Cdna09813enc 001

Commission of the European Communities
technical steel research
Steelmaking
EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

OF TRANSPORT ROLLERS IN CONTINUOUS
CASTING PLANT
Report
EUR 9813 EN
Blow-up from microfiche original
Commission of the European Communities
technical steel research
Steelmaking
EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

OF TRANSPORT ROLLERS IN CONTINUOUS
CASTING PLANT
J. McCANN, P.G. STEVENS

BRITISH STEEL CORPORATION
9, Albert Embankment
GB-LONDON SE1 7SN
Contract No 7210-CA/808
( 3 . 5 . 1 9 7 9 - 2.5.1983)
FINAL REPORT
Directorate-General
Science, Research and Development
1985
EUR 9813 EN
Published by the
C O M M I S S I O N OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Directorate-General
Information Market and Innovation
L-2920 LUXEMBOURG
LEGAL NOTICE
Neither the Commission of the European Communities nor any person acting
on behalf of the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of
the following information
>ECSC-EEC-Euratom, Brussels Luxembourg
Evaluation, Development and Design of Transport Rollers

in Continuous Casting Plant
F I N A L
Agreement
R E P O R T
7210.CA/808
J. McCann
P.G. Stevens
British Steel Corporation

Swinden Laboratories
Teesside Laboratory
EUR 9813 EN
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808

THE EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF
TRANSPORT ROLLERS IN CONTINUOUS CASTING PLANT
ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/808
SUMMARY
This report describes a coordinated engineering and metallurgical study of the
performance, and design of transport rollers in modern continuous casting
plant. The major objective of the joint research programme carried out by
Sheffield and Teesside Laboratories of British Steel Corporation has been to
quantify the influence of the operating environment upon roller performance and
to define metallurgical and engineering design parameters which influence
overall roller life with special emphasis upon plant casting wide slabs. It
has been possible to relate roller performance to these parameters, in terms of
their propensity to wear, thermal shock cracking and permanent bending, by
considering (a) observations of metallurgical changes occurring during normal
and abnormal casting conditions and (b) the detailed analysis of mechanical and
thermal loads either measured directly 'in-situ' or obtained from detailed
mathematical models. The plant chosen for works trials was casting large
quantities of high grade slabs for both strip and plate production.
The research programmes and results are described in detail and involve:1.
ROLLER TRIALS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
A system of performance monitoring was established involving the physical and

metallurgical examination of many conventional and selected trial rollers
during either scheduled or unscheduled plant maintenance periods.
The reasons
for premature roller changes were found to vary with position on the casting
machine but in the majority of cases rollers in the spray chamber/strand guide
area were removed for unacceptable wear and/or permanent bending and
catastrophic brittle failure particularly during the early part of the
project. Rollers in the straightener withdrawal zone also suffered from
brittle failure due to the presence of thermal fatigue cracking.
Novel composite and weld surfaced rollers were incorporated within a structured
roller trial segment introduced into the strand guide area of the continuous
casting plant at BSC Ravenscraig Works.
The results of this trial, coupled
with previous experience, showed that weld surfacing with 12% chromium weldment
improved roller wear by a factor of ten and hence wear could be eliminated as a
major reason for roller removal. The 'cold roller' designs using peripheral
bored or composite scrolled roller designs performed best in terms of their
resistance to permanent bending during 'stall' conditions.
2.
PLANT MONITORING
Rollers instrumented with thermocouple implants have been designed and used in
different positions within the strand guide area in order to monitor the
specific thermal environment. The results and their subsequent analysis have
shown that under normal operating conditions the roller should not experience
temperatures greater than 200C. The influence of process water is significant
in aiding the overall cooling of the transport roller. In addition, heat
transfer coefficients have been calculated for the strand/roller interface for
normal and abnormal casting conditions. Finally, mechanical loads have been
measured using load cells introduced in two roller segments at Positions 3
and 5 in the casting machine.
FR 71-9 831
3.
7210.CA/808
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING
Finite element models have been derived in order to study the influence of
roller design and cooling water efficiency utilising the boundary conditions
established for the instrumented roller in service. The models may be used to
predict the performance of a variety of roller designs and show that the roller
cooling design is particularly effective when considering the degree of
permanent bending likely to arise during a plant stoppage. In addition, the
mechanical loads, due to the ferrostatic pressure within the solidifying slab,
are insignificant in comparison to the thermal loading during abnormal casting
conditions.
4.
SUPPORTING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
An attempt has been made to develop laboratory tests to evaluate candidate

