AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 112:339 347 (2000)

Brachycephalization in Japan Has Ceased

MAKIKO KOUCHI*
Human-Environment System Department, National Institute of
Bioscience and Human Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566, Japan

KEY WORDS
secular change

debrachycephalization; facial flatness; height;

ABSTRACT
Somatometric data are presented which show that the rapid
brachycephalization in Japan has recently ceased. The causes of brachycephalization are investigated in relation to the secular change in height. Increases in head breadth have been the main cause of brachycephalization,
and its pattern of secular change is very similar to that in height. Associations between head breadth, height, and year of birth were examined by
partial correlation coefficients and through a comparison of students and the
general population. Brachycephalization is thought to result from increases
in the growth rate for head breadth caused by improvements in nutritional
levels, as seen in increases in height. Increases in height over the last 100
years have been accompanied by brachycephalization in Japanese and Koreans, but by debrachycephalization in many European populations. Increases
in lateral growth in Asian heads may be related to the facial flatness which
is characteristic to northern Mongoloid populations. Am J Phys Anthropol
112:339 347, 2000. 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Changes in head forms over the last 100

years have been reported in many countries.
In Japan, brachycephalization has continued since the Medieval period (Suzuki,
1969; Nakahashi, 1987), with the rate of
change in the last 100 years being extremely high.
Factors that have been thought to be responsible for variations and/or secular
changes in head form include the climate
(Beals, 1972; Crognier, 1981; Kobyliansky,
1983), heterosis (Billy, 1975, 1979), migration (Kobyliansky, 1983), socioeconomic status (SES) or social classes (Palsson and Schwidetzky, 1983; Schwidetzky, 1973; Mikic,
1990), allometry related to increases in
height (Susanne et al., 1988), posture
(Mizoguchi, 1992), and nutrition or diets
(Lasker, 1946; Shimada, 1974). However
the causes of secular changes in head form
are still unknown.
The Japanese government has conducted
anthropometric surveys since the 1890s and
the statistical results have been published.

2000 WILEY-LISS, INC.

Secular changes of 20-year-old Japanese investigated using the published somatometric data measured during 18921994 are as
follows (Kouchi, 1996): mean heights of both
males and females have been increasing in
last 100 years, though the rate became very
low for people born in the 1970s. Weight has
been increasing slowly for both males and
females born before 1920. For males born
after 1930, weight has been increasing more
rapidly. On the contrary, for females, the
rate of increase in weight was very low, and
has changed little in those born after 1950.
As a result, body mass index (BMI) has been
increasing for males born after 1950, but
decreasing for females born after 1930. The
head form shows a pattern of secular

*Correspondence to: Makiko Kouchi, Human-Environment

System Department, National Institute of Bioscience and
Human Technology, Higashi 1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8566.
Japan. E-mail: kouchi@nibh.go.jp
Received 10 August 1999; accepted 12 December 1999.

340

M. KOUCHI

TABLE 1. Number of subjects by birth year1

Male
Birth year
19161919
19201926
19101919
19201929
19301939
19401949
19501954
19501954
19551959
19551959
19601964
19651969
19701974
19751979
Total
1
2
3

SES
2

S
S2
G
G
G
G
G
S
G
S
S
S
S
S

Age
2228
1826
5782
4675
3767
2757
2233
2445
1827
2029
1834
1831
1827
1822

N
517
2,824
36
136
111
129
103
68
146
503
3,066
583
658
127
5,666

Birth year
19021907
19081912
19221927
19211927
19201929
19301939
19301939
19401949
19501959
19501959
19601964
19651969
19701974
19751979

Female
SES
2

G
G2
S2,3
S2
G
G
G
G
G
S
S
S
S
S

Age

2329
1824
1721
1723
2675
1725
4168
2756
1928
1942
1735
1830
1825
1823

128
357
119
119
118
58
119
79
124
132
1,011
538
366
162
2,707

S, students; G, general population.

From series by Nishi (1952).
Students of physical education.

changes closer to height than to weight

or BMI.
In the present study, data are presented
which show that the rapid brachycephalization in Japan has recently ceased. The
causes of brachycephalization are investigated in relation to secular changes in
height.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Subjects were 9,008 males and 3,430 females with known dates of birth. Among
them, 3,341 male and 723 female subjects
were derived from the original data of Nishi
(1952), which were measured by members of
departments of anatomy at several universities and colleges mostly between 1942
1945. The remaining 5,667 male and 2,707
female subjects were measured by several
observers, including the present author,
who measured about 70% of the subjects.
The measurements were taken between
19771998 for males, and between 1955
1998 for females. Ages at time of measurement ranged from 18 82 years old for
males, and from 1775 years old for females. Some of the data has been already
analyzed for different purposes, and published (Hoshi and Kouchi, 1978; Hoshi et al.,
1980; Kouchi, 1986; Kouchi et al., 1994).
The subjects were divided into 28 groups
according to sex, year of birth, and socioeconomic status (SES), as shown in Table 1.

