P R E P R I N T ICPWS XV

Berlin, September 811, 2008

Chilled ammonia process for CO2 capture

Victor Dardea,b, Kaj Thomsena, Willy van Wellb and Erling Stenbya
Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark
b
Generation Department, Chemical & Materials, DONG Energy
Email: vid@kt.dtu.dk, kth@kt.dtu.dk, wilwe@dongenergy.dk, ehs@kt.dtu.dk

The chilled ammonia process for CO2 capture is a new and patented post-combustion technology that
offers good perspectives regarding the reduction of the emission of carbon dioxide from power plants. This
process was studied using a software based on the extended UNIQUAC model developed by Thomsen and
Rasmussen for the CO2-NH3-H2O system. This model is capable of describing accurately the vapor-liquidsolid equilibria and thermal properties for this system for a wide range of concentrations (up to 80 molal),
for a temperature in the range of 0-110C and for a pressure up to 100 bars.
Based on the equilibrium calculations and the information from the patent for the chilled ammonia process,
it has been possible to describe the composition of each stream, analyzing the solid, liquid and vapor phases.
Moreover, this study comprises calculations of the energy requirement in the absorber and the desorber,
based on the equilibrium calculation. The reference configuration which was used for the analysis shows
promising results regarding the energy consumption in the desorber compared to capture techniques using
aqueous alkanolamines.
Therefore, regarding the reduction objectives
endorsed by many governments, efforts are being
made to develop technologies allowing the
decrease of the emissions from the power plants.
Carbon dioxide capture implies separating the CO2
from the rest of the flue gases from a power plant
or a factory instead of releasing the CO2 in the
atmosphere. Several methods can be used to
capture CO2 from coal-fired power plants. Post
combustion techniques separate the carbon dioxide
from the flue gas after a traditional combustion
process. The main advantage of such technique is
that the combustion at the power plant is unaltered,
so the process can be implemented on existing
power plants. Amine solutions have been
commonly used for the commercial production of
CO2 and have been tested for CO2 capture on pilot
scale. However such technologies require a large
amount of energy, especially in the desorption part
of the process [4]. In addition, the use of amines
entails some problems related to solvent
degradation and corrosion [5, 6]. Therefore, new
alternatives for post-combustion capture are
searched for. Processes using aqueous ammonia as
solvent are promising alternatives. The ammonia
process is found in two variants, depending on the
temperature of absorption. The first variant
absorbs the CO2 at low temperature (2-10C) and
is therefore called chilled ammonia process. The

Introduction
The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere
has constantly increased from 315 ppm in 1958 to
about 390 ppm in 2007 [1]. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded in
2007 that most of the observed increase in
globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th
century is very likely due to the observed increase
in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations
[2]. The consequences of global warming could be
very threatening. It has been studied that the
greenhouse effect is likely to increase the
frequency of extreme weather events, cause the
sea level to rise and modify the precipitation
pattern among many other effects. A rise of the
temperature would deeply modify the climate. It
would imply the appearance of climate refugees.
IPCC has estimated in 2007 that the number of
climate refugees in 2050 could reach 150 millions.
This phenomenon could also favor the spread of
diseases, especially in poor areas. Hence, the
reduction of the emission of greenhouse gas
represents one of the main challenges of the
coming years.
The proportion of carbon dioxide emissions
from power production is very significant in
industrialized countries. In Denmark, in 2004, they
represented 61% of the total CO2 emissions [3].

-1-

low temperature process has the advantage of

decreasing the ammonia slip in the absorber and
decreasing the flue gas volume. This process
allows precipitation of several ammonium
carbonate compounds in the absorber. The second
process absorbs CO2 at ambient temperature (2540C) and does not allow precipitation. This study
focuses on the chilled ammonia process for CO2
capture.

