PETER NEWMARK

Peter Newmark developed translation theory in striking and sometimes

controversial ways, describing the conversion of a text from one language to another
as both a science and an art He developed translation theory in striking and
sometimes controversial ways, describing the conversion of a text from one language
to another as both a science and an art.
He defines translation as a way of rendering the meaning of a text into another
language in the way that the author intended the text. Translation is an instrument of
education as well as of truth precisely because it has to reach readers whose
cultural and educational level is different from, and often 'lower' or earlier, than, that
of the readers of the original .
He says that translation theory is concerned with the translation method
appropriately used for a certain type of text, and it is therefore dependent on a
functional theory of language. However, in a wider sense, translation theory is the
body of knowledge that we have about translating, extending from general principles
to guidelines, suggestions and hints . It is concerned with minutiae (the meanings of
semi-colons, italics, misprints) as well as generalities (presentation, the thread of
thought underlying a piece), and both may be equally important in the context.
Translation theory is pointless and sterile if it does not arise from the problems of
translation practice, from the need to stand back and reflect, to consider all the
factors, within the text and outside it, before coming to a decisin.
It is important to know:

THE INTENTION OF THE TEXT

THE INTENTION OF THE TRANSLATOR

TEXT STYLES: Following Nida, we distinguish four types of (literary or

non-literary) text:
Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events
Description: which is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives,
adjectival nouns.
Dialogue, with emphasis on colloquialisms and phaticisms.

SETTING :You have to make several assumptions about the SL

Leadership. . The three typical reader types are perhaps the expert, the educated
layman, and the uninformed.

 THE QUALITY OF THE WRITING: If the text is well written, i, e. the

manner is as important as the matter, the right words arc in the right places, with a
minimum of redundancy, you have to regard every nuance of the author's
meaning (particularly if it is subtle and difficult) as having precedence over the
reader's response - assuming they are not required to act or react promptly; on the
contrary, assuming hopefully that they will read your translation at least twice .

CONNOTATIONS AND DENOTATIONS : in a non-literary text the

denotations of a word normally come before its connotations. But in a literary text, you
have to give precedence to its connotations, since, if it is any good, it is an allegory, a
comment on society, at the time and now, as well as on its strict setting.
THE LAST READING: Finally, you should note the cultural aspect of
the SL text; you should underline all neologisms, metaphors, cultural words and
institutional terms peculiar to the SI. or third language, proper names, technical
terms and Untranslatable' words.

As regards the process of transalting, Newmark says: It is operational. It

begins with choosing a method of approach. Secondly, when we are translating, we
translate with four levels more or less consciously in mind:
(1) The textual level, the level of language, where we begin and which we
continually (but not continuously) go back to.
(2) The referential level, the level of objects and events, real or imaginary,
which we progressively have to visualise and build up, and which is an essential part,
first of the comprehension, then of the reproduction process.
(3) This level encompasses both comprehension and reproduction: it presents
an overall picture, to which we may have to adjust the language level.
(4) the level of naturalness, of common language appropriate to the writer
or the speaker in a certain situation.This level of naturalness is concerned only
with reproduction.
(5) The revision procedure, which may be concentrated or staggered
according to the situation. This procedure constitutes at least half of the
complete process.

Newmark suggests that all translations are based implicitly on a theory of

language. According to Buhler, the three main functions of language are the

expressive, the informative - he called it 'representation' - and the vocative

('appeal') functions:

THE EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION:The core of the expressive function is

the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses
the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response.
INFORMATIVE FUNCTION : The core of the informative function of
language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language,
including reported ideas or theories.
THE VOCATIVE FUNCTION: The core of the vocative function of language
is the readership, the addressee. The first factor in all vocative texts is the
relationship between the writer and the readership, which is realised in
various types of socially or personally determined grammatical relations
or forms of address. The second factor is that these texts must be written in
a language that is immediately comprehensible to the readership.
THE AESTHETIC FUNCTION: This is language designed to please the
senses, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its
metaphors.
THE PHATIC FUNCTION: The phatic function of language is used for
maintaining friendly contact with the addressee rather than for imparting
foreign information.
THE METALINGUAL FUNCTION: Lastly, the metalingual function of
language indicates a language's ability to explain, name, and criticise its own
features.

Finally, Newmark enumerates the different translation methods. They are:

Word-for-word translation: The SL word-order is preserved and the words

translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural
words are translated literally.
Literal translation:The SL grammatical constructions are converted to
their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated
singly, out of context.
Faithful translation: A faithful Translation attempts to reproduce the precise
contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL
grammatical structures.
Semantic translation:Semantic translation differs from 'faithful translation'
only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value.
Adaptation: This is the 'freest' form of translation.
Free translation: It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content
without the form of the original.
Idiomatic translation:Idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of
the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring
colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

Communicative translation: It attempts to render the exact contextual

meaning of the original in such a wav that both content and language
are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the Leadership.

Newmark considers that only semantic and communicative translation fulfil

the two main aims of translation, which are first, accuracy, and second, economy.
Semantic translation is used for 'expressive' texts, communicative for 'informative' and
'vocative' texts. But semantic and communicative translation must also be seen as
wholes. Semantic translation is personal and individual, follows the thought processes
of the author, tends to over-translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at
concision in order to reproduce pragmatic impact.
At a pinch, a semantic translation has to interpret, a communicative translation
to explain, Theoretically, communicative translation.
Newmark points out that there is an equivalent effect which is the desirable
result, rather than the aim of any translation, bearing in mind that it is an unlikely
result in two cases: (a) if the purpose of the SL text is to affect and the TL translation
is to inform (or vice versa); (b) if there is a pronounced cultural gap between
the SL and the TL text. However, in the communicative translation of vocative texts,
equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential; it is the criterion by which the
effectiveness, and therefore the value, of the translation of notices, instructions,
publicity . propaganda, persuasive or eristic writing, and perhaps popular fiction, is to
be assessed. In semantic translation, the first problem is that for serious
imaginative literature, there are individual readers rather than a readership.
Secondly, whilst the reader is not entirely neglected, the Translator is essentially
trying to render the effect the SL text has on himself not on any putative readership.
However, the more cultural a text, the less is equivalent effect even conceivable
unless The reader is imaginative, sensitive and steeped in the SL culture.

Sources:

A Textbook of Translation,
Wikipedia