roller materials.
Mechanical tests, fracture toughness and thermal fatigue
data have been used to assess the potential of low alloy and 12% Cr steels for
use in roller manufacture.
Detailed specifications have been established for
low alloy monobloc forgings and 12% Cr weldments either for prime roller supply
or roller reclamation.
The potential for using low alloy and high alloy
castings is found to be more dependent upon producing more isotropic physical
and mechanical properties in order to optimise their performance in service
conditions.
Duplex or composite rollers appear to offer the best combination
of resistance to thermal fatigue or thermal shock cracking, wear, resistance to
permanent bending and overall economy of production.
11
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
5
5
6
2.4
2.5
3.
7
7
9
Introduction
Roller Instrumentation
Data Analysis and Presentation
Mechanical Load Measurements
9
10
11
15
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ROLLER DESIGNS
15
4.1
4.2
16
17
4.3
4.4
5.
Introduction
Metallurgical Examination of Roller Surfaces
Wear and Thermal Fatigue Behaviour of Roller
Surfaces
Roller Bending
Structured Roller Segment Works Trial
PLANT MONITORING
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.
Summary of Intended Research Programme
Details of Models
Conditions Assumed for Comparison of Three
Roller Designs
Comparison of Roller Performances During a
Strand Stoppage
Summary of Comparison of Roller Performances
During a Strand Stoppage
17
19
20
5.1
5.2
5.3
20
20
22
5.4
Introduction
Materials Evaluation - Fracture Properties
Influence of Temperature Upon the Mechanical
Properties of Candidate Materials
Properties of Hard Surfacing Consumables
22
6.
DISCUSSION
23
7.
CONCLUSIONS
25
7.1
7.2
25
25
8.
7.3
Roller Trials and Performance Evaluation

Plant Monitoring and the Development of an
Instrumented Roller
Mathematical Modelling and Roller Design
26
7.4
Supporting Research and Development
26
REFERENCES
27
TABLES
28
FIGURES
33
APPENDIX
86
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
LIST OF TABLES
1.
Hardness of Rollers Used in Lackenby Slab Caster Plant Trials
2.
Wear of Rollers Used in Lackenby Slab Caster Plant Trials
3.
Roller Hardness After Service
4.
Results of Roller Condition Monitoring in Structured Works Trials
5.
Quasi Steady State Temperature During Uninterrupted Casting (Trial 1)
6.
7.
8.
9.
Physical Parameters for Rollers Studied by Mathematical Models
10.
Chemical Compositions of Candidate Roller Materials
11.
(a)
Fracture Properties of Candidate Roller Materials
(b)
Influence of Temperature on the Fracture Properties of

Forged 21CrMoV511
(a)
Mechanical Properties of Candidate Roller Materials
(b)
Mechanical Properties at Elevated Temperatures
12.
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Typical Plant Layout
2.
Schematic Representation of Roll Designs
3.
Results of Metallographic Examination Using Replica Techniques
4.
Surface Replicas of Withdrawal Straightener Slab Casting Rollers

Exemplifying the Principal Degradation Mechanisms
5.
Crack Depths in Straightener/Withdrawal Segments
6.
Relationship Between Roller Failure Mechanisms and Position in Machine
7.
Roller Showing Enclosure of Grooves by Lateral Expansion of the Surface
8.
Fracture Face of a Roller Showing Final Failure from a Small Shallow

Crack
9.
Fracture Face of a Roller Showing Final Failure from a Deep Crack
10.
Thermal Cracking in the Bore of a Roller
11.
Plastic Deformation and Scale on the Surface of a Roller
12.
Deep Thermal Shock and Thermal Fatigue Cracking Beneath Plastic

Deformation
13.
Showing Surface Texture and Wear of 16CrMo44 Roller
14.
Showing Cracking Associated with Weld Bead Overlap
15.
Hardness Survey - Ravenscraig Strand Guide Roll Segment Trial After

