Petroleum Engineering 311

EXAM 3 Key - Valko

1.
Label the axes of the ternary diagram as used for plotting 3-phase relative permeability curves. Identify
the following two points on the diagram. The first point at S w1=0.5, So1=0.3 and Sg1=0.2, and the second point at
Sw2=0.2, So2=0.7 and Sg2=0.1
Answer
(Note: depending on the selection of vertices, the picture may vary!)
Water
100%

Gas

Oil

100%

100 %

2.
According to Standing, effective permeability is a function of what five rock and rock/fluid
properties?
Answer
(mean) pore size
pore size distribution
wettability
saturation
saturation history

3.
Beginning with Darcys Law for 1-D Linear flow of a specified phase, derive the fractional flow
equation shown below for the two phase case. You may assume horizontal flow and negligible capillary
pressure.

f wet

q wet

q wet

q nonwet

1
k r ,nonwet

k r , wet

wet
nonwet

Answer

q wet A

k wet
L wet

q nonwet A

k nonwet
L nonwet

Since the flow is horizontal and capillary pressure can be neglected, the flow potential
difference is the same for both phases. Therefore we can cancel the terms containing area,
length, and flow potential:

f wet

q wet

q wet
q nonwet

k nonwet wet
k wet nonwet

k wet
k wet
L wet
wet
1

k wet k nonwet
k

k wet
k nonwet
A
A

1 nonwet wet
L wet
L nonwet
wet nonwet
nonwet k wet
A

k r ,nonwet wet
k r , wet nonwet

where we also used the fact that the base permeability cancels out.

4.
Define and explain the Capillary End Effect and describe how this can affect laboratory relative
permeability measurements.

Answer:
During steady-state immiscible displacement in the bulk of the core plug there is a constant saturation and
the capillary pressure corresponds to it.
At the outflow face, however, the capillary pressure is zero and hence the wetting phase saturation is one.
(This happens because the core is in contact with the wetting fluid that has left the core. The capillary
effect "sucks back" some fluid, the same way as the formation "sucks up" water above the free water
level.)
Therefore, whatever the wetting phase saturation is in the bulk core, at the outflow end face it approaches
1. The locally large wetting phase saturation causes a distortion in the phase composition of the
outflowing fluid. In other words, we observe more wetting phase coming out than it would be according to
the bulk saturation condition. This is called "end capillary effect".
3

[There are various ways to minimize or eliminate the effect. One approach uses high enough pressure
gradient and flow rate to minimize the interval where the saturation condition changes with location.
Another approach uses additional porous material after the saturation is measured, hence the changing
saturation does not influence the measured saturation and the measured pressure drop.]
5.
Define and explain critical nonwetting phase saturation with regard to drainage relative
permeability.
Answer
In the drainage process, at 100 % wetting phase saturation first the wetting phase starts to flow out of the
core (or reservoir) even if some nonwetting phase is injected. After the saturation of the nonwetting phase
reaches a certain amount, it also starts to flow. This threshold is called critical nonwetting saturation. The
physical reason is that only continuous phase can flow due to pressure difference, so a certain amount of
wetting phase is needed to form a continuous phase (that is to connect several pores containing the
nonwetting phase.)

Non-wetting
phase

100

Wetting
phase

80

krnw

Drainage

krw

60

40

Critical non-wetting
phase saturation
(in this case about 4 %)

20

Irreducible wetting
phase saturation

0
0

20

40

60

80

Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV

100

6.
Define and explain residual nonwetting phase saturation with regard to imbibition relative
permeability.
Answer
In the imbibition process, as the nonwetting phase saturation is decreasing, we reach a certain point
where the nonwetting phase stops to flow. From that point on, only the wetting phase is flowing, and the
nonwetting phase remains (resides) in the rock. It cannot be driven out by the imbibition process, and
hence it is called residual saturation. In the case of water-flooding, this fact limits the potentially
recoverable oil. The physical reason is that only continuous phase can flow due to pressure gradient, and
once the residual nonwetting saturation is reached, the nonwetting phase becomes discontinuous.
[Compared to the critical nonwetting phase saturation, the residual nonwetting phase saturation is larger.
The reason is given in the answer to the next question.]

Non-wetting
phase

100

Wetting
phase

80

Imbibition
krnw

krw

60

40

20

Residual non-wetting
phase saturation
(in this case approximately
28 %)

Irreducible wetting
phase saturation

0
0

20

40

60

80

Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV

100

7.
Define and explain hysteresis with regard to drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves in
porous media. Include an illustrative sketch.

Pc

hysteresi
s:
differing
capillary
pressure
at the
same
saturatio
n

drainag
e

imbibitio
n

Sw
(Fig 3-10 of ABW)
Explanation: during drainage the wetting phase occupies the smallest pores while during imbibition some
of the smallest pores are occupied by the nonwetting phase. The smaller the pore size, the larger is the
capillary pressure. Therefore, according to the "capillary rise" equation we can anticipate larger capillary
pressures during drainage than during imbibition.

