Civil Engineering Concepts 1

Title: CIVIL ENGINEERING CONCEPTS

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Civil Engineering Concepts 2

Abstract
Many decades ago, individuals could not appreciate civil engineering as a discipline that could
make their lives better. However, today there is tremendous achievement in this discipline. It
deals with the design, establishment, and preservation of the physical and innately built
environment which comprises roads, bridges, railways, tunnels, and dams. This paper tries to
identify and evaluate site and soil investigation techniques, analyze and examine commercial
foundations as well as appreciate performance of the superstructure.

Question No. 1:
Site and soil investigation Programme
For one to develop structures that are free from unequal settlement, toppling, and uplifting;
understanding the geotechnical properties of the underlying soil is a necessity. As a result, it is
necessary to carry out a site and soil investigation for the site formation, foundation design, and
re-establishment of the flatted Cheung Sha Wan Flatted factory. To achieve it, it is necessary to
have a site and soil investigation programme. This programme includes:
Collection of preliminary intelligence: It involves procuring facts regarding the types of
structures to be erected, use, familiarizing oneself with the topography of the area, as well as
obtaining published geotechnical properties of the subsoil. It is meant to provide statistics on the
site and the likely results. It is also meant for self check.
Site Reconnaissance: An engineer is expected to visit the Cheung Sha Wan zone, so as to
visually inspect the site, and understand the geological properties of the soil. In addition, site
reconnaissance is done to determine the availability of infrastructure to the site, and availability

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of raw materials. It is also done to check for structures that can be affected by construction
works.
Site Investigation: It is the explorations of the ground properties to enable engineers
make informed resolutions. It involves planning, making shallow excavations, drilling test
boreholes, and taking soil samples for further analysis. It is normally done in a pattern, so as to
procure undisturbed and disturbed samples that will portray the geotechnical properties of the
subsoil.
Sampling: it involves acquiring undisturbed and disturbed soil samples for further testing.
At this stage on is expected to take samples on a pattern with a minimum spacing of ten meters.
One is also expected to do a shallow excavation so as to displace the vegetation soil and take the
samples underneath.
Reporting: At this stage, the investigation team is expected to write a clear concise report
of the soils at the site. He/she is expected to write on the exploration techniques, soil profile,
examination methods, and level of the ground water. It is from this report that consultants will
make informed decisions on the site and soil properties.

Site investigation Methods

According to British standards tall and heavy commercial structures built over deposits of
fairly homologous soils call for thorough examination. Site investigations are done for
acquiring facts about the subsoil properties of the proposed construction site. It consists of
establishing the soil profile, soil sampling, and determining geotechnical properties of soils.
The site investigation methods include:

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Test pits: It is an economical method of soil exploration in shallow depths. Shovels,
backhoes and exactors are used to depths not exceeding 5.5 meters. Test pits allow for visual
inspection of the soil layers, and procuring of undisturbed and disturbed soil samples. It is the
cheapest method of soil exploration, but is limited to: complications in undisturbed sampling,
collapse in cohesion less soils, impossible to work with below the ground water table.
Boreholes: It involves drilling of holes at the site to obtain soil samples underneath. Various
techniques involved are auger boring, wash boring, rotary boring, and percussion boring. They
all work in both cohesion and granular soils. Boreholes help in determining cohesion properties
of soil, and identifying weak deposits of subsoil. The only limitation is that to obtain undisturbed
soil samples is difficult.
In situ tests using Probes: To obtain undisturbed samples, a cone penetration test is
performed using a probe with a conical tip pushed into the soil using hydraulics. The instrument
then reports on the tip resistance where the data obtained is likened to soil properties. The results
obtained from this test are: penetration properties of the soil, and shear resistance. The only
limitation to this is technique is cost.
Soil Investigation Methods
Site and soil investigation cannot be complete without analyzing the mechanical properties of
soil. At this juncture, both field and laboratory testing are necessary. The following methods are
commonly used:
a.