270 000 t
16.
Surface Replica Showing the Morphology of the Delta Ferrite Found in

the Tempered Martensite Matrix of Some Rollers
17.
Temper Response for 12% Chromium Weldment
18.
Layout of Ravenscraig No. 3 Machine
19.
Roll Instrumentation
20.
Instrumented Plug Prior to Force Fitting Into Roll

Roll Frame Used to Force Fit Plug
21.
Roll Temperatures - 1850 229 mm Strand

Segment Position 5 - Plate/Strip Grade Steel
22.
Roll Temperatures - 1850 229 mm Strand

Segment Position 3 - Plate/Strip Grade Steel
23.
Roll Temperatures During Casting
24.
Quasi Steady State Temperatures 1st Roller - All Strand Sizes Cast
in Segment Positions 3 and 5
25.
Quasi Steady State Temperature 2nd Roller - All Strand Sizes Cast in
Segment Positions 3 and 5
26.
Comparison of Water Spray Strand Cooling and Air Mist Strand

Cooling - Segment Position 5
27.
Comparison of Conventional Water Spray Strand Cooling and Air Mist

Strand Cooling Segment Position 5 for a Strand 1280 229 mm
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
28.
Typical Variation in Roller Surface Temperature During a

Single Revolution
29.
Comparison of Surface Temperature for Two Roller Revolutions in

30.
Comparison of Typical Variations in Roller Surface Temperatures and

Heat Transfer Coefficients at Roller/Strand Contact Zones in
31.
Instrumented Fixed Stop in Segment
32.
Measurements of Roller Loads Due to Ferrostatic Pressure
33.
Cross Sections of Roller Designs Modelled
34.
Portions of Roller and Strand Modelled to Determine Temperature

Variation Within Roller During Strand Stoppage
35.
Finite Element Meshes Used to Determine Temperature Variations

Within Rollers During a Strand Stoppage
36.
Axisymmetric Finite Element Mesh Used to Determine Roller Bending from

Thermal and Mechanical Loadings
37.
Variation with Temperature of Thermal Conductivity and Specific

Heat Assumed for Strand
38.
Variation with Temperature of Thermal Conductivity and Specific

Heat Assumed for 16CrMo44 Roller Material
39.
Comparison of Temperature Contours After a 5 min Strand Stoppage
40.
41.
42.
Comparison of Predicted Radial Roll Temperature During a 40 min

Strand Stoppage
43.
Comparison of Predicted Bending of Different Roller Designs During a

40 min Strand Stoppage
44.
Effect of Coolant Flow Rate on Centre-Bore Roller Temperature Contours

After a 10 min Strand Stoppage
45.
Effect of Coolant Flow Rate on Peripheral Bore Roller Temperature

Contours After a 10 min Strand Stoppage
46.
Effect of Coolant Flow Rate on Scrolled Roller Temperature Contours

After a 10 min Strand Stoppage
47.
Effect of Coolant Flow Rate on Predicted Bending of Rollers Due to

Thermal Loading
48.
Cut Up Tests - Specimen Orientation
49.
Macrostructure - Centr ifugally Cast Sleeve
50.
(a)
Impact Transition Data, Low Alloy Steels
(b)
Impact Transition Data for Production Casts - 16CrMo44 Steel
(c)
Impact Transition Data for 12% Cr Cast Material
51.
Elevated Temperature Mechanical Properties of Low Alloy Steels
52.
Comparison of High Temperature Hardness
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
53.
Laboratory Evaluated Wear Rates
54.
Laboratory Evaluated Thermal Fatigue
55.
Comparison of Von Mises Equivalent Stress Contours Due to

Mechanical and Thermal Loadings
56.
Variation in Tensile Yield Stress with Temperature of

16CrMo44 Material
57.
Thermographic Survey of Straightener Roller Surface Temperatures
IX
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808

