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PRINCIPLES
OF
TRANSFORMER DESIGN
*
BY
ALFRED STILL
M.lNST.C.E.,
FEL.A,L!E., M.I.E.E.
FIRST EDITION
NEW YORK:
WILEY
& SONS,
JOHN
LONDON:
INC.
LIMITED
7
Engineering
Library
J
COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY
ALFRED STILL
PHE88 OF
N. V.
PREFACE
trical
engineering
method
has
of presentation
the writer
led
to
follow
the
when
this
involves
the
introduction
of
additional
in the
Electrical
in this
World;
LAFAYETTE, IND.
January, 1919
iii
in print.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE
iii
LIST OF SYMBOLS.
ix
CHAPTER
ELEMENTARY THEORY.
TYPES.
CONSTRUCTION
ART.
1.
Introductory
2.
Elementary Theory
of
Transformer
6.
Polyphase Transformers
Problems of Design
7.
8.
Types
9.
Mechanical Stresses
5.
of Transformers.
in
6
10
12
13
Construction
17
Transformers
CHAPTER
14
24
II
The
11.
40
12.
Capacities in Series
Surface Leakage
42
13.
Dielectric Circuit
32
46
14. Practical
15.
51
48
52
54
18. Oil-filled
57
19.
62
Bushing
Condenser-type Bushing
CONTENTS
VI
CHAPTER
III
21. Efficiency
22.
23.
73
80
24. Cooling
25.
26.
27.
69
79
88
91
Tank ...
94
98
28. Self-cooling
103
29.
30.
105
106
CHAPTER
IV
REACTANCE.
REGULATION
Magnetic Leakage
107
Magnetic Leakage on Voltage Regulation
109
Experimental Determination of the Leakage Reactance of a
Transformer
114
32. Effect of
33.
Drop
117
Diagram Showing
Effect
of
25
Magnetic Leakage on
132
CHAPTER V
PROCEDURE IN TRANSFORMER DESIGN
37.
138
38. Specifications
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
Number
140
Turns in Windings
Procedure to Determine Dimensions of a New Design
Space Factors
Weight and Cost of Transformers
Numerical Example
Estimate of
of
141
149
151
151
154
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Vli
VI
J 77
Low
Voltages
48. Auto-transformers
49. Induction Regulators
PAGE
i?7
i?8
183
JQ 1
*97
LIST OF SYMBOLS
,4= area
of equipotential
(sq. cm.).
B = magnetic
Bam
b
is
= total
volts
Cmf = capacity
c=a
IN
,r
in microfarads.
coefficient
E= e.m.f.
cm.).
value.
1= virtual value
of induced volts in
primary
=E Xjr]
2
Ee
primary
voltage
equivalent
(*
IX
to
secondary
terminal
e.m.f.
voltage
LIST OF SYMBOLS
-Ez =irhpressed
is
short-circuited.
e=e.m.f. (volts).
F= force
(dynes).
/= frequency
G=^
= potential
g= distance
coils, in
per cm.
= balancing
component
of
= Is
primary current
\Tp/
Ic = current in the portion of an auto-transformer winding
to both primary and secondary circuits.
Ie
= total
/o =
"
wattless
"
component
of I e (magnetizing
= 8.84Xio- 14
' 1
>
common
I e (" in-phase
cube = the
component).
"
component).
-Ki>=kilovolts.
ki= (refer
1= length
/=mean
(cms.).
c,oil.
'
;c
/i
LIST OF
SYMBOLS
xi
along flux
lines.
W=27T/XlO~
n=A
(in
of half
primary
coil in
core), Ibs.
R = resistance (ohms).
Ri = resistance of primary winding (ohms).
R2 = resistance of secondary winding (ohms).
Rh =
"
Rp
=
equivalent primary resistance Ri+R 2 [=-
thermal ohms."
IT P \
= ratio
S = effective cooling
5
= thickness
T = number
= number
Ti
T (auto-transformers).
J-T
circuits
to both
secondary
primary group
of
coils
adjacent to
coil.
primary coil.
Td = difference of temperature (degrees centigrade).
To = initial oil temperature.
T p = number of turns in primary winding.
Ts = number of turns in secondary winding.
7\ = oil temperature at end of time t m minutes.
= thickness (usually inches).
= interval of time (seconds).
m = interval of time (minutes).
/
Vt
= volts
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xii
W = power (watts).
W = full-load copper loss (watts).
c
losses (watts).
of (effective)
tank surface.
(laminated) core.
Xi = reactance (ohms)
Xp = reactance
reactance.
ZD = impedance (ohms) on
short circuit.
circuit).
* = magnetic
PRINCIPLES
OF
TRANSFORMER DESIGN
CHAPTER
even 6600
volts, is
of
1.
up
small
lighting
to 2200 volts, or
The items
The
perature
(2)
iron
and copper
losses;
efficiency,
and tem-
rise;
The
importance;
of the designer.
knowledge and
The problems
skill
on the part
and pro-
of insulation
flux
on
short-circuits,
or
heavy over
and damage
to insulation.
we
Since
it is
single-
phase alternating current transformer consists essentially of a core of laminated iron upon which are wound
two
secondary windings,
grammatically in Fig.
known
i.
and
(<J>)
of alternating
magnetism
in the iron
,1=
7olta
FIG.
i.
although not in electrical connection with the primary are wound on the same iron core, the variations
of
a closed
iron circuit
of
There will
the exciting ampere- turns shall be small.
flux
be
some
set
the
which
does
always
up by
primary
not link with the secondary, but the amount of
flux
leakage
is
and
in
any
this
case
it is
would be unsatisfactory
tion will
in practice;
now be made
that
the whole
the flux
of
coils,
In other words,
he
coils.
secondary
terminals.
The
total
is
flux
<i>
maxwells
its
is,
_
-'-'average
where
Tp
Tr>8
number
OilS,
of turns in the
primary
wimding.
If
we assume
is
I0 8
The
to
these condi-
\
FIG.
2.
Vector Diagram
o'f
Unloaded Transformer.
the primary.
This total primary exciting current can
be thought of as consisting of two components: the
"
"
wattless
component 01'o which is the true magnetiz-
ing current, in phase with the flux; and OIW (which owes
its existence to hysteresis and eddy current losses)
in
exactly 90
in the
of the flux.
The volts induced
OE\ drawn 90 behind OB to reprequarter period. The voltage that must
advance
primary are
made up
opposite to
the primary
is
OEP
of
the
where R\
is
The
I e Ri
this
practice
negligible,
same as
E'i,
it
>
(approximately).
(10)
(approximately),
(ib)
Similarly,
E.s=
where
and
J ~~-
number
Tp
E9 T
E T
of turns in secondary.
1?
which
is
approximately true in
transformers
current,
all
well-designed static
current,
3.
when no
(2)
'
is
When
secondary terminals,
it is
necessary to bear in
mind that
by the
the flux
<f>
at no load.
is
met by a
of
it
I.T^LT,,
is
(3)
approximately correct.
Thus,
is
!,
p
J-
The
where
L is
primary
Ev
by the
hysteresis
is
the
FIG. 3.
The curve
of magnetization (not
shown) would
ary Circuit.
in
advance
or secondary, e.m.f.
In Fig. 4, the secondary circuit
of the induced,
is supposed to be closed
on a non-inductive load, and the secondary current,
Is will, therefore, be in phase with the secondary
e.m.f.
of the
duce a change in the magnetization of the core, the current in the primary will immediately adjust itself so as
to maintain the same (or nearly the same) cycle of magnetization as on open circuit; that is to say, the flux
FIG. 4.
impressed potential cjifference. The new curve of primary current, Iv (Fig. 4), is therefore obtained by adding
the ordinates of the current curve of Fig. 3 to those of
another curve exactly opposite in phase to the secondary
10
current,
and
of
netizing effect.
is
shown
in Fig.
5.
In
El
FIG.
will
I>
5.
I.
E2
The
be considered negligible.
following meaning:
QB = Phase
of flux
secondary windings;
Ie
Ez
= Exciting
the flux $;
E'i= Primary
e.m.f.
it is
IR drop
negligible)
of
11
phase with 2
primary current, drawn
;
in
T
exactly opposite to Is and of value /s X^r;
IP
= Total primary
/i with Ie
current, obtained
by combining
FIG.
6.
2-
It is convenient in vector
of equal length.
mary
current
by multiplying
by the
ratio
T
~.
L v
12
5.
Polyphase Transformers.
all
that has
transformer
In practice it is not unusual to use single-phase transformers on polyphase systems, especially when the units
in the case of a three-phase
desired
to step up from 6600
transmission, suppose
volts to 100,000 volts, three separate single-phase trans-
Thus,
it is
saving in weight and first cost may be effected by combining the magnetic circuits of the three transformers
into one.
each
coils
cores
and joined
of iron
two
can be effected.
Except
weight
if
always desirable to
effect
a saving in
first
by
13
installing
be carried in connection with an important power development. It is unusual for all the circuits of a polyphase
is
Problems
and
P IP
single-phase transformer is
for
p the value given by formula (ia),
,
Volt-amperes
if we substitute
we have
-~ X $ X TJ
A.A.f
P.
Thus, for a given flux <, which will determine the crosssection of the iron core, there
will
There
is
a definite
number
of
no
limit to the
number
of
of
copper which
design,
and
wjll
procedure in design.
copper.
o;'
transformers, and
The predetermination
for the
14
and copper must then be studied with a view to calculating the temperature rise and efficiency.
Finally, the
flux leakage must be determined with a reasonable
degree of accuracy because this, together with the ohmic
resistance
of
the voltage
specified
limits.
7.
we
are mainly concerned with so-called constantpotential transformers as used on power and lighting
circuits, we shall not at present consider constant-current
Since
we
of the
normal type
able for
many
of transformer
classified
according
to
the
avail-
it
special purposes.
Transformers might be
method
which render
Methods
will
number
of phases
have to operate.
treating of losses
and temperature
rise;
but,
when
briefly
Natural cooling by
(2)
Self-cooling
by
oil;
air.
is
immersed
car-
(3)
water are placed near the top of the tank below the
surface of the
oil.
15
of cold air
minals
large or small,
difference at ter-
former
The
difficulties of
avoiding excessive flux leakage and consequent bad voltage regulation are increased
with the higher voltages.
output.
and
essary,
as for instance,
in
volts
at
Testing-transformers to give
secondary terminals are not
500,000
up
uncommon, while one transformer (at the PanamaPacific Exposition of 1915) was designed for an output
of
1000 k.v.a.
at
This transformer
1,000,000 volts.
classification
of
transformers
by the number
to
of
itself
so far as present-
16
From the
single-phase and three-phase transformers.
consider
it
will
be
better
to
point of view of the designer,
the use to which the transformer
or
polyphase
will
whether single-phase
the two
This leads to
be put.
classes:
(1)
Power transformers.
(2)
Distributing transformers.
Power Transformers.
This
term
is
here
used
to
all
for
maximum
efficiency at full
nected at
will.
three-phase unit of the airblast type with 14,000 volts on the high-tension wind-
These transformers
*The
With
the
modern demand
for larger
10,000
three-phase, 6600 to no,ooo-volt units in the
power houses of the Tennessee Power Company on the Ocoee River weigh
about 200,000 lb.; they are 19 ft. high, and occupy a floor space 20 ft.
by 8
k.v.a.
ft.
