Charles Darwin, adalah sebanyak teori seperti teori graviti, atau teori relativiti. Tidak seperti teori fizik, teori-teori
biologi, dan terutamanya evolusi, telah berhujah panjang dan keras dalam arena sosio-politik. Contoh evolusi yang sedia jelas termasuk
hakikat bahawa penduduk moden sentiasa berubah dan hakikat bahawa dua spesies berkait rapat berkongsi yang sama leluhur. Bukti
bahawa Homo sapiens dan cimpanzi berkongsi moyang yang sama baru-baru ini jatuh ke dalam kategori ini. Terdapat bukti yang begitu
banyak bagi menyokong aspek evolusi primat yang ia layak sebagai fakta oleh mana-mana definisi lazim perkataan "fakta." Akhir sekali,
terdapat hujah epistemologi terhadap evolusi sebagai fakta. Sesetengah pembaca newsgroup ini menunjukkan bahawa apa-apa dalam sains
boleh pernah "terbukti" dan ini termasuk evolusi.Menurut hujah ini, kebarangkalian bahawa evolusi adalah penjelasan yang betul bagi
kehidupan seperti yang kita tahu ia boleh berjumpa 99,9999 ... 9% tetapi ia tidak akan menjadi 100%. Oleh itu evolusi tidak dapat menjadi
suatu fakta.
Emile Durkheim

Durkheim bimbang terutamanya dengan bagaimana masyarakat dapat mengekalkan integriti dan kepaduan mereka dalam era moden, apabila
perkara-perkara seperti latar belakang agama dan etnik berkongsi tidak lagi boleh mengambil alih. Dalam usaha untuk mengkaji kehidupan
sosial dalam masyarakat moden, Durkheim cuba mencipta salah satu yang pertama saintifik pendekatan untuk fenomena sosial.Bersamasama dengan Herbert Spencer , Durkheim adalah salah satu orang pertama yang menjelaskan kewujudan dan kualiti bahagian-bahagian yang
berbeza dalam masyarakat dengan merujuk kepada apa fungsi mereka berkhidmat dalam mengekalkan masyarakat yang sihat dan seimbang
kedudukan yang akan datang yang dikenali sebagai fungsionalisme .
Di dalam 1893 kerja Bahagian Buruh dalam Masyarakat, Durkheim diperiksa bagaimana susunan sosial dikekalkan dalam pelbagai jenis
masyarakat. Beliau memberi tumpuan kepada pembahagian kerja , dan diperiksa bagaimana ia berbeza dalam masyarakat
tradisional dan masyarakat moden [1] . Pengarang hadapannya seperti Herbert Spencer atau Otto von Gierke berhujah bahawa masyarakat
berkembangbanyak seperti hidup organisma , bergerak dari negeri yang mudah kepada yang lebih kompleks menyerupai perjalanan mesin

kompleks. Durkheim diterbalikkan formula ini, sambil menambah teori ini kolam yang semakin meningkat teori perkembangan sosial , teori
perkembangan sosial dan Darwinisme . Beliau berhujah bahawa masyarakat tradisional itu 'mekanikal dan telah diadakan bersama-sama
dengan hakikat bahawa semua orang adalah lebih kurang sama, dan dengan itu mempunyai perkara yang sama. Dalam masyarakat
tradisional, berhujah Durkheim, yang kesedaran kolektif sepenuhnya subsumes kesedaran individu norma-norma sosial yang kuat
dan kelakuan sosial adalah dikawal selia dengan baik.