EVALUATION, DEVELOPPEMENT ET CONCEPTION DE ROULEAUX
DE TRANSPORT DANS LES INSTALLATIONS DE COULEE CONTINUE
Accord CECA N 7210.CA/808
RESUME
Le prsent rapport dcrit une tude industrielle et mtallurgique combine
de la performance et de la conception des rouleaux de transport utiliss
dans des installations de coule continue modernes. L'objectif principal
du programme de recherche commun des laboratoires de Sheffield et de Teesside
de la British Steel Corporation tait de quantifier l'influence des conditions
de production sur la performance des rouleaux et de dfinir les paramtres
de conception industriels et mtallurgiques qui influencent la dure de vie
totale des rouleaux, l'accent ayant t mis plus particulirement sur la coule
de grands brames dans les installations. On a pu tablir un rapport entre la
performance des rouleaux et les paramtres ci-dessus, du point de vue de leur
tendance l'usure, de leur fissuration due au choc thermique et de leur
pliage permanent, en tenant compte (a) des observations des changements mtallurgigues se produisant dans des conditions normales et anormales de coule et
(b) de l'analyse dtaille des charges mcaniques et thermiques, soit mesures
directement "in situ", soit obtenues partir de modles mathmatiques dtaills.
Les installations choisies pour les essais coulaient de grandes quantits
de brames de gualit suprieure destins la production de plaques et de
rubans.
Les programmes de recherche et leurs rsultats sont dcrits en dtail et
englobent:1.
ESSAIS DE ROULEAUX ET EVALUATION DE LEUR PERFORMANCE
Un systme de contrle de la performance a t mis au point, comprenant l'examen

physique et mtallurgigue d'un grand nombre de rouleaux d'essai conventionnels
et slectionns au cours de diverses priodes d'entretien concert et curatif.
L'on s'est rendu compte que les modifications survenant prmaturment aux
rouleaux taient fonction de la position de ces derniers sur la machine
couler, mais dans la majorit des cas, les rouleaux ont d tre enlevs de la
chambre de vaporisation/guide-torons parce qu'ils prsentaient des traces
d'usure inacceptables et/ou taient plies de faon permanente ou encore
cause de la rupture fragile, surtout dans les premiers temps du projet.
On a par ailleurs constat la rupture fragile de rouleaux se trouvant dans
la zone de redressement/retrait due la fissuration par fatigue thrmigue.
De nouveaux rouleaux mixtes et surface soude ont t incorpors un segment
structur d'essai de rouleaux, introduit dans la zone des guide-torons des
installations de coule continue de BSC l'usine de Ravenscraig.
xi
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Les rsulats de cet essai, associs des expriences prcdentes, ont

permis de constater un facteur d'amlioration de dix pour ce qui est de
l'usure de rouleaux dont la surface est soude avec un matriau contenant
12% de chrome; il a t dans ce cas-l possible d'liminer l'usure comme
l'une des raisons principales d'enlvement des rouleaux. Ce sont les
"rouleaux froid", bass sur les rouleaux alsage priphrique ou
sur les rouleaux spirale mixtes qui ont eu la meilleure performance sur
le plan de leur rsistance au pliage permanent dans des conditions
de "ralentissement".
2.
SURVEILLANCE DES INSTALLATIONS
On a mis au point des rouleaux munis de thermocouples et on les placs

divers endroits de la zone du guide-torons afin de pouvoir contrler les
conditions thermiques spcifiques. Les rsultats obtenus et l'analyse qui
en a t faite ont montr que dans des conditions de travail normales,
les rouleaux ne devraient pas tre soumis des tempratures dpassant
200C. L'eau de traitement a une influence dterminante en ce qui concerne
le refroidissement gnral des rouleaux de transport. En outre, on a
calcul les coefficients de transfert de chaleur pour 1'interface toron/
rouleaux dans des conditions de coule normales et anormales. En dernier
lieu, on a mesur les charges mcaniques au moyen de cellules de chargement
introduites dans deux segments de rouleau, aux positions 3 et 5 de la
machine couler.
3.
ETABLISSEMENT DE MODELES MATHEMATIQUES
On a driv des modles lments finis afin de pouvoir tudier 1'influence

de la conception des rouleaux et l'efficacit de l'eau de refroidissement
dans les conditions limite tablies pour le rouleau muni d'instruments utilis.
Les modles peuvent tre utiliss pour prdire la performance de plusieurs
rouleaux de conception diffrente et montrent gue la conception du
refroidissement des rouleaux est particulirement importante lorsque l'on
envisage le degr de pliage permanent susceptible de se produire lors d'un
arrt de travail dans les installations. Qui plus est, les charges mcaniques
dues la pression ferrostatique dans le brame en cours de solidification
ont de l'importance par rapport aux charges thermiques constates dans
des conditions anormales de coule.
4.
TRAVAUX DE SOUTIEN ET DEVELOPPEMENT
On a tent de mettre au point des tests de laboratoire qui permettrait de

