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ISSN: 0740-817X print / 1545-8830 online
DOI: 10.1080/0740817X.2011.593609
Lean manufacturing is about eliminating waste, which requires the creation of waste metrics that are tracked in order to create
the conditions for its elimination. In this article, metrics used to monitor the seven traditional non-value adding wastes types of
overproduction, defects, transportation, waiting, inventory, motion, and processing are explored and a center point metric pair is
proposed that can give systematic insight into system waste performance and trade-offs. For example, lower work-in-process levels
(inventory waste) may require more replenishment (transportation waste) in order to maintain production. A waste relationship model
is proposed that can be used to derive the relationship between different wastes in a Pareto-optimal waste-dependent lean system.
The trade-off relationships are statistically verified using simulation experiments across different system configurations, complexities,
and planning scenarios.
Keywords: Lean manufacturing, waste relationships, performance metrics, trade-offs, decision making
1. Introduction
Lean manufacturing emphasizes value creation by eliminating waste. Waste consists of non-value-adding activities
that contribute to the product cost and for which the customer is unwilling to pay. Eliminating waste can reduce
product costs and improve quality, but it is not possible
to completely eliminate waste even in an efficient system
whose operations are waste dependent (that is, has waste
as a part of its functionality). It is therefore necessary to
understand the waste relationships in order to minimize
system waste to the lowest possible level.
In lean manufacturing, seven types of waste have been
defined (Womack et al., 1991).
1. Overproduction (production ahead of demand).
2. Defects (any product/service that the customer is unwilling to accept).
3. Transportation (moving products when it is not actually
required to perform a processing step).
4. Waiting (any resources/materials staying idle).
5. Inventory (materials not being completely transformed).
6. Motion (resources moving more than is required to
transform the material).
7. Processing (unnecessary or processing over the minimum necessary for material transformation).
Corresponding author
C 2012 IIE
0740-817X
137
rior center point metric that is highly correlated with other
system waste types. They verified its efficacy using simple
correlation analysis; however, this approach only provides
the direction and degree of linear relationships.
In this article, the center point metric concept is more
rigorously examined using regression analysis, which provides additional insight into the system sensitivity. The first
metric of the pair is a metric that receives strong signals
from the system or magnifies the effect of changes or abnormalities in the system and is termed the Detection Center point Metric (DCM). The DCM is highly correlated to
other waste types and it can be used to monitor the system
performance. The second metric of the pair sends strong
signals to the system and is termed the Pivot Center point
Metric (PCM). Small changes in the PCM are magnified
in other system waste types, and it can be used for system
waste optimization or system design and decision making. The best center point metric pair will be determined
through statistical evaluation of system waste responses.
This article proposes a waste relationship model that
can be used for decision-making about trade-offs with the
objective to reduce all waste types to the minimum possible level in a waste-dependent efficient system without
jeopardizing its intended functionality. Moreover, this article identifies, develops, and integrates a set of metrics;
determines the waste relationship; and statistically verifies
the proposed waste relationship and the center point metric across different production planning scenarios and different manufacturing system complexities. The following
sections of this article elaborate further on the research
methodology, quantification of the wastes using metrics,
derivation of the waste relationships, and statistical verification of the waste relationship model and the center point
metric using simulation experiments.
2. Methodology
A three-step methodology was followed in this research.
First, the literature on lean manufacturing was reviewed to
define waste types and explore potential metrics. Second,
the logical relationship between waste types was mapped
using concept mapping and a relationship model was developed. Finally, the model was statistically tested using
discrete-event simulation to determine the trends in the
magnitude and direction between the waste relationships.
Note that an absolute measure of the relationship between
the waste types is not the intent of this analysis.
The review of current research in lean manufacturing
identified a few shortcomings in existing research such as
the lack of simple, shop floorfeasible dedicated metrics
to quantify waste. Next, concept mapping was selected to
assimilate the relationships between waste types, which is
a powerful technique for the graphical representation of
knowledge. Moreover, it is a technique that can aid in the
understanding of relationship concepts (in this case, an
identified waste) with other concepts (other waste types).