the cooling of the gas by using Direct Contact

Coolers (DCC). The number of DCC that are used
may vary. The temperature of the gas that leaves
the cooling subsystem is comprised between 0 and
10C. This stream contains low moisture and
almost no particulate matter, acidic or volatile
species. Indeed, the low temperature decreases the
vapor pressure of these compounds. It entails their
condensation into the water.
Then, the flue gas enters the CO2 capture and
regeneration subsystem. The process presents
some similarities with the capture process using
aqueous alkanolamines. It comprises two columns:
an absorber and a desorber. A schematic flow
sheet of this system is shown in Figure 1.
The cold flue gas enters the bottom of the
absorber while the CO2 lean stream enters the top
of it. As mentioned before, the temperature of the
flue gas should be between 0 and 10C. The CO2
lean stream is mainly composed of water,
ammonia and carbon dioxide. The mass fraction of
ammonia in the solvent is typically up to 28wt%.
The CO2 loading is defined as the ratio of the
number of mole of carbon dioxide and ammonia.
According to the patent, the CO2 lean stream
should have a CO2 loading comprised between
0.25 and 0.67, and preferably between 0.33 and
0.67.
The carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ammonia in
the absorber column. The pressure in the absorber
should be close to atmospheric pressure. The

CO2 capture using chilled ammonia

The use of chilled ammonia to capture carbon
dioxide was patented in 2006 by Eli Gal [7]. The
process is described in the patent.
Description of the patented process
The process requires several steps. First, the
purpose of the process is to absorb the carbon
dioxide at a low temperature. The patent indicates
a temperature range from 0 to 20C, and
preferably from 0 to 10C. Hence, it is first
necessary to cool down the flue gas that contains
the CO2. This is done by adding a cooling
subsystem at the entrance of the process. This
system also allows for cleaning of the gas before it
enters the absorber. It first consists of a reactor
used for gas desulphurization by using acid
absorbing reagent. Thanks to this system, a large
part of the contaminants initially present in the gas
may be removed. This cleaning step is followed by

Figure 1: Schematic flow sheet of the process

-2-

temperature should be in the range 0-20C, and

preferably 0-10C. This low temperature prevents
the ammonia from evaporating. In addition,
according to the patent, this low temperature is
supposed to enhance the mass transfer of CO2 to
the solution. A low CO2 loading increases the
vapor pressure of ammonia which implies its
evaporation. On the other hand, a high CO2
loading for the CO2 lean stream decreases the
efficiency of the absorption. Thus it was necessary
to define an optimized CO2 loading range. Under
the conditions described above and according to
the patent of the process, more than 90% of the
CO2 from the flue gas can be captured.
The cleaned gas stream can leave the absorber by
its top. This stream contains some residual
ammonia, which is washed out by using cold
water and an acidic solution. The treated stream is
reintroduced into the system. The cleaned gas
mainly contains Nitrogen, Oxygen and a low
concentration of carbon dioxide.
The CO2 rich stream leaves the bottom of the
absorber. It might be composed of a solid and a
liquid phase. Indeed, at this temperature and under
those conditions, the solubility limits may be
reached. Hence, the CO2 rich stream is a slurry. Its
CO2 loading is between 0.5 and 1, and preferably
between 0.67 and 1. The patent mentions that a
part of the CO2 rich stream could be recycled to
the absorber in order to increase the CO2 loading
of the CO2 rich stream by producing more solid.
The CO2 rich stream is then sent to a heat
exchanger where it is warmed, and then sent to the
desorber using a high pressure pump. Its
temperature reaches a range of 50-200C, and
preferably 100-150C. Its pressure is in the range
of 2-136 atmospheres. Under those conditions, the
emission of ammonia that could be implied by the
high temperature is reduced. The conditions cause
CO2 to separate from the solution. It leaves the top
of the desorber as a relatively clean and high
pressure stream. The water vapor and the
ammonia that is contained in this stream can be
recovered by cold washing, possibly using weak
acid to increase the washing efficiency.
The desorption reaction is endothermic, but the
energy that has to be supplied is much lower than
for MEA or other solvents according to the patent.
This energy highly depends on the composition of
the CO2 rich stream that enters the desorber.

Indeed, the composition of the solid phase, which

depends on the initial composition and on the
process conditions, has a strong influence on the
energy that has to be supplied. In addition, the
pure CO2 stream that is obtained with this process
is already at high pressure. Hence, a part of the
energy needed to compress this stream is saved.
Table 1 sums up the composition and the
process conditions that are described in the patent.
Table 1:
CO2
Lean
stream
Flue
gas
CO2
Rich
stream