dterminer les matriaux qui pourraient ventuellement tre utiliss pour
produire les rouleaux. On a effectu des essais mcaniques et on a utilis
des donnes de rsistance la fracture et de fatigue thermique pour
valuer le potentiel d'aciers faible teneur en alliage et 12% de Cr
qui pourraient tre utiliss pour fabriquer des rouleaux. Des spcifications
dtailles ont t tablies pour les pices forgs monobloc faible teneur
teneur en alliage et les pices soudes 12% de Cr, dans le cadre aussi bien
de la fourniture de rouleaux de qualit suprieure que des corrections
apporter ces derniers. Le choix entre des coules faible ou forte
teneur en alliage dpend essentiellement des proprits mcanigues et
physiques isotropiques indispensables leur performance optimale dans
des conditions de travail. Les rouleaux doubles ou mixtes semblent tre
les meilleurs en ce qui concerne la fois la rsistance la fatigue thermique
et au craquage d au choc thermique, l'usure, au pliage permanent et des
conditions globalement conomigues de production.
xii
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
SOMMAIRE
1.
2.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
2
5
2.1
2.2
2.3
5
5
4.3
6
7
7
9
Introduction
Instruments destins aux rouleaux
Analyse et prsentation des donnes
Mesure des charges mcaniques
ETABLISSEMENT DE MODELES MATHEMATIQUES DE CONCEPTION

DE ROULEAUX
4.1
4.2
5.
Introduction
Examen mtallurgique de la surface des rouleaux
Usure et comportement vis--vis de la fatigue
thermique des surfaces des rouleaux
Pliage des rouleaux
Essais en usine du segment structur de rouleau
CONTROLE DES INSTALLATIONS

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.
Rsum du programme de recherche prvu
ESSAIS DE ROULEAUX ET EVALUATION DE LEUR PERFORMANCE
2.4
2.5
3.
Page
Dtails des modles

Conditions adoptes pour la comparaison de
trois rouleaux de conception diffrente
Comparaison de la performance des rouleaux au
cours d'un arrt des torons
9
10
11
15
15
16
17
19
TRAVAUX DE SOUTIEN ET DEVELOPPEMENT
20
5.1
5.2
5.3
20
20
5.4
Introduction
Evaluation des matriaux - Proprits de fracture
Influence de la temprature sur les proprits
mcaniques des matriaux candidats
Proprits des matriaux consumables surface
dure
22
22
6.
DISCUSSION
23
7.
CONCLUSIONS
25
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8.
Essais de rouleaux et valuation de leur

performance
Contrle des installations et dveloppement
d'un rouleau muni d'instruments
Etablissement de modles mathmatiques et
conception des rouleaux
Travaux de soutien et dveloppement
REFERENCES
TABLEAUX
FIGURES
APPENDICE
25
25
26
26
27
28
33
86
Xlll
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
LISTE DES TABLEAUX

1.
Duret des rouleaux utiliss lors des essais en usine de coule de

brames Lackenby
2.
Usure des rouleaux utiliss lors des essais en usine de coule de

brames Lackenby
3.
Duret des rouleaux aprs le travail
4.
Rsultats de la surveillance de l'tat des rouleaux lors des essais

structurs en usine
5.
Temprature quasi stable pendant la coule ininterrompue (essai 1)
6.
7.
8.
9.
Paramtres physiques pour les rouleaux tudis partir des modles

mathmatique s
10.
Composition chimiques des matriaux qui pourraient ventuellement tre

utiliss pour produire des rouleaux
11.
(a) Proprits de fracture des matriaux qui pourraient ventuellement

tre utiliss pour produire des rouleaux
(b)
12.
Influence de la temprature sur les proprits de fracture de la

pice forge 21CrMoV511
(a) Proprits mcaniques des matriaux qui pourraient ventuellement

tre utiliss pour produire des rouleaux
(b) Proprits mcaniques des tempratures leves
xv
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
LISTE DES FIGURES