138
Definition
Defects
3. Metrics
Metrics for measuring waste in a manufacturing systems
should be easy to collect and simple to understand. To be
useful to decision-making processes in manufacturing industries, metrics must be feasible for collection on a real,
dynamic manufacturing shop floor. In addition, the number of metrics should be kept to a minimum in order to keep
the data collection costs as low as possible and to minimize
the time necessary to understand what is happening in the
system.
Many manufacturing performance metrics can be identified in the research literature, but few are both feasible
and simple. A table of proposed waste metrics identified
in the literature is summarized and reviewed in Gopinath
and Freiheit (2009). Performance metrics have been developed in different contexts such as lean manufacturing,
total productive maintenance, and theory of constraints.
Unfortunately, many of these metrics cannot be used directly to measure shop floor performance because they
are too general (provide global measures), require overly
complicated calculations (e.g., dock-to-dock as defined by
Khadem et al. (2006)), or do not capture waste as defined
by lean manufacturing, even though, as in machine reliability, they are good performance indicators. In some
cases, metrics are better suited for computer simulation
models than direct shop floor measurements; e.g., build-toschedule (Khadem et al., 2006). Additionally, some shop
floor performance metrics provide superfluous or redundant information and make things look unnecessarily complex.
Table 1 summarizes how waste types are defined in
this article, and Table 2 summarizes the proposed waste
metrics. The defects (A) waste metric should measure
anything that is unacceptable for the customer. Therefore,
the metric proposed by Rother and Shook (1999) quantifies
the waste by providing the percentage of unacceptable
Waste
Defects
Overproduction
Motion
Transportation
Waiting (customer)
Waiting (machine)
Waiting (operator)
InventoryWarehouse
InventoryWork-in-progress
Metric
all MC
1 T
T 0
Tm
T
F Tt
T
Tw
T
Si
P
F Idt
Processing
T
0
N
1
N
i =1
MC TRi
nT
Tw + Tm
T
WHdt
all WI P
all WI P
all
Definition
1
T
C p , C pk
139
not considered in this model as it is specific to particular
manufacturing processes. Rawabdeh (2005) also has similar views on processing waste. Whether a waste type has a
direct or inverse relationship with another waste type can
be obtained by multiplying the signs on the path between
them. For example, the relationship between overproduction (B) and WIP (J) is obtained by multiplying the 1
+1 +1 +1 = 1, showing that it has an inverse
relationship.
Values
B1
B2
LT
D1
V1
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
CT1
CT2
CT3
CT4
CT5
ROP1
ROP2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
30
4
90
1900
265
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
4
4.3
4
3.9
4.2
30
15
90
95
97.5
90
95
Units
Units
Min
Ft
Ft/min
%
%
%
%
%
%
Min
Min
Min
Min
Min
Units
Units
%
%
%
%
%
140
Fig. 1. A concept map of logical waste relationships. (Color figure available online.)
141
142
the workstations pick the parts from their respective WIP
buffers and process them. Operator 1 loads, unloads, and
transfers parts between workstations 1, 2, and 3 and operator 2 controls workstations 4 and 5. Finally, the customer
consumes from the finished goods inventory.
The simple model has the same features as the abovedescribed model except for the number of resources. It has
two machines and one operator to load, unload, and transfer between them. In contrast, the complex model has eight
machines and three operators. The increase in the resources
complicates the material flow and increases the overall system complexity. All models are considered to be efficient
because the resources were saturated to the maximum possible level, line balanced, made highly reliable, use pull
signals to control the excess inventory build-up, and the
system was operated close to the takt time. At the same
time, stochasticity was introduced into the system to replicate the real, dynamic environment, such as resource failure
patterns following an exponential distribution, demand following a Poisson distribution, and process times following
a triangular distribution. While these models are appropriate to explore the relationship between the waste types, this
simulation model is limited to efficient waste-dependent
lean systems.
Each complexity simulation run was performed across
three different production planning time horizons, namely,
Long-Term Steady State (LTSS), Short-Term (ST), and
Production Ramp-up (PR). The LTSS (truncated replication steady state) was run for 249 600 min of production
time (representing a year) for 30 replications using Arena.