Process conditions in the patent

Temperature Pressure
CO2
(C)
(atm)
loading
0-20

0-10

50-200

2-136

0.25-0.67

0.5-1

Description of the model

This study uses the extended UNIQUAC
thermodynamic model developed for the CO2NH3-H2O system by Thomsen and Rasmussen [8].
It calculates the activity coefficient for the liquid
phase using the extended UNIQUAC model, and
the gas phase fugacity using the Soave-RedlichKwong (SRK) equation for the volatile
compounds. [8] The model only requires binary
interaction parameters, UNIQUAC surface area
and volume parameters.
The analysis of the CO2-NH3-H2O system
implies the study of several equilibrium processes.
The model is based on more than 2000
experimental data points on this system in the
IVC-SEP electrolyte data bank, including thermal
properties and solid-liquid equilibrium. The
following reactions must be considered.
Speciation equilibria
(1)
NH3 (aq)+H 2 O NH4+ +OH-

CO2 (aq)+H2O(l) HCO3- +H+

(2)

H 2 O(l) OH +H

(4)

HCO3- CO32- +H +
-

NH3(aq)+HCO NH2COO +H2O(l)

3

Vapor-liquid equilibria

-3-

(3)
(5)

CO2 (g) CO2 (aq)

(6)

H 2 O(g) H 2O(l)

(8)

NH3 (g) NH3 (aq)

software calculates the amounts of the different

species in the liquid phase, the pH, the bubble
point total pressure and partial pressures of water,
ammonia and carbon dioxide, the saturation index
of the 5 solids mentioned earlier, the enthalpy of
formation and the heat capacity of the liquid phase.
Hence, for a given molality, it is possible to obtain
the composition of the liquid phase, the nature and
the amount of the solid phases, the bubble point
total pressure, the composition of the bubble point
gas phase and the enthalpy of formation of the
stream. This last term is calculated by summing
the enthalpy of the liquid and solid phases,
knowing the standard enthalpy of formation of the
solids and the corresponding heat capacities.

(7)

Liquid-Solid equilibria
NH4+ +HCO3- NH4HCO3 (s)

(9)

NH4+ +NH2COO- NH2COONH4 (s)

(10)

2NH4+ +CO32- +H2O (NH4 )2CO3.H2O(s)

(11)
4NH4+ +CO32- +2HCO3- (NH4 )2CO3.2NH4HCO3(s) (12)
H 2O(l) H 2O(s)

(13)
Hence, five different solids can be formed
during the process:
Ammonium bicarbonate: NH4HCO3
Ammonium carbonate: (NH4)2CO3.H2O
Ammonium carbamate: NH2COONH4
Sesqui-carbonate: (NH4)2CO32NH4HCO3
Ice: H2O
Urea can also be formed at some temperatures
and compositions. Its formation is not included in
this study.
Figure 2 shows which solid phase can
precipitate
in
various
temperature
and
concentration ranges. Some experimental data are
marked in the diagram [9, 10, 11, 12].

Composition of the process streams

Based on the software and on the information
from the patent of the process, the equilibrium
composition of the different streams of the process
has been studied. The results shown here concern
the compositions of the streams in the absorber
and in the desorber. A typical initial mass fraction
of ammonia in the solvent is 28wt%. This value
has been used in this study.
In addition, in the absorber, the temperature
should be in the range of 0-20C, and preferably
0-10C. The CO2 loading of the CO2 lean stream
(lean CO2 loading) is in the range of 0.25-0.67,
and the one of the CO2 rich stream (Rich CO2
loading) in the range of 0.5-1. Therefore it seems
relevant to study the influence of the CO2 loading
from 0.25 to 0.77 by maintaining the temperature
at 10C and by using an initial mass fraction of
ammonia in the solvent of 28wt%. Hence, the
molality of ammonia in the solvent is 22.83
mol/kg H2O, and the molality of CO2 varies from
5.71 to 17.6 mol/kg H2O. The model is not
accurate for pressures higher than 100 bars that are
obtained for higher loadings. This equilibrium
study gives an overview of the species that appear
in the absorber. Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5
respectively show the composition of the liquid
phase, the nature and amount of solid phases and
bubble point pressure of a 28wt% ammonia
solvent at a temperature of 10C as a function of
the CO2 loading.

