GEODETICDEFORMATION

ANALYSIS
ShortLectureNotesforGraduateStudents

CneytAydn(YTUGeodesyDivision)


CONTENTS
PREFACE..................................................................................................................................... iii
1.

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1

2.

GLOBALTEST............................................................................................................ 4

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

TestingWholeNetworkMethodI........................................................................... 4
TestingWholeNetworkMethodII.......................................................................... 8
TestingWholeNetworkforNonIdenticalCase.................................................... 10
TestingaPartofaNetwork ................................................................................... 11

3.

TESTINGOBJECTPOINTS ....................................................................................... 14

3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3

TestingObjectPointsinAbsoluteDeformationNetworks ................................... 14
Localization ............................................................................................................ 17
LocalizationwithGausseliminationmethod ........................................................ 17
Localizationwithimplicithypothesismethod....................................................... 20
Localizationinabsolutedeformationnetworks.................................................... 22

4.

SENSITIVITYANALYSIS ........................................................................................... 23

4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.2

GlobalSensitivityAnalysis ..................................................................................... 23
OptimizationCriteria ............................................................................................. 23
Minimumdetectabledisplacement ...................................................................... 25
SensitivityAnalysisinAbsoluteDeformationNetworks ....................................... 26

5.

INTERPRETATIONMODELS .................................................................................... 30

5.1
5.1.1
5.1.1.1
5.1.1.2
5.1.1.3
5.1.2
5.1.3
5.1.4
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2

KinematicModel.................................................................................................... 30
Singlepointmodelforanobjectpointsmovement............................................. 31
ModelI................................................................................................................... 31
ModelII.................................................................................................................. 32
ModelIII................................................................................................................. 32
Singlemodelforwholeobjectpointsmovement ................................................ 34
Testingmodelparameters..................................................................................... 35
Modeltest.............................................................................................................. 36
StrainAnalysis........................................................................................................ 37
Definition ............................................................................................................... 37
Strainmodellingingeodeticdeformationanalysis ............................................... 41

APPENDIXA:GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIXB:THRESHOLDVALUES(Fandtdistributions) ....................................................... 47

ii


PREFACE

This short lecture notes aims to give some fundamental subjects in geodetic
conventionaldeformationanalysis.IthasbeenwrittenforgraduatestudentswhotakeError
Theory and Parameter Estimation and Adjustment Computation courses in their Geodesy
departments. For reading the notes, it is highly recommended to have knowledge on
geodetic network adjustment solutions, especially tracemin, partial tracemin and S
transformation.

Theupdatedversionwithnumericalexamplesandliteraturereviewwillappearsoon.
Yourcommentsonthelecturenoteswillbeappreciated.

C.Aydn
stanbul,July2014
(caydin78@gmail.com)

iii

1. INTRODUCTION

Becauseofactingforces,aphysicalbodymaydisplacefromx1initialpositiontox2
presentpositionintimein3Dspace.Thedisplacementvector
d=x2x1

(1.1)

consistsoftwoparts
relativepart,
nonrelativepart.
The relative part, the socalled rigid body displacement, represents translation and
rotation.Theyarerelativebecausetheychangedependingonwhereweareobserving
thebodyfrom.Forinstance,abodymaynotmoveorrotateforanobservermoving
androtatingalongthesamedirectionsimultaneouslywiththebody.Thenonrelative
part, on the other hand, does not depend on the observer position. This part
representsshapechange,i.e.deformation.
Engineeringbuildings,suchasdams,bridges,tunnelsetc.,ortheEarthscrustare
suchbodiesaffectedbysomephysicalforcesallthetime.Monitoringtheirresponses
totheforcesisanessentialtasknotonlyforunderstandingthebodymechanismbut
also for taking some precautions before any possible damage. The responses, which
are monitored as aforementioned displacements, are very small compared to the
bodysize.Geodeticmethodsandinstrumentsmayovercomethisproblemsufficiently
having provided milimeter accuracy in positioning of the stations distributed in even
largeareas,andtherefore,todaytheyareindispensableincrustalandconstructional

deformationstudies.Althoughgeodeticdeformationanalysisisnowaround30years
old and there are plenty of approaches, techniques, methods etc., the surveying
principle is the same. For monitoring the bodies (the objects as commonly
pronouncedingeodesy),weestablishadeformationnetwork.Therearetwotypesof
deformationnetwork,
absolutedeformationnetworks,
relativedeformationnetworks.
An absolute deformation network consists of two parts; 1) reference points and 2)
object points. The reference points are established in a stable region, the socalled
referenceblock,whereastheobjectpointsarelocatedatsomespecificplacesofthe
objectsuchthattheyareabletocharacterizetheinvestigateddynamicalpropertyof
the object itself. Both point groups are predefined in absolute networks. Or, if the
reference points and object points are defined after deformation analysis or
depending on a prior information beforehand, we call such deformation networks
absolute ones. On the other hand, if a deformation network may not be partitioned
intotwopartsbeforehand,thistypeofnetworkiscalledrelativedeformationnetwork.
Before realization of a deformation network, a practitioner knows naturally
(intuitivelyor depending on preanalysis of the studied area) which part is reference
blockandwhichpartisobject.However,afterrealizationweshouldtestwhetherthe
referenceblockhasundergoneanydeformationornot.Inotherwords,thereference
points are not exact in a deformation network. Therefore, in theory, all deformation
networks are (should be!) described as relative ones unless verifying the reference
points by some statistical tests based on the corresponding deformation
measurements.

Object

Referencepoints

Referencepoints

Fig.1.1.Configurationofanabsolutedeformationnetwork

Inthatcoursewemainlyconcentrateonconventional(geometrical)deformation
analysis for absolute and reference deformation networks, i.e., global test and
localizationprocedures;sensitivityanalysistoderivethecapacityofourdeformation
networks;kinematicmodelstoderivevelocityand/oraccelerationofthebodieswhich
moveintimeaswellasstrainanalysistointerpretethedeformationofanobject.

2. GLOBAL TEST

Globaltestisrealizedfortwoaims;tolearn(orverify)
whetherwholenetworkhasundergoneanydeformationornot,
whether a part of the network (for instance, reference points) has any
deformationornot.
By global test it is not possible to answer if the corresponding points have
translated or rotated as a block (remember these kind of displacements are relative
changes),thereforetheaimissometimesexpressedasfollows;
To learn whether the corresponding part has some points whose coordinates
havesignificantchanges.

2.1

Testing Whole Network-Method I

Weheredesiretotestifawholenetworkhasanydeformationornot.Letourc

dimensional deformation network with u=cp coordinate unknowns of p points be

measured in two periods. Applying traceminimum solution to each period
observations,supposethatweget

x i = Q xix i A iT Pi y i , Q xixi = (A iTPi A i )+ = (A iTPi A i + GGT )1 GGT (i=1,2)

(2.1a)

v i = A i x i y i , s 20 ,i = (v iT Pi v i ) /fi (i=1,2)

(2.1b)

aswellas

where
:

niudesignmatrixwithrankAi=ur,

Ai

Q xixi :

uucofactormatrixoftheunknowns,

Pi

niniweightmatrixoftheobservations

yi

ni1(diminished)observationvector,

()+ :

denotespseudoinverse,

vi

ni1residualvector,

s 20 ,i

aposteriorivarianceofunitweight,

ni

numberofobservations,

numberofdatumparameters,

fi

degreesoffreedom(fi=niu+r)and

GT

rucoefficientmatrixofconstraintequations(datum
matrix)todefinethedatumofthenetwork.