17
of
now
are
ft.
Distributing T"insformers.
of the
self-cooling type,
They
In the design of distributing transformers, it is necessary to bear in mind that since they are continuously
on the circuit, the " all-day
losses
which consist
' :
largely of hysteresis
and eddy-current
losses in the
iron-
must be kept
In other words, it is
as small as possible.
not always desirable to have the highest efficiency at
full load.
8.
Types
of
Transformers.
Construction.
All trans-
are linked.
type
and
Figs. 7
distinction
'shell-type
and
8, respectively.
closed
laminated iron circuit two limbs of which carry the windEach limb is wound with both primary and
ings.
18
secondary circuits in order to reduce the magnetic leakage which would otherwise be excessive. The coils may
FIG.
7.
alternately primary
coils,
Core-type Transformer.
FIG.
8.
and
sec-
Shell-type Transformer.
ondary, are stacked one above the other with the requisite insulation between.
Fig. 8 shows a single set of windings on a central
laminated core which divides after passing through the
coils and forms what may be thought of as a shell of
shown
in
Fig.
9.
The
thickness of
the laminations
19
stampings
is
the joints
of the
primary current.
Method
FIG. 9.
or paper
is
of
Assembling Stampings
sufficient to afford
in Shell-type
Transformer.
tween
for
6o-cycle
transformers.
high electrical resistance and, therefore, a small eddycurrent loss. The loss through hysteresis is also small,
20
The
ing current.
is
appreciably
shell
"
not greatly affect the efficiency or cost of the transAs a general rule, the core type of construc-
will
former.
The dimensions
as indicated
of the
outside the
coil.
It
is
wound than
cuit,
in the
is
compensated
cir-
for
coils
The
in the
relative positions of
still
further
of cylindrical
in Figs. 10
"
shape of no great thickness,
pancake
with primary and secondary coils alternating. A proper
arrangement of the coils is a matter of great importance
can be of the
"
is
form
it
is
FIG. 10.
again
21
when
tion.
Fig.
12
illustrates
common arrangement
of
the
22
stampings
and windings
transformer.
Each
FIG. ii.
in
three-phase
one phase.
core-type
both
The
pri-
portions
coil.)
must be
same amount of flux
of
as
the
wound
diagram
is
cores.
This
will
be understood
flux
if
a vector
relations
in
the
23
various parts of the magnetic circuit. This use of certain parts of the magnetic circuit to carry the flux com-
mon
on
what would be necessary for three single-phase transformers of the same total k.v.a. output; but, as men-
FIG. 12.
tioned in Article
transformer
is
5, it
single-phase transformers.
Figs. 13 and 14 show sections through three-phase
transformers of the shell type. The former is the more
24
common
design,
shaped
angular
and
in Fig.
magnetic
13
flux
between two
3>e
sets
in the cen-
tral core.
VECTOR DIAGRAM
SHOWING THAT
FIG.
9.
13.
Mechanical
Stresses
in
Transformers.
(Each
The
it
is
merely
25
PR
The tendency
losses.
cast iron,
in the
FIG.
1 4.
In this
manner the
saving in weight
is
usually effected.
is
avoided and a
The
use of stand-
26
may
The
may
be defined as the
of
we may
write,
'
BIl
where
F = Force in dynes;
B = Density of the magnetic
field in
gausses;
perpendicular to the
magnetic
of
field.
push a
coil of
wire
uniform magnetic
field of
p=
17
BITl
_
10
If
in a direction
is
dynes.
field
are assumed to
we have
of time,
27
is
due
Coil of
wires, each
-carrying I amperes
FIG. 15.
be 7 max
sin
0,
and
B max
sin
8,
upon
respectively,
the coil
may
be written,
average
Tl.
/max^max
10
C* .2
if*.
Sll
sill
i
TIL
KjQ
fiflfi
10X2
dynes.
28
Let this average value of the maximum denbe denoted by the symbol B am
Then, since i Ib. =
be taken.
sity
444,800 dynes,
the final
expression
1 II
Force=
for
the
average
is,
m ax -Dam
w;~
..
lb
due to a short-circuit
be about 1000
may
Except
in a
leakage flux is
in
Eq. (4)
but it can be estimated with
sufficient
who
purpose
of the designer,
"
type of
shown
in Fig.
16,
leakage flux will be generally as indicated by the diacoils at the bottom of the sketch.
-m
Max.
T7
Bam
FIG.
1 6.
When
Due
to
Leakage Flux.
coils are
it
30
will
be seen that
all
leakage flux
FIG. 17.
coils will
is
"
Sandwiched
"
Coils.
in
position.
Since there
is
no resultant
force tending to
to
the iron
move
the
stampings,
and
31
In the
case
of
core-type
transformers,
with rect-
With
cular shape.
no spe-
bracing
necessary provided the coils are symmetrically placed axially; but if the projection of one coil
beyond the other is not the same at both ends, there
cial
will
is
axially
relatively
transformer
coils,
is
to
built
the problem
is
type of construction.
in position
trated
by
the other.
up with
flat
If
move one
strip
sandwiched
Fig, 17,
coil
is
illus-
CHAPTER
II
The
for
in
insulating
working pressures up
must
designers
Dielectric Circuit.
encountered
dielectric circuit,*
if
(as in
the insulation
is
to be correctly
between high-tension and low- tension coils, and between high-tension coils and grounded metal. The data
and principles outlined should also facilitate the determination of dimensions and spacings of high-tension
terminals and bushings of which the detailed design is
usually left to specialists in the manufacture of highIn presenting this information two
tension insulators.
questions are considered:
(i)
What
* "
is
the dielectric
Peek,
Jr.
Inc.
M
W.
33
gradient be predetermined at
points where
all
it is liable
to be excessive?
and the treatment of the dielecthe manner now familiar to all engineers
magnetic
to treat insulation
circuit
problems
has
in a
made
way
it posthat is
may
circuits
by
air,
oil,
or
specific capacity.
The
Company,
"
is
volts
(say)
is
farads.
If
established between
from
Karapetoff
this point of
view in
McGraw-Hill Book
Inc.
34
the
sphere
and the
have to
will
plate,
the
total
dielectric
flux,
* = EC,
^
where
is
(5)
expressed in coulombs,
in volts,
and C
in
farads.
ment
is
removed.
considered as an
which
will
"
''
may
a definite number of unit tubes of induction, the direction of which in the various portions of the dielectric
field is
name
represented
by the
full
lines in Fig.
18.
The
coulomb.
If the sphere were the north pole and the plate the
south pole of a magnetic circuit, the distribution of
The total flux would then
flux lines would be similar.
be denoted by the symbol $, and the unit tube of inducIn place of formula
tion would be called the maxwell.
(5)
written
<
= Mmf X permeance
(6)
35
This
being, in fact, a
measure
of the
permeance of the
di-
elastance,
C-
may
circuit.
The dotted
potential
surfaces.
The
potential
through equibetween
difference
FIG.
1 8.
of the total.
is
one-quarter
force, or unit
surfaces.
may
''A'
is
(7)
36
The
is
to
proportional
or
--,
inserted,
=C=
Electrostatic capacity
-W
lo9
,
\47r(3Xio
10 2
)
farads (8)
The
of units.
factor k
is
may
in
air),
This ex-
conveniently be rewritten as
'
8.84 kA
mf =
t
microfarads.
...
(9)
Values of k are given in the accompanying table together with the dielectric strengths of the materials.
These
dielectric strength
of
to withstand.
virtual
or
figures
the approximate
if
applied between two large flat electo the breakdown of a i-cm. slab
would lead
What
indicate
voltage which,
trodes,
The
r.m.s.
is
generally understood
by
The
reciprocal of elastance.
would be
37
Material.
38
where
stands
the
for
Formula
stituting in
numerical
constant.
Sub-
(5),
whence
Since
is
/
the symbol G,
is
or electrifying force,
we may
write,
D = KkxG.
The analogous
(10)
= e.m.f.
per centimeter
is,
"
"
conductivity
of the material
to dielectric flux,
flux
density
or voltage gradient G is
a
directly proportional (in
given material) to the flux
density D, it follows that when the concentration of
the flux tubes is such as to produce a certain maximum
Since
the
electric
stress
39
breakdown.
Given two
electrical
meability.
"
meance, or
is
least resistance."
maximum.
With a
the
mapped
out,
surfaces,
even
with
the case
in
sufficient
the
weak points
the
maximum
can
distribution
field
probable
of
the
voltage
of
generally
be
irregularly shaped
to
accuracy
design
little
of patience,
and
to
emphasize
permit
of
determined.*
Before illustrating the application of the above principles in the design of transformer insulation, it will
of
interest
to
the
engineer in
making
practical
calculations.
*
the magnetic
of Electrical
is
at
Co., Inc.
40
Symbol:
E,
e
/
(centimeters)
equipotential surface perpendicular to
lines of force (square centimeters)
yl=Area
of
de
G = -r, = potential
C = Capacity
or permittance (farads)
(farads
coulombs
,-
= nux
= dielectric
or permittivity (k
for air)
meter).
Condenser. Imagine two parmetal plates, as in Fig. 19, connected to the oppoterminals of a direct-current generator or battery.
site
The area
of each plate
is
edges of the plates should be rounded off to avoid conIf the area A is large in comcentration of flux lines.
parison with the distance
flux
^ may be
assumed
/,
By Formula
the capacity
(9)
is
C m/ =
8.1
mcro-
10
= o.5
If
G=
cm.
let
C=-
Then,
= 10,000
A = 1000
= 20,000
i.
cm.,
~=
10
i.yyXio-
10
volts,
sq.
41
As-
and
farads.
There
will
be
[Area
lA^lOOOsq.cm.
Distanced
= 0.5 cm,
FIG. 19.
by
Air.
break-down in
is
necessary to cause
air.
flux
is
^ = 10,000
volts,
tricity
would be
4/ times
to displace the
per
second,
above quantity
/ being
the
of elec-
frequency.
42
The quantity
of electricity
and time,
of current
coulombs = average
quarter peri o d
X time
(in seconds)
2
/
^ = /X|-
V~2\
sine
If
of
-)
wave assumption.
is
the
:.,
TT
now understood
Transposing terms, I =
~.
2V
= CExv
alternating
potential
difference,
wave
2,
is
sinusoidal
ty
on the assumption
of
shapes.
When
determined by summing
sum
series,
With condensers
in
magnetic circuits by adding the reciprocals of the conductance or permeance. The conception of elastance,
corresponding to resistance in the electric circuit and
reluctance in the magnetic circuit, is thus seen to
Elastance =
C'
43
by
Fig. 20.
On
first
thought
it
might appear
example
In addition
will illustrate.
0.3
FIG. 20.
is
the
cm. thick.
Electrodes Separated
by Air and
Glass.
KGa
yKGo, whence
Taking the
Ga
jGg.
same
between
elec-
as used in considering
44
=
per centimeter, and Ga 41,100 volts per centimeter.