System performance statistics were collected after a 4800min warm-up to avoid the initialization biases. The ST simulation was run for 4800 min after a 4800-min warm-up for
30 replications, whereas the PR simulation used terminating replications and was run for a total time of 4800 min
without clearing the initial statistics. The waste responses
from the simulation model were normalized in order to
address slope magnitude variation because waste response
magnitudes can vary significantly.
A test for Pareto optimality was conducted on the simple model to ensure that the selected system parameters
showed appropriate trade-off relationships. The waste types
were minimized by integrating the Arena simulation software with the optimization toolbox of MATLAB. Ten system parameters, consisting of the independent variables
operator transfer time, machine cycle times, finished inventory re-order point, supplier lead time, operator cycle time,
warehouse re-order point, internal batch size, warehouse
order batch size, and transporter scrap rate, were numerically optimized using the MATLAB fmincon function to
minimize the objective function of the weighted sum of
the simulation response waste metrics. The variation of the
simulation model was controlled by using random number seeds, steady-state truncated replication simulation
strategy, and averaging the waste function value from five
replications. The system parameters for the waste relation-
(1)
(2)
143
Complexity
Demand
Other
54
4
43
17
64
19
65
3
32
19
8
73
21
0
79
13
0
87
64
3
33
73
2
25
14
10
76
47
9
44
144
overproduction (B) response waste. The WIP (J) and motion (C) response waste exhibits an opposite behavior, with
low complexity increasing WIP and motion waste response
and high complexity decreasing them. The waste response
shows a trade-off between internal (WIP) (J) and finished
goods inventory (B) when going from low to high complexity. The pattern of motion (C) response waste follows directly from the simulation models, where for low complexity
there is one operator for two stations, for intermediate there
are two operators for five stations complexity, and for high
complexity there are three operators for eight stations.
Table 4 also shows that, as expected, overproduction
(B) is most influenced by demand because finished inventory, its metric, acts as a cushion for demand fluctuation. Likewise, other inventory waste measures such as
warehouse (I) and WIP (J) are also influenced by demand.
The demand coefficients, Fig. 6(b), are much higher than
the complexity coefficients, indicating a strong coupling
of demand to inventory waste. The demand coefficients
for the response wastes of both overproduction (B) and
WIP (J) were both large and had mixed signs depending on the predictor waste. When defects (A), motion (C),
and transportation (D) were predictor wastes, demand increased over-production (B) and WIP (J) response waste.
This is because these predictor wastes are tightly coupled
with higher production volumes. The demand coefficients
for the other response wastes were of similar magnitude for
each predictor waste.
5.3. Pair-wise linear regression of waste relationships
A pair-wise linear regression analysis was performed where
each waste response from the simulation experiments was
used to predict every other waste response to understand
their relationship. The regression analysis provides a slope
whose direction determines whether the relationship is direct or inverse, and a magnitude which determines the
strength of the relationship. The regression also provides
an adjusted R2 , which, as a measure of the models fit, provides an estimate of how effective a given waste is in predicting changes in another waste. Equation (1) is the pair-wise
waste relationship model used for this regression analysis.
Tables 5 and 6 summarize the slope and adjusted R2 values derived for the time horizon of the LTSS. As can be
145
146
A
1
0.58
1.08
1.02
1.10
0.53
1.00
1.08
0.95
0.75
B
0.69
1
0.82
0.78
0.90
0.47
0.77
0.82
0.74
0.79
C
0.86
0.55
1
0.95
1.02
0.48
0.94
1.00
0.88
0.71
E
0.83
0.57
0.97
0.92
1
0.47
0.91
0.97
0.86
0.70
0.90
0.57
1.05
1
1.08
0.50
0.99
1.06
0.93
0.75
F
1.08
0.79
1.21
1.13
1.26
1
1.12
1.20
1.11
1.10
G
0.91
0.58
1.06
1.01
1.09
0.50
1
1.07
0.94
0.76
H
0.86
0.54
1.00
0.95
1.02
0.47
0.94
1
0.88
0.71
I
0.86
0.56
1.00
0.95
1.03
0.50
0.94
1.01
1
0.76
J
0.81
0.71
0.95
0.90
0.99
0.58
0.89
0.95
0.90
1
seen, the magnitude of the slopes and the fit of the relationships between the wastes are not symmetric, whereas
the directions are perfectly symmetric between the wastes.