Using the solutions given in Eq. (2.1a), the displacement vector d and its
cofactormatrix Q dd areobtainedas

d=x2x1, Q dd = Q x1x1 + Q x2x2

(2.2)

The test procedure depends on discriminating the following null hypothesis

(H0)againstitsalternative(H1);

H0:E(d)=0vs.H1:E(d)0
Forthis,wehavetwopossibleways;
F(Fisher)test
2(Chisquare)test.

(2.3)

The test statistics (T) and the threshold values () of these two tests are given as
follows:
+

d T Q dd
d

F
T
~ F(h, f)

2
hs
d

+
2
d T Q dd
d
T
~ 2 (h)

2
d

= Fh,f,1

(2.4)

= h,2 1

where
h

rank Q dd (seeNote2.1),

totaldegreesoffreedom,i.e.,f=f1+f2,

s2d

pooledvariancefactor(seeNote2.2),

totalsignificancelevel(TypeIerror)and

2d

apriorivariancefactor(seeNote2.3).

WesimplycomparethecorrespondingteststatisticTwithitsthresholdvalueinEq.
(2.4).Thereistwopossibleoutcomesandresults;
i)

IfT<,H0isacceptedwithsignificancelevel.Itmeansthattheredoesnot
exist any deformation in the network. In other words, the vector d of the
monitoreddisplacementsisonlytheresultofrandomerrorsintwoperiods.

ii)

IfT,H1isacceptedwith1confidencelevel.Thenweconcludethatthe
networkhasundergonedeformationbetweentwoperiods.Or,wemaysay
thatatleastonepointinthenetworkhassignificantcoordinatechange.

Note2.1:Ifbothperiodsareidentical,thenh=rank Q dd =urholds.

Note2.2:Pooledvariancefactorisobtainedasfollows

s2d =

f1s 20 ,1 + f2s 20 ,2 v 1TP1 v 1 + v 2TP2 v 2

=
=
f1 + f2
f
f

However,
to consider the pooled variance factor in Eq. (2.4), the ratio s 20 ,1 / s 20 ,2

Ff1 ,f2 ,1 thresholdvalue(Variancetest)*.Otherwise,wemay

shouldbesmallerthan

notputthepooledvarianceintoEq.(2.4);inotherwords,itmeansthattheperiods

arenotproperforanycomparison.

*)Thisisvalidif s 20 ,1 isnumericallybiggerthan s 20 ,2 .Otherwise,theratio s 20 ,2 / s 20 ,1

iscomparedwith Ff2 ,f1 ,1 .

Note2.3:Instatisticalpointofview, 2testismorepowerfulthanFtest.Inother

words,theprobabilityofcorrectlyacceptingthealternativehypothesis(thepower

ofthetest)in
2testisbigger.However,itrequiresapreciseknowledgeonthea

priorivariance 2d .Sinceitcanbederivedfromlongtimeexperienceonthedataof

the surveying methods applied in the studied area, this requirement may not be

ensuredalwaysorinashorttime.Therefore,commonlyFtestischosenbecauseit

needsonlythevariancesfromthecurrentmeasurementsoftheperiods.Herafter,

inthetestprocedureswewillconsideronlyFdistributedteststatistics.

Note2.4:Foreachperiod,adjustmentprocedureshouldberealizedwithcommon

approximate coordinates in the network. However this may not be ensured

everytime because in some cases (for example in monitoring of landslides which
maycausebigdisplacements)iterativeadjustmentisrequired;so,theapproximate
coordinates inevitably changes in each iteration. For such cases, instead of using
diminished coordinate unknown vectors (xi), adjusted coordinates of the periods
shouldbeconsideredtoestimatethedisplacementvectorinEq.(2.2).

2.2

Testing Whole Network-Method II

The previous test statistic values are deduced from the theory of generalized
linear hypothesis. In deformation analysis, there is a second method which
substitutesthehypotheses implicitlyintoacorrespondingGaussMarkoffmodel.Itis
calledthereforeimplicithypothesismethod.
We may gather the separate adjustment models of the periods in a unique
GaussMarkoffmodelas

l 1 A 1
E =
l 2 0

0 x 1
P1
, P =
A 2 x 2
0

P2

(2.5)

NowwewillconsiderthenullhypothesisH0:E(d)=0orH0:E(x1)=E(x2)inmodel(2.5).
Forthiswewritethefollowingmodel,whichimpliesthatthereisnoanydifference
betweentwoperiods;

l 1 A 1
P1
E = x H , P =
0
l 2 A 2

P2

(2.6)

Solvingmodel(25)wegetthefollowingquadraticform,whichisequivalentto

thesumoftheweightedsumofthesquaredresidualsoftheperiods,
= v 1TP1 v 1 + v 2TP2 v 2 = f1s20 ,1 + f2s20 ,2

(2.7)

On the other hand, the solution of model (2.6), which has fH=f+ur degrees of
freedom,resultsin
H = v HT Pv H

(2.8)

If there is no any difference between two periods, the difference between two
quadratic forms of the models, i.e., R=H, should go to zero. For this the test
statisticfromtestingoflinearhypothesesissetasfollows

T=

(H ) /(fH f) R
= 2 F(h,f)
/f
hs d

(2.9)

becauseoffHf=ur=hand(/f)= sd2 (Note2.2).Theteststatisticisidenticalwiththe

oneofFtestinEq.(2.4).So,thetestprocedureissimilar.

Note 2.5: In each free adjustment method (tracemin, partial tracemin and
minimumconstrained), we get a unique residual vector. Therefore, solution of
model(2.6) mayberealizedbyanyfreeadjustmentmethod.Sincetheminimum
constrainedsolutionisanormaladjustmentprocedure,itiseasytousethissolution
intheimplicithypothesismethod.Forthis,arbitraryrcolumnsofthedesignmatrix
inmodel(2.6)aredeletedbeforeadjustment.

2.3

Testing Whole Network for Non-Identical Case

A deformation network may be augmented or renovated with newer points in

different periods. In that case we should handle with different configurations in the
periodstobecompared.Tomakethemidenticaltherearetwopossibleways;
i)

The corresponding periods are separately adjusted using the observations

connectingtheidenticalpointsinbothperiods.

ii)

The periods are readjusted such that only identical points in the periods
definethedatumofthenetwork.

Thelatterismoreadvantageousbecausewedonotmodifythenetworkdesign.Letus
considerthatourcdimensionaldeformationnetworkwithppointsisaugmentedwith
k newer points in the second period and we have already their traceminimum
solutions;

Coordinates

Cofactors

1stPeriod

2ndPeriod

1stPeriod

Identicalpoints

x 1 (cp1)

x 2 (cp1)

Q x 1x 1

Q x2x2

Q x2xn

xn (ck1)

Q xnx2

Q xnxn

Newpoints

2ndPeriod

~x 2

Q ~x2~x2

Inthesecondperiod,newpointsshouldbeextractedfromthedatumdefinition.We
may use Stransformation for doing this. Let c(k+p)r coefficient matrix of the
constrainedequationsforthesecondperiodbehadthefollowingform

10

G2T = (GT GnT )

(2.10)

where GnT is the ckr datum submatrix for the new points. Taking GnT =0 above (in
other words, new points are extracted from the datum definition) we set a new
coefficientmatrix

B 2T = (G T 0)

(2.11)

WithEqs.(2.10)and(2.11),theStransformationmatrixiscomputedas

S2 = I G2 (B 2T G2 )1 B 2T

(2.12)

UsingthematrixS2wedefineanewdatumforthesecondperiod
Q x x
x2
S2 ~x 2 = and S 2Q ~x2~x2 S 2T = 2 2
xn
Q x nx 2

Q x2xn

Q xnxn

(2.13)

The subvector x2 and the submatrix Q x 2x2 in Eq. (2.13) are now compatible

with x 1 and Q x1x1 . Hence, both periods are identical and ready for comparison as
usual.