Dalam masyarakat moden, dia memperdebatkan, bahagian yang sangat kompleks buruh menyebabkan 'organik' perpaduan . Pengkhususan
yang berbeza dalam pekerjaan dan peranan sosial yang diwujudkan kebergantungan yang diikat orang untuk satu sama lain, kerana orang
ramai tidak lagi boleh bergantung kepada mengisi semua keperluan mereka dengan diri mereka sendiri. Dalam masyarakat 'mekanikal',
sebagai contoh, petani sara diri hidup dalam masyarakat yang berdikari dan bersatu bersama-sama oleh warisan bersama dan kerja
sama. Dalam masyarakat moden 'organik', pekerja mendapat wang , dan perlu bergantung kepada orang lain yang pakar dalam produk
(barangan runcit, pakaian, dan lain-lain) untuk memenuhi keperluan mereka. Hasil meningkatkan pembahagian kerja , menurut Durkheim,
adalah bahawa kesedaran individu muncul berbeza daripada kolektif kesedaran sering mencari dirinya dalam konflik dengan kesedaran
kolektif.
Durkheim juga dibuat persatuan jenis perpaduan dalam masyarakat yang diberikan dan jumlah lebih besar daripada sistem undangundang . Beliau mendapati bahawa dalam masyarakat dengan perpaduan mekanikal undang-undang umumnya menindas: ejen sesuatu
jenayah atau tingkah laku yang menyimpang akan menderita hukuman, yang sebenarnya akan memberi pampasan hati nurani kolektif
diabaikan oleh jenayah hukuman bertindak lebih kepada mengekalkan perpaduan menyedarkan itu. Sebaliknya, dalam masyarakat dengan
perpaduan organik undang-undang itu pada amnya restitutive: ia tidak bertujuan untuk menghukum, tetapi sebaliknya untuk memulangkan
aktiviti biasa masyarakat yang kompleks.
Perubahan pesat dalam masyarakat akibat perbezaan peningkatan buruh dengan itu menghasilkan keadaan kekeliruan dengan mengambil
kira norma-norma dan meningkatkan sifat umum dalam kehidupan sosial, yang membawa akhirnya kepada saudara normlessness , iaitu
pecahan norma-norma sosial yang mengawal selia tingkah laku; Durkheim label negeri ini anomie . Dari keadaan anomie datang semua
bentuk tingkah laku yang menyimpang , terutama membunuh diri .

Max Weber

Sosiologi adalah sains yang cuba memahami tafsiran tindakan sosial untuk tiba di penjelasan kasual sudah tentu dan kesannya. Sosiologi
bertujuan untuk merumuskan konsep jenis dan keseragaman umum proses empirikal. (Sejarah, di sisi lain, berminat dalam analisis sebab dan
akibat yang peristiwa tertentu, tindakan atau personaliti.)
Tindakan adalah tingkah laku manusia untuk mana individu yang bertindak melekat makna subjektif. Ia boleh secara terang-terangan atau
masuk dan subjektif. Tindakan adalah sosial apabila, menurut kuasa makna subjektif yang melekat padanya oleh individu yang bertindak (s), ia
mengambil kira tingkah laku orang lain dan dengan itu mendapat petunjuk. Tindakan sosial yang berorientasikan ke masa lalu, sekarang, atau
tingkah laku masa depan meramalkan orang lain.
Sumbangan Weber lain utama kepada ekonomi (dan juga untuk sains sosial secara umum) adalah kerja-kerja mengenai metodologi. Terdapat
dua aspek kepada ini: teori verstehen, atau "interpretasi" Sosiologi dan teori positivisme.
Doktrin verstehen beliau adalah seperti yang terkenal kerana ia adalah kontroversi dan dibahaskan. Tesis utama ialah bahawa kajian sosial,
ekonomi dan sejarah tidak boleh induktif sepenuhnya atau perihalan sebagaimana seseorang mesti / harus / tidak sentiasa pendekatan
dengan alat konsep. Radas ini Weber dikenal pasti sebagai "Jenis Ideal". Idea ini pada dasarnya ini: untuk cuba memahami fenomena
ekonomi atau sosial tertentu, seseorang mesti "mentafsir" tindakan peserta dan bukan sahaja menggambarkan mereka. Tetapi tafsiran
menimbulkan masalah kita kerana kita tidak dapat tahu selain daripada cuba untuk mengelaskan tingkah laku sebagai milik beberapa
terdahulu "Jenis Ideal". Weber memberi kami empat kategori "Jenis Ideal" tingkah laku: zweckrational (cara rasional untuk hujung
rasional),wertrational (cara rasional untuk hujung tidak rasional), affektual (berpandukan emosi) dan tradisional (berpandukan adat atau tabiat).
Weber mengakui menggunakan "Jenis Ideal" telah abstraksi tetapi mendakwa ia adalah tetap penting jika seseorang itu untuk memahami apaapa fenomena sosial tertentu untuk, tidak seperti fenomena fizikal, ia melibatkan tingkah laku manusia yang perlu difahami / ditafsirkan oleh
jenis ideal. Ahli ekonomi memasang telinga anda - untuk di sini adalah justifikasi metodologi untuk andaian "manusia ekonomi rasional"!