Consider waiting customer (E) and waiting material (F)
wastes. While their direction relationship is direct, positive, and symmetric, their magnitude relationship is nonsymmetric because the two wastes change in a dissimilar
rate with respect to each other; i.e., one or more of the
wastes are non-linear. In this case, waiting customer waste
changes at a rate 1.26 times that of the waiting material
change, whereas the waiting material waste only changes
by 0.47 times. In other words, waiting material waste is less
sensitive to change than waiting customer waste is.
The slope magnitudes and directions were found to be
uniformly consistent across the RU, ST, and LTSS production planning time horizons. Figure 7 shows an example of
the variation in predictor waste coefficients and adjusted
R2 for customer waiting (E) and WIP (J) response wastes.
As can be seen, the variation in slopes between the time
frames is generally small, less than 1020%, with only a
few predictor wastes such as defects (A) and material waiting (F) having larger variation. These two predictor wastes
are relatively rare events in the simulation model, as can be
seen by their poorer model fit at shorter time frames.
0.85
0.93
0.94
0.93
0.62
0.94
0.93
0.86
0.73
0.48
0.51
0.58
0.61
0.44
0.59
0.54
0.54
0.70
0.94
0.86
1.00
0.99
0.62
1.00
1.00
0.91
0.78
0.93
0.86
1.00
0.99
0.61
1.00
1.00
0.91
0.78
0.92
0.88
0.99
0.99
0.64
0.99
0.99
0.91
0.79
0.63
0.84
0.63
0.67
0.67
0.68
0.65
0.65
0.76
0.92
0.86
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.61
1.00
0.91
0.78
0.93
0.86
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.62
1.00
0.91
0.78
0.84
0.85
0.90
0.92
0.90
0.61
0.92
0.91
0.79
0.66
0.89
0.71
0.76
0.76
0.68
0.76
0.73
0.76
147
148
the difference between the waste slopes was compared in order to identify the wastes that send and receive the strongest
signals to and from the system. Finally, the magnitude of
the predictive sensitivity difference was also compared.
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, r ,
were determined and compared for all waste pairs in order to obtain the center point metric candidates. A Pearson
coefficient ranges from +1 to 0 to 1, indicating relationships that are perfectly linear and direct to unrelated to
perfectly linear and inverse, respectively. Correlation coefficients are not directly comparable because they ignore
the inherent variance of the sample, so they must be transformed into a normally distributed variable using a Fisher
z-transformation (Shen and Lu, 2006):
1 + r
1
.
(3)
r = loge
2
1r
The statistical comparison methodology suggested by
Wuensch et al. (2002) was used to compare the correlation coefficients as well as the slope and predictive slope
magnitudes of different wastes. The transformed correlation coefficients, r , can now be directly compared using a
statistical z-test:
ri r j
.
(4)
z=
(1/(n i 3)) + (1/(n j 3))
Table 7 summarizes the number of times a predictor
waste had a significantly higher correlation coefficient to
a response waste than the other predictor wastes. The z
statistic is used as the t in a one-tailed t-test conducted at
a 95% confidence level for the LTSS production planning
scenario. The top five candidates with the highest count of
correlations that are statistically significantly higher than
other wastes are motion (C), transportation (D), waiting
customer (E), waiting machine (G), and waiting operator
(H), which were significantly higher approximately 57% of
the time. The number of waste types that tested significantly
higher was found to be similar for all three production planning scenario time frames.
Table 7. Correlation analysisdetection center point metric
(LTSS)
Predictors
Responses
A B C D E F G H I J Sum
Defects (A)
Overproduction (B)
Motion (C)
Transportation (D)
Waiting customer (E)
Waiting material (F)
Waiting machine (G)
Waiting operator (H)
Warehouse inventory (I)
WIP inventory (J)
0
1
8
8
8
3
8
8
8
3
7
0
7
7
8
7
7
7
7
8
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
3
0
1
0
0
1
0
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
5
4
0
0
4
5
1
1
1
0
6
6
8
0
6
6
6
2
0
0
2
1
2
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
2
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
4
4
2
2
4
5
0
1
2
0
6
6
6
3
6
6
6
0
10
1
39
39
40
21
38
43
29
19
i j
.