2.4

Testing a Part of a Network

Our reference points should be stable because we define the cloud of these
points as our observer to monitor the object. We should therefore verify whether
the reference points have undergone any deformation or whether they include any
pointwhosecoordinateshavechangedsignificantly.Thisprocedureisoneofthemost
importantstageinmonitoringoftheobject.
Supposethatandrepresentpreferencepointsandp=ppobjectpoints,

11

respectively.Thedisplacementvector danditscofactormatrix QddinEq.(2.2)maybe

writtenexplicitlyforthesepointgroupsasfollows
~
~d
Q
d = ~ ,Qdd= ~
Q
d

~
Q

~
Q

(2.14)

To test the reference points first we should define the network datum according to
them.ThismayberealizedbythefollowingStransformation
Q
d
d = S d = , Q dd = S Qdd S T =
Q
d

(2.15)

wherethetransformationmatrix S issetasfollows;
S = I G(B T G)1 B T with GT = (GT GT ) and B T = (GT 0)

(2.16)

Inthetest,thesubvector d andthesubmatrix Q inEq.(2.15)areused:Thetest

statistichavingFdistribution,similartotheoneinEq.(2.4),isgivenasfollows
+
dT Q
d
T =
F(h , f)
2
h s d

(2.17)

where h =hc(pp)=rank Q . The test statistic is compared with the threshold

value Fh ,f,1 ;
i)

If T < Fh ,f,1 ,thenourreferencepointsareacceptedasstablewitherror.

ii)

If T Fh ,f,1 , there is at least one point whose coordinates has changed

significantly. In that case, we should find the responsible point(s) and
extractit(them)fromthereferencedefinition.Onepossiblewayforpoint

12

detectionisaddingeachreferencepointonebyonetothepointcloudin
Eq. (2.14) in each time and repeat the above test procedure for the
remainingreferencepointsuntiltheteststatisticbecomessmallerthanthe
corresponding threshold value. Other possible way is applying localization
procedure,whichisgiveninSection3.2.3.

Note2.6:Thedegreesoffreedom h mustbebiggerthan0,i.e., h 1.Sincethere

may be a significantly changed point among them, we should take into account
h 2. This natural limitation gives information about the minimum number of

referencepoints(p)foranetwork:Fromtheinequality,weget
h =hc(pp)=cprcp+cp=cpr2.

Thenweseethatpshouldbeequalto(2+r)/cinaworstcase.Thismeansthatour
absolutedeformationnetworks(1,2or3D)shouldbedesignedsothatitconsistsof
approximatelyatleast3referencepoints.

13

3. TESTING OBJECT POINTS

3.1

Testing Object Points in Absolute Deformation Networks

As we mentioned previously, an absolute deformation network has two parts;

reference points and object points. The reference points should be verified by the
globaltestgiveninSection2.2suchthattheycanbedefinedasobservertomonitor
theobject.
Letourreferencepointsbealreadyverifiedasstable.Then,eachobjectpoint
may be tested to learn whether its observed displacement relative to the reference
pointsissignificantornotbyusingthefollowingteststatistic

Ti =

dT i Q 1i i di
cs 2d

F(c,f)i=1,,p

(3.1)

where

d i

c1ithobjectpointsdisplacementvector,whichisthe

correspondingsubvectoroftheobjectdisplacement
vector d inEq.(2.15),

Q i i :

cccofactormatrixoftheithobjectpointdisplacements,

whichisthecorrespondingsubmatrixoftheobject
cofactormatrix Q inEq.(2.15)and

dimensionofthecorrespondingnetwork.

EachteststatisticinEq.(3.1)iscomparedwiththethresholdvalue Fc,f,1 ;

14

i)

If Ti < Fc,f,1 ,thecorrespondingdisplacementisnotsignificant.

ii)

If Ti Fc,f,1 , it is accepted that the corresponding displacement is

significantwith1confidencelevel.

Note 3.1: The above given test procedure is equivalent to relative confidence

interval/ellipse/ellipsoid method applied in deformation analysis studies. For

example, let us consider 2D cases: First, the displacement vector ( d ) of a

i
correspondingpointisplottedonamapand,then,theconfidenceellipseobtained
from Q i i (this ellipse is called relative in deformation analysis) is centered on

theendpointofthedisplacementvector(seeFig3.1).Ifthedisplacementvectoron
theplotremainsoutsideoftheellipse,thanthisdisplacementofthecorresponding

pointissaidtobesignificantwiththepreassumedprobabilityofconfidencelevel.

Relative
confidenceellipse

Displacement
vector

Objectpoint

Fig3.1.Displacementvectorandrelativeconfidenceellipse

15

Note3.2:Ifourreferencepointsareverifiedasundeformed(stable)bytheglobal
testinSection2.4,thisdoesnotmeanthatwealsoverifiedthattheyhasnotmoved
in time as a block. It means that the observed displacements of the object points
withtheabovetestingprocedurecarrytherelativeeffectofthereferencepointsif
theyhasundergonearigidbodydisplacement.Thisfactmaynotbesoimportant
forsomestudies,forinstanceintectonic/velocitystudies,whicharemostlybased
on some relative functions. However, for some cases, for example in damage
monitoring of engineering buildings, it may be a problematic issue because an
analysist may interprete mistakenly that the object is under a damaging force
system. To be clear and not to cause a wrong or over interpretation, two
different/independent relative blocks may be chosen in the studied area, if it is
possible. Depending on these two relativetested blocks two different results are
obtained for the object points. Then we may check our objects displacements by
comparing two results. Of course, there will be some statistical unbalancies
between two results, but it may be ignorable effect compared to early or wrong
emergencyalarmforapossibledamage.

For1Dnetworks,i.e.,levellingandgravitymonitoringnetworks,squarerootof
the test statistic Ti in Eq. (3.1) becomes t (Student)distributed, because of the
probabilitydistributionfunctionproperties,

Ti =

d2i Q 1i i
s 2d

| di |
s d Q i i

t(f)

(3.2)

where

di and Q i i :

theithpointsdisplacementandits

cofactor,respectively

16

The threshold value is then taken as Fc=1,f,1 = t f,1 / 2 which denotes percentage
pointofthetdistribution.

3.2

Localization

Localization is a procedure to identify the points having significant coordinate

changes.Mostlyitisadaptedinrelativedeformationnetworkstoseparatereference
points and object points, however it may be used also in absolute deformation
networkstodetectthedisturbingpoint(s)inthereferencepointset.
Therearethreelocalizationmethodscommonlyappliedindeformationanalysis;
i)

Gausseliminationmethod

ii)

Implicithypothesismethod

iii)

Stransformationmethod

Wediscussonlyfirsttwoofthemforrelativedeformationnetworks.Afterwards,the
localizationprocedureinabsolutedeformationnetworksbyGausseliminationmethod
isexplained.
3.2.1 Localization with Gauss-elimination method

Iftheglobaltestshowssignificantlychangedpointsinourrelativedeformation
network,thenextstepisidentifyingorlocalizingthesepoints.Foreachpointinourc
dimensionalnetworkwecomputethefollowingeffectvalues
~ ~d ,(i=1,2,,p)
~ 1 with = ~d + P~ 1P
Ri= iT P
ii
i
i
i
ii
iA A

where

c1reduceddisplacementvectoroftheithpoint,
17

(3.3)

~d
i

c1displacementvectoroftheithpoint

~
P
ii

ccweightmatrixbelongingtotheithpoint(ithblock
+
),
diagonalof P = Q dd

~d
A

(cpc)1vectorofdisplacementsoftheremainingpoints
denotedAnotincludingthepointiand,

~
P
iA

c(cpc)weightmatrixbetweenpointiandthe
remainingpoints(seeNote3.3).