8.
Explain how the displacement pressure of a reservoir seal limits the maximum depth of the Free
Water level below the crest of reservoir structure. Include an illustrative sketch.

Answer
The seal for a reservoir is usually provided by a water wet zone with low (but finite)
permeability (typically a shale.)
Darcys Law would indicate that with a finite permeability, gravity effect alone would cause
petroleum to pass upward through the seal due to density difference, over a long (geologic)
time period. However, for multiple phases flowing, the Darcy flow potential includes
pressure, gravity, and capillary pressure terms. If in the reservoir seal there is a
considerable displacement pressure Pd, the oil phase must have at least Pd surplus
pressure compared to water in order to escape. Therefore, displacement pressure of seal
halts upward migration of petroleum in trap.
In the reservoir bellow the seal, however, large displacement pressure implies that the 100
% water saturation level will be way above the Free Water Level and that leaves a limited
cleavage for the layer thickness where oil can flow at all.

high displacement pressure is good for

the sealing

seal

Pd large

small
reservoir
thickness

Pd large

Pd small
high displacement pressure is
not good because 100 %
water saturation occurs too
high above Free Water Level
low displacement pressure is
reserv
good because 100 % water
saturation occurs near to Free
100oir
% water
Water Level
saturation

Free Water Level

large
reservoi
r
thicknes
s

9.
Explain the principles that allow integration of the capillary pressure curve (actually 1/P c2) with
respect to wetting-phase saturation in order to obtain effective permeability of the rock to the wetting
phase.

Answer
Principles: Pc (1/r), k r2, k (1/Pc2)

Purcell developed a model which considers the porous media to be a

bundle of capillary tubes of varying sizes. He considered a narrow interval
of water saturation Sw = (Sw,i+1 - Sw,i) In this interval let the capillary
pressure be Pc ,i where the "i" designates the given saturation interval. In
this saturation interval the capillary tube size can be expressed form the
capillary pressure as
ri

2 cos
Pc,i

Since "permeability" of a tube of radius r can be expressed as k

obtain

cos
1
k r2
8
2

1
(Pc2,i )

When we go from Sw,1 to Sw,2 , we actually "sweep"

sweeping all pores:
2

cos

1 2
r we
8

Sw

volume, so

1
dS w
2
2
0 (Pc )
However, bundle of capillary tubes is not a perfect model, so Purcell
1
introduced an empirical factor, cos 2
1
k abs
2 dS w
2
0 (Pc )
k abs

and comparing experimental results to the final equation he determined that a good average value for the
"lithology factor" = 0.216 .
Burdine argued, that at a certain actual wetting saturation the relative permeability to the wetting phase
S w S w, actual
will be

k wet ,rel S wt*

S w Swi
S w 1

1
dS
Pc 2 w
1

Sw S wi

dS w

because neither pores occupied by irreducible water nor pores occupied by the nonwetting fluid contribute
to the flow of the wetting phase. The
integrals can be calculated using, for
1
instance, the Power Law model of the
capillary pressure
*

Pc Pd S wt

where S*wt is the normalized wetting phase saturation. The result is the expression (see Standing notes)
*
k wet ,rel dr S wt

10

2 3

10.
Sketch and label two relative permeability curves for the same rock type (both related to
nonwetting phase and drainage) where the pore-size distribution index differs.
Answer
When the pore size distribution index is smaller, there are small and large pores (the
pores arte less uniformin size) and hence the large pores provide a possibility for the
nonwetting phaseto flow easily, while the small pores are occupied by the wetting phase.

Non-wetting
phase

100

Drainage
80

60

2 < 1

krnw

40

Critical non-wetting
phase saturation
(in this case about 4 %)

20

Irreducible wetting
phase saturation

0
0

20

40

60

80

Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV

11

100

PART II
Part II consists of five problems worth ten points each. Grading will be on the basis of approach and
answers. Work out the answer in the space provided. SHOW ALL WORK.
11. Plot drainage Pc versus Sw* on the plot below. Correctly label both plot axes. Well log
analysis indicates that the minimum water saturation is 0.23. From a power law trendline,
determine the values of pore size distribution index () and displacement capillary pressure
(Pd).
Sw,
fraction
0.712
0.567
0.407
0.343

Pc,
psia
3.25
4.48
9.04
15.94

Sw*,
fraction
.626
.438
.230
.147

Answer

Let us read off two points, for instance (Sw=0.5, Pc= 3 psi) and (Sw=0.1, Pc=17.5 psi)

15.94
3.25 1.097 0.911
1/
.147
ln
.626
ln

Substituting to the first point Pd =

15.940.1471.097=1.95 psi

12

Therefore, the pore size distribution index is =0.911 and the displacement pressure is
1.95 psia .