California Bearing Ratio test

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It is accomplished by measuring the pressure needed to perforate a soil sample with a plunger of
unit area at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. The obtained pressure is then divided by the pressure
necessary to acquire an equal perforation on standard mashed rock. The samples taken are
obtained from test pits and boreholes. At the site, the soil sample taken is subjected to sieving so
as to obtaining various grades for testing. It is then taken to the laboratory where it is compacted
by subjecting it to uniform blows and then tested for penetration. It is useful in obtaining load
bearing capacity of soils. It is also useful in determining moisture content of compacted soil. It is
limited to: Expensive to operate, and time consuming.
Apparatus: Cylindrical mould with internal diameter 150 mm and height 175 mm, Spacer disc
diameter 148 mm and 47.7 mm in height along with handle, metal rammers with options as
2.6kg with a drop of 310mm or 4.89kg with a drop of 450mm, weights each 2.5kg and 147mm in
diameter with a center hole 53mm diameter, loading machine with at least 5000kg, metal
penetration piston 50 mm diameter and minimum of 100 mm in length, two dial gauges reading
to 0.01 mm, eight sieves 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves, soaking tank, mixing bowl, and
drying oven.
Procedure: Place the mould fabrication with the added weights on the penetration testing
machine. Hold the penetration piston at the center of the specimen with least feasible load not
exceeding 4kg. Set the stress and strain gauge to mark zero. Apply the load on the piston, so that
the penetration rate is 1.25mm/min. tabulate the load readings at penetrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0,
2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5mm. Be attentive to read the maximum load and respective
penetration if the penetration occurring is less than 12.5mm. Disengage the mould from the

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equipment and take about 2050g of soil from the top most soil layer and determine the moisture
content.
b. Standard Penetration Test
It is an in-situ progressive test aimed at providing intelligence on the mechanical properties of
soil. The test uses a thick-walled sample tube which is hammered into the stripped subsurface.
Measurements are done in N- values which represent the number of blows required to pass the
hammer a 150mm interval. The blow count provides a manifestation of density of the subsoil.
The main goal of this test is to give a show of the corresponding density of the soil deposits and
evaluate firmness of the subsoil It is more preferred since it`s simple and inexpensive. The only
limitation is that it cannot work in loose soils.
Apparatus: 63.5kg drop hammer with a falling height of 750mm, split spoon sampler, and a
drilling equipment with an internal diameter of 100-150mm.
Procedure: Advance the borehole to the required depth and clean the bottom. Attach the split
spoon sampler to the drilling rod and rest it on the bottom. Drop the driving mass onto the drill
rod repeatedly to drive the sampler into the soil for a distance of 450mm. Record the number of
blows for each 150mm penetration.
c. Atterberg Limits
They are tests done on fine-grained to test its change in behavior and firmness. It is a
measure of the critical moisture contents of a superb-grained soil. The limits are shrinkage
limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit. These limits direct the state of soil to being solid, semi-

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solid, plastic and liquid state where in each state they portray different mechanical properties.
The limits are useful in determining the elastic and liquid properties of soil. They help
determine the amount of compaction use on subsoil without permanently deforming it. The
only limitation to this test is that it`s hard to work with undisturbed soil samples.
Apparatus: liquid limit device, evaporating dish, flat grooving tool with gage, eight
moisture cans, weighing balance, glass plate, spatula, distilled water, and a drying oven.
Procedure for liquid limit: Take roughly of the soil and place it in the evaporating dish
and mix thoroughly with some water to make a paste then cover then dish to prevent
evaporation. Weigh four of the moisture cans with their lids and record their weights and can
numbers in a sheet. Adjust the liquid limit apparatus by checking that height of the cup and
the base is 10mm. Place a portion of the previously mixed soil portion on the point where the
cup rests on the base and see to it there are no air pockets. Use a grooving tool to cut a grove
to the center of the cup. Turn the crank of the apparatus at a rate of approximately two drops
per second and count the number of drops it takes for the two halves to come into contact at
the center. If the drops exceed 50, then move on and do not record. Take a sample using the
spatula and place it in the moisture can cover it with a lid and weigh it, remove the lid and
place the moisture can in the oven for 16 hours. Repeat the above procedures to record
various water contents needed for the halves to meet.
Procedure for Plastic limit: Weigh the remaining empty moisture cans with lids and record
with the respective can numbers. Take the remaining soil and mix it with water until when
the soil can be rolled without sticking. Roll the soil mass between palm and fingers until it
deforms to a 3.2mm diameter. Cut it into pieces and reform till when it can longer form that