Note3.3:DisplacementvectorsandtheirweightmatricesusedinEq.(3.3)maybe
representedas

~
~
d
P
+
= ~AA
d = ~A ,Pdd = Q dd
PiA
di

P~iA

P~ii

(3.4)

The point resulting in maximum effect value by Eq. (3.3) is accepted as

significantly changed point. Let this point be the jth point. Then first object point is
beingdefined;

={j}

(3.5)

Nowweshoulddefinethedatumofournetworkdependingontheremaining

p1 points. Let us denote these remaining points with B. Using the transformation
matrixSBdefiningthedatumaccordingtothepointsB,weobtain

~
~
d
Q
T
B

SB d = ~ , SB Qdd SB = ~ BB
Q B
d

~
Q
B
,
~
Q

OurnextaimistoinvestigatetheremainingpointsB.Iftheteststatistic

18

(3.6)

TB =

~ TQ
~+ ~
d
~ =rank Q c)
B BB dB
F(hB , f) ,( hB =rank Q
BB
dd
2
hB s d

(3.7)

is smaller than the threshold value FhB ,f,1 , the localization procedure is ended. The
objectpointsandthereferencepointsarebeingseparatedalreadyas={j}and=B,
respectively. Otherwise, it is decided that the group of points B has significantly
changed point(s) and a new localization procedure is required. In that case, we
~ asdand Q inEq.(3.4),
consider ~dB and Q
BB
dd

~d d, Q
~ Qdd,
B
BB

(3.8)

and we search the point giving the maximum effect using Eq.(3.3) among the
remainingp1points.Theprocedureisrepeateduntiltheglobaltestshowsnomore
significantlychangedpoints.IneachlocalizationsteptheobjectpointsetinEq.(3.5)
isaugmentedwiththeneweridentifiedpoints.
For 1D networks, the effect Ri in Eq. (3.3) may be computed directly: Let the
displacementvectoranditsweightmatrixgivenbyEq.(3.4)bewrittenasfollows

P~11 L P~1n
~d1

+
d= M ,Pdd = Q dd
= M O M
~
~d
~
n
Pn1 L Pnn

(3.9)

ThemultiplicationdPddresultsin

1

=dPdd= M ,

n

(3.10)

Dividing the elements of the vector in (3.10) by the weights in (3.9) gives the

19

correspondingeffect
Ri=i/ P~ii ,(i=1,2,.,p)

(3.11)

Hence, for 1D networks, the computation burden of Eq. (3.6) is drastically being
reduced.
3.2.2 Localization with implicit hypothesis method

Two periods GaussMarkov models are gained into a single GaussMarkov

modelbyEq.(2.5)as
l 1 A 1
E =
l 2 0

0 x 1
P
, P = 1
A 2 x 2
0

P2

OurhypothesisnowassumesthatthegroupofpointsA,whichdoesnotcontainthe
suspected point i, has not deformed. This hypothesis may be implicity incorporated
intotheaboveGaussMarkovmodelasfollows

l 1 A A 1
E =
l 2 A A 2

A i1
0

x
0 A
P
x i 1 , P = 1
A i 2
0
x
i2

P2

(3.12)

Suppose that the solution of model (3.12) yields the weighted sum of the squared
residuals (H )i = (v HTPv H )i .Eachpointinthenetworkisattainedasiinmodel(3.12)in
turn,andwegetpeffectsforthepointsinthenetworkasfollows

Ri=( H )i,(i=1,2,,p)

(3.13)

IfRjbelongingtothejthpointistheminimumeffectvalueamongtheothers,thispoint
isacceptedasthepointwithsignificantcoordinatechange.Itisourfirstobjectpoint:

20

Thenwemaydefinetheobjectpointgroupas
={j}

(3.14)

Nowweshouldlearnwhethertheremainingp1points,denotedB,stillconsist
ofanysignificantlychangedpoints.ForthisweusetheminimumdeficiencyRjtoset
thefollowingteststatistic

TB =

(R j /hB )
( /f)

Rj
hBs 2d

F(hB , f)

(3.15)

wherehB=fHfc=hc.IftheteststatisticinEq.(3.15)isbiggerthanthecorresponding
thresholdvalue,i.e.
TB FhB ,f,1 ,

(3.16)

we should identify the responsible point(s) among the group of points B. For the ith
pointofB,wesetourGaussMarkovmodelasfollows;

l 1 A D 1
E =
l 2 A D 2

A i1
0
B

0
A i2

A 1
0

xD

x i1
0
P
x i 2 , P = 1

A 2
0
x 1
x
2

P2

(3.17)

where

denotesthepointsexcepttheithpointinB(D{i}=B)

showstheobjectpointidentifiedintheprevious
localizationstep(wedonotchangeoftheplaceofin
Eq.(3.17)duringthealllocalizationstepsanymore).

Nowinthesecondlocalizationstep,eachpointinBisattainedasiinEq.(3.17)

21

by turn and theeffectsof all p1 points are computed as realized byEq. (3.13). The
pointgivingminimumeffectistakenasthenewobjectpointandweupdateourobject
pointdefinitioninEq.(3.14).Iftheglobaltest,whichissetaccordingtotheeffectof
the point identified in that second localization step (hB becomes h2c), shows more
suspected points among the remaining points, similarly we continue localizing these
points.Theprocedureisrepeateduntilthecorrespondingglobaltestshowsnomore
significantlychangedpointinthenetwork.
3.2.3 Localization in absolute deformation networks

If the global test in Section 2.4 results in that our reference points is not
stable,weshouldidentifythechangedpoint(s)amongthem.Onewayfordoingthisis
applyinglocalizationproceduretothereferencepoints:Forthisweconsider d and
Q belongingtothepreferencepointsinEq.(2.15)asdandQddin(3.4),

d d, Q Qdd

(3.18)

andwestartlocalizationprocedurewithEq.(3.3)toidentifytheresponsiblepoint(s)
among p reference points. The localization procedure is similarly realized until the
corresponding global test shows that remaining reference points have no any points
disturbing the stability of our reference. The identified points are removed from the
referencepointsetandaddedtotheobjectpoints.

22

4. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

Sensitivity analysis is used to optimize a deformation network such that it

becomes sensitive to the expected displacement, movement or deformation or to
derive the minimum detectable displacement, movement or deformation parameter
formeasuringthequalityofourdesign.
In theory it can be adapted to all kind of changes to be monitored in a studied
area,howeverweexpressitjustfordisplacementshere.

4.1

Global Sensitivity Analysis

4.1.1 Optimization Criteria

ThehypothesesgivenbyEq.(2.3)isoriginallysetas
H0:E(d)=0vs.H1:E(d)0=

(4.1)

where

u1vectorofexpecteddisplacements.

