TRANSMISSION MEDIA AND ANTENNA SYSTEMS

TERRESTRIAL PROPAGATION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

ground losses vary considerably with surface

material

Advantages of Ground Wave Proportion

- Given enough transmit power, ground waves can be
used to communicate between any two locations in
the world
- Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing
atmosphere conditions

II. SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION

- commonly called as Line-of-Sight (LOS)
transmission.
- Travel in a straight line from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna.

I. GROUND OR SURFACE WAVE PROPAGATION

- is an Earth guided electromagnetic wave
that travels over the surface of earth.
provide
reliable
24
hour/day
communications capability for frequencies
of up to about 5MHz
primary mode of communications in the LF
and MF bands

LOS radio horizon for a single antenna at sea level is given

as:
d = 2h
Therefore, for transmit and receive antennas, the
distance between the two antennas at sea level is:
d= dt + dr
d = 2ht + 2hr
where: d = total distance m mi
dt = radio horizon for transmit antenna (mi)
dr = radio horizon for receive antenna (mi)
ht = transmit antenna height (feet)
hr = receive antenna height (feet)

Notes:
-

Ground waves must be vertically polarized. This is

because the electric fields in a horizontally polarized
wave would be parallel to the earths surface, and
such waves would be short circuited by the
conductivity of the ground.
Common uses:
Ship-to-ship Communication
Ship-to-shore Communications
Radio Navigation
Maritime Mobile Communications

Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation

- require a relatively high transmission power
- limited to very low, low and medium frequencies
(VF, LF and MF)

Notes:
-

The curvature of the earth presents a horizon to

space wave propagation called the radio horizon.
Because of atmospheric condition the radio
horizon extends beyond the optical horizon for
the common standard atmosphere.

Duct propagation a special that occurs when the density of

the lower atmosphere is such that electromagnetic waves are
trapped between it and Earths surface. The layers of the
atmosphere acts as a duct, and an electromagnetic wave can
propagate for great distances around the curvature of the
Earth.

III. SKY WAVE PROPAGATION

- Electromagnetic waves that are directed above
the horizon level.
- Sometimes called as ionospheric propagation.
take advantage of the ionosphere (30-250mi or
50-400 km above earths surface) that surrounds
the earth to provide worldwide communications
with reasonably good quality, reliability and
moderate power

3.

The E Layer the E layer limits are from

approximate 60 to 85 mi ( 100-140 km) above
earths surface. This layer is also known as
Kennelly-Heaviside layer because these two men
were the first to propose its existence. The rate
of recombination in this layer is rather rapid after
sunset and is almost complete by midnight. This
layer has the ability to refract signals of a higher
frequency that were refracted by the D Layer. In
fact, the E Layer can refract signals with
frequencies as high as 20 MHz.
Sporadic E-layer- upper portion of the E-layer
considered separately

4.

F Layer The F Layer exists from about 85 to

220 mi (140 km 350 km) . During the daytime
hours, the F Layer separates into two layers, the
F1 and F2 layers. The ionization level in these
layers is quite high and varies widely during the
course of a day. At noon, this portion of the
atmosphere is closest to the sun, and the degree
of ionization is maximum. Since the atmosphere
is rarefied at these heights, the recombination pf
the ions occurs slowly after sunset. Therefore, a
fairly constant ionized layer is present at all
times. The F Layers are responsible for high
frequency, long distance transmission due to
refraction for frequencies up to 30 MHz.

Notes:
-

Almost all HF propagation, and night time long

distance MF propagation is by skywave
Above 30MHz waves are more likely to
penetrate the ionosphere and continue moving
out into space.
Ionosphere is most dense during time of
maximum sunlight
In general, the lower the frequency, the more
easily the signal is refracted.
In the UHF and SHF bands, a very small
percentage of the waves energy is refracted back
to earth.
Under the best conditions, the maximum
distance of a single hop is about 2000 miles.

IONOSPHERIC LAYER
- The ionosphere is composed of three distinct
layers, designated from lowest level
to highest level (D, E, and F) as shown in figure
Layers of the Atmosphere
1.

2.

D Layer The D Layer ranges from about 30

60 mi ( 50 100 km). Ionization in the D Layer
is low because it is the lowest region of the
atmosphere (farthest from the sum). Thus layer
has the ability to refract signals of low
frequencies. High frequencies pass right through
it but are partially attenuated in so doing. After
sunset, the D Layer disappears because of the
rapid recombination of its ions.

Amount of Ionization depends on the following

factors:
1.
2.
3.

amount of sunlight
season of the year
weather conditions

4.

local terrain

The amount of refraction depends on 3 factors:

1.
2.
3.

density of the ionized layer

frequency of the radiowave
Angle at which the wave enters the ionosphere.

radiation is deflected by the earths magnetic

field.
5. Solar flares
A violent eruption of the surface of the sun,
sending a tremendous cloud of cosmic rays out
into space. The magnetic field associated with
this cloud is believed to shield the earth from
cosmic rays coming from other inter-stellar
sources, thus accounting for the sudden decrease
in cosmic-ray count on the earth following a
solar flare.
Ionospheric Variations

1. Diurnal Variations hour-to- hour changes in

2.
3.
4.

Effects of ionospheric density on radio wave

Atmospheric Conditions cause signal absorption, signal

dispersion and signal fading
1.

2.

3.

4.