si j
(7)
For both the slope and predictive slope, the DCM candidate
wastes ranked as having the highest number of significant
better differences are (i) waiting customer (E) (100% and
97% of the slope and predictive slope, respectively, were
higher in their paired comparison); (ii) waiting operator
(H) (86% and 76%); (iii) motion (C) (76% and 69%); and
(iv) transportation (D) (60% and 58%). The PCM candidate wastes ranked as having the highest number of significant differences are (i) waiting material (F) (100% and 42%
for slope and predictive slope, respectively); (ii) defects (A)
(74% and 56%); (iii) waiting machine (G) (65% and 81%);
and (iv) transportation (D) (56% and 72%). As can be seen,
weighting the slope for its model fit reduces the attractiveness of some candidate wastes. In fact, motion performed
better than material waiting with a count of significantly
better predictive slope differences of 43%.
Taking into account the correlation, slope, and predictive
slope significant difference counts for the LTSS planning
period, the top three DCM candidates are waiting customer
(E), waiting operator (H), and motion (C), whereas the top
three PCM candidates are waiting machine (G), defects
(A), and transportation (D). While waiting material (F)
was a promising PCM candidate because of its high slopes,
as can be seen by inspecting Table 5, its model fit is poor
and was eliminated from the finalists.
The difference in the magnitude of the slope and predictive slope for the DCM was then calculated using Equation
(8), where Ri2 is set to one for the slope difference and set
to the adjusted R2 for the predictive slope difference. In
j
this equation, k is the coefficient for predictive waste j for
j
candidate response k, whereas i is the coefficient for the
same predictive waste j for all other response wastes i . This
difference represents how much stronger a candidate waste
149
150
Table 8. Contribution (in %) of factors with an inverse relationship to DCM slope variation
Predictor waste j
Demand
Complexity
Response waste
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Other
11.2
14.1
5.7
9.1
5.0
1.6
4.8
1.4
12.7
10.3
9.4
33.3
10.2
11.0
10.5
11.7
4.7
61.4
33.0
42.9
3.4
0.7
6.4
12.8
5.8
0.0
45.6
4.3
1.3
8.0
16.1
6.0
0.0
49.6
3.9
1.5
7.7
15.6
5.6
0.0
59.4
3.9
1.5
7.7
15.6
5.6
0.0
59.4
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
76.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
57.1
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
78.4
0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
77.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
33.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
24.1
receives a signal from the predictive waste. Figure 8 illustrates this difference for the three finalist candidate wastes
and indicates that for both slope and predictive slope, customer waiting (E) receives the strongest signal from the
predictive wastes.
j
j
i, k = j.
(8)
DCM = Rk2 k Ri2 i ,
Similar to the DCM, the predictor waste j that sends the
strongest signal to response wastes can be calculated for
the PCM, Equation (9)
PCM = Rk2 ki R2j ij ,
j, k = i,
(9)
where in this equation, ki is the coefficient for candidate k
predictive waste for response waste i and ij is the coefficient for all other predictive waste j for the same response
waste i . Figure 9 illustrates this difference for the three finalist PCM candidates. While defects (A) sends the strongest
signal to the response wastes, second only to material waiting (F), when weighing for the regression model fit, waiting
machine (G) waste is a more favorable PCM.
This analysis indicates that the best DCM is customer
waiting (E) and the best PCM is waiting machine (G). The
ST and RU planning scenarios generally yield the same
conclusion as the LTSS. The PCM predictive slope analysis
conducted for the ST planning scenario found transportation (D) to be the best PCM, although it was only a little
better than waiting machine (G) in terms of sending strong
signals to the system. However, this result may be due to
unknown outliers or noise in the model. Therefore, it is suggested that transportation waste should not be discounted
as a PCM for short-term planning.
Table 9. Contribution (in %) of factors with a direct relationship to DCM slope variation
Predictor waste j
Demand
Complexity
Response waste
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Other
13.9
13.6
15.2
11.7
6.9
28.8
12.6
16.7
1.7
7.1
20.5
43.3
1.0
3.7
10.9
57.5
100.0
100.0
0.0
21.8
78.3
3.3
5.0
8.3
17.3
29.2
29.9
0.0
21.2
78.9
0.0
21.2
78.9
10.4
60.8
3.6
1.8
3.5
12.6
49.2
151
152
6. Discussion
This article assumes that the only noise factors in a system are demand and complexity. However, real, dynamic
manufacturing systems have many potential noise factors.