1.
Agencement typique des installations
2.
Reprsentation schmatique des rouleaux de conception diffrente
3.
Rsultats de l'examen mtallographique effectu par des techniques de

reproduction
4.
Reproduction des surfaces des rouleaux de redressement/retrait des

machines couler les brames exemplifiant les mcanismes de dgradation
principaux
5.
Profondeur des fissures dans les segments de redressement/retrait
6.
Rapport entre les mcanismes de dfaillance des rouleaux et la

position de ces derniers dans la machine
7.
Rouleau montrant les limites des cannelures par l'expansion latrale de

la surface
8.
Face de la fracture d'un rouleau montrant sa dfaillance finale due

une petite fissure superficielle
9.
Face de la fracture d'un rouleau montrant sa dfaillance finale due

une fissure profonde
10.
Fissuration thermique dans l'alsage d'un rouleau
11.
Dformation plastique et scories sur la surface d'un rouleau
12.
Choc thermique profond et fissuration par fatigue thermique en-dessous

de la dformation plastique
13.
Reprsentation de la texture et de l'usure de la surface d'un rouleau

16CrMo44
14.
Reprsentation de la fissure associe au cordon de soudure recouvrement
15.
Examen de la duret - Essai du segment de rouleau de guide-toron

Ravenscraig aprs 270 000 t
16.
Reproduction de la surface montrant la morphologie du ferrite delta

trouv dans la matrice de martensite tempre de certains rouleaux
17.
Raction la trempe d'une pice soude 12% de chrome
18.
Agencement d'une machine n3 Ravenscraig
19.
Instruments dont sont munis les rouleaux
20.
Bouchon instruments avant de 1'introduire de force dans le rouleau

Chssis de rouleau utilis pour introduire de force le bouchon
XVll
FR
71
831
7210.CA/808
21.
Temprature des rouleaux toron 1850 229mm

Position 5 du segment acier de qualit plaque/ruban
22.
Temprature des rouleaux toron 1850 229mm

Position 3 du segment acier de qualit plaque/ruban
23.
Temprature des rouleaux pendant la coule
24.
Temprature quasi stable du 1er rouleau torons de toutes les tailles

coule avec le segment aux positions 3 et 5
25.
Temprature quasi stable du 2nd rouleau torons de toutes les tailles

coule avec le segment aux positions 3 et 5
26.
Comparaison entre le refroidissement des torons par vaporisation d'eau

et le refroidisssement des torons par brume d'air segment la position 5
27.
Comparaison entre le refroidissement conventionnel des torons par

vaporisation d'eau et le refroidissement des torons par brume d'air
avec le segment la position 5 pour un toron de 1280 229mm
28.
Variation typique de la temprature de la surface d'un rouleau au

cours d'une rvolution
29.
Comparaison de la temprature de la surface d'un rouleau aprs deux

rvolutions, avec le segment aux positions 3 et 5
30.
Comparaison des variations typiques de la temprature de la surface

d'un rouleau et des coefficients de transfert de chaleur dans les zones
de contact rouleau/toron, avec le segment aux positions 3 et 5
31.
Arrt fixe instruments dans le segment
32.
Mesure des charges du rouleau due la pression ferrostatigue
33.
Sections transversales des modles de conception des rouleaux
34.
Portions du rouleau et toron modle utiliss pour dterminer la

variation de temprature l'intrieur du rouleau pendant l'arrt
du toron
35.
G rilles lments finis utilises pour dterminer la variation de

temprature 1'intrieur d'un rouleau pendant un arrt du toron
36.
G rille lments finis axisymtrigues utilise pour dterminer

le pliage du rouleau d aux charges thermiques et mcaniques
37.
Variation due la temprature de la conductivit thermique et de

la chaleur spcifique adopte pour le toron
38.
Variation due la temprature de la conductivit thermique et de

la chaleur spcifique adopte pour le matriau 16CrMo44 du rouleau
39.
Comparaison des contours de temprature aprs un arrt de 5 min du toron
xvm
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
40.
41.
42.
Comparaison de la temprature prvue du rouleau radial au cours d'un

arrt de 40 min du toron
43.
Comparaison du pliage prvu de rouleaux de conception diffrente

au cours d'un arrt de 40 min du toron
44.
Effet du dbit du refroidissant sur les contours de temprature du

rouleau alsage central aprs un arrt de 10 min du toron
45.