13

12.
The Leverett J-Function is dimensionless (see formula page). If the unit of capillary
pressure is atmospheres, the unit of interfacial tension is N/m, and the unit of permeability
is md, what are the required value and units of the constant, C?
Answer

C Pc
cos

In coherent system C = 1. In the given units, however, C must be in

N/m

atm md

Starting from the known fact that C = 1 for a coherent unit system, we multiply it by a
bunch of ones:

101 325 N/m 2

C 1
atm

9.869 10 16 m 2
md

101 325 9.869 10 16

N/m
atm md

0.003183

that gives us the constant C when If the unit of capillary pressure is atmospheres, the unit
of interfacial tension is N/m, and the unit of permeability is md.
Coherent systems include, N/m2 for Pc, N/m for , m2 for k; or dyne/cm 2 for Pc, dyne/cm for ,
cm2 for k.

14

N/m
atm md

13. Calculate and graph the oil and water imbibition relative permeability curves, given the following steady state
flow data. Water is the wetting phase. Use the effective permeability to oil at the minimum interstitial water
saturation (Swi), as the base permeability for the relative permeability curves to both oil and water. Correctly label
graph axes. Calculate the maximum potential oil recovery by waterflooding as a fraction of pore volume.
Water saturation is initially 100%:
Sw
ko (md)
1.000
0.00

kw (md)
45.00

Oil displaces water to Swi:

Sw
ko (md)
0.263
14.00

kw (md)
0.00

Water displaces oil (imbibition):

Sw
0.461
0.513
0.572
0.628
0.845

ko (md)
5.93
3.66
1.43
0.26
0.00

Answer
ko/ ko]Sw=0.263
0.429
0.2614
0.102
0.018
0

kw (md)
0.54
0.75
1.16
1.56
3.37

kw/ ko]Sw=0.263
0.0385
0.0533
0.083
0.111
0.2407

1
0.9
0.8
oil

0.7
0.6
kr,
fraction 0.5
0.4
0.3

So,res = 0.155

0.2
water

0.1
0
0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Sw, fraction
Sw,ir = 0.263

(1-So,res) - Swir =0.845 0.263 = 0.582

Therefore, the oil contained in 58.2 % of the pore volume can be potentially recovered.

15

14. For the following reservoir capillary pressure data, determine the elevation above the
free water level (FWL, Pc=0) to the point in the reservoir where the water saturation is
0.407. The density of reservoir oil is 0.75 g/cm 3, and the density of reservoir water is 1.03
g/cm3.
Sw,
fraction
0.712
0.567
0.407
0.343

Pc,
psi
3.25
4.48
9.04
15.94

Answer
At water saturation S w = 0.407 the capillary pressure is P c = 9.04 psi. We have to rise
elevation h above the Free Water Level, then h water oil g Pc
Using field units

h (1.03 0.75) 0.433

psi
9.03 psi
ft

therefore
h = 74.48 ft.
Coherent unit systems for equation include SI: m, kg/m3, m/s2 and Pa, or CGS: cm, g/cm3,
cm/s2 and dyne/cm2.

16

15.
For a water-wet two phase (water-oil) reservoir you are given the following data:
irreducible water saturation S wi = 0.3, pore size distribution index 1 , critical oil
saturation Soc = 0.1 and the absolute permeability of the rock is 1.5 md.
a) Using Standing's method, calculate the two phase drainage effective permeability to oil
at 50 % water saturation.
Answer

S iw 0.3

S oc 0.1

First we calculate

S m 1 - S oc 0.9

then we calculate

and

2
3

k r0 1.08 1.11 S wtr 0.73 S wtr 0.618

2

The relative permeability to oils is obtained as

2

k oil ,rel

S S wt
*
k m
1 S wt
S

wtr
m
0
r

0.2957

b) Assuming 1 psi/ft flow potential gradient and 0.5 cp oil viscosity, calculate the oil flow
rate per square feet of cross sectional area. Your result should be in the units of barrels oil
per day per square feet. (You may assume formation volume factor 1, so the oil flow rate at
reservoir conditions is the same as at stock tank conditions.)
Answer
We need Darcy's law(for flow rate the sign we take is positive)

q oil A

oil k o
x o

Here A = 1 ft2,

oil
psi
1
, ko = (1. 5 md)(0.2957)= 0.4436 md and o = 0.5 cp.
x
ft

psi
q oil C (1 ft 2 ) 1

ft

0.4436 md

0.5 cp

bbl/day
psi md
where C is a conversion factor (it is 1 for coherent system). Its units will be
ft 2
ft cp
bbl/day
bbl
0.4436 bbl

0
.
001127
(1
)
1

0.0010

oil
psi
md
C = 0.001127 ft 2
0.5 day
day

ft cp
That is the oil flow rate per cross sectional area (flux) is 0.001 bbl / day / ft 2
Note that oil potential gradient is given 1 psi/ft = /x.

17