Unit 2

PHYSICAL LAYER-1
1. Analog and Digital Signals
Analog
Many levels of intensity over a period time

Digital
Limited and defined values

Periodic and Non Periodic Signals

Periodic
Completes a pattern in measurable time frame called period.
Require less bandwidth
Periodic analog:
*sine wave
*no further decomposition
3parameters to describe
1. Peak amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
1. Peak amplitude: Absolute value of highest intensity, proportional to energy it
carries. Measured in volts.
2. Frequency and period: Period is time required for signal to complete one cycle.
Frequency is Number of cycles per second.
f=1/T (hertz/Hz).
3. Phase: Describes the position of waveform relative to time 0.
Composite signal: A number of simple sine waves combined together form a composite signal.
Bandwidth: Difference between highest and lowest frequencies of a composite signal.

Transmission Impairments
*Signal when travelling in beginning a medium is not same as signal in end of medium i.e. What is sent
is not received. This is transmission impairment.
*There are three types of transmission impairments
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise

1. Attenuation
> It is loss of energy.
>When signal travels from one medium to another it loses some of its energy in overcoming
resistance in medium.
>To compensate this loss, amplification is done.

Attenuation
The strength of signal is measured in decibel (dB).
decibel is the relative strength of two signals at a given point of time.
It is negative for attenuated signal and positive for amplified signal.

2. Distortion
* Change of shape or form of signal.
* Occurs in a composite signal of different frequencies.
* Each component of composite signal has different propagation speeds, therefore its own delay in
arriving to final destination.
>This creates phase difference if the time period is different i.e. The signal components have
different phase from what had been sent at sender.

Distortion

3. Noise
* Different types: thermal, induced, crosstalk, impulse.
* unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data.

NOISE

DATA RATE LIMITS

Depends on
1. Available bandwidth
2. Signal level
3. Quality of channel
Calculation of data rate:
1. Nyquist bit rate: Noiseless channel
2. Shanons capacity: Noisy channel
Nyquist bit rate: Noiseless channel
Bit Rate=2* bandwidth*log2 L (bps)
L= Number of signal levels used to represent data
Bit rate= bit rate in bits per second.
>Works theoretically, but practically increasing L increases burden on receiver thus reducing reliability of
system.
Shanons capacity: Noisy channel
Capacity= bandwidth*log2 (1+SNR)
Capacity: capacity of channel in bits per second.
SNR: Signal to noise ratio
There is no indication of signal level because, no matter how much ever be the signal level, data rate
cannot be higher than the capacity of the channel.

Performance
1. Bandwidth: expressed in two different contexts:
1. Bandwidth in hertz: Range of frequencies contained in a composite signal.
2. Bandwidth in bits per second: Number of bits per second in a channel, link or network can
transmit
Increase in bandwidth in hertz increases bandwidth in bits per second.

2. Throughput: Measure of how fast the data can be sent through a network.
A link can have bandwidth of B bps, but only T bps can be sent through this link.
B is always less than T
Bandwidth: measurement of potential of link
Throughput: measure of actual measurement of data transfer of link

3. Latency: Time taken for complete message/data to arrive to destination from the time first bit is sent
from source.
4 components
1. Propagation time: Time taken for a bit to travel from source to destination.
Propagation time= Distance/Propagation speed
2. Transmission time: amount of time from the beginning until the end of a
message transmission.
Transmission time=Message size/Bandwidth
3. Queuing time: Time required by device to hold message before processing.
4. Processing delay: Time taken for processing of message in receiver.

Digital to Digital Conversion

Three techniques:
1. Line coding
2. Block coding
3. Scrambling
Line coding
Process of conversion of digital data into digital signals.
Data which is in the form of text/ number/ graphical images/ audio/video as a sequence of bits.
Converts sequence of bits into signals.
@sender: Digital data is coded into digital signal.
@receiver: Digital signal is decoded into digital data.

Line coding

Characteristics of LINE CODING

Bandwidth
Baseline wandering
DC Components
Self-Synchronization
Built in error detection
Immunity to noise and interference
Complexity

Line Coding Schemes

NRZ (Non Return Zero)
Unipolar Scheme: All signal levels are on one side of time axis, either above or below.
- Signal doesnt return to zero at middle of bit.
- Positive voltage defines bit 1 and zero voltage defines bit 0.
- Very costly.