Because we are now at the design stage, we know that the alternative
hypothesisH1inEq.(4.1)istrue.Inthatcase,secondteststatisticinEq.(2.4)followsa
noncentral2distribution;

T=

+
d T Q dd
d
~ '2 (h, )
2
d

23

(4.2)

where is the noncentrality parameter computed from the vector of expected

displacementsasfollows;

+
T Q dd

2
d

(4.3)

Once we obtain the noncentrality parameter in Eq. (4.3), the power of the
global test, i.e., the probability of correcty accepting the true alternative hypothesis,
maybecomputablefromthedistributionfunctionofthenoncentral2distribution,
F(2= h,2 1 ;h,),as

=1F(2= h,2 1 ;h,)

(4.4)

Thepowerofthetestmathematicallyincreaseswithincreasingnoncentrality
parameter and with decreasing degrees of freedom h. It means that the power of
ourtestwillbebetterformoreprecisenetworkandlesspoints(rememberthathis
relatedwithnumberofpointsinanidenticalnetwork,i.e.h=ur=cpr).
Instead of computing the power of the test by Eq. (4.4), the noncentrality
parameteriscomparedwithanoncentralityparametergivingadesiredpowerofthe
test 0 and significance level 0. This parameter is called lower bound of the non
centralityparameter0(seeTable4.1).Ifthefollowinginequalityisfulfilled,

0,h

(4.5)

the network is defined as sensitive to the expected displacements. Otherwise, the

networkisredesignedsuchthatitbecomessensitive.

24

Table4.1Somelowerboundofthenoncentralityparameters(0,h)for0=80and
90%,0=5%and1h100
h

0=80%

0=90%

1
2
3
4
5
10
20
30
40
50
100

7.85
9.64
10.90
11.94
12.83
16.24
20.96
24.55
27.56
30.20
40.56

10.51
12.65
14.17
15.41
16.47
20.53
26.13
30.38
33.94
37.07
49.29

4.1.2 Minimum detectable displacement

Forecastingthedirectionsofthedisplacementsiseasierthansettingthevector
ofexpecteddisplacementsitself.Letthevectorbetheproductofascalefactor(b)
andagivendirectionvector(g),

=bg

(4.6)

SubstitutingEq.(4.6)intoEq.(4.3)andusingEq.(4.5)weobtain

bmin= d

0 ,h
+
g Q dd
g
T

(4.7)

Thenwedefinetheminimumdetectabledisplacementvectorasfollows;

min=bming

(4.8)

In some cases, even directions of the displacements are not be available. To

25

obtaintheminimumdisplacementvectorinsuchacase,weusetheeigenvectormax
belongingtothemaximumeigenvaluemaxof Qdd.Thisresultsintheminimumvalue
ofthescalefactor

bmin= d

0 ,h
+
Tmax Q dd
max

= d 0 ,h max

(4.9)

Then,ifweconsiderEq.(4.9)inEq.(4.8),weobtainthedisplacementvectorwhichis
justdetectableonthedirectionsoftheeigenvectorwithaspecifiedpowerofthetest
0andsignificancelevel0.

Note4.1:Thedirectionvectorgforlevelingmonitoringnetworksconsistsof1for
the uplifted points, 1 for the subsided points and 0 for stable points. In 2D
networks (or in a horizontal plane) it includes cos and sin where is the
forecastedazimuthofthedisplacementvectorofthecorrespondingpoint.

4.2

Sensitivity Analysis in Absolute Deformation Networks

Let our object points be defined related to the reference points . The

hypothesestotesteachobjectpointaresetfollows;

H0:E( di )=0,H1:E( di )0= i

(4.10)

where i istheexpecteddisplacementvectoroftheithobjectpoint.

LetusassumethatourteststatisticsetfordiscriminatingthehypothesesinEq.

(4.10)is 2distributed.Sinceweknowthatthealternativehypothesisistruenow,the

26

teststatistichasanoncentral2distribution;

Ti =

dT i Q 1i i di

2
d

2(c,i)

(4.11)

whereiisthenoncentralityparameter,

i=

T i Q 1i i i
2d

(4.12)

Tolearnwhetherourexpecteddisplacementsfortheithpointisdetectableor

not,thenoncentralityparameteriiscomparedwithitsboundaryvalue0,c;If
i0,c

(4.13)

holds,thecorrespondingdisplacementissaidtobedetectablewiththecorresponding
powerofthetest.
To derive the minimum detectable displacement, we may follow the same
methodologygivenintheprevioussection.Insteadofgivingtheformulaforaspecific
direction, we consider the eigenvector of the maximum eigenvalue max,i of Q i i .
SimilartoEq.(4.9),weobtain

(bmin)i= d 0 ,c max,i =( d max,i ) 0 ,c

(4.14)

With this scale factor, the minimum detectable displacement vector of the ith point
becomes

( i )min =(bmin)i max,i

27

(4.15)

where max,i istheeigenvectorbelongingtothemaximumeigenvalue max,i .

Note4.2:For2Dnetworks,firsttermoftherighthandofEq.(4.14),i.e., d max,i ,
is in fact the semimajor axis of the relative error ellipse of the ith point. Then,

(bmin)i maybeconsideredasthesemimajoraxisoftherelativeerrorellipseforthe

power of the test (we may call this ellipse relative power ellipse!). Furthermore,
(4.15)showsthatminimumdetectabledisplacementisonthedirectionoverlapped

withthedirectionoftherelativeerrorellipseoftheithpoint.Thenin2Dexamples,
(bmin)i denotes the minimum detectable displacement magnitude of the
correspondingpoint.Theboundaryvalueisobtainedas0,c=2=9.64for80%power

of the test from Table 4.1. It means that a displacement whose magnitude is 3.1

times of the semimajor axis of the relative confidence ellipse may be just

detectable with 80% power of the test in an object point of an absolute

deformationnetwork.

For1Dnetworks, max,i becomesequaltothedisplacementscofactorvalueofthe

correspondingpoint.FromTable4.1weread0,c=1=7.85for80%powerofthetest.

Then it is clear that a displacement (uplift or subsidence) may be just detectable

with 80% power, if its magnitude is 2.8 times of the displacements standard
deviation.

Withtheabovementionedsimplestatisticsintwopreviousnotes,oneisable

to speak about the capacity of the designed network. The cofactor matrices of
displacements with respect to the reference points may easily be derived and the
pooledvariancemaybeguesseddependingontheexperiencesbeforeanyrealization.
Then the minimum detectable displacement of an object point is about 3 times of
the semimajor axis of its relative confidence ellipse and displacements standard
deviationin2Dand1Dnetworks,respectively.Ifourexpectationdoesnotmatchwith

28

this magnitude, then we may redesign our network such that its object points have
smaller ellipses or smaller standard deviations depending on the network type. For
example,letusassumethatweexpect5mmverticalmovementinaregion,andour
leveling networks object points relative to a reference point set have around 2 mm
standarddeviationinaperiod.Thenthedisplacementsstandarddeviationisexpected
as 2 2 =2,8mm.With80%power(ormore),theminimumdetectabledisplacementis
around32,8=8.4mm.Itmeansthatwemaynotabletodetect5mmmovementwith
80%powerofthetestusingthecorrespondingdesign.Forthatreason,weshouldplan
additional observations or should measure the network with more precise levels to
improve the precision of our points. Such an optimization is called trial and error
method; but we may also set some analytical target functions to obtain a global
solution to this optimization problem. This is called analytical optimization of
deformation networks; however, nowadays, because of our improved computing
capabilitiesbynormalPCs,trialanderrormethodsmaybemorepreferable.Theyare
morerealisticbecausewemayproducetheproblemdependingonsomeexperiments
whichwemayfacewithinreality.Inanalyticaltools,sometimes,ifwedonotconsider
the constraints realistically (it is a little bit hard to consider all conditions
mathematically!),thesolutionmaygofarawayfromtheglobalsolutionandstopata
local one, which may mislead the practitioner, or, which may cause an another
problemwaitingforadifferentsolution.

29

5. INTERPRETATION MODELS

Afterdefiningthereferencepointsinournetwork,wemayinvestigatetheobject
pointsmovementsandstrainelementsofsomeobjectblockstointerpretethemotion
andthedeformationoftheobject,respectively.Forthisweusekinematicmodeland
strain model. In this section we briefly explain these models used in deformation
analysis.