The sources of variance outlined in Table 4 support that
only demand and complexity are noise factors in this articles simulation models. Wastes such as defects (A), motion
(C), waiting machine (G), waiting operator (H), and WIP
(J) are significantly affected by complexity because it is assumed that increased system complexity can be modeled as
increases in the number of machines, interspersed buffers,
scrap accumulation locations, and operators. However, this
assumption may not hold in all cases. For instance, system
complexity may increase as a result of complex material
flow, resource movement, or batch size. Moreover, all waste
types in this article are equally weighted, which may not reveal accumulation of the most critical costs in the system
that could be understood if the wastes were weighted by using financial metrics. The PCM, which is only identified in
this article, has the potential for effective system waste cost
minimization and prevention when used with the financial
metrics.
The objective of this article was to find the waste types
that are most coupled to other wastes in the system. The
waste types are not only sensitive to system noise such as
complexity and demand but are also sensitive to variation
in other wastes. Two tests for robustness of the DCM were
conducted. First, the contribution of noise to waste response variation was evaluated and, second, ANOVA tests
were conducted on the predictive waste slopes. Equation
(10) is the regression model used to calculate the response
variable, j , for the ANOVA factors of noise (complexity
and demand) and the other predictor wastes. The response
waste Wi was kept constant for the ANOVA tests. The responses were separated out for the direct relationships (positive slopes) and the inverse relationships (negative slopes)
to prevent the misleading conclusion that results from aggregating all of the waste slopes.
Wi = 0 + j Wj + .
(10)
Table 4 shows the effect of noise factors on waste responses. It can be observed that most of the variation in
the DCM (waiting customer (E)) is due to factors other
than noise. This is desirable because the DCM should be
as independent as possible from sources of noise. Second,
Tables 8 and 9 show the percentage contribution of different system factors and noise to the waste slope variations.
Robust wastes, i.e., those that have lower sensitivity to variations in the system, have a high percentage in the other
field, as higher unexplained variation indicates that waste is
insensitive to other factors and most of its slope variation is
due to inherent random variation. By this measure, waiting
customer waste is a robust metric, performing as well or
better as any other waste.
max( j ) min( j )
F.
E( j )
(11)
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the support of the Canadian Auto21
Network Centres of Excellence and the University of
Calgary.
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Appendix
Notation
WS
PI
TR
WIP
I
FI
S
WH
O
CU
MC
Util
Sat
SU
F
n
MCi
P
Si
T
Tm
TRi
Tt
Tw
i, j
n i /n j
Si /j
b
ri
MSEi /j
0
j Wj
Wi
1
2
Workstation
Inventory from previous station
Transportation resource
Work-in-process inventory
Inspection
Finished inventory
Ship
Warehouse inventory
Operator
Customer
Machine
Utilization
Saturation
Supplier
Transportation frequency
Number of machines, buffers, or workers
i th Machining center or workstation
Total units produced
Scrap from the i th machining center
Total horizon time
Time spent in motion
i th Machine operation time
Transportation time
Idle or waiting time
Wastes
Number of samples with respect to the waste i /j
Standard error with respect to the waste i /j
Slope with respect to the waste
Transformed correlation coefficient
Mean squared error
Regression constant
Slope of the predictor waste Predictor waste
Response waste in the simple linear regression
Error term in the regression equation
Regression coefficient of complexity
Regression coefficient of demand
Biographies
Sainath Gopinath received an M.Sc. degree in Mechanical Engineering
from the University of Calgary, Canada, in 2010; an M.S. degree in
Industrial Management from the Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden,
154
in 2008; and a B.Eng. degree in Production Engineering from Anna
University, India, in 2005. He has been a Manufacturing Engineer at Lean
Manufacturing Engineer at Magna International since 2010. His research
interests include manufacturing systems, competitive manufacturing, and
statistical engineering.
Theodor Freiheit is an Associate Professor in the Department of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering at the University of
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