10
9

NH3 /CO 2 mol ratio

Extended UNIQUAC
Jnecke (1929)
Terres & Weiser (1921)
Terres & Behrens (1928)
Guyer & Piechowicz (1944)

NH2 COONH4

8
7
6
5
4
3
2

NH4HCO3

1
0

(NH4)2CO32NH4HCO3

(NH4)2CO3 H2 O

10

20

30

40

50

Temperature, C

60

70

80

90

100

Figure 2: Phase diagram of the CO2-NH3-H2O

system [8]
Hence, the model is capable of describing
accurately the vapor-liquid-solid equilibria and
thermal properties for the CO2-NH3-H2O system
for a wide range of concentration (up to 80 molal
NH3), for a temperature in the range of 0-110C
and for a pressure range up to 100 bars.
A software based on the model was used in
this study. Based on the temperature and the
molalities of carbon dioxide and ammonia, the

-4-

0.2

NH3(aq)
NH4+
CO3-HCO3NH2COO-

0.15

Mole fraction

the ammonium bicarbonate solid phase. The

composition of the solution and the pH are very
stable when it is present while they change rapidly
as soon as it disappears. Figure 4 shows that at
10C, there is a solid phase present at all CO2
loadings higher than 0.25. For loadings higher
than 0.5, two solids are present: ammonium
carbonate and ammonium bicarbonate. For
loadings lower than 0.5, the only solid is
ammonium carbonate. This result is in agreement
with the phase diagram presented in Figure 2,
which shows that increasing the loading entails the
formation of ammonium bicarbonate and the
decrease of the amount of ammonium carbonate.
Figure 5 shows that at low CO2 loadings, the mole
fraction of ammonia in the gas phase is very high.
Therefore, it is likely that some ammonia is swept
along in the pure gas stream that leaves the
absorber. Hence, a washing section must be
considered to limit the emission of ammonia.
A similar study was performed to analyze the
composition of the stream in the desorber. The
same initial mass fraction of ammonia was chosen
(28wt%). According to the patent, the desorption
preferably occurs at temperatures in the range of
100-150C. The CO2 loading decreases in the
stripper as the carbon dioxide is desorbed there.
The influence of this parameter on the
composition of the stream in the stripper is studied
in the following paragraphs. A temperature of
120C was chosen in the study. The CO2 loading
was varied from 0.25 to 0.77.

Composition of the liquid phase

Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 10C

0.1

0.05

0.25

0.29

0.33

0.40

CO2 loading

0.50

0.67

Figure 3: Composition of the liquid phase of a

28wt% ammonia solvent with a
temperature of 10C as a function of
the CO2 loading
Nature and amount of solid phases
Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 10C

Number of mol

14
12

(NH4)2CO3H2O

10

NH4HCO3

8
6
4
2
0

0.25

0.29

0.33
0.40
CO2 loading

0.50

0.67

Figure 4: Nature and amount of solid phases of a

28wt% ammonia solvent with a
temperature of 10C as a function of
the CO2 loading
Bubble point pressures
Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 10C

0.25

Total
H2O
NH3

NH3(aq)
NH4+
HCO3NH2COOCO2 (aq)

0.2

0.1
0.05
0

Composition of the liquid phase

Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 120C

0.25

CO2

0.15

mole fraction

Pressure (bar)

0.2

0.25

0.29

0.33

0.40

CO2 loading

0.50

0.67

0.15
0.1
0.05

Figure 5: Bubble point pressures of a 28wt%

ammonia solvent with a temperature of
10C as a function of the CO2 loading

0.23

0.26

0.30

0.36

CO2 loading

0.43

0.56

0.77

Figure 6: Composition of the liquid phase of a

28wt% ammonia solvent with a
temperature of 120C as a function of
CO2 loading

It can be seen from Figure 3 that the CO2

loading has a very significant influence on the
composition of the liquid phase. The discontinuity
that is observed corresponds to the appearance of

-5-

Energy requirement

Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 120C

Pressure (bar)

1000
100

The energy requirement is a key parameter of a

capture process. Indeed, one of the main problems
related to the use of capture techniques on a large
scale is the cost of the process. This cost is
strongly linked to the energy that has to be
supplied to ensure the desorption. The use of
ammonia is supposed to lower the energy
requirement. This study focuses first on the energy
requirement in the absorber. As the absorption of
carbon dioxide by ammonia is an exothermic
reaction, some energy is produced in the absorber.
A reference configuration has been set up to assess
this energy production. In this configuration, it is
assumed that 100% of the carbon dioxide from the
flue gas is absorbed by the solvent. The major
assumptions are included in Table 2.

Total
H2O
NH3
CO2

10

0,
27

0,
29
0,
30
0,
32
0,
34
0,
37
0,
40
0,
43
0,
48
0,
53
0,
59
0,
67
0,
77

1
CO2 loading

Figure 7: Bubble point pressures of a 28wt%

ammonia solvent with a temperature of
120C as a function of the CO2 loading
Composition of the gas phase
Ammonia 28wt%, Temperature 120C

1.2

H2O
NH3
CO2

Mole fraction

1
0.8

Table 2: Description of the absorber reference

configuration

0.6
0.4

NH3
initial
wt%

0.2
0

0.26

0.30

0.36

CO2 loading

0.43

0.56

0.77

28

Figure 8: Composition of the bubble point gas

phase of a 28wt% ammonia solvent
with a temperature of 120C as a
function of the CO2 loading

T CO2
Lean
stream
10C

T CO2
Rich
stream
10C

T
flue
gas

10C

Lean
CO2
loading
0.333

Rich
CO2
loading
0.667

The energy requirement in the absorber

expressed in kJ/kg CO2 absorbed was then
calculated according to the following formula:
ERabs =

No solid phase appears at this high temperature.

It can be seen from Figure 7 that the pressure can
reach high values, especially when the CO2
loading is high. It should be noticed a logarithmic
scale is used for the ordinate axis. Figure 8 shows
that for high CO2 loading, the mole fraction of
carbon dioxide in the gas phase is very close to 1.
The CO2 rich stream that enters the stripper has a
high CO2 loading. Hence, this figure shows that at
high temperature, it is possible to get a pressurized
and nearly pure CO2 stream. The use of a
condenser and a washing section allow the
cleaning of the pure CO2 stream from water and
ammonia. Hence, some energy savings can be
made during the compression of the CO2 stream
before it is transported and sequestrated.

H CO2Rich + HCleaned gas - H CO2Lean - H Flue gas

Amount of CO2 in flue gas * MW(CO2)

For the reference configuration, the energy

requirement in the absorber is -2100 kJ/kg CO2
absorbed. Hence, this study shows that a large
amount of cooling water has to be used in order to
maintain a low temperature of absorption. The
energy requirement in the desorber was studied as
well as the influence of several parameters on the
energy requirement. Figure 9 shows a schematic
flow sheet of the stripping part of the process. This
study takes into account the amounts of water and
ammonia that are swept along in the gas phase and
eventually enter the desorber after the pure CO2
stream passes through the condenser and the
washing section.
A reference configuration has been set up
according to the information from the patent. The
main assumptions are summed up in Table 3.

-6-

Energy requirement (kJ/kg CO2

captured)

4000
3000
2000
1000
0,56

0,59

0,63

0,67

Rich CO2 loading

0,71

0,77

2200
2100
2000

38

0.
16

5000

0,53

2300

Ammonia initial mass fraction

The energy requirement decreases for an initial

mass fraction of ammonia from 0.16 to 0.28, and
increases for higher mass fraction. This increase
might be explained by the appearance of a
precipitate in the CO2 rich stream according to the
equilibrium calculations.
The influence of the temperature of both the
lean and the CO2 rich stream on the energy
requirement has been studied. The equilibrium
calculations show a linear relationship between
those temperatures and the energy requirement,
with a slope of -42.6 kJ/(kg CO2 K) for the rich
stream and 39.6 kJ/(kg CO2 K) for the lean stream.
The CASTOR project that consists of a pilot
capture plant using aqueous alkanolamines
resulted in an energy consumption in the stripper
of about 3700 kJ/kg CO2 captured, with a capture

6000

0,50

2400

Figure 11: Energy requirement as a function of the

initial mass fraction of ammonia

7000

2500

0.
18

The desorption process actually uses more energy

than calculated as the fact that the efficiency of the
reboiler is not optimal is not taken into account in
this study. Then, different parameters were
modified individually in order to assess their
influence. Figure 7 shows the influence of the rich
CO2 loading on the energy requirement in the
desorber.

2600

0.
4

H CO2Lean + H Pure CO2 - H CO2Rich - H NH3/H2O condenser

ERdes =
Amount of CO2 in pure CO2stream * MW(CO2 )

2700

36

The energy requirement in the stripper is

calculated according to the following formula. It is
expressed in kJ/kg CO2 captured.

2800

0.

Energy Requirement (kJ/kg CO2

captured)

Figure 9: Flow sheet of the stripper

0.

25C

0.
34

0.67

0.
3

T H2 O +
NH3 from
condenser

0.
32

0.33

Rich
CO2
loading

0.
28

110C

Lean
CO2
loading

0.
26

80C

T
Pure
CO2

22

110C

T
CO2
Rich

0.
24

28

T
CO2
Lean

0.
2

NH3
init
wt%

Figure 10 shows that the energy requirement

gets very high for low CO2 loadings of the rich
stream. Thus it is necessary to ensure that the rich
loading is high in order to reduce the energy
consumption in the stripper. For the reference
configuration, i.e. for a rich loading of 0.67, the
energy requirement is about 2300 kJ/kg CO2
captured. The temperature approach is defined as
the difference between the temperature of the lean
and of the CO2 rich stream that leaves and enters
the desorber. It must be noticed that this
configuration is not optimized, especially
regarding the very high temperature difference in
the stripper (30C).
Figure 11 shows the influence of the initial
mass fraction of ammonia in the solvent on the
energy requirement in the stripper. The mass
fraction has been varied from 0.16 to 0.4.

0.

Table 3: Description of the stripper reference

configuration

0,83

Figure 10: Energy requirement as a function of the

loading of the CO2 rich stream

-7-

efficiency of 90%. [13] Hence, this study shows

that based on the equilibrium calculations, the use
of ammonia as a solvent is a way to very
significantly decrease this energy consumption in
the desorber. In addition, the configuration studied
here can be optimized to reduce the energy
requirement. This could be done by decreasing the
temperature approach in the desorber. Moreover,
as mentioned above, the CO2 stream that is
obtained at the end of the process is pressurized
when ammonia is used, which would result in
additional energy savings during compression of
the carbon dioxide. However, it must be noticed
that this study does not take into account the
additional energy required to lower the
temperature of both the flue gas and the CO2 lean
stream entering the absorber, or any other form of
increase of the energy consumption during the
process.

is pressurized. From an energetic point of view, a

reference configuration was used to assess the
energy requirement both in the absorber and in the
desorber. Based on equilibrium calculations and
assuming an efficiency of the reboiler of 100%,
this study showed that the chilled ammonia
process allows for a significant reduction of the
energy consumption in the desorber compared to
the energy consumption of the process using
aqueous alkanolamines.
Acknowledgement
The results of this study were obtained during
a 3-month study financed by DONG Energy and
Vattenfall followed by an industrial PhD with
DONG Energy. The authors want to thank Moritz
Kpcke for discussions, and the Danish ministry
of Science, Technology and Innovation for
financial support during the industrial PhD.

Summary and conclusion

Literature

The CO2 capture process using chilled

ammonia is a post combustion process that has
been patented in 2006. It consists of absorbing the
carbon dioxide from the flue gas of a power plant
at low temperature (0-20C) using ammonia as
solvent. The cooling of the flue gas is
accomplished by using Direct Contact Coolers. In
this temperature range precipitation occurs in the
absorber. The desorption is made at high
temperature (100-200C).
A software based on the extended UNIQUAC
model was used to describe the equilibrium of the
CO2-NH3-H2O system. This model is valid for
temperatures in the range 0-110C and for
molalities in the range 0-80mol/kg H2O. Thanks to
the indications from the patent, it was possible to
describe the composition of the different streams.
This study showed the presence of precipitates in
the absorber, and the formation of ammonium
bicarbonate from the ammonium carbonate present
in the CO2 lean stream. The equilibrium
calculation of the gas phase in the absorber shows
a high mole fraction of ammonia. Hence, some
cleaning subsystems at the top of the absorber
should be considered in order to avoid the
emission of ammonia. It was also shown that the
pure CO2 stream that leaves the desorber column

[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]
[5]

[6]

[7]

-8-

Keepling CD, Scripps Institution of

Oceanography, San Diego (2007)
IPCC, Special Report on Carbon dioxide
Capture and Storage (2006)
Denmarks 4th National Communication to
the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change and Report on
Demonstrable Progress under the Kyoto
Protocol (2005)
Freguia S and Rochelle GT, Modeling of
CO2 capture by aqueous Monoethanolamine.
AIChE Journal 49: 1676-1686 (2003).
Reza J and Trejo A, Degradation of Aqueous
Solutions of Alkanolamine Blends at High
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