5.1

Kinematic Model

An object may change its position in time continuously related to a reference

frame.Thismotionisexpressedbythefollowingwellknownequation

1
(t) = (t 0 ) + (t t 0 ) x& + (t t 0 )2 &x&
2

(5.1)

where

currenttime,

t0

initialtime,

(t)

current(present)position,

(t 0 ) :

initialposition,

x&

velocityand

&x&

acceleration.

If the parameters (t 0 ) , x& and &x& are available, one may predict the objects
positioninanyperiodfromEq.(5.1).Reversely,ifwehavecoordinatesofthepointin

30

differentperiods,wemayestimatetheparameterstocreateamodelfortheobjects
movement. This is called kinematic model in deformation analysis. To satisfy
redundancy in kinematic modelling, there should be at least 4 periods. Hereafterwe
assumethereforethatwehavem4periods.
5.1.1 Single point model for an object points movement
5.1.1.1 Model I

Nowsupposethatweworkwitha1Dnetwork,orwewouldliketomodelonly
onecomponentofapointamongitsothercomponents(asrealizedmostlyforNorth,
East and Up components of a GNSS station). For this we set the following Gauss
MarkovmodelfromEq.(5.1)havingtakentheinitialperiodast1andpartitioningthe
initial(unknown)position (t0 ) intotwopartsas (t0 ) = (t1 ) + ,
1
y1 1 (t1 t1 ) 0.5(t1 t1 )2
Q 11

2
y 2 1 (t2 t1 ) 0.5(t2 t1 )
2 0
E
=
x& , P = 0

M
M
M M
&x&
M

0
ym 1 (tm t1 ) 0.5(tm t1 )

O
M
1
L Q mm

0 L
1
Q 22
L
M
0

(5.2)

where

yi

(ti ) :

coordinatecomponentintheithperiod,

unknownshiftparameter,

x&

unknownvelocity,

&x&

unknownacceleration,

20

apriorivarianceofunitweightand

Qii

cofactorvalueofthecorrespondingcoordinate
component.

c1(diminished)coordinatecomponent(observation),
( y i = (ti ) (t0 ) ),

31

5.1.1.2 Model II

Forcdimensionalnetworks,consideringmodel(5.2)maycauseoveroptimistic
results because in that case we neglect the correlations between the coordinate
components of a point. They are in fact highly correlated therefore they may be
consideredinasingleGaussMarkovmodel
1
y 1 I (t1 t1 )I 0.5(t1 t1 )2 I
Q 11

2
y 2 I (t2 t1 )I 0.5(t2 t1 ) I
2 0
E
=
x& , P = 0

M
M
M M
&x&
M

2
0
y m I (tm t1 )I 0.5(tm t1 ) I

O
M
1
L Q mm

0 L
1
Q 22
L
M
0

(5.3)

where

yi

(ti ) :

c1coordinatevector,

ccidentitymatrix,

c1unknownshiftparametervector,

x&

c1vectorofunknownvelocities,

&x&

c1vectorofunknownaccelerationsalongthe
correspondingaxes,

20

apriorivarianceofunitweightand

Q ii

cccofactormatrixbelongingto thecorrespondingpoint
intheithperiod.

c1(diminished)coordinate(observation)vector
( y i = (ti ) (t1 ) ),

5.1.1.3 Model III

In some cases previous two models may not yield satisfactory estimates
because of some unmodelled physical effects on the coordinates. They are mostly

32

observed as periodic changes in time series of a points coordinate component as

showninFig5.1.
Ifwehaveapriorinformationabouttheperiodicalpartofthechanges,instead
ofEq.(5.19)wemayconsider
(t) = (t0 ) + (t t0 ) x& + periodicpart

(5.4)

wheretheperiodicpartisalinearfunctionoftheeffectofthecorrespondingphysical
sources. (The points movement may include also an acceleration part; however, for
simplicitywedropitinEq.(5.4))

Periodicpart

Coordinate

Velocity

Observation

Time

Fig5.1Coordinatechangesintimedomain
Theperiodicitymayhappenhourly,daily,annuallyorsemiannuallydepending
on the sources. They are commonly modelled using a1cos(2t/Tp)+a2sin(2t/Tp)
function,where Tpistheknownperiod, a1 and a2aretheunknownamplitutes.Letus
consider that our periodic part may be modelled with this function: Then instead of
model(5.2)wemaysetthefollowingGaussMarkovmodel

33

y 1 1 t1
1 t
y2
2
E =
M
M M

ym 1 tm

cos(2 t1 /Tp )

sin(2 t1 /Tp )

cos(2 t2 /Tp ) sin(2 t2 /Tp ) x&
a ,
M
M
1
cos(2 tm /Tp ) sin(2 tm /Tp ) a2

1
Q 11

0
P = 20
M
0

0
1
Q 22

M
0

L 0

O
M
1
L Q mm

(5.5)

where y i = (ti ) (t0 ) and ti =tit1.

Note5.1:Inmostproblems,theperiodTpisnotavailableornotexact.Inthatcase,

w=2/TpangularfrequencymaybeobtainedbyapplyingFastFouriertransformto
theobservationsbeforehand.

5.1.2 Single model for whole object points movement

Kinematic model (5.1) may be established for all object points under a single
model.Forp=ppobjectpointsinthenetwork,whichismeasuredmperiods,the
GaussMarkovmodelforsuchamodellingiswrittenasfollows
Q x11x1
y 1 I (t1 t1 )I 0.5(t1 t1 )2 I

2
0
y 2 I (t2 t1 )I 0.5(t2 t1 ) I
2
=

,
P
x
E
&
=

M
M
M M
M
&x&

0
y m I (tm t1 )I 0.5(tm t1 ) I

where

34

0
Q

1
x 2x 2

M
0

O
M
L Q xm1xm
L
L

(5.6)

yi

cp1(diminished)coordinate(observation)vectorfor
theithperiod( y i = i 1 ),

cp1coordinatevectoroftheithperiod;

cpcpidentitymatrix,

cp1unknownshiftparametervector,

x&

cp1vectorofunknownvelocities,

&x&

cp1vectorofunknownaccelerations,

20

apriorivarianceofunitweightand

Q xixi :

cpcpcofactormatrixbelongingtotheobjectpointsin

theithperiod.

5.1.3 Testing model parameters

Before publishing the kinematic model of an object point, we should test its
parameters(mostlyvelocityandacceleration)tolearnwhethertheyaresignificantor
not.Testingprocedureisthereforecalledsignificancytest.
Let us consider that the velocity estimate x& with standard deviation s x& is
desiredtobetested;forthiswesetthefollowinghypotheses

H0:E( x& )=0,H1:E( x& )0

(5.7)

Thentheteststatisticfollowstdistribution

Tx& =

|x& |
t(f)
s x&

(5.8)

where f is the degrees of freedom of the corresponding model. If Tx& < t f,1 / 2 , the
estimatedvalue x& isnotsignificant.Otherwise,itisacceptedthatithasasignificant
physicalmeaning.

35

Note5.2:Foreachestimatedparameterthesametestingproceduregivenaboveis

realized.Insignificantparametersmaybeextractedfromthecorrespondingmodel,

and the estimation procedure is repeated having established the corresponding

modelwiththeremainingsignificantparameters.Thiswillincreasetheredundancy,
i.e. degrees of freedom, and will result in more precise estimation. In some

applications,forexampleinGNSSstudieswithlongtimeseries,theredundancyis

already big, therefore, the testing procedure may be unnecessary: The estimated
values and their standard deviations are declared, for example, as velocityits
standarddeviation.Thisiscalledsometimesvelocitywith1sigmaerror:Ifwe

have big redundancy, the accepted onedimensional tdistribution gets close to

normaldistribution and this interval shows a confidence interval with about 40%
probability. If we declare velocity with 2sigma error, from the normal

distributionfunction,weunderstandthattheintervalshowsaconfidenceinverval

withaprobabilitymorethan95%.