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diameter. Place the final piece cut in moisture can and covers it then weigh and place it in the
oven for at least 16hrs. Repeat the above steps to record respective water contents.
Question no.2
Shallow Foundations
They are types of footings that transfer structural loads from building members to the ground that
is near the surface. Terzaghi defined a shallow foundation as one whose depth below surface is
less than or equal to the breadth. Most of the shallow foundations are a few meters deep from the
vegetation soil. The following are some of the shallow foundations, namely: strap footing, spread
footing, combined footing, strip footing, and mat footing.
Design Requirements for shallow foundations
Shallow foundations must be free from excessive settlement. When a building is under
construction, one may not notice unequal settlement until later when openings and cracks
develop. Differential settlements occur because the soil underneath the footing has been unable
to offer sufficient compression resistance to the loads from the structure. In shallow foundations
this is not allowable as since it may lead to collapse in floors and problems with openings. To
avert excessive settlement soil improvement and compaction is necessary.
Shallow foundations must be placed at depths at depths free from frost, bulging,
shrinkage, and corrosion. In places with hot and cold climate, water below the ffoting may
expand freeze and create heaves during winter uplifting the structure and contract during summer
lowering the structure. A footing should be placed at a depth where it`s least exposed to the harsh
environmental conditions. Soil underneath a footing is assumed to be constant water content

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sufficient to support the structure. Therefore, when there is change in the water content the soil
may shrink or swell and therefore affect stability of a foundation.
Shallow foundations must not be erected in places with high groundwater level. In
granular cohesion less soils water uplifts when subjected to loading and this adds costs due to
drainage. In cases where it is not detected I the advance stages, unequal settlement may occur
and can lead to toppling.

Elastic settlement: it is a type of settlement in granular soils to deform structurally when

subjected to loading, but restore to the initial form when the compressing load is removed. This
type of settlement is considered safe for construction works since it applies Elastic Theory in
foundation Engineering.
Primary consolidation settlement: it is the deformation of structural members when the
saturated soil underneath loses water due to the continuous loading without replacement. This
type of settlement begins in seven days time. This settlement occurs due to static loading
displacing water and resulting in shrinkage.
Differential settlement: it is the deformation of structural members when the soil
underneath the structure shrinks bulges or deviates. It arises from changes in the water content in
the soil underneath the foundation. It`s caused by flooding, drought, maturing of nearby trees,
and frost.
Methods of controlling Settlement of Ground
Dynamic compaction: is a method of increasing specific density and decrease
compressibility of the soil by compaction. The amount of loading used depends upon the

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geotechnical properties of the soil. It involves moving weights up and down and along the
surface to make it stronger. Equipment used includes the vibrators and rollers.
Use of admixtures: sometimes the soils to support a foundation may fall of the qualities of
a good foundation. It calls for soil modification to improve its properties. Admixtures are added
to the soil, so as to decrease permeability and compressibility of the subsoil. Some of the
admixtures are: application of permeation grouting and Portland cement. They are mixed and
injected deep in the soil, so as to decrease soil permeability and increase soil compressibility
respectively.