Such a high gradient as 41,100 would break down the
layers of air
and would manifest itself by a bluish elecbetween the metal plates and the glass.
trical discharge
On
the other hand, the gradient of 5880 volts per centimeter would be far below the stress necessary to
rupture the glass. Nevertheless a discharge across air
It should
between the
coils
and core
of
an air-cooled trans-
immersed in oil.
former, i.e.,
In addition assume the insulation to consist of layers of
of
which the
different materials
made up
as follows:
Then, suppose
desired to determine
is
45
how
high
an alternating voltage can be applied between the coils
and the core before the maximum stress in the air
spaces exceeds 31,000 volts per centimeter, the gradient
will cause disruption and static discharge, with
which
-= +
C C\
By Formula
(8),
2,
++--.
Ca C
to
j,
and
=
ki
J?2
k$
Since
KA KAE KE
=
''
C
the permissible
maximum
= 6260
The
natmg
volts
KE
~D~~KG
value of
E
J
ai
r~Gair
is
(maximum).
voltage
is
6260
=-=4430, which
V2
is
the limiting
46
difference
potential
metal work
if
is
to be avoided.
circuit
the
insulation
should be employed to
fill
all
air spaces.
If the oil-
employed, the previously considered insulations (slightly modified in view of possible action of the oil upon the varnish) would probably
cooled construction
is
Whether
upon
in
happen
practice.
in air,
under
than by actual
test,
what
will
oil
necessary in
air.
An
leakage path
The
47
down
than
will
breakdown
is,
virtually, to
21.
FIG. 22.
FIG. 22.
FIG. 21.
FIG.
of the
down
ter-
48
minals and
High-voltage Windings.
16,000
volts,
solid
cotton
insulation, including
tape,
Voltage.
IIO
400
45
1,000
65
2,200
90
180
6,600
12,000
270
16,000
350
The
upon
for insulation.
insulation
is
sufficient
on the basis
The
calculations are
made
thus
The
49
distance equal to
kv-j-i
inches,
where kv stands
for
4
the virtual value of
the
the
oil
channels
between
oil
by partitions of pressboard or
Assuming the total thickness of
spaces
rial.
similar
oil
to
matebe no
-
thickness of insulation of
in.
made up
of 0.5 in. of
solid insulation and two 0.25 in. oil ducts would be suitable for a working pressure not exceeding 25X1000 =
Further particulars relating to oil insula25,000 volts.
by providing extra insulation ranging from thin paper to Empire cloth or even
thin fullerboard, the material depending upon the voltage
and also upon the amount of mechanical protection
required to prevent cutting through the insulation where
the wirer cross.
Sometimes the insulation is bent
of a layer to
prevent breakdown
50
coil.
book previously
in the
+o.5X
kilovolts,
when
referred to)
is
may
air.
For
sur-
be 0.5+0.1 Xkilovolts.
important to see that the creepage surfaces are protected as far as possible from deposits of
In any case
dirt.
it is
When
the
"sandwiched,"
number
coils
it is
of
shell-type
customary
transformer
are
normal
end of
This has the advantage of keeping the hightension coils well away from the iron stampings and
the stack.
Concentration of
of
have about 75
body
of the winding.
is
very
difficult to
51
be subjected, but
at times
it is
between turns
potential difference
may
line
may
occasionally be
normal working
protection,
and
for
this
reason
separate
specially
connected to each end of the hightension winding would seem to be the best means of
designed reactance
coil
of
the
between
and between
an
easy
total
Knowing
the thickness
cotton
coil
matter
cross-section
modate a given
and iron
to
of
stampings, it becomes
determine approximately the
the
winding-space
cross-section
cross-section of copper
,
of
copper.
which
is
to
accom-
The
known
ratio
as the
52
power transformers
factor
may
for use
on ioo,ooo-volt
circuits the
be as low as 0.06.
There
is
a considerable
amount
of
oils,
and drying oils for use in transformers. A constatement of the points interesting to those installing
fying,
cise
Mineral
poses, its
fer the
oil is
main function
of
oil
considerably.
It
is
therefore
it,
and
if
will
oil
in high- voltage
trans-
Company,
"
497 (1916).
53
The good
oil suggest that only small clearances would be required in transformers, even for high
voltages; but the form of the surfaces separated by the
insulating qualities of
layer of oil will have a considerable effect upon the concentration of flux density, and therefore upon the volt-
As an example,
age gradient.
down a
i -in.
if
between two
same pressure
parallel
will
spark
and a
needle point.
Partitions of solid insulation such as pressboard or
fullerboard are always advisable in the spaces occu-
pied
by the
oil,
up
of
be necessary.
In a transformer
Thickness of
oil (inches)
for the
by basing
=0.25+0.08 Xkv.,
working pressure in
(n)
kilovolts.
54
With two
rial
or three partitions of solid insulating matedividing the oil space into sections, the total
0.25+0.05 Xkv
(12)
between
coils
and
solid insulation
minimum
solid
may
oil
ducts plus
of
app'roxi-
insulation
an unusual arrangement
thickness of 0.25
Total thickness of
and put
about equal
in the form,
(13)
oil,
in
is
0.5 +0.1
Xkv.
o,
(14)
terminals,
The
down
and these
will
55
to bear
now be
referred to briefly.
may
or
break
(2)
by
FIG. 23.
it
The
is
56
x and
of length
By Formula
cm., will be
^
D=
2TTX
D
In order to express
of radius
any cylinder
is,
^f
this relation in
^
C
of the condenser
centric tube.
dx
C J
Substituting in (15),
jp
maximum
have,
jf
G=
the
we
(17)
log,
value of which
is
This formula
is
of
some value
but
it
is
57
former bushings in
bushing in the lid of the containing tank) is short in
comparison with the diameter of the opening. The
advantage of having a
by Formula
(18),
fairly large
value for
r is
indicated
is
to use a
smooth or
cor-
now
Bushings.
expressed
The
chief
by Formula
(16).
advantages of a
hollow insulating shell filled with oil or insulating compound that can be poured in the liquid state, are the
absence of
air spaces
where corona
may
occur,
and the
when
the
thickness
is
considerable.
The metal
ring
58
The advantage
of
this
arrangement
is
that the
insulator
is
through
oil
only,
oil
air,
surface of the
oil
The bushing
been designed
for a working pressure of 88,000 volts between highillustrated in Fig. 24 has
tension terminal
and
case, the
method
of
computation
is
not,
grounded metal,
is
to
make
this
i.e.,
the
and the
dimension at least as
would
The
make
59
Porcelain
ji
Metal tube of
I'
lead
H.T. Lead
FIG. 24.
Suitable for a
60
in.,
The
be stated that a short insulator with deep corrugaample surface distance is not
so
as
a
effective
tall insulator with either a
usually
may
is
The
them.
which
is
result
is
an increased
of the insulator.
as
number
form
of flanged rings
with molded
The creepage
in oil
may
be very
rule previously
much
given,
less
the
than in
air.
minimum
Applying the
distance in this
case
illustrated
by
0.5
this
61
In the design
in.
To prevent the
face of the oil and grounded metal.
accumulation of conducting particles in the oil along the
lines of stress, and afford increased protection with only
a small addition in cost, it is advisable to slip one or
insulating tubes over the lower part of the ter-
more
minal, as indicated
by
oil
creepage distance.
Having decided upon the height and surface distances
to avoid all danger of spark-over, the problem which
remains to be dealt with is the provision of a proper thickness of insulation to prevent puncture.
In order to
avoid complication of the problem by considering the
different dielectric constants (k) of the
for filling
and
compound used
(assumed in
this
of the inclosing
Either assump-
The maximum
by using formulas
might be
5 to 10 per cent
62
of the insulating
kv.
centimeter
(maximum value) or
90
per
compound
63.5 kv. per centimeter (r.m.s. value) of the alternating
With a test pressure of 177 kv. and a margin of
voltage.
is
be
will therefore
in
Formula
(18)
kv.
G=
r log e
logio- =
r
whence
-^-
= 1.216,
2.54X1.125X90X2.303
^ = 3.79,
any point
exceeding the rupturing value even under the test pressure.
19.
Condenser Type
of Bushing.
ber of concentric layers by metallic cylinders, the concentration of dielectric flux at certain points (leading to
63
be
less
The
section
of Fig.
25
is
number
of the con-
of concentric
layers,
if
ments.
By making
indicated
and the
by
full
will
(Fig. 25), neither of the ideal conditions
be exactly
64
^^distribution
^H
of dielectric
field.
^^^^p^^^^^
65
is
of the respective
capacities
be no
corona or brush discharge at the edges of these cylinThis ideal condition is represented diagramders.
matically in Fig. 25, where a large metal disk is shown
shield
cylinders
is
struction
is
shown
in Fig. 26,
The dimensions
mately as follows:
88,000 volts,
gradient in the dielectric (usually consisting of tightly
66
e of Iniultttng
Iniu
FIG. 26.
tlng
mtril.
compound.
wound
the
.
will
in.
layers
of
maximum
be
to
radial
total volts
313 =
-=^
3.48
xv
cm. or (say)
90
voltage gradient
include an ample allowance for
layers of metal
diameter, as in
67
If
foil.
1.5
the dividing
is
2.25 in. in
the
the
external
previous example,
diameter over the insulation at the center will be 2.25
X3 = 5-25
in.
in.
previous design.
It is customary to allow about 4000 volts per layer,
and twenty-two layers of insulation alternating with
twenty-two layers
design.
It
is
of tinfoil are
true
reason
for the
be(o.5H
\
working pressure.
-2
-1
/
The
why
permissible
that the surface of the terminal proper has been covered by varnish and a solid compound, and so far as the
is
is
68
26.
lower terminal (below the surface of the oil) this end may
conveniently be in the form of a sphere, the diameter
of
The
outside diameter.
is
in.
5.3
sulating cylinder
capacity, the thickness of the inner
(A plot
The
curve.)
static shield or
"
hat
"
forms a hyperbolic
is 9 in. diameter and
2 in. thick,
When
the taper
is
= i.69X22=37.2
length
(total
in.),
air
without arc-over.
casing
casing
if
When
is
increased to
about
"ft.
diameter.
transformer case.
CHAPTER
III
The power
loss
to hysteresis
is
given approximately
by the formula
'
/,
where
is
2
e
(Bft)
where
is
With the
current losses
added together
and eddy
and then
pound
more convenient
to use
but
it
is
70
\
\
2fil
IgSi*
s^sa
(9)
tests
made on samples
71
struction of the
relation
maximum
between
about 0.014
The
in.
is
to
adoption on economic
its
smaller in the
grounds. The
alloyed material than in iron laminations of the same
the former.
The permeability
lower than
of silicon-steel is slightly
and
this
may
lead to a
maintained at a
fairly
The maximum
B-H
curve.
As a
72
APPROXIMATE VALUES OF
IN
TRANSFORMER CORES
When
the current
is
very large,
it is
73
important to sub-
must be
It is
in the direction of the leakage flux lines.
advisable to add from 10 to 15 per cent to the calculated
I 2 R loss when the currents to be carried are large, even
The mere
and consequent
This ob-
twist,
many
of the individual
nized, it
former, in watts, is
W = EJ
trans-
cosd,
Es is the secondary terminal voltage; 7S -the secondary current; and cos 0, the power factor of the
where
secondary load.