5.1.4 Model test

There may exist different kinematic models for the timedependent

observations. To verify which model fits better to the observations, we may apply
modeltest:Forexample,letustakethemodel(5.2)andcallitmodel1.Itsalternative
onemaybethemodelwithoutan accelerationparameter,i.e.velocitymodel;letus
callitmodel2.Fromeachmodelweestimatetheunknownsandobtaintheweighted
squaresoftheresiduals;i.e.weobtain 1and 2quadraticformsindependently.The
followingteststatisticfollowsFdistribution,withf2f1andf2degreesoffreedom,

TM =

(2 1 ) /(f2 f1 )
F(f2f1,f2)
1 /f1

36

(5.9)

where

f1

degreesoffreedomofmodel1and

f2

degreesoffreedomofmodel2.

Wecompare TM withthethresholdvalue Ff2 f1 ,f1 ,1 :

i)

If TM < Ff2 f1 ,f1 ,1 , model 1 is not necessary. In other words, instead of

acceleration and velocity parameters, it is better to consider only velocity
parameter.

ii)

TM Ff2 f1 ,f1 ,1 , model 1 fits better to the observations: Model 2 does not
ensure the essential information to model the timedependent
observations.

Testingmodel1againstmodel2withtheabovementionedmodeltestpractically
maybedonewiththeprevioussignificancytest:Iftheaccelerationssignificancytest
fails, it means that, model 2 (the model with only velocity) should be considered to
model the observations. But, at this point, we should remind that, statistically and
theoretically, model test is more correct because the previous testing procedure
neglectsthecorrelationsbetweentheestimatedparameters.
The given model test procedure may be applied for comparing different types of
models, not only for comparing the velocity model and velocity+acceleration model:
Weshouldjustcareaboutthatmodel1istobeattainedasanaugmentedmodelwith
additionalparameterswhicharenotincludedinmodel2.

5.2

Strain Analysis

5.2.1 Definition

Strain is defined as the ratio of increase or decrease in length to its original

37

length.Itisanormalizedmeasurefordeformation.Forinstance,letusconsiderawire
with L1=100 m length has extended to L2=100.02 m; then the engineering strain, the
socallednominalstrain,iscomputedasfollows
=

L 2 L1 100.02 100
=
= 2 10 5 strain=20strain=20ppm.
L1
100

Thisstrainmaybedenotedas

Displacement dL
=
OriginalLength L1

(5.10)

On the other hand, scale factor , the socalled stretch ratio, is related with the
engineeringstrainby
=1+

(5.11)

which is the one commonly used in geodesy to explain the deformations of the
coordinateaxes,forexampleinsimilarityandAffinetransformations.
In two dimensional, instead of a single strain measure, there exists a strain
tensor,
xx
E =
yx

xy dx/ x dx/ y
=

yy dy/ y dy/ y

(5.11)

where

dxanddy

displacementsofaparticleintheobjectinxandy
directions.

Since we assume the object is continuum, i.e. the object is full of homogeneous
particles, the tensor elements in Eq. (5.11) represent the deformation of the whole

38

object. There are some other quantities obtained from the elements of this strain
tensor,suchas,

Dilation(meanstrain):

1
mean= (xx+yy)
2

(5.12a)

Pureshear:

1
pure= (xxyy)
2

(5.12b)

Simpleshear:

1
simple= (xy+yx)
2

(5.12c)

Totalshear:

2
shear= pure
+ 2simple =

Differentialrotation:

1
2

( (

xx

yy )2 + ( xy + yx )2

1
= (yxxy)
2

(5.12d)

(5.12e)

Inearthsciences,insteadofthestraintensor E,symmetricalstraintensor Es ,
whichisderivedfromEq.(5.11),isused;

xx
( xy + yx ) / 2 xx

=
Es =

(
)
/
2
xy
yx
yy

simple

simple

yy

(5.13)

To show the object deformation in 2D, principal strain components, i.e., the
eigenvaluesof Es arederivedfrom(5.13)

1
max = ( xx + yy + ( xx yy )2 + 42simple ) =mean+shear
2

39

(5.14a)

1
min = ( xx + yy ( xx yy )2 + 42simple ) =meanshear
2

(5.14b)

withthedirectionofthemaximumprincipalaxis,clockwisefromxaxis(seeNote5.3),
2

1
= atan simple = atan simple
2
xx yy 2
pure

(5.14c)

max shows the greatest change while min is the smallest change of length per unit
length.TheyareplottedonthecentroidoftheobjectasshowninFig5.1.Thenegative
sign of any component shows contraction whereas positive sign denotes extension
throughthecorrespondingdirection.

ExtensionorContraction

|min|

|max|
ExtensionandContraction

max,min>0max,min<0

max<0,min>0max>0,min<0

Fig.5.1.Principalstraincomponents

40

Note5.3:Theprincipleofcomputationoftheprincipalstrainangleissimilarto

theoneofcomputationofazimuth:First,2=atan(simple/pure)=aisobtained; i)if
simple>0andpure>0,=a/2, ii)ifsimple>0andpure<0,=200+a/2, iii)ifsimple<0and
pure<0,=200+a/2and iv)ifsimple<0andpure>0,=400+a/2.Withoutconsidering

the regions of the angle, direct computation may be realized by

= atan( simple /(pure shear )) + 90 o . However this direct computation is sensitive
to the numerical errors in simple, pure as well as shear. Therefore it should be
considered in double precision computing tools. Moreover, if simple=0, then 0/0

vaguehappensinthatformula:Forthis,thereadershouldnoticethefollowingtwo

conditions; i)ifsimple=0andpure>0,=0oand ii)ifsimple=0andpure<0,=90owhile

usingthatdirectcomputationformula.

5.2.2 Strain modelling in geodetic deformation analysis

Fortheithobjectpointhavingdxianddyidisplacements,wemaywrite
dxi=tx+xxxi+xyyianddyi=ty+yxxi+yyyi

(5.15)

whicharethefundamentalequationsformodellingstrainofthecorrespondingobject.
Inadditionto4strainparameters(xx,xy,yx,yy)wehavetwotranslationparameters
tx and ty in Eq. (5.15), therefore, to obtain these 6 parameters, mathematically we
needatleast3points.

For modelling strain of the studied object, the structural properties of the

object should be known priorily. From such a prior information the object is divided
into the different blocks as demonstrated in Fig 5.2. For each block we consider
differentstrainmodel(seeNote5.4).

41

Object

Object

BlockI

BlockII

Afterstrainmodelling

Beforerealization

Fig5.2.Objectblocksandtheirprincipalstraincomponents

Note5.4:Objectblocksshouldbeconsideredatthedesignstagesothateachblock

has its own object points characterizing the deformation to be monitored. An

attempt for deciding object blocks considering only the observed displacements
mayyieldwronginterpretations.