Unipolar NRZ
Polar scheme: Voltages are on both sides of the time axis. Ex. Voltage level 0 can be positive and
voltage level for 1 can be negative.
2 levels of amplitude. Can have 2 versions NRZ-Level (NRZ-L) and NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I).
NRZ-L
Level of voltage determines value of bit
NRZ-I
Change or lack of change in level of voltage determines the value of bit

Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I

Polar RZ (Return to Zero)

- Uses three values: Positive, Negative, Zero.
- Signal doesnt change during bits, rather changes in the middle of each bit
- No DC component problem.
- Requires two signal changes to encode a bit, occupying greater bandwidth.
- Complex to create and discern as it uses three levels of voltage.

Polar RZ
Polar Bi-phase
-Idea of RZ and NRZ-L combined to form Manchester scheme.
* Duration of bit divided into two halves.
* Voltage remains at one level during one half and moves to other level in next half.
* Transition at middle provides synchronization.
-Idea of RZ and NRZ-I combined to form Differential Manchester scheme.
* Transition at middle of bit, but bit value determined at beginning of bit only.
* 1st bit: 0, 2nd bit 1: theres transition, 1st and 2nd bit 0: theres no transition.

Polar Bi-phase

Analog to digital conversion

Sometimes, analog signals are to be transmitted in digital format such as the one created in
microphone. For this, we first convert analog signal to digital signal and then transmit it.
Two types: 1. Pulse code modulation (PCM)
2. Delta modulation (DM) (only PCM i n s yllabus)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Most commonly used.
Three processes
1. Sampling
2. Quantized
3. Encoding

Components of PCM (Check text book once for di a gra m)

Sampling
- Analog signal is sampled every Ts s, where Ts is sampling interval.
- Inverse of sampling is sampling rate or sampling frequency.
- There are three methods: ideal, natural and flat-top.
o Ideal: Pulses from analog are sampled. Ideal- cannot be implemented.
o Natural: High speed switch is turned for small period of time when sampling occurs.
Retains the shape of analog signal.
o Flat-top: also called sample and hold, creates flat-top samples using circuit.
- Sampling rate has to be twice the highest frequency in the original signal.

Quantization
- Result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between maximum and minimum
amplitudes of signal.
- Set of amplitudes can be infinite values between the two limits.
Steps in quantization
1. Assume amplitude of signal at given instance is in between V min and V max.
2. Divide range of values into L zones, each of height (delta).
3. Assign quantized values to 0 to L-1 to mid-points of each zone.
4. Approximate value of sample amplitude to quantized values.

Transmission modes
2 types:
1. Parallel
2. Serial
1. Asynchronous
2. Synchronous
3. Isochronous
Parallel
Binary data, can be organized into groups of n bits each.
By grouping, n bits can be sent at a time instead of 1.
n lines for n bits of data.
Adv: speed
Disadv: n lines for n bits, high cost.

Parallel Transmission
Serial
Asynchronous
- Timing of signal not important
- Info received and translated by agreed patterns. Patterns generally group of bits.
- Bit starting and ending indicated by adding additional bits at beginning and ending.

Beginning usually 0, ending usually 1.

Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous
- Bit stream combined to longer frames containing multiple bytes.
- Data sent unbroken.
- Timing very important.
- Speed
- No gap between data, can be uneven gaps between frames.

Synchronous Transmission

Digital to analog conversion

Four types:
1. Amplitude shift keying
2. Frequency shift keying
3. Phase shift keying
4. Quadrature shift keying
Amplitude shift keying
- Amplitude carrier signal is varied to create signal elements.
- Frequency and phase remain constant.
- Implemented using only two levels called Binary ASK.
- Peak of one amplitude signal level is 0; other is same as carrier frequency
- Bandwidth is proportional to signal rate.
- Normally depends upon another factor d, which is in between 0 and 1.
B=(1+d)*S where S is Signal rate and B is bandwidth

Amplitude shift keying

Frequency Shift Keying
- Frequency of carrier signal varied to represent data.
- Consider two carrier frequencies f1 and f2. First carrier used if data element=0 second carrier
used if data element=1.
- Bandwidth: Modulation creates a non-periodic composite signal with frequencies f 1 and f2. If
difference between these two frequencies is 2 f, then required bandwidth is
B=(1+d)*S+2

Frequency Shift Keying

Phase Shift Keying
- Phase of carrier signal is varied to represent two or more different signal elements.
- Amplitude and frequency remain constant.
- In a simplest PSK there are only two phases 00 and 1800.
- Less susceptible to noise.
- No two carrier signals required.

Phase Shift Keying

Quadrature amplitude modulation

- Combination of ASK and PSK.