100 X
The
percentage efficiency
is
then:
W
W + iron losses + copper losses
74
of importance
be excessive
former
is
lightly loaded, or
during
percentage efficiency
the ratio given below, the various items being calculated or estimated for a period of twenty-four hours:
is
ooX Secondary
output in watt-hours
It
is
may
be reasonably large
is
a very
The
alternating-
efficient piece of
apparatus,
FULL-LOAD EFFICIENCIES OF SMALL LIGHTING TRANSFORMERS FOR USE ON CIRCUITS UP TO 2200 VOLTS
Output, k.v.a.
i
10
20
50
From
From
From
From
From
From
to 96
94 6 to 96
94
95.5 to 97.3
96 4 to 97 9
.
97.2 to 98
97.6 to 98 4
.
75
The
Core
loss
Copper
= 46
watts.
= 114
watts.
power
At full load, 0.969.
At three-quarters full load, 0.9713.
At one-half full load, 0.9707.
At one-quarter full load, 0.9583.
factor)
From 97.3
From 97 7
From 97.9
From 98 i
From 98 2
400
800
1
200
2000
2600
The manner
in
which the
to 97 8
.
to 98 2
.
to 98 4
.
to 98 7
to 98 8
efficiency of large
power
transformers
falls off
loss of space
taken up by insulation)
is
indicated
by the
76
Fu " Load
H.T. Voltage.
Effic
ncy
(Approximate)
Per cent.
98.8
22,OOO
'
98.7
44,000
98 5
.
66,000
88,000
110,000
The
figures given
98.3
98.0
97.8
test
data showing
the performance of some single-phase, oil-insulated, selfcooling, power transformers recently installed in a hydroelectric generating station in
Canada:
400 k.v.a.
Output
Frequency
Primary volts
/=6o
2,200
Secondary volts
Core loss
22,000
1^760 watts
3, 550
watts
98
75
98 65
.
98 o
.
77
output.
K.v.a. Output.
The
lie
core losses in
between the
modern
trans-
78
Efficiency
cos
cos
Let
T\
0+a
then
and
whence the
efficiency at
any power
factor, cos
8, is
cos 6
cos
?7
y
/
0.969
whence the
efficiency at 0.75
power factor
is
is
of
Temperature
Transformer Windings.
79
Insu-
may
be subjected to a temperature up
but not
to,
The
C.
exceeding 105
cannot be reached by
may
be arrived at as follows
-the
surrounding
105
15
Difference
90
= permissible
35
temperature
55
rise)
Thus, under the worst conditions of heating, the permissible temperature rise should not exceed 55 C. when
the measurements are made with a thermometer.
more
reliable
tures
is
means
of arriving at transformer
to calculate these
Such measurements usually give somewhat higher temperatures than when thermometers are
used, and a hottest spot correction of 10 C. is then genof the windings.
erally
recognized
as
sufficient.
It
should
be noted,
80
and
are not
C.
impossible,
it
is
The temperature
rise
not to exceed 40
C. on con-
may
final
temperature.
Heat Conductivity of Insulating Materials. Bediscussing the means by which the heat is carried
23.
fore
away from
advisable to consider
how
coils, it will
be
the designer
may predetermine
approximately the difference in temperature between
the hottest spot and the external surface of the windings.
Calculations of internal temperatures cannot be made
is
indi-
homogeneous material.
perature of
Assume a
Td = (T-To)C.
to be
difference
of
tem-
maintained between
81
the two sides of the plate, and calculate the heat flow
(expressed in watts) through a portion of the plate of
area
The
wXl.
resistance offered
by the material
of
Watts =W
FIG. 28.
Diagram
if
Illustrating
R h is
Plate.
T
*-
(I
(19)
which permits
by methods
of heat conduction
82
Let k be the heat conductivity of the material, expressed in watts per inch cube per degree Centigrade
difference of temperature
Y
FIG. 29.
Plate.
We
mass
is
now
of the material
be very large
83
from
zontal dotted
lines.
Assuming
this plate to
be of
6
copper with a resistivity of o.84Xio~ ohms per inch
cube at a temperature of about 80 C., the watts lost in
sq. in.
and length
= (Axw) 2 X 0.84X10- X
in, will
be
xw
(21)
By
difference of temperature
dTd
=w
is
seen to be
dx
whence,
2
= 0.84 rX A A" xdx
,
T<L
/v
= 0.84A
2 2
/
The value
of k for copper
is
The problem
tical case of
of applying these principles to the praca transformer coil is complicated by the fact
84
which
winding from
layers.
85
OA
(OA)
According to Formula
(19),
we can say
is
boundary
walls.
is
CDEF XL
If
we can
write
2DElkg
dx
which
2CDlk h
{
dx
simplifies into
'OB
,
'
'
(23)
86
In order to calculate
quantity measured
the space factor is then (aXb), and
OB
in the direction
0.84X10-6-
necessary simplifications,
W
we
in (23),
get
dTd =
10'
a and
x=OA,
Td =
r~
/TTTTTT de S- Cent
2 4)
2X'lC
Except
for the
be
87
replaced
of
in the direction
Let k c and
ki,
and A.
ductivity of copper
transformer
construction.
The numerical
values
in
of
that
10
(
,
<z_
and
(i
a)
a-\- 3000(1
(25)
a)
similarly,
10
6+3000(1-6)
where a and
coil in
the directions
OA
and OB,
respectively, as pre-
viously defined.
0.008
in.
fullerboard
between
layers.
There are
88
a=
0.25
-.
= 0.926;
is
maintained at 75
-5
the outside
= 0.9; whence
space factor
0.278
0.27
(ab)
0.25
if
C.
=0.833.
--r~
2
XI06
^rj
+0.033 2
[0.0448
=n
Cent.,
up
but
tained
Since
all
air
itself.
by the
air blast, it is
must be
carried
away
89
watt
for
away heat
Thus,
watt of
if
of the case, is
v=
If the
= 1 66
cu.
ft.
0.6X10
per minute.
is
from 10 to 15
size
and arrangement
The temperature
is
Thus, although
it is
90
may
be
Cubic
/-i
minute
= Wt
where
--,
o.oX-%-
loss
and
from surface
of tank.
The
latter quantity
may
be estimated by assuming
Assuming
Formula
(27)
indicates that about 150 cu. ft. of air per minute per
kilowatt of total losses would be necessary to limit the
temperature rise of the coils to 50 C. With poorly
amount
of air required
may
be appreciably
greater.
It is true that, in turbo-generators,
100 cu.
ft.
an allowance of
50
C.; but,
is
gen-
about
supply of
transformers.
91
Filtered air
cooling;
Wet
result.
dirt,
able,
Air containing
deposit of water particles on the coils.
from i to 3 per cent of free water in suspension is a much
more
effective cooling
air.
It
would
Oil-immersed Transformers
near
oil
as
Self Cooling.
it rises
The
wil-l
lead to a tem-
of the tank,
and,
some
since
this
Some useful data on the relative cooling effects of moist and dry air,
together with test figures relating to a i2-kw. air-cooled transformer,
"
page 563.
92
The
oil
is
the dif-
Temperature of
FIG. 31.
<
Immersed
in
Oil.
will
of
from
tests
93
54
50
46
42
38
34
30
26
18
14
10
0.05
0.1
>
'4= Watt8
FIG. 32.
Curve
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
94
What
Example.
rise of
the
and
will
is
oil in
perature
a total loss of 1200 watts, the tank
out corrugations
The
measuring
of sheet-iron with-
ft.X2 ft.X3-5
+2 = 30
sq. ft.,
ft.
high?
S = (3. 5X8)
is
whence
1
w=
200
=0.278,
30X144
which', according to Fig. 32, indicates a 43
temperature
for the
C. rise of
oil.
ured by thermometer.
also that the
between the
coil surface
as calculated
13
C.
by
Then the
+ +
taining Tank.
air
may
Con-
The
sides.
It
must
not,
95
Not only
is
portions;
will
inside
of the tank,
is
recourse
must
therefore be
all
had
to empirical formulas
based on available test data together with such reasonable assumptions as may be necessary to render them
suitable for general application.
If X is the pitch of the corrugations, measured on the
outside of the tank, and / is the surface width of material
per pitch (see the sketch in Fig. 33), the ratio of the
corrugations
is
The heat
-.
dissipation
will
not be
increase as
additional
is
made
larger relatively to X,
and
less
effective
the
in
the
oil
96
we apply a
If
correction
to
the
pitch,
actual
\e
the
pitch,
ratio
X,
=
A
2.4
2.2
1.G
1.4
1.2
0.2
FIG. 33.
gations)
0.3
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.9
must be multiplied
in
order
to
obtain the
no correcting factor would be required, and the equivalent pitch would be obtained by adding to X the quan-
X);
(/
is
97
needed,
....
(28)
is
2\
reduced in the ratio -
which becomes
/~T~X
experimental data.
or,
It follows that
x
't
if-
Values of
values of n,
Example.
rise of
the
&,
oil
if,
in.
apart?
of
is
= 2.23.
1.25+4 = 5.25
in.
98
The
= 64.5
is
5 = (3.5X8X2. 23) + 2
whence
sq. in.,
1200
w=-
= 0.129,
64.5X144
which, according to Fig. 32, indicates a 27 C. rise of
temperature, as compared with 43 C. with the smoothsurface tank of the
tures.
it
27. Effect
of
tank surface are not directly proportional to the difference between the oil, and room, temperatures. The
approximate
Temperature
which
be used
may
rise
= constant X w' 6
.
,
temperature
(31)
rise
of a self-cooling oil-immersed transformer when the temperature rise under given conditions of loading is known.
Example.
a transformer'.
Core
loss
Copper
= 100
watts,
(full
= 200,
load) of the
011
= 35
C.
is
Formula
99
whence, according to
watts;
(31):
-
Temperature
6
u
/2SS-hIOoV'
o
= 35X1=41
rise
\2OO+IOO/
r^
C. approx.
rise
would be
too high
if
this
ies
The
specific
One
gram-calorie
heat of copper
quality of transformer oil, it
temperature of
(i.e.,
gram
is
0.093,
is
0.32.
an d
for
C.,
an average
of water
C.)=4.i83 joules
(or
watt-seconds). Also,
lb.=453.6 grams. It follows
that the amount of energy in watt-seconds necessary to
raise
C. is
c pounds of copper T
i
Watts X time
in seconds
= 4. 183X0.093X453. 6
T
= 177
T (for copper).
C
Similarly,
if
we put
for the
by
0.32,
in seconds
= 6 10
figure 0.093
Watts X time
weight of
we
oil,
in pounds,
get
MT
(for oil).
100
and
coils,
it
is
generally
absorbed by the copper pass into the oil, and that the
balance, which is not needed to heat up the oil, must be
dissipated
radiation
by
culations
if
we
sides
temperature
rise,
W = total
t
energy
loss
in
watts
the
lost
w
may
be selected.)
(iron -[-copper),
interval
of
time
the
dt
total
second
Wtdt.
is
If the increase of
is
the
*
watt-seconds, of energy to be
rise of
it
the copper
is
the
same as that
of the
oil.
iCl
....