Aurora Borealis
Is a luminous atmosphere ascribed to electricity
that occurs neat or radiates from the earths
northern or southern magnetic poles and is
visible at different times and over varying
portions of the earths surface. Because of the
ionic turbulence produced, signals reflected from
the aurora borealis have a rapid fluttering sound.
During strong aurora borealis activity, voice
communications are poor, and continues eave is
the best means of communicating
Sunspots
Are relatively cool area that appears as dark
blemishes on the face of the sun, usually
associated with the magnetic storms on the earth
that affect radio communication and the lower
frequencies.
SID-Sudden Ionosphere Disturbances
occasional daytime phenomenon rendering HF
sky wave communication impossible caused by
chromospheric eruption on the sun resulting in
ion density in the D Region, with a moderate
increase in the E region, increasing their
absorptive properties.
Magnetic Storms
A storm that causes rapid and erratic changes in
the strength of the magnetic fields of the earth,
affecting both radio and wave communications.
It is caused by the sunspot activity. Solar

the various-ionosphere layers caused by the

rotation of the earth around its axis.
Seasonal Variations caused by constantly
changing positions of any point on earth relative
to the sun as the earth orbits the sun.
Geographic Variations caused by the varying
intensity of the solar radiation striking the
ionosphere at different latitudes.
Cyclical Variations caused by sunspot activity
over an 11 year cycle.

Propagation terms and definitions:

1. Critical Angle maximum vertical angle of frequency at
which it can be propagated and still be refracted back by the
ionosphere.

Incidence angle of radio wave

2. Critical Frequency the highest frequency that can be

propagated directly upward and still be returned to Earth by
the ionosphere.

Frequency versus refraction and distance

3. Virtual Height is the height above the Earths surface

from which a refracted wave appears to have been reflected.
4. Maximum Usable Frequency- is the highest frequency that
can be used for transmission between two points via sky
wave-that is, the highest frequency at which a signal radiated
into the atmosphere will be refracted back to earth with usable
strength.
- Varies between 8MHz to 30MHz with
Time of day, Distance,
Direction,
Season,
Solar Activity
Mathematically,

Relationship between skip zone, skip distance and ground wave

FREE SPACE PATH LOSS is defined as the loss incurred

by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line
through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy
from nearby object.
Mathematically,
-When the frequency is given in MHz and the
distance in km,
Lp = 32.4 + 20 log f(Mhz) + 20 log D(km)
-

When the frequency is given in GHz and the

distance in km,

Where: hv = virtual height of F-layer

Lp = 92.4 + 20 log f(GHZ) + 20 log D(km)

i = angle of incidence
MUF = critical frequency / cosi

where:

MUF = fc /cosi
or,
= critical frequency x sec i (secant law)
MUF = fc x sec i
- the secant law assumes a flat earth and a flat
reflecting layer, which of course, can never exist
very useful in making preliminary calculations
for a specific MUF.
5. Optimum working frequency- The most practical operating
frequency is one that you can rely onto have the
least number of problems.
FOT = 0.85 MUF
6. Skip Distance minimum distance from a transmit antenna
that a sky wave at a given frequency will be returned to earth.

When the frequency is given in GHz and the

distance in miles,

Lp = 96.6 + 20 log f (GHz) + 20 log D(km)

FADING AND FADE MARGIN
Fading- is the variation in signal loss caused by natural
weather disturbances, such as rainfall, fog, hail, and extremely
cold air over a warm Earth or can also be caused by manmade disturbances, such as irrigation, or from multiple
transmission paths, irregular Earth surfaces and varying
terrains.
Fade Margin an additional loss added to the normal loss.
Solving the Barnett-Vignant reliability equations for
a specified annual systems availability for an unprotected,
non-diversity system yields the following expression:
Fm = 30 log D + 10 log (6ABf) 10 log (1-R) - 70
/
/
/
/
multipath effect

7. Skip Zone the area between where the surface waves are
completely dissipated and the point where the first sky waves
returns to Earth.

terrain sensitivity

reliability

bjectives

constant

where:
Fm- fade margin
D= distance ( kilometers)
f = frequency (gigahertz)
R= reliability expressed as a decimal ( i.e.
99.99%= .9999 reliability)
1-R= reliability objective for one way 400
km route
A= roughness factor
= 4 over water or a very smooth terrain
= 1 over an average terrain
= 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain
B= factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual
probability
= 1 to convert an annual availability to a worst
month basis
= 0.5 for hot humid areas
= 0.25 for average inland areas
= 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas
Notes:
TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER (TROPOSCATTER)
- Is a special case of sky wave propagation used for
frequencies higher than those in standard sky wave
propagation techniques.
- Troposphere (6-10 mi above the earths surface) is
used as a reflector of UHF signals.
- Is used when reliable long distance communication
links are needed across deserts, mountain regions, off
shore drilling platforms and between distant islands.

the best and most widely used frequencies for

the troposphere scatter technique are 900MHz,
2GHz, and 5GHz
typical distance covered is around 400 mi
to overcome fading in troposphere scatter
communications, some form of diversity
reception is always used.

Space Diversity composed of 2 or more receiving

antennas separated by 50% or more. The best received signal
at any instant is selected to drive the speaker.
Polarization Diversity the use of a horizontal
dipole and a vertical dipole at the same location, with the
individual receiver outputs being combined, just as ion spacediversity reception. The arrangement counteracts the changes
in polarization of a received radio wave during fading.
Frequency Diversity transmission of the same
information on slightly different frequencies. The different
frequencies fade independently, even when transmitted and
received through the same antennas.
Angle Diversity transmission of information at two
or more slightly different angles. This results in two or more
paths based on illuminating different scattering volumes in the
troposphere.