Now suppose that our object consists of one block; then all object points are

includedinasinglestrainmodel.Forthis,ourGaussMarkovmodelissetasfollows

dx 1 1

dy

0
1

M M
=
E

dx 1
p
dy p 0

x1

y1

x1

y p

x p

0 x p
1

t
0 x
t
y 1 y

M xx E{d}=Mx

0 xy

y p yx
yy

withthe2p2pmatrixofweightsofdisplacements,

42

(5.16a)

Q dx1dx1

2
P= 0

Q dx1dy1
Q dy1dy1

L
L
O

Q dx1dxp
Q dy1dxp
M
Q dxp dxp

Q dx1dyp
Q dy1dym
M
Q dxp dyp
Q dyp dyp

P= 2 Q
0

(5.16b)

where

dandQ :

vectorofdisplacementsanditscofactormatrix
belongingtotheobjectpoints,respectively,
fromEq.(2.15),

2p6coefficientmatrixand

61unknownparametervector.

Solving model (5.16) by leastsquares method, the parameter vector x is

estimatedandsowegetstrainparametersxx,xy,yxandyyfortheobject.Byusing
themtheprincipalstrainparametersinEq.(5.14)areobtainedandtheyareplottedon
thecentroidoftheobjectunderconsiderationasshowninFig5.3.

Object

Fig5.3Principalstrainparametersforanobject

Formoreblocks,theirindependentstrainmodelsmaybeconsideredinasingle

GaussMarkov model: For instance, for two object blocks (Block I and Block II) we

43

establishthefollowingGaussMarkovmodel;

d MI 0 x I
Q
, P = 20 I I
E I =
dII 0 MII x II
Q II I

Q I II

Q II II

(5.17)

Fromthesolutionofmodel(5.17),weobtainxIandxIIparametervectorsincludingthe
blocksstrainparameters.

44

APPENDIXA:GLOSSARY
Absolutedeformationnetwork:Mutlakdeformasyona
Acceleration:vme
Block:Blok
Confidencelevel:Gvendzeyi
Contraction:Klme
Constraintequations:Kouldenklemleri
Currentperiod:Mevcutperiyot
Currenttime:Mevcutzaman
Deformation:Deformasyon
Degreesoffreedom:Serbestlikderecesi
Diminishedobservation:Kltlml
Directionvector:Ynvektr
Displacement:Yerdeiim
Extension:Genileme
Gausseliminationmethod:Gausseliminasyonyntemi
Globaltest:Globaltest
Identical:Edeer
Identitymatrix:Birimmatris
Implicithypothesismethod:Kapalhipotezyntemi
Initialperiod:Balangperiyodu
Initialtime:Balangzaman
Kinematicmodel:Kinematikmodel
Localization:Yerelletirme
Lowerboundofthenoncentralityparameter:Dmerkezlikparametresininsnrdeeri
Minimumdetectabledisplacement:Belirlenebilirenkkyerdeiim
Minimumconstrained:Zorlamasz
Monitoring:zleme
Modeltest:Modeltesti
Noncentral:Merkezselolmayan
Noncentralityparameter:Dmerkezlikparametresi
Nonidentical:Edeerolmayan
Object:Nesne

45

Objectblock:Objeblou
Objectpoint:Objenoktas
Partialtraceminimum:Ksmiizminimum
Period:Periyot
Pooledvariancefactor:Birletirilmivaryansarpan
Powerofthetest:Testgc
Principalstrainparameters:Asalgerinimparametreleri
Referenceblock:Referansblou
Referencepoint:Dayanaknoktas
Relativeconfidenceellipse:Balgvenelipsi
Relativedeformationnetwork:Baldeformasyona
Rotation:Dnklk
Quadraticform:Kareselbiim
Sensitivity:Duyarllk
Shiftparameter:Sfreki
Significancelevel:Yanlmaolasl
Significancytest:Anlamllktesti
Significant:Anlaml
Stable:Duraan
Strain:Gerinim
Straintensor:Gerinimtensr
Subsidence:kme
Teststatistic:Testbykl
Thresholdvalue:Karlatrmadeeri
Traceminimum:Tmizminimum
Translation:teleme
Undeformed:Deformeolmam
Uplift:Ykselme
Velocity:Hz

46

APPENDIXB:THRESHOLDVALUES(Fandtdistributions)

TableB1.ThresholdvaluesforFdistribution(*)for=5%(Fa,b,1)
b

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

161.45

18.51

10.13

7.71

6.61

5.99

5.59

5.32

5.12

4.96

4.35

4.17

4.08

4.03

4.00

3.98

3.96

3.95

3.94

199.50

19.00

9.55

6.94

5.79

5.14

4.74

4.46

4.26

4.10

3.49

3.32

3.23

3.18

3.15

3.13

3.11

3.10

3.09

215.71

19.16

9.28

6.59

5.41

4.76

4.35

4.07

3.86

3.71

3.10

2.92

2.84

2.79

2.76

2.74

2.72

2.71

2.70

224.58

19.25

9.12

6.39

5.19

4.53

4.12

3.84

3.63

3.48

2.87

2.69

2.61

2.56

2.53

2.50

2.49

2.47

2.46

230.16

19.30

9.01

6.26

5.05

4.39

3.97

3.69

3.48

3.33

2.71

2.53

2.45

2.40

2.37

2.35

2.33

2.32

2.31

233.99

19.33

8.94

6.16

4.95

4.28

3.87

3.58

3.37

3.22

2.60

2.42

2.34

2.29

2.25

2.23

2.21

2.20

2.19

236.77

19.35

8.89

6.09

4.88

4.21

3.79

3.50

3.29

3.14

2.51

2.33

2.25

2.20

2.17

2.14

2.13

2.11

2.10

238.88

19.37

8.85

6.04

4.82

4.15

3.73

3.44

3.23

3.07

2.45

2.27

2.18

2.13

2.10

2.07

2.06

2.04

2.03

240.54

19.38

8.81

6.00

4.77

4.10

3.68

3.39

3.18

3.02

2.39

2.21

2.12

2.07

2.04

2.02

2.00

1.99

1.97

10

241.88

19.40

8.79

5.96

4.74

4.06

3.64

3.35

3.14

2.98

2.35

2.16

2.08

2.03

1.99

1.97

1.95

1.94

1.93

20

248.01

19.45

8.66

5.80

4.56

3.87

3.44

3.15

2.94

2.77

2.12

1.93

1.84

1.78

1.75

1.72

1.70

1.69

1.68

30

250.10

19.46

8.62

5.75

4.50

3.81

3.38

3.08

2.86

2.70

2.04

1.84

1.74

1.69

1.65

1.62

1.60

1.59

1.57

40

251.14

19.47

8.59

5.72

4.46

3.77

3.34

3.04

2.83

2.66

1.99

1.79

1.69

1.63

1.59

1.57

1.54

1.53

1.52

50

251.77

19.48

8.58

5.70

4.44

3.75

3.32

3.02

2.80

2.64

1.97

1.76

1.66

1.60

1.56

1.53

1.51

1.49

1.48

60

252.20

19.48

8.57

5.69

4.43

3.74

3.30

3.01

2.79

2.62

1.95

1.74

1.64

1.58

1.53

1.50

1.48

1.46

1.45

70

252.50

19.48

8.57

5.68

4.42

3.73

3.29

2.99

2.78

2.61

1.93

1.72

1.62

1.56

1.52

1.49

1.46

1.44

1.43

80

252.72

19.48

8.56

5.67

4.41

3.72

3.29

2.99

2.77

2.60

1.92

1.71

1.61

1.54

1.50

1.47

1.45

1.43

1.41

90

252.90

19.48

8.56

5.67

4.41

3.72

3.28

2.98

2.76

2.59

1.91

1.70

1.60

1.53

1.49

1.46

1.44

1.42

1.40

100

253.04

19.49

8.55

5.66

4.41

3.71

3.27

2.97

2.76

2.59

1.91

1.70

1.59

1.52

1.48

1.45

1.43

1.41

1.39

*)SquarerootofFvaluefora=1andbinthefirstrowyieldstb,1/2

47