(32)
# = the
initial
oil
temperature
by the amount
increased,
Equation
may
(32)
limits for
C.
rise,
and
Ks
dL =
dx
The
dx)
rise
x are the
initial
oil temperature TQ
which is reached at
(33)
If
time
are used,
is
common
logs,
we have,
w,
T\
10
lK~r~ - \
minutes.
Wt T I
\
Tl
\K- /
(34)
102
In order to
meaning
Wt
of the
facilitate
symbols
is
K =SX radiation
T
repeated below:
+ copper)
in watts per
C. rise of temperature of the
coefficient
i
expressed
oil;
S = tank
where
fined
surface
Art.
in
in
square
corrected
25,
as
de-
necessary
for
inches,
if
where
and
TO = initial temperature
T = temperature
t
Example.
= 100
= 200
Copper
=
Temperature rise 3 5
Core
loss
loss
watts;
watts;
C.
Referring to Fig. 29, the value for w for a temperature rise of 35 is 0.193, from which it follows that
the effective tank surface
is
S=~
*
Weight
Weight
of copper
of oil
= 65 lb.,
= 140 lb.
yo
= 1550
sq. in.
r* = 45
C.
The copper
loss is
now
200 X
100+450 = 550
Wt
The
T = 35
(i-5)
=450
watts,
whence
watts.
average temperature
= 0.00606,
of
-=40
C.,
is
whence,
94
28. Self-cooling
The
best
way
Transformers
for
Large
coils
is
Outputs.
to provide
is
circu-
adopted
as in
When
most outdoor
and other
and at-
tendants
self-cooling
transformers of
large size
is
104
connection with the particular design adopted, judgment is needed to determine the effective cooling surface
in
cooling data as
tanks
may
may
perature rise.
In the tubular type of transformer tank which is provided with external vertical tubes connecting the bottom
of the tank
near the
oil
to the level,
where
surface,
the temperature
is
highest
by
be of
with
fairly large
diameter
free
and
It
is
efficient
number
of small
very large
tubes closely spaced with
a view to obtaining a large
FIG.
34.
Tubes
Transformer
Case
with
ing Surface.
such
means
as
effective
is
not
as
when wider
S = (A
+A p )Xo.g]
but,
cooling
coil
of
ingoing water
is i
C. Allowing 0.25 gal. per minute,
the
kilowatt,
average
temperature rise of the water
per
will
= 15
be
The temperature
C.
rise of
the
oil is
which
An
scale.
customary; but
from the oil to the water
is
great
may become
coated with
allowance of
may
be from
2 to
2j times as
when
become
water required
for
Assuming a diameter
the coil will have to be
-7
= 85
ft.
106
of
water required
will
be
oil
oil.
The capacity
is
by natural
of the oil
circula-
pump may
be
is
circulated.
These
coils,
The
oil
circulation
is
CHAPTER
IV
drop of pressure
total
lines)
the primary
IR
drop being
comparatively small.
The magnetomotive
in the secondary coils
on the
force
due
to a current Is flowing
108
in the
primary winding.
when
appreciably
back
e.m.f.
all,
secondary volts
accounted for
Although
up by
set up
common
it
if
IR
is
caused
it still
109
The
The amount
made
The magnetizing component
of the
primary cur-
The
turns.
rent 7S
is
factor cos
0,
of
power
opposite to Is
the leakage flux as represented
by the
110
The secondary
flux lines
condary
FIG. 35.
coils.
Magnetic Leakage:
The phase
therefore, 90
OB
in
of this
advance
component
of
as indicated
by
is,
the line
111
e.m.f.,
opposite to
primary
ary.
OE
OB
will
induce in the
coil
The
OE
5 volts.*
When
load
thrown
is
off the
now
pass through the iron core and link with the secondary.
The secondary
Ep = 5
be
volts,
EpE = iooX
s
looX
5
2
<<!
is
therefore,
is
= 150.
made from
the extreme
as
amount
of space.
consists of
shown
with the primary coil do not generate 6 volts is, of course, due to the
fact that these flux lines are not all in the same phase; the resultant
or actual flux in the core under the primary coil is 5 lines, as indicated
by the vector diagram. The actual amount of flux passing any given
cross-section of the core must be thought of as the (vectorial) addition
of the flux lines
shown
112
represented in Fig. 36
pass.
The
s~
by one dotted
line
is supposed to
both the primary
113
The
/i.
volts;
EI.
total
secondary voltage
is
which scales
2.6
component does not account for the full effect of the two
flux lines B and F linking with the primary, because,
while the flux line
it
of the total
total
is
primary current.
primary
neglected.)
The leakage
HX2 = 2
GX2 = 2
FX2 = 2
volt,
volts,
volts,
volts
7 volts
turns:
FXi = i
giving a difference of
the
component
JXi = i
is
volt
6 volts
114
This
is
the. vector
(I\XP }.
to actual transformers in
When
of turns
T
~
1
when
plained later)
component
To
(as ex-
primary
circuit.
we
have
loaded.
is
in the
made
is
When
the load
is
thrown
off,
there will be
100 X
8-2.6
^- = 208
2.0
per cent.
Experimental Determination of the Leakage Reactance of a Transformer. Although these articles are
33.
how
be determined on
test.
The purpose
referred to
may
is
the
if
self
*
induction.*
The assumption
self-induction
self-induction,
(i.e.,
115
of negligible resistance.
signed,
in the
by the ammeter.
primary and secondary
indicated
voltage
is de-
are
T p and T
7i=/
ITM\
respectively,
because, the
\7 p/
amount
FIG. 37.
Diagram
of Short-circuited Transformer.
of
component
netizing
may be
neglected.
The
to
can be constructed.
volts induced in the secondary are
in phase with the current Is
ISR2)
ancing
component
equal to
in
in
the .primary
(equal
I\R\).
OE% (equal
The bal-
winding
is
OE'\
Since
the
total
this current is
I\.
E'\P
impressed voltage
116
has the
known value
OE
E we
z,
FIG. 38.
/i,
p which assumes
resistance
to
be
resistance
but
the primary
the secondary
zero,
to be increased
by an amount equivalent
Thus,
TA
J.r
but
117
whence,
......
(35)
can write,
whence
This
VE
2
z
quantity,
-(IiR P )
2
)
is
by /i (or IiX p =
multiplied
the vector E'iE p of the diagrams
all
the primary,
OB, and
OE
flux lines
generally
good
regulation in transformers, it
is
desirable to obtain
and
on each
of the
two limbs
of a
118
nearly so
shown
FIG. 39.
coils,
as
shown
in Figs. 10
in Special
and
Core-type Transformer.
n (Art. 8)
is
much
better
secondary
and
Figs. 8. and
119
(shell type).
By
FIG. 40.
in
Each
secondary
coils
*
coil,
and
half a
all
in the
same
flux density
120
direction, as indicated
by
bottom
of the figure.
Unit
section..
FIG. 41.
The
coils is to
produce a back
e.m.f.
121
by the
by the
the primary turns, but also with a cerNote that if the line A
of secondary turns.
number
all
the
dotted
center
line
MN,
secondary
links with
is
links
not leakage
flux.
total
is
= the
=
g the
s
thickness of
secondary
p = the
insulation
coils;
primary
coil.
122
The
The
induced by
<
(36)
when
FIG. 42.
Coils.
123
number of turns
with which it links. The symbols T\ and TI will be
used to denote the number of turns in the half sections
of widths p and 5 of the primary and secondary coils
The meaning of the variables x and y
respectively.
The symbol m will be used for
is indicated in Fig. 42.
amount
the
of this flux,
and
(2)
the
27T/"
the quantity
-^.
Inserting for
meance,
3>
its
this becomes,"
p, the
7i in
- T\
turns,
)
(x\
(37)
/*\
- }Ti turns, and since
((
this
we have,
whence
f.
(38)
124
as linking with
i
)
this
must be considered
whence
s2 h
*/
\j
i-
(39)
obtained by adding
is
Thus,
(40)
'
wherein
all
If all the
by twice
the
number
of
primary groups of
shown
TIi
coils)
(or
to
in the vector
125
an easy path
coils project
Every manufacturer of transformers who has accumulated sufficient test data from transformers built
to his particular designs, will be in a position to modify
(40) in order that it may accord very closely
with the measured reactive voltage drop. This correc-
Formula
be in the form of an expression for the equivalent length /, which takes into account the type of
tion
may
ment
of
coils;
or
the
quantity
more nearly
may
g+
be
which
of the windings
(40)
all
will
expressed in centimeters
the
Formula
practical purposes.
35. Calculation of Exciting Current.
Before drawing
oped
126
how
The
may
(i)
and secondary
coils,
and
(2)
the
"
Max
"
component
energy
Amp,
Phaee of induced
e.
m.f.
Primary impressed
FIG. 43.
volts.
If these
be neglected.
components could be considered sine waves,
may
The
if
error introduced
127
cannot therefore
is,
primary current.
The notes on Fig. 43 are self explanatory, but reference
should be made to Fig. 44 from which the ampere turns
per inch of the iron core may be read for any value of
The flux density is given
the (maximum) flux density.
in gausses, or maxwells per square centimeter of cross-
section.*
to the
long,
A mp.
HI
turns for joints
O.47T
= 9.01 X
m ax
XNo.
(41)
The
makes no apology
for using both the inch and the centiSo long as engineers insist that the inch has
certain inherent virtues which the centimeter does not possess, they
writer
should submit without protest to the inconvenience ancl possible disadvantage of having to use conversion factors, especially in connection
128
16000
14000
13000
12000
&11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
10
20
30
40
50
GO
70
amperes
of core;
pound
maximum
129
completed transformers. The fact that the total voltamperes of excitation (neglecting air gaps) are some
function of the flux density multiplied by the weight of
the iron in the transformer core,
follows
Let
may
be explained as
w = total
watts lost per pound of iron, corresponding to a particular value of B as read off
one of the curves of Fig. 27;
A = cross-section
off Fig.
44
(square inches)
of the core in the direction of the
;
/= Length
P = Weight of core
The symbols
of
primary turns:
component
pounds = o.2&Al.
T p = number
Given
in
and
/,
core loss
wXP
the
"
in phase
"
130
and the
current,
"
wattless
"
is
aXl'
whence
Ie
Epl e _ volt-amperes
~, we
get
of total excitation
weight of core
<
This formula
may
= 13,000
be used
Thus,
such
if
gausses,
27),
The
error in this
method
to
131
16000
15000
14000
13000
12000
* 11000
10000
I
I 9000
8000
7000
GOOO
5000
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
132
The
effect of the
carried
is
up
to high values.
The curve
and the
introduction of high
may
mission
of Magnetic
The
Transformers.
of
on
Leakage
Voltage Regulation
vector diagrams, Figs. 46, 47, and 48, have been drawn
to
of
IR
drop.
IX
drop, and
= Induced
secondary
e.m.f.,
due to the
flux
(OB)
E = Secondary
s
current
is
of cos 6]
Ie = Primary
exciting
current,
calculated
as
ex-
= Balancing component
of total
E'\
PE'\
= Balancing component
= IR drop due
parallel to
to
01 P )
133
primary current
of induced
primary volt-
primary resistance
(drawn
to leakage reactance
to
OI P )
right angles
(drawn at
Ev
FIG. 46.
may
134
we can draw
OE
Then
and equal to
opposite in phase to
EP
e
(drawn
parallel
to
01 1)
is
the
Equivalent
Secondary Risistance >-
dropj
FIG. 47.
Simplified Vector
Diagram
of
Neglected.
now only
it is
seen that
(IiR p)+EeCasO
.
COS
<b
(43)
is
known
and
cos
135
But,
sinfl
.
*
FIG.
48.
The percentage
regulation
'
'
(
(44)
Calculation
of
is
(45)
or,
if
_Per cent
equiv.
cos #)
,\
136
The
48)
is
assume that
OD = OE P
But
E +IiR
e
cos
d+IiX p
sin
6,
whence,
= Per
If the
cent
IR
cos
0+per cent IX
sin
0.
(47)
minus
sign.
Example.
Formula
Power
Total
Total
By Formula
(44),
tan<=
0.06+0.6
=0.81,
0.015+0.8
whence cos
<f>
Regulation =
'-U-
= 4.9
(46),
per cent.
0.777
By
Regulation = (i.sXo.8)
137
I\R P
Sometimes
it
is
occupied by insulation
of very large size,
on short
is
when
the object
is
to
CHAPTER V
PROCEDURE IN TRANSFORMER DESIGN
37.
of a single-phase transformer is
in Art. 6,
TI
explained
be written
may
Volt-amperes =
where
E X / which, as
x$X(TI),
(48)
measure
The problem
lowest cost.
The temperature
rise is also
occasionally
a matter of
light
weight
cost.
139
cedure aiming to
a certain amount of correction or adjustment in the final
design, should generally be discountenanced, because
No
claim to originality
is
made
in connection with
the following method of procedure; indeed it is questionable whether the mass of existing literature treating
of the alternating current transformer leaves anything
new
to be said
on the subject
of procedure in design.
ment
consistent with
is
a treat-
even though
be
may
necessary.
Instead of attempting to take account at one time of
all the conditions to be satisfied in the final design, the
of physics
factors
later and,
if
140
38. Specifications.
It will
be advisable to
list
here
sup-,
K.v.a. output.
(2)
Number
of phases.
(5)
(6)
(3)
(4)
(7)
Method
(8)
Maximum
of cooling
Temperature
E ).
s
rise.
rent.
must always be stated by the purchaser, while the other items may be determined by the
manufacturer, who should, however, be called upon to
furnish these particulars in connection with any competiItems
(i) to
(4)
tive offer.
With
for
two
losses
if
the efficiency
can be calculated.
If the
is
stated
and iron
these particulars, he should state whether the transformer is for use in power stations or on distributing
lines, in
total losses
efficiency.
design, the
may
maximum
permissible iron
and copper
losses
The requirements
and
(8),
are to
some
141
amount
of
material.
by
Thus,
selecting
The
able limits.
regulation
generally
(item
controlled
be
by
suitably
subdividing
the
windings.
Let T^_= volts per turn (of either primary or secondary winding) then, in order to express this quantity in
we
have,
TI'
from which
T must
therefrom.
142
of
TYXio 8
TI
'
whence
V = Vvolt-ampere
t
The quantity
output X
in brackets
(49)
is
form
V = cX Vvolt-ampere
t
where
c is
an empirical
....
output,
coefficient
(490)
Influencing
the
Value of
the
Coefficient
\
It
is
c.
f^
W=
c
full
Wi = core
(So)
known
Let
lc
/i
= mean
= mean
143
before proceeding
length
magnetic
circuit
X volume
of copper
measured
then
W = constant X A
where k c
is
Similarly
of iron
(52)
wherein k
is
Formula
later.
TI
bk,B
n-
\l
This ratio
is
the transformer
is
for use
distributing circuits);
144
cooling;
whether core or
and allowing
loss
cubic
per
since the
inch
volume
of
copper = A
ITI\
2(
is
c,
it
X 0.9X10-, and
follows
that k c =
j/
o.9Xio~
2X
6.
whence
0.28^
6-45/5"
The Factor
b.
The
maximum
efficiency occurs.
= El must
always be
satisfied.
of the losses
is
145
PFc+H^; but
(k.v.a.)
a constant
2
and
n
Wi = a constant X#
of
If
we
and put
minimum
is
therefore
ha constantX-E
equal to zero,
W~
The value
we
for
should be about b
= -^--
=0.925.
full load,
whence
146
Taking
= 1.75,
71
b= 1.75X9-=61.97
4X2
,
The Ratio
or (say)
2.
-.
It
wound
is*
minimum
keep the
but consid-
and copper, provided always that the imof temperature rise and regulation are
items
portant
checked and maintained within the specified limits.
cost of iron
method
of cooling;
but
if
under the
coils,
they
will
limits:
Core Type.
Shell T3>pe.
2 to 3
times
B = o.$
to o 75 times
D = o.6
to 1.2 times
H=i
2 to 3
times
L
L
L
S= i
B=i
D= i
H=3
to
to
to 2
8 times
5 times
times L
to 6 times
L
L
147
By
= 1.2
= 0.3
"
FIG. 4Q.
is
found to be
Having determined the values of the various quanappearing in Formula (53), it is now possible
tities
to
calculate
for
the
fa
quantity ^ and for the coefficient c of Formula (49).
We
that
Art. 20)
^=8000
148
gausses;
on distributing
Formula
of
circuits
frequency 60.
(53),
Then, by
_
/$ _^<o79X i IPO X i. 2X6.45X60X9000 =
19,720
~io6 x 2x0.28x0.75
~Ti~
FIG. 50.
Assembled Stampings
of-
The value
of the coefficient in
assumed conditions,
is
Formula
therefore
-^
read
off
the
B = 13,000,
power transformer;
and A = 1350, we have,
/$ = 2X0.9X1350X0.5X6.45X25X13,000^
io 6 Xo.925Xo.28Xo.58
TI
Whence
149
if
7=25.
= 0.02 74.
factors
of
Where a
is
When
the voltage
is
Formula
(490).-
= 0.04 to 0.045
=
^
0.03
= 0.025 to 0.03
c = o.o2
given, the lower
wound
for high
c is
factor.
li
The proposed
values here given for this design coeffion the assumption that silicon steel
stampings are used in the core. If ordinary transformer iron is used as, for instance, in small distributing transformers it will be advisable to take about J
of the
40.
above values
c.
With
New
Design.
now
150
jf
of
to present
tice.
The
the design,
(1)
may
be outlined as follows:
(49).
Decide upon necessary insulation and oilor air-ducts between coils, and between
windings and core.
(d)
"
Assume
to
flux
and calculate
cross-sec-
size
if
necessary.
(e)
(2)
and copper
tion.
(5)
151
Calculate necessary cooling surfaces. Design conand lid, providing not only sufficient oil
taining tank
cross-section of copper
"
"
of the
opening or
formers
not exceeding 660 volts, to 0.06 in power transwound for about 100,000 volts. An estimated
may
be useful
may
The
the iron core will be between 0.86 and 0.9, and the total
When
spaces are
left
between sections
space factor
may
be from
0.65 to 0.75.
42.
The weight
not
only upon
output depends
of
Transformers.
the total output, but also upon the voltage and frequency. The net and gross weights of particular trans-
152
S|
I
153
The
effect of
line of
These
Frequency 60
k.v.a.
40
Ib.
500
output
100 k.v.a. output
23 Ib.
152
Ib.
35
Ib.
\
[
The
case.
\
[
Frequency 25
and
it
does on the
the laminated iron for the cores has also undergone great
changes. The best that can be done here is to indicate
how
If/
is
of voltage always
an increase
means an addition
to the cost;
while
voltage
an increase
may
on output and
be gained from the fact that the unit cost
154
for (i) a 1500 k.v.a. transformer wound for 22,000 volts, (2) a 2000 k.v.a. transformer wound for 44,000 volts, and (3) a 3000 k.v.a.
transformer
wound
Once the
as
to
divide
to
necessary
and
The saving
magnetic
so as
in
to
of materials effected
of
circuits
three
by combining
single-phase
the
transformers
reduction
of
10
cent
per
in
the
weight and
cost.
43.
Numerical Example.
It is
proposed to design a
k.v.a.
1500
oil-insulated,
water-cooled,
transformer for use on an 88,000- volt power transmission
system. A design sheet containing more detailed items
single-phase
Two
columns
and discussed
will
be provided
in
known
or
used for
155
SPECIFICATION
'
Number
,500 k.v.a.
one
88,000
6,000
Maximum
and not
50
to
be
less
than .............. 98
i%
5%
L.T.
coils
.......................... 177,000
The
14,000
brought together
for reference
and
for
convenience in
The items
following the successive steps in the design.
are numbered to facilitate reference to the notes and more
detailed calculations which follow.
Items
(i)
and
(2).
L.T. Winding.
By Formula
for
whence,
66oo
= I28
r=
s
51-5
(490),
a shell-type
156
DESIGN SHEET
Assumed
Symbol.
or Approxi-
mate
Final
Values.
Values.
i.
51-5
52.3
128
126
Number
Number
6.
21.3
21
1600
1575
of coils
227
sq. in.
8.
11.
Number
13.
21
width of finished
12. Overall
of layers
Thickness
(or
allowance
coil,
with
irregularities
and
of
depth)
for
0.36
bulging at center, in
Number
Number
1680
of coils
18
80 in
1 7
sq. in.
19. Cross-section of
20. Insul.
21. Insul.
22.
23.
Number
Number
24. Overall
width of finished
25.
Thickness or depth of
26.
Make
but end
coils
coil, in
coils,
05
1640
0.04X0. 26 = 0.0104
2X0.008 = 0.016
O.OI2
I
95
0.31
coil, in
sketch of assembly of
6.75
with
18
95 in 16 coils
2 coils;
oil
Continued
157
158
DESIGN SHEET
Continued
The
within 1.5
carried
159
away by
the
oil
The number
of coils
must be
enough to admit
large
and secondary
lation
age
by
primary
requirements of reguthe
magnetic flux-linkages of the leaklimiting
field.
(d)
An
coils is desirable in
order
end
of the stack.
To
18 H.T.
coils.
If
be at least -
an equal number
of
or, say-
secondary
coils
if
(c).
The number
of
these
later;
but these
will
what
160
high-tension
coils
secondary
J
(4),
-f- = 2i.3
Items
I?
coils
(5)
00 000
= 227
'
6600
A = 1600
.giving
(see Fig.
This gives us
52).
item
is
7S =
The secondary
(13).
for
whence T = i26.
to
by arranging the
and providing six
in groups of six,
From
amperes.
current
Art.
we
20,
select
--=0.142
IOOO
in.
sq.
the
secondary conductor.
In order to decide upon a suitable width of copper
in the secondary coils, it will be desirable to eti-
mate the
total
space
as
window
satisfactory
which
gives
in
windings so
may be such
The
practice.
is
the
for
the
"
for
required
"
area
of
the
"window"
2Xi26~Xo.i42 =
358
o.i
sumption
it
is
that
in.
sq.