Foundations
In sites where the ground water level is near the surface use of shallow foundations is not
advised. In this case, it`s not advisable to use a pad foundation for the podium construction.
Hydrostatic pressure and low bearing capacity in the soil due may fail the structure. As a result,
deep foundation is encouraged. Deep foundations are footing which transmit loads further down
to soils or to the bed rock. The following are types of deep foundation: pile foundation and piers.
Pile foundation: is a type of foundation where pillars/piles are drilled or hammered into
the ground, so as to submit loads to stronger soils or the bedrock some are augured while others
are driven. They are then covered with concrete and interconnected with beams to improve their
load bearing properties.
Piers and beams: Are types of foundation where posts of concrete are dug into the ground
in places where subsurface conditions are not suitable for foundation engineering. Unlike in
many foundations, the ground beam rests on the columns and a bit braised from the ground. They
are common in places which experience very hot and very weather conditions.

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Justifications
They reduce operational cost. Unlike the pad foundation where continuous drainage and
soil improvement is a necessity, deep foundation maintenance is minimal.
Better load bearing abilities due to greater depths. Unlike shallow foundations where
foundation stability depends on the mechanical properties of the subsoil, piles and pier
foundation have greater capacity since they transmit loads to soils with good bearing strata.
They are more resistant to wind, hydrostatic pressure and earthquake. Since they are
firmly held in the ground beneath, these structures are more resistant to toppling from horizontal
forces and natural forces.

Question No.3.
a. Construction sequence of a typical floor cycle
Fix column and wall formwork
Prepare the ground for excavation

Place concrete in the column

Setting out

formwork and vibrate

Fix beam and slab formwork

Place fresh concrete as underlay

Fix steel reinforcement in the
Fix the edge formwork

beam and slab and compact

Beam and slab concreting

Install service pipes

Sprinkle water to cure it and
Fix steel reinforcement in the columns

allow it to dry.

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b. Superstructure frame
A structural member is characterized of a column, beam and slab as the load bearing
members. In structural engineering, these are the components that make a structure. In London, a
good example of a structure comprising these structural members is the Cheese Grater which
rises 221 meters above the ground. It holds 48 floors and load transmission from the floors is
through these structural members. When observed from the Leaden hall Street of London, one
can see the slabs since they make the floors and view columns and beams from the interior.
R.C. Beam construction: in construction of reinforced concrete beams, steel rebars are placed
on the formwork along the length and then added other rebars for shear reinforcement. Sizes of
rebars are chosen depending on the type of loading. Beams are designed for against compression,
tension, and shear forces. Concrete grade 40 is advised for beam construction. As a result, the
number of rebars varies from four rebars to six rebars. The steel reinforcement is then passively
embedded in concrete to safeguard it from corroding and catching fire. Beams experience point
loads, continuous loads, and distributed.
R.C. Columns: in the construction of reinforced concrete columns, steels rebars are raised
and tied from the foundation along the height of the structure. Shear bars are tied across at a
uniform spacing and Grade 40 concrete poured into the column formwork. Steel reinforcement is
embedded in the concrete to safeguard it from corroding and catching fire. Columns are designed
for compression, eccentricity, and shear. They experience axial loading.
c. Structural steel sections
I- beams: Are steel beams with double T- sections which are wide for resting floor joists. It is
a beam whose neutral axis is along the flange.
T- beams: are steel beams with a flag on the top which serve as a floor joist. It is known to
have a neutral axis at the bottom.
Channel section: Is a steel section taking shape of a double whose flanges half its breadth.
It`s commonly used as a beam.
Circle hollow section: is a type of steel section that is circular and hollow in cross section,. It
is commonly used in making columns in light structures.

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Round section: it`s commonly used in making steel reinforcement bars. They are almost
circular, but rough.
Rectangular hollow section: Is a type of steel section whose cross section is rectangular in
shape. It is commonly used in making columns in light structures.
d. Butt weld and fillet weld:
e. To minimize

http://staff.uob.edu.bh/files/640114130_files/R-C-Building.pdf
http://geo.cv.nctu.edu.tw/foundation/download/FoundationsSettlements.pdf
http://www.uic.edu/classes/cemm/cemmlab/Experiment%207-Atterberg%20Limits.pdf
http://web.mst.edu/~rogersda/umrcourses/ge441/NOTES%20for%20STANDARD
%20PENETRATION%20TEST.pdf