rouleau alsage priphrique aprs un arrt de 10 min du toron
46.

rouleau spirale aprs un arrt de 10 min du toron
47.
Effet du dbit du refroidissant sur le pliage prvu des rouleaux

d la charge thermique
48.
Essais de coupage Orientation du spcimen
49.
Macrostructure manchon coul centrifugement
50.
(a)
Donnes transitoires d'impact aciers faible teneur en alliage
(b)
Donnes transitoires d'impact pour les coules industrielles

acier 16CrMo44
(c)
Donnes transitoires d'impact pour une coule de matriau 12% de Cr
51.
Proprits mcanigues destempratures leves des aciers faible

teneur en alliage
52.
Comparaison de la duret des hautes tempratures
53.
Taux d'usure valus en laboratoire
54.
Fatigue thermigue value en laboratoire
55.
Comparaison des contours quivalents de contrainte de Von Mises

due aux charges mcanigues et thermiques
56.
Variation de la rsistance lastique la traction en fonction de la

temprature du matriau 16CrMo44
57.
Examen thermographique de la temprature de la surface d'un rouleau

de redressement
xix
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Bewertung, Entwicklung und Entwurf von Transportrollen
in Strangguanlagen
EKSG Vertrag Nr. 7210.CA/808
Zusammenfassung
In diesem Bericht wird die koordinierte technische und metallurgische
Untersuchung bezglich der Leistung und dem Entwurf von Transportrollen
in modernen Strangguanlagen beschrieben. Das Forschungsprogramm, das
gerneins am von den Sheffield und Teesside Laboratorien der British Steel
Corporation (BSC) durchgefhrt wurde, hatte als Hauptziel, den Einflu
der Betriebsumgebung auf die Rollenleistung zu bestimmen, und die metallurgischen und technischen Entwurfsparameter zu ermitteln, die die Gesamthaltbarkeit der Rollen beeinflussen, und spezielle Betonung wurde auf
das Gieen von breiten Brammen im Betrieb gelegt. Es ist mglich gewesen,
die Rollenleistung mit diesen Parametern in Beziehung zu setzen, und
das betrifft ihre Neigung zu Verschlei, Wrmestoribildung und
permanenter Biegung, und zwar wurden die folgenden Punkte bercksichtigt:
(a) Beobachtungen der metallurgischen nderungen, die whrend normalen
und normwidrigen Giebedingungen auftraten, und (b) die detaillierte
Analyse der mechanischen und Wrmebelastungen, die entweder direkt 'am
Platz' gemessen oder durch detaillierte, mathematische Modelle gewonnen
wurde. In der fr die Betriebsversuche gewhlten Anlage wurden groe
Mengen an Qualittsbrammen fr Band- und Blechstahlproduktion gegossen.
Die Forschungsprogramme und Ergebnisse werden in Einzelheiten beschrieben,
und sie betrafen:
1.
Rollenversuche und Leistungsbewertung
Ein Verfahren fr Leistungskontrolle wurde festgelegt, und es betraf

die physikalische und metallurgische Untersuchung vieler herkmmlicher
und ausgewhlter Versuchsrollen entweder whrend geplanten oder ungeplanten Wartungsperioden im Betrieb. Man fand, da die Grnde fr vorzeitige Rollennderungen durch die Position in der Giemaschine schwankten,
aber in der Mehrzahl der Flle wurden die Rollen im Spritzkammer- und
Strangfhrungsbereich wegen unakzeptierbaren Verschlei und/oder permanenter Biegung und katastrophalen Sprddefekt besonders whrend dem
ersten Teil des Vorhabens weggenommen. Die Rollen in der Transport- und
Treibrichtzone litten auch durch Sprddefekte wegen des Vorliegens von
Wrmeermdungsrissen.
Neue Verbundrollen und Rollen mit schweiplattierter Oberflche wurden
in einem strukturierten Rollensegmentversuch aufgenommen, der im Strangfhrungsbereich der Strangguanlage des Ravenscraig Stