BIOL 1003

INTRODUCTORY
BIOLOGY I
4. Molecules of life: we are what we eat - FALL2014

Iain McKinnell Dept. Biology

Introduction
All organisms contain the same macromolecules.
carbohydrates,
proteins,
lipids,
nucleic acids.
Core of these macromolecules is carbon
Earths organisms are 18% carbon
Carbon must flow from the atmosphere to

photosynthesizers to organisms
Use carbon to build up tissues & power activities

The most simple organic

molecules are hydrocarbons
Methane (CH4) is one

of the simplest organic

compounds.

Length. Carbon skeletons vary in length.

Ethane

Propane

Branching. Skeletons may be unbranched

or branched.

Butane

Isobutane

Double bonds. Skeletons may have double bonds.

1-Butene

Most organic

2-Butene

Rings. Skeletons may be arranged in rings.

molecules are not

simple hydrocarbons
however
Cyclohexane

Benzene

Functional Groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules

An organic compound has unique

properties that depend upon the

size and shape of the compound

functional groups attached to it.

A functional group affects a

biological molecules function in a

characteristic way.

Often impart charge/polarity, changing

the bonding capacity.

E.g. Add OH to hydrocarbon and

you have an alcohol.

Electronegativity of O results in polarity

Compounds containing functional
groups are hydrophilic (water-loving).

Cells make a huge number of large molecules from a

limited set of small molecules
There are four classes of molecules important to

organisms:

carbohydrates,
proteins,
lipids, and
nucleic acids.
Each of these complex molecules comes from

simple building blocks

They are polymers built by joining monomers
E.g. Carbohydrates are built through the joining of

Monosaccharides-disaccharides-polysaccharides

Monomers are linked together to form polymers

through dehydration reactions

Unlinked
monomer

Short polymer

Dehydration reaction
forms a new bond

Longer polymer

Glucose

Glucose

Maltose

All biological reactions of this sort are mediated by

enzymes, which speed up chemical reactions in cells.

Polymers are broken apart by hydrolysis

Hydrolysis
breaks a bond

Polymer animation

Carbohydrates
Major source of energy, also play a significant structural

role in both plants and animals

Comprised of Carbon, Hydrogen & Oxygen
Usually in a 1:2:1 ratio
Consumed as nutrients
Simple sugars (milk, juice, honey)
Complex sugars (Veggies, pasta)
Processed simple sugars

Fibre - complex carbs not digested

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates

Carbohydrates range from simple sugar molecules

(monomers) to large polysaccharides.

The most simple sugars are monomers -

monosaccharides, such as
Glucose
fructose.
Disaccharides also considered simple sugars

Monosaccharides can be hooked together to form

Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates).

Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units

Polysaccharides are
macromolecules and
polymers composed of thousands of monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides may function as
storage molecules
Starch granules
Starch
Glycogen

in potato tuber cells

Starch

Glucose
monomer

structural compounds.
Cellulose
Chitin

Cellulose microfibrils
in a plant cell wall

Cellulose
Hydrogen bonds

Cellulose
molecules

Lipids
No monomer or structural unit common to all lipids
Shared characteristic is that they are water insoluble

(hydrophobic, or water-fearing)
Consist mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms linked by

nonpolar covalent bonds

Also Oxygen (more H relative to O),

and phosphorus
are important in long-term energy
storage

fats,
phospholipids, and
steroids.

Fats (glyceride lipids)

Glycerol

Most common form of lipid

3 carbon glycerol linked
to
fatty acids
Fatty acid chain of

hydrocarbons terminating
in a COOH group.
90% of fats are

triglycerides
Several different fatty
acids types may combine
to form a triglyceride

Fatty acids

Unsaturated vs. saturated fats

Fatty acids containing one or more

double bonds - unsaturated fatty

acids
cause kinks or bends in the carbon chain
olive oils

Fats with the maximum number of

hydrogens - saturated fatty acids

animal fats

Fats animation

Unsaturated vs. saturated fats

Hydrogenated

vegetable oils are

unsaturated fats that
have been converted
to saturated fats by
adding hydrogen.

This hydrogenation
creates trans fats
associated with health
risks.

Phospholipids
Phospholipids are
structurally similar to fats -major
component of all cells.
Glycerol attached to 2 fatty

acids and a phosphate head

group

Phosphorus atom attached to four

oxygen

Fatty acids tails Hydrophobic

Phosphate head Hydrophilic
Will bond with H20

Phosphate
group
Glycerol

Hydrophilic
heads

Water

Hydrophobic
tails

Symbol for
phospholipid

Water

Steroids - a variety of functions

Steroids are lipids in which the carbon skeleton contains

four fused rings.