Talcott Parsons

Parsons membangunkan sistem teori yang berpusatkan konsep dalam keseimbangan, universalities evolusi, dan pengenalpastian ciri-ciri yang
sama kepada semua masyarakat. Dalam teori beliau, evolusi masyarakat selari evolusi biologi, dengan masyarakat modem yang membuktikan
lebih besar "kapasiti umum penyesuaian" berbanding yang sebelum ini (1971: 2-3). Oleh itu, masyarakat tidak kurang sistem daripada rakanrakan adalah biologi dan semula jadi. Untuk Parsons, sistem sosial telah berpindah sejarah ke arah penyesuaian yang lebih besar (pelarasan
yang mengekalkan perintah itu sistemik), pembezaan (pengkhususan institusi sosial dan pembahagian tenaga pekerja), menaik taraf
(kebebasan yang lebih besar daripada meminta), kemasukan (kepelbagaian normatif), dan nilai generalisasi (nilai-nilai yang lebih
mencerminkan keperluan sistem yang semakin kompleks).
Parsons dilayan tumpuan Weber mengenai tindakan sosial. (Lihat Bab 10.) Walau bagaimanapun, teori beliau menolak imej dasarnya
voluntaristic pelakon yang dikemukakan oleh Weber memihak kepada pandangan yang lebih sistemik dan berketentuan Pareto.
Titik asas permulaan adalah konsep sistem sosial tindakan. Interaksi pelaku individu, iaitu, berlaku di bawah apaapa syarat bahawa ia adalah mungkin untuk merawat seperti proses tindakan antara sebagai sistem dalam erti
kata yang saintifik dan tertakluk kepada perintah yang sama analisis teori yang telah berjaya digunakan untuk lain
jenis sistem dalam sains lain. (1951: 3)

Jika kita memberi tumpuan khusus kepada komponen keempat dalam sistem sosial (repetitiously dipanggil sistem sosial), kita
dapati bahawa Parsons dikenalpasti subsistem berikut (1971: 10-28). Pertama adalah masyarakat masyarakat, subsistem teras
yang terdiri struktur norma yang "menentukan kewajipan kesetiaan" kepada masyarakat untuk pelakon itu (1971: 12). Perkaraperkara
kesetiaan,
bagaimanapun,
tidak
adalah
perkara-perkara
undang-undang. Kedua,
kita
dapati penyelenggaraan corak atau subsistem fidusiari terdiri daripada nilai-nilai yang sah budaya dan mengenakan kewajipan
moral pada pelakon. Seterusnya datang subsistem tatanegara terdiri daripada collectivities kuat yang mentafsirkan norma
dibenarkan yang mengikat masyarakat (seperti mahkamah) atau yang menguatkuasakan sekatan kerana melanggar norma
(seperti polis). Akhir sekali, Parsons membentangkan subsistem ekonomi sistem sosial, terdiri daripada praktikal, rasional, dan

teknologi peranan yang membolehkan pelakon untuk berkesan menyesuaikan diri dengan alam sekitar. Praktikal dan rasional
tindakan peranan dikawal oleh institusi kontrak (perjanjian didukung oleh kuasa kerajaan mengikat) dan hartanah (kedua-dua
definisi dan hak).