H = 2.5
times
.,
Also,
if
a reasonable as-
= 358; whence
Z)
= i2
page
147),
inches.
The
16),
= 0.58
in.
making a
total of
21X0.032=0.67
The
in.
161
thickness
of
12
-(0.58+0.67+0.58)
-=0.485
ai
of
^ =0.293
in.,
Let us make
in.
0.3-
in.,
and
0.485'
A
will
"
with this
Items
= 1680.
size of
to
(14)
This
is
copper
(25).
may
H.T. Winding.
Tp
66
be divided into 16
coils of 95 turns
only 80 turns each, which would
be placed at the ends of the winding and provided with
extra insulation between the end turns (see Art. 14).
and
each,
coils of
insulation
consisting
less
of
oil
circulation
coils
of
fullerbcard
separating the
than 0.25+0.03X88 =
partitions
2 89 in.
Let us make
Then, since the width of opening
162
is
m"
12.75
of the
maximum
the
primary
The
= 0.01065
sq. in.
of
17) is
= 6.75
in.
The
T
1,500,000
J
= 17-05
/*=-^00,000
amps.
be 12.75
will
coils
cross-section
of
Allowing 0.016
each
in. for
wire
is
FIG. 52.
in.
for
must
not
exceed
0.028
= 0.043
in.,
which
95 /
=0.248
0.043
in.
A=
Try copper
1640.
strip
0.26X0.04=0.0104
sq. in.,
making
to about the
coils,
same depth
by putting
increasing
163
end
the
tion,
we might gradually
from 0.012
in.
to
in.
made.
Oil
ducts not
less
than \
and the
L.T.
in.
or
carry
in.
wide
and the
and iron stampings, should be broken up by
coils
coils to
coils
partitions
Fig. 52.
"
"
window
is
obtained.
This
is
found to be 32
in.,
is
(1680X0.0104) + (1260<o_i445) _
12.75X32
Items
Formula
(28)
(i),
to
Art.
(41).
The
Magnetic
Circuit.
By
2,
8
88,000 X io
4.44X50X1680
Before assuming a flux density for the core,
calculate the permissible losses.
let
us
164
The
are
full
i, 500,000 X(i
-^
0.081)
^- =
29,000 watts.
Also,
since
0.981
the ratio
fW\
is
W = -i
= 15
b)
it
follows that
TOO watts.
1-925
whence
= 29,000
15,100
= 13,900
watts.
flux,
to be
Then
5-5)
If
111-5 in
is
is
of
Art.
20)
= 282
sq.
the crossin.
The
13,000X6.45
watts lost per pound (from Fig. 27) are
the total iron loss is
,
*/'
'h
w = 1.27, whence
*~*
1^ = 1.27X0.28X282X111.5 = 11,200
watts,
which
The
netization
curve.
distortion of
is
carried
(b)
(c)
165
when
the watts
volume
are considerable.
Let
us, therefore,
of 14,000 gausses as
no
an upper
length,
oil
$ = 13,850
in.
Whence
iron
of
is
Ib.
Fig.
27,
are
^=1.44,
mean
D = 0.9X122X1680
-=
/Ci
whence the
losses
o6 X 0.0104
18.1
ohms,
(i7.o5)
X 18.1 = 5260
watts.
is
166
R2 =
0.9X122X126
-=0.0062 ohm.
6
io
X 0.144
12%-
Zl
FIG. 53.
whence the
watts, and
losses
^ = 5360+4960=10,220
which
is
appreciably
less
watts,
loss.
167
is
rials,
by making such
thing to
do
in this case
current density in
small reduction in the
saving of copper
number
of turns.
considerable
of
The weight
0.32
is
(122X1680X0.0104) +
0.32(122X126X0.144) = 1,700
Efficiency.
The
full-load
is
=0.985.
1,500,000+11,900+10,220
The
At
At
At
At
ij full load
0.985
f full load
0.984
| full load
0.981
| full load
0.968
Ib.
effi-
168
The
full-load efficiency
1,500,000X0.8
is
= 0.982.
(1,500,000X0.8)4-22,120
This
is
rather
8250X23
-
more than
it should be.
component, which
is
If the
design is altered,
as previously suggested, to reduce the amount of copper,
this will result in a reduction of the opening in the iron,
and, therefore, also of the length of the magnetic circuit.
is, however, clear that the flux density (Item 29) must
not be higher than 13,850 gausses. If the design were
It
modified,
it
might be advisable
the
by
the magnetic
slightly increasing
cirduit.
The fact that the exciting current component
is fairly large relatively to the load current will lead to a
cross-section of
but
correction.
is
eighteen primary
coils is
number
of turns in
two out
of
lations
very
accurate results.
(40) of Art.
in
The
169
to yield
Formula
Ti= * s-=2*o',
71 = 17.05;
7 = 10.15X12X2.54 = 310 cm.;
=
= 7.62 cm.;
# 3X2.54
=
# 1.7X2.54 = 4.32 cm.;
5 = 0.38X2.54 = 0.965 cm.;
h= 12.75X2.54 = 32.4 cm.
:L
7iXi=475
Since there are six sections, and
the total reactive drop at
full
all
load
is
volts,
is
voltage.
By Formula
resistance
RJ,
(35)
Art.
33,
is
6/
whence
IiRp = 600
which
is
volts.
By Formula (47),
= i).
unity (cos
Regulation
= 0.683 +0 = 0.683
per cent
170
The more
is
Formula
(46)
0.735.
When
which
approximate formula
rate in this case
This
is
is
is
gives
= (0.683 X 0.8) + (3
24 X 0.6)
cent
on
80 per cent power factor.
per
(approx.)
Regulation
= 2.5
less
ulation might be obtained with only 4, instead of 6, highlow groups of coils, and in order to produce the cheapest
the designer
abnormally high in
to
perature Rise.
(61).
of containing tank
it is
eter
may
be obtained.
In
this instance
5 ft.
3 in.
The
diamheiglit
This height
will
be about 90
in.,
and
if
we assume
171
=465;
FIG. 54.
Assembled Stampings
in
Tank
of Circular Section.
4
the
multiplier
0.34
being obtained
The watts
to
it
made
of i| in.
172
7>47
= 270
ft.
I2XI.25X7T
H. T. Terminal as
detailed in Fig.
FIG. 55.
Assuming the
4
ft.
in.,
the
coil
to
number
about
25.
173
On
C. between outgoing
0.25X17.47=4.37
gal.
per minute.
may have
and cooling
18,860 sq.
in.
This new value for Item 57 has been put in the last
column of the design sheet; but the items immediately
following,
is
it,
of
no practical im-
portance.
Hottest Spot Temperature.
The manner in which the
temperature at the center of the coils may be calculated
when
in Art. 23.
It
is
is
unnecessary to
make
up
if adequate ducts
around the coils.
spots
There
will
the calculation
provided
weight of
oil is
Ib.
The
174
and
coil,
terminals, solid
oil)
or
= 14.65
lb.
lb.
(in-
full-
1500
load output.
Several details of construction have not been referred
It
to.
is
provided
is
not
uncommon
tion of 10 per cent in four or five steps, which is accomplished by cutting in or out a corresponding number of
turns, either
ever
may
Mechanical Stresses in
Coils.
The manner
side,
in
which-
which the
The
is
JL IfL
max Jj&m.
8,896,000*
Formula
(4),
T and
/,
175
we have
and
/,
being the average length of the portion of a
turn projecting beyond the stampings at one end, is
-- 27=34
= 10.15X12
in.
or 86 cms.
and 54
normal
full-load value.
2QIC
The
in
Formula
= 30 X 2 2 7 X "\/2 = 9650
(4)
on the
sine
amperes.
easily calculated;
176
gausses,
29J
whence, by Formula
Force in
= 4400
X 2 1 X 9650 X
2LIO
Ib.
(4),
<X^5X_44o = g6
ft
8,896,000
This
the force
is
end
whole
An
equal force
tend to deflect outward the secondary coil at the
other end of the stack. If an arrangement of straps with
two bolts is adopted as shown in Fig. 16 each bolt
coil.
will
must be able
ficient
to withstand a
maximum
Bolts f
in.
dead short
diameter
circuit.
CHAPTER
VI
When
General Remarks,
mental principles of
it is
apparatus,
from those
of the
more usual
differ
The apparatus
dealt
types.
means
of distributing electric
of transformer will
ment
will
be
repetitions.
power
in
may
have an impor-
ages.
Low
Volt-
to 35,000
up
usually three-phase.
give large currents at a comcurrent of 2000 amperes at
welding on
thawing out
frozen water pipes need not necessarily be specially
designed because standard distributing transformers
5 volts
an
electric
railroad.
Transformers
177
for rail
for
178
imum
pressure of
up
to 600
when they
of trans-
copper
erly arranging
and
The mechanical
the design of
secondary terminals and leads also require careful attenleads.
details in
tion.
46.
Constant-current
Transformers.
Circuits
with
number
of
lamps on the
circuit.
If it is de-
from constant
179
must
voltage
in the
shown diagrammatically
in Fig.
of Art.
2.
The
as in Fig. 48,
and
it is
to be observed that,
in Fig. 56
on account
of
amount
it is
if
obvious that
still
be made to decrease at a
180
Thus, if an increase of
greater rate than the current.
current could be made to bring about a change in the
FIG. 56.
Amount
of
Leak-
age Flux.
amount
of the current.
181
of a
Sill
FIG.
57.
Vector Diagram
of
Transformer with
Variable
Leakage
Reactance.
angle
</>
by the changes
in the
of Fig. 57.
constant-current
One
transformer
with variable
magnetic
182
jchange in the current may be made to produce a considerable change in the relative position of the coils, thus
greatly altering the relation between the- leakage
FIG. 58.
sum
of
and
Coil.
which
With
lamps in
movable
series
is
coil will
sta-
183
amount
corre-
and
this
B am
must be made
after completion,
by the proper
setting of
the counterweight.
off
between
6.5
in conjunction with a
cooled
by
The
if
necessary,
circulating water.
full-load
efficiency
of
coils for
constant-current
trans-
47. Current
Instruments.
of
comparatively
184
small
for
construction
panels or in
far
circuit.
Again, in the
the reduction of
of
circuit
ondary
ground potential renders unnecessary the special instruments and costly methods of insulation that would be
if the line current of high- voltage systems were
taken through the measuring instruments.
A current transformer does not differ fundamentally
required
across
volts,
terminals will
which,
in
their
circuit.
the voltage absorbed will be a minimum, and the input of the transformer will be approximately equal to the copper losses, because a very small
short-circuited,
amount
be
185
total
shows
the-
When
a current transformer
is
used in connection
11
/./
fulfilled
is
that
the
ratio
7\
or
* p\
T
*p
be as nearly
values.
lw
FIG. 59.
circuit,
On
the sine
wave assumption,
01 p
it
is
an easy matter
186
The
IT \ and
),
being simply I A
M vl
IP = \/(/i sin
whence the
it is
0+/
2
)
+ (/i
cos
d+I u y,
ratio
1v
factor (cos 0)
FIG. 60.
187
,.,.,.