Cholesterol

common component in animal cell membranes and

starting material for making steroids, including sex hormones.

Proteins
Chemical reactions are enabled by proteins

(enzymes)
Also form scaffolding/structural support
Dietary complete protein contains all the essential

amino acids required

Beef, poultry, fish, eggs
Nuts, pulses, vegetables

Proteins are polymers of amino

acids

Proteins: amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Amino acids have
an amino group and
a carboxyl group (which makes it an acid).
Bonded to the central carbon is
a hydrogen atom and chemical group symbolized by R,
which determines the specific properties of each of the
20 amino acids used to make proteins.

Amino
group

Carboxyl
group

Proteins: amino acids linked by peptide bonds

Amino acid monomers are linked together
joining carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the
next amino acid, and
creating a peptide bond.
Additional amino acids can be added by the same process

to create a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide.

Carboxyl
group

Amino acid

Amino
group

Amino acid

Peptide
bond
Dehydration
reaction

Dipeptide

A proteins specific shape determines its function

A polypeptide chain contains hundreds or thousands of

amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

The amino acid sequence causes the polypeptide to
assume a particular shape.
The shape of a protein determines its specific function.

Groove

A proteins shape depends

on four levels of structure
primary structure

Amino
acids

Amino acids

Hydrogen
bond
Beta pleated
sheet

secondary structure
Alpha helix

Transthyretin
polypeptide

tertiary structure

quaternary structure
Transthyretin, with four
identical polypeptides

Lipoproteins & glycoproteins

Glycoproteins
Carbs and proteins

Receptors, some hormones, signaling

molecules
Lipoproteins
Lipid plus protein
Transport fats
LDL vs. HDL

Fat in the diet

Health or harm of dietary fat is down to its effect on

lipoproteins
Polyunsaturated fat containing omega-3 fatty acids
Monounsaturated & polyunsaturated fat without omega-3
Saturated fats
Trans fat

Polyunsaturated fat containing omega-3 fatty acids

Fatty acids with 2 or more carbon-carbon double bonds =

polyunsaturated
Omega-3 is one such fatty acid the C=C bond is between the 3rd and
4th carbon from the omega end

Increase HDL, reduce fat in blood, reduce growth of deposits

Salmon, mackerel, walnuts, canola, tofu

Fat in the diet

Monounsaturated & polyunsaturated fats

without omega-3
Monounsaturated fats (mostly oils)
Leave LDL & HDL unchanged
Mediterranean diet

Non-omega-3 polyunsaturated fats

Slightly lower HDL (not considered harmful)

Fat in the diet

Saturated fats
Do the most to raise LDL levels
1% increase in diet leads to 2% increase in LDL (keep to
<7% of calories).
Animal fat & dairy

Trans fat Industrial hydrogenation

Turns oils into fats at room

temperature
Raises LDL, lowers HDL
Increases fat in blood, should
get <1% of calories
Cookies, fries, cakes, etc
LIGHTSPRING/SHUTTERSTOCK.COM

Other biomolecular needs

Micronutrients required in small amounts
Vitamins
Most not synthesized (Vit D is synthesized by body)
function as co-enzymes
Best obtained via whole foods

Minerals
Not carbon but essential (Ca+, Na+, K+, etc)
Obtain through food
Antioxidants
Prevent free radical damage
Found in nuts, fruits, grains

Nucleic Acids
For life to occur must have a mechanism for

passing traits to the next generation.

All life on Earth uses nucleic acids
DNA is the primary information bearing molecule
Contains the recipe for all the proteins in the cell

DNA and RNA - nucleic acids

The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed

by a discrete unit of inheritance known as a gene.

Genes consist of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).
Gene

DNA
Transcription
RNA

Amino
acid

Translation
Protein

Nucleic
acids

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic

acid) are composed of monomers called nucleotides.

Nucleotides have three parts:

a five-carbon sugar called ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA,

a phosphate group, and
a nitrogenous base.

Nitrogenous
base
(adenine)
Phosphate
group
Sugar

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides

Two polynucleotide strands wrap

around each other to form a DNA

double helix.

The two strands are associated

because particular bases always

hydrogen bond to one another.
A pairs with T, and C pairs with G,
producing base pairs.

G
A

Base
pair

T
T

RNA is usually a single

polynucleotide strand.

A
T

Summary
Understand the role of carbon and functional groups
What are the four main classes of biomacromolecules?
Describe dehydration and condensation reactions

Carbs - Mono, di, polysaccharides

Roles of carbs

What are the 3 types of lipids

What are the different structure and functions?

Proteins
Describe amino acid structure
What are the four levels of protein structure?

Nucleic acids
What is the structure of a nucleotide?

Next up Chapter 4: A tour of the cell.