The birth year category was divided into 5or 10-year increments to ensure that each
group had enough subjects. The educational
level of the subjects was used as an indication of SES; groups for which the majority of
the members received higher education (college or university) were marked as student
group (group S), with other groups marked
as the general population (group G). The
numbers of subjects by group are shown in
Table 1.
Measurement items
Head length, head breadth, and height
were used. These are equivalent to cephalic
measurements 1 and 3, and somatic measurement 1, in Martin and Knussmann
(1988), respectively. Cephalic index was calculated as head breadth/head length 100.
Age at time of measurement varied widely.
Age changes after adulthood has been
reached are insignificant for neurocranial
measurements (Tallgren, 1974), but height
decreases significantly with aging (Takasaki
et al., 1984; Galloway et al., 1990). Therefore, height data measured for subjects aged
60 years or over were not used for the analysis.
Materials used for comparison
The materials shown in Table 2 were used
to examine the course of brachycephalization. The year of measurement, ages of subjects, and basic statistics for head length,

341

BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN
1

TABLE 2. Data used for comparison and number of groups by reference

Reference
Male
Onishi, 1920
Matsumura, 1925
Otsuki, 1953
Kakimoto, 1953
Suzuki, 1963
Morita and Ohtshuki, 1973
HQL, 1997; personal communication
Female
Onishi, 1920
Matsumura, 1925
Otsuki, 1953
Kakimoto, 1953
Yanagisawa and Kondo, 1973;
Yanagisawa, 1958
Ohtsuki and Iwamura, 1980;
Ohtuski, personal communication
HQL, 1997; personal communication
1

SES

Area

No. of groups

G
S
G
G
S
S
G

Fukuoka Prefect
All Japan
Hiroshima Prefect
Hiroshima Prefect
All Japan
All Japan
All Japan

7
1
6
11
1
1
1

G
S
G
G
S

Fukuoka Prefect
All Japan
Hiroshima Prefect
Hiroshima Prefect
All Japan

8
1
6
11
9

All Japan

All Japan

HQL, Research Institute of Human Engineering for Quality of Life; S, students; G, general population.

head breadth, and cephalic index are reported for these materials. The age ranges
in these materials were either limited or
subjects were divided into age groups of either 5 or 10 years. For each group of data,
average birth year was estimated from the
age range of the subjects and the year of
measurement.
Only the head breadth data were used for
Onishi (1919, 1920) due to differences in
definitions of head length. Onishi (1919,
1920) and Kakimoto (1953) did not measure
height. For the age groups of 30 years old
and over in Yanagisawa and Kondo (1973),
height was also reported (Yanagisawa,
1958; personal communication). The earliest somatometric data on Japanese by
Baeltz (1885) were not used due to differences in measurement definitions.
Statistical method
Male subjects shown in Table 1 were divided into 10 groups according to birth year
(1910 1919, 1920 1929, 1930 1939, 1940
1949, 1950 1954, 19551959, 1960 1964,
19651969, 1970 1974, 19751979), and female subjects into 8 groups (1920 1929,
1930 1939, 1940 1949, 1950 1959, 1960
1964, 19651969, 1970 1974, and 1975
1979). Equality of means was tested by
ANOVA (Statview). Only groups with 30 or
more subjects were used for the test.
Of the groups by birth year and SES,
shown in Table 1, and the groups from ma-

terials shown in Table 2, means for all of the

three measurements and cephalic index
were available for 23 of the male groups and
27 of the female groups. Using these group
means, correlation coefficients between the
four variables and birth year were calculated for each sex. Group means were used
because the original data are not available
for many groups. Partial correlation coefficients with height or birth year partialed
out were also calculated.
RESULTS
Equality of means was rejected at the 5%
level for all the variables in both sexes.
Secular changes in head length, head
breadth, cephalic index, and height are
shown in Figures 1 4, respectively. Head
length fluctuated in a relatively narrow
range, and did not show any consistent
trend with time (Fig. 1).
Head breadth started to increase in people born in 1890 1900. It increased very rapidly in males born during 1910 1949 and in
females born during 1920 1959 (Fig. 2).
The pattern of changes in cephalic index
is similar to that in head breadth, but increases ceased in males born after 1950 and
in females born after 1960 (Fig. 3). Figures
13 indicate that brachycephalization is
mainly caused by increases in head breadth,
and that the cephalic index ceased increasing, although head breadth continued to increase slowly.

342

M. KOUCHI

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Secular change in head length for Japanese born between 1870 1980. *Student group.

Secular change in head breadth for Japanese born between 1860 1980. *Student group.

The pattern of changes in height is very

similar to that in head breadth. Changes
slowed down for males born after 1950 and

for females born after 1960 (Fig. 4). In this

generation, changes in head breadth decelerated and brachycephalization ceased. Dif-

343

BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN

Fig. 3.

Secular change in cephalic index for Japanese born between 1870 1980. *Student group.

ferences in height between students (S) and

the general population (G) are clear for people born before 1950. This pattern of secular
change and the differences in height between groups S and G are practically the
same as those observed in a study based on
government statistical reports of height
(Kouchi, 1996).
Table 3 shows correlation coefficients and
partial correlation coefficients. Head breadth,
cephalic index, and height were highly correlated with birth year, but head length was
not. Partial correlation coefficients indicate
that when height is the same, people born
later have wider heads than people born
earlier for both sexes. When the birth year

is the same, taller females have wider heads

and are more brachycephalic than shorter
females, but this tendency was not observed
for males.
DISCUSSION
Students and the general population
The fact that height and head breadth
show very similar patterns of secular
change suggests that common factors may
be related to both characteristics. If the factors that increase the growth rate for height
also influence the growth rate of head
breadth, then the taller student group
(group S) should also have wider heads than

344

M. KOUCHI

Fig. 4.

Secular change in height for Japanese born between 1890 1980. *Student group.

the general population (group G) for the

same birth year.
As shown in Figure 4, students are taller
than the general subjects born in the same
periods for both sexes born before 1950, and
the differences are statistically significant.
For head breadth, however, the differences
between groups S and G in the same periods
are not so clear (Fig. 3). The male students
of Nishi (1952) (birth year: 1910s and
1920s), female students of Yanagisawa and
Kondo (1973) (birth year: 1910 1930), and
present male students born in the 1950s
have significantly wider heads than the general subjects, but the present subjects in
group G born in the 1910s and 1920s have
head breadths as wide as the students of
Nishi (1952).
The results are suggestive but are not
conclusive. Possible reasons may be uncon-

trolled factors which may influence head

breadth differences, such as geographic
variation (Kouchi, 1983, 1986) and lack of
systematically collected male student data.
Better nutritional levels in recent times
may have affected the soft-tissue thickness
of the head and thus the cephalic index, for
nutritional levels affect the soft-tissue component of head breadth more than head
length (Ivanovsky, 1923; Suzuki, 1948).
Nature and nurture
Partial correlation coefficients indicate
that when height is the same, people born
later have wider heads. Considering the
drastic changes in nutritional intake, this
implies that genetically tall but undernourished people will have narrower heads than
genetically short but well-nourished people.
The influence of environmental factors is

BRACHYCEPHALIZATION IN JAPAN

TABLE 3. Correlation coefficient between head

measurements, birth year, and height1
a. Correlation coefficients
Male
(df 20)
r(HL, HB)
r(HL, Ht)
r(HB, Ht)
r(Ceph, Ht)
r(HL, BY)
r(HB, BY)
r(Ht, BY)
r(Ceph, BY)

0.527 **
0.323 ns
0.921 **
0.937 **
0.324 ns
0.938 **
0.961 **
0.955 **

Female
(df 25)
0.204 ns
0.003 ns
0.910 **
0.914 **
0.151 ns
0.919 **
0.906 **
0.862 **

b. Correlation coefficients with height partialed out

Male
Female
(df 19)
(df 24)
r(HL, BY)
r(HB, BY)
r(Ceph, BY)

0.052 ns
0.491 *
0.565 **

0.363 ns
0.539 **
0.363 ns

c. Correlation coefficients with birth year

partialed out
Male
Female
(df 19)
(df 24)
r(HL, Ht)
r(HB, Ht)
r(Ceph, Ht)

0.044 ns
0.204 ns
0.235 ns

0.330 ns
0.464 *
0.620 **

1
HL, maximum head length; HB, maximum head breadth; Ht,
height; Ceph, cephalic index; BY, birth year; ns, not significant.
* Significant at the 5% level.
** Significant at the 1% level.

much stronger than that of genetic factors

which affect height directly.
The quality of nutrition in Japan has improved considerably in the last 100 years,
especially since 1945. Temporal changes in
nutritional conditions have been much
greater than socioeconomic differences of
the same period. The effects of environmental factors may be underestimated if only
contemporary data are used for analysis.
The most important exogenous factors influencing growth are nutrition and disease,
and the close relationship between changes
in these factors and growth patterns is generally accepted as a suitable explanation for
secular change (van Wieringen, 1986). The
dimensions of the head increase rapidly in
the first year of life (Ishikawa et al., 1987).
This growth may be influenced by a number
of factors, such as improved nutritional levels for mothers, whether there is bottle feeding or breast feeding (Shimada, 1974), timing of weaning, and the baby foods used.

345

Causes of brachycephalization
Changes in head shape that have accompanied increases in height in recent years
have tended toward brachycephalization in
Japan. As shown in Table 4, a similar phenomenon also occurred in Korea. Studies of
Chinese immigrants to Hawaii (Appleton,
1927) and the United States (Lasker, 1946),
as well as Japanese immigrants to California (Shapiro, 1939) and Brazil (Beiguelman,
1963), revealed that increases in height
were accompanied by increases in head
breadth for these Asian populations. In contrast, the changes in head shape which have
accompanied increases in height in recent
years have tended toward debrachycephalization for European populations (Dornfeldt, 1941; Billy, 1975, 1979; Facchini and
Gualdi-Russo, 1982; Kobyliansky, 1983; Susanne et al., 1988). Although the direction is
opposite, head breadth is the key characteristic in both brachycephalization and debrachycephalization. Explanations concerning the cause of brachycephalization must
be able to account for both systematic increases and decreases in head breadth associated with increases in height. In this
sense, explanations in terms of heterosis,
migration, social class, and allometry alone
are insufficient.
Secular changes in body dimensions are
the results of changes in growth rate. For
linear dimensions, the direction of growth
accords with the longitudinal axis of the
part. However, for spherical forms, such as
the head, the directions of the growth will be
more complicated. The cephalic index is a
practical indicator of overall head shape,
but it oversimplifies the head form and
growth directions.
The form of the normal neural skull is the
result of the preferential direction of the
growth vectors of the expanding neural
mass by dural fiber systems (Moss and
Young, 1960). Small increases in the growth
rate in a specific direction during the first
year of life would lead to changes in head
form. For Japanese and Koreans, this increase has occurred in a lateral direction.
For European populations, decrease in head
breadth must have been accompanied by
increases in other directions, probably the

346

M. KOUCHI

TABLE 4. Means of head measurements (mm) and height (cm) of Koreans1

Year of
measurement

Head
length

Male
Head
breadth

19081909
1930
1986

181.4
182.0
180.0

150.9
153.0
158.0

Height

Head
length

Female
Head
breadth

Height

Reference

161.4
163.6
167.7

175.7
174.5
174.0

146.3
145.6
151.0

147.5
150.1
155.4

Kubo, 1913
Arase et al., 1934
KRISS, 1986

KRISS, Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science.

vertical direction (Angel, 1976), for European brains have shown secular increases
(Miller and Corsellis, 1977).
The neurocranium and the face are functionally different units, but they are connected. Thus, the growth potential of one
will influence growth in the other. The direct causes of brachycephalization in the
Japanese may have been the preferential
increase in growth rate of the neural skull
in a lateral direction, which in turn may be
related to facial characteristics, i.e., the facial flatness in the frontal and zygomaxillary regions which are characteristic of
northern Asian populations (Ishida, 1992).
Many Japanese textbooks on child care
include prone sleeping position as an index item, and explain that such posture
does not mean the baby is in ill health (e.g.,
Suzuki, 1977). This suggests that supine
sleeping posture has been considered normal, but that prone sleeping posture is not
corrected. Since a flat occiput is called zeppeki (precipice), and is not preferred from
an aesthetic point of view, many mothers
prefer a prone sleeping posture for their babies. Though the changes in sleeping position of babies are not clearly known, it
would have been an increase in prone rather
than supine sleeping posture if there had
been any. Since such changes would promote antero-posterior rather than bilateral
growth of heads, changes in sleeping posture cannot be a candidate for causes of
brachycephalization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Professor Akio Yamauchi,
Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, for permitting me to use the data for the series by
Nishi (1953) stored in the University Museum, The University of Tokyo. I thank Pro-

fessor S. Kato of the Jikei University School

of Medicine, Professor Y. Naito of Nagasaki
University School of Medicine, and Dr. H.
Takayama of Keio University, Faculty of
Literature, for permitting me to use the
original data they measured. I also thank
all the participants, colleagues, and friends
who were concerned with the somatometric
research.
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