/I =-/,=
L-D
'
If
this
difference
is
it is
total
primary current.
The phase
59 and 60)
difference
may
between I p and
I\
(see Figs.
be expressed as
never exceed
relatively to the
main
component 7
current.
It
very small
therefore neces-
is
sary to use low flux densities in ^the cores of series transformers for use with instruments, and this incidentally
"
"
leads to small core losses and a small
comenergy
ponent
Flux densities
full
188
uncommon
formers.
is
large,
a convenient
form
of current transformer
is
is
permissible
with currents as
Although the presence of the exciting current component of an iron-cored transformer renders a constant
ratio of current transformation theoretically unattain-
cannot be obtained
current.
It
is,
for
of* course,
-]
(T
Is/
desired current transformation
may be
that
any
obtained for a
189
.<y
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Low
Flux Densities.
0.8
190
transformation
tically correct
is
primary current.
If
it
the ratio of
will
be prac-
over the range from f to full-load curmost noticeable with the smaller
of
the
manner
in
The
Percentage of Full-load
Current.
is
likely to vary.
191
in connection with
The
in
may
instrument transformers.
48. Auto-transformers.
An
FIG. 62.
connections are
made
as in Fig. 62.
One terminal
is
192
circuit
and the
There
is little
transformers
but
up
when
a,n
is
large;
be used
the voltage.
is
effected
by
Let
7\,
= the number
a and
T = the number
s
and
a and
The
of other
between terminals
of turns
between terminals
of turns
between terminals
b;
= ihe number
The meaning
of turns
c (Fig. 62)
b.
symbols
ratio of transformation
Ev =
is
is
=r
(54)
-r-i
J-
The
(55)
ratio of currents
is
-^-r,
(56)
193
while the current I c in the portion of the winding comto both primary and secondary is obtained from
mon
the equation
1
1 pi
cJ- s
p,
whence
/
or, in
= /,('-!),
.....
(57)
(58)
None
an auto-transformer, is
Es ls'y but part of the energy passes directly from the
primary into the secondary circuit. For the purpose
of determining the size of an auto-transformer, we
equivalent transformer rating.
volt-amperes actually transformed are ES I C whence
require
The
know
as
to
its
former.
The
ratio of turns,
to be carried
the design
may
194
nary potential
Auto-transformers are,
Auto-transformers.
Tin's
assumption
is
condition to be satisfied
Ip
from
Whence,
+ Is = Ic
......
(60)
no current flowing
calculated
readily
that the
Let
is
195
exactly
as
is
an ordinary trans-
for
is
+T
turns of winding.
Then, since the resultant exciting ampere turns must
always be approximately (Tp-\-Ts )Ie the condition to
S)
be
satisfied
under load
is
V,
which,
if
we
divide
(6i)
by Ts becomes
,
we
get
--
rl p
= rr -l
e
(63)
196
exciting
current I e on
the
assumption that
it
flows
ML
Is
is
Then,
it
C by making CI = that
it
equal to
is
*E.
FIG.
64.
rI P whence
,
OC
is
CIS
=I
the vectorial
Equation
(60) that
V,
and
sum
OC
CM = (ri)I
of Is
is
and I p
it
Also, since
follows from
the
winding,
conditions.
and 7C
in the sections ac
can be calculated
for
and
cb of
197
linkages
by causing more
flux-
moving
iron type
This
is
illustrated
by the
section
shown
a diagrammatic representation of
a single-phase induction regulator with the primary
coils on a cylindrical iron core capable of rotation
in Fig. 65.
is
The secondary
coils
are in slots in the stationary portion of the iron cirThe dotted lines show the general direction of
cuit.
movable core
is
when
the primary
maximum
corresponding to
is
in the position
secondary voltage.
As the
secondary voltage
AB
CD,
current
CD,
will
is
It
is
198
The
FIG. 65.
Diagram
of Single-phase Variable-ratio
Transformer of the
Moving-iron Type.
from
arises
gaps in
static
transformer so as to avoid
excessive magnetic
199
leakage.
an outlying
district.
The movement
by
of the
hand, or auto-
The
voltage generated in the ring winding to zero.
lines shown in the diagram are those produced
flux
by
It
shown
in Fig. 66
which greatly
An improvement
when
this
its
The year
1895.
200
FIG- 66.
Fig.
circuit.
magnetic
67,
201
the result
rotating
core,
This
regulating
is
The
If
amperes at full load, the necessary capacity of a boosting transformer of the type
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 67 is 20 k.v.a. This
variable-ratio transformer, with its
2 200-volt
supply, and
its
between o and
end
of this feeder
volts
may
by providing
An
202
Position of Zero
Secondary Pressure
Position of
Maximum
Secondary Pressure
FIG. 67.
203
by 100
volts.
= 10
1000
k.v.a.
Two
or
three
may
circuits;
The
generally preferable.
three-phase regulator of the inductor type is essentially
is
through the required angle by mechanical gearing operated in the same manner as the single-phase regulator.
The
induction regulator will depend upon the angular displacement of the secondary coils relatively to the cor-
The
By making
204
secondary voltage
voltage.
will
The torque
of
INDEX
A
PAGE
Absolute unit of current
26
88
Analogy between
dielectric,
and magnetic,
19
127
circuits
33
Auto-transformers
191
(see
coils).
Terminals).
Calorie, definition
99
Capacity current
41
electrostatic
33,
of plate condenser
Capacities in series
40
42
41
Classification of transformers
Compensators
Condensers in
36
14
191
series
Condenser type
of
bushing
42
62
Conductivity, heat
Constant-current transformers
80, 82, 87
Construction of transformers
17, 24, 31
178
205
INDEX
206
PAGE
Cooling of transformers
by
88
air blast
forced
106
circulation
oil
water circulation
Copper
losses
105
72, 75, 76, 83, 142, 165
resistivity of
144
77
Core-type transformers
17, 22
Corrugations, effect
94
60
Coulomb
34
72
184
D
Density
Design
(see
coefficient (c)
149
numerical example in
154
problems
13
procedure in
Dielectric circuit
150
32
constant
36
constants, table of
37
strengths, table of
37
36, 62
Disruptive gradient
Distributing transformers
17
E
Eddy
73
96
'.
74
all-day
maximum
Elastance, definition
73, 167
74, 183
77
145
35
INDEX
207
PAGE
Electrifying force
Electrostatic force
38
38
4, 5,
96
134, 137
Exciting current
5, 125,
in auto-transformers
168
194
129
volt-amperes
(curves)
131
F
Farad
33
35
i.
72,
164
24,
74
19
77
177
H
Heat conductivity
of materials
80
copper
83, 87
insulation
Heating
of transformers (see
87
Temperature
rise).
15
84
Induction regulator
197
polyphase
Instrument transformers
203
183
50
oil
52
problems of transformer
32
thickness of
Iron, losses in
48
69, 77, 142, i8c
INDEX
208
L
PAGE
Laminations, losses in
shape
of, in
shell-type transformer
19
thickness of
Large transformers.
Leakage
19
16, 17
flux
69
hysteresis
69
in copper windings
in iron circuit
power, in transformers
69
M
Magnetic leakage (see Leakage flux).
Magnetization curves for transformer iron
Magnetizing current (see Exciting current).
Mechanical stresses in transformers
Microfarad
128
24,
74
36
O
Oil insulation.
Output equation
Overloads, effect
52
138
of,
on temperature
98
P
Permeance
Permittance
34, 39
Capacity).
Polyphase transformers
Potential gradient
Power
(see
12, 22
38
transformers
16, 154
Q
Quantity of electricity (Coulomb)
34
INDEX
209
R
PAGE
Reactance, leakage, experimental determination of
Reactive voltage drop
Regulation
formulas
114
134, 135
Regulating tranformers
197
203
polyphase
Reluctance, magnetic
Resistance of windings
35
165
81
thermal
Resistivity of copper
144
S
"Sandwiched"
118
coils
164
108
Series, transformers
184
Shell-type transformers
Short-circuited transformer, diagram of
Silicon-steel for transformer
116
stampings
71
(see
Winding space
12
factor)
iron
151
58, 68
52, 53
140, 155
Specifications
Specific inductive capacity (see Dielectric constant).
heat; of copper
99
of oil
99
Stacking factor
151
on
h.t.
terminals
Surface leakage
list of.'
68
24, 1 74
46
under
Symbols,
19
65,
oil
54
ix
INDEX
210
T
PAGE
Temperature
rise of
transformers
Terminals
99
54
composition-filled
59
62
condenser type
57, 60
oil-filled
porcelain
57
Test voltages.
58
ohm,
definition
81
Three-phase transformers
Transformers, auto
12, 22
191
constant current
178
17, 20, 22
core-type
current
184
17
distributing
for electric furnaces
177
large currents
178
183
12, 22
polyphase
power
16, 154
series
184
shell-type
welding
Tubular type of transformer tank
177
104
V
Variable-ratio transformers.
197
no, 112
196'
short-circuited transformer
series
transformer
16
185, 186
n,
.
.'
10
INDEX
211
open secondary
flux.
circuit
of,
on design
PAGE
180
5
Voltage, effect
181
126
15
flux
117, 137
<
141
W
Water-cooled transformers
105
Weight of transformers
Welding transformers
151, 173
177
Window," dimensions
Wire, size
of, in
141
51, 151, 152
of, in shell-type
windings
(see
transformers
Current density).
160, 163
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX
OF TABLES, CURVES, AND FORMULAS
A
PAGE
Air clearances (Formula)
49
90
89,
127
B
B-H
inch)
128
C
Capacity current
in terms of dimensions, etc
42
Charging current
Cooling area of tanks (Curve)
42
Copper space
36
93
factors
77
96
72
D
Density, current, in coils (usual values)
in transformer cores (Table)
72
37
strengths (Table)
37
Disruptive gradient
72
E
Efficiency (usual values)
E.m.f., formulas
74
6
5,
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX
214
PAGE
96
130
Curve
'.
131
72
28
flux
H
Hottest spot tempe.-ature -(Formula)
86
124
49
clearance
thickness of (Table)
53
48
70, 189
J
Joints in iron circuit,
for
127
77
70, 189
M
Magnetization curves for transformer iron
128
131
28
field
O
Oil, insulation thickness in
53, 54
Output equation
52
,
138
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX
215
P
PAGE
Power
70,
189
R
Reactance, leakage, in terms of test data
Reactive voltage drop (Formula)
Regulation formulas
117
124
135, 136
117
S
Space
copper
factors,
iron
151
under
37
50
54
oil..
T
Temperature
of hottest spot
rise
86
(Formula)
98, 101
93
Thickness of insulation
48
in oil
53, 54
V
Voltage drop, reactive (Formula.)
regulation (Formulas)
124
135, 136
130
(Curves)
131
'.
142
149
W
Water, amount
Winding space
of,
factors
105
51, 151, 152
SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX
216
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
PAGE
Capacities in series
43
Composition-filled bushing
58
Condenser-type bushing
65
87
series
Plate condenser
Temperature
105, 171
due to overloads
of self cooling oil-immersed transformer
Transformer design
Voltage regulation
44
1
74
41
98, 102
94
97
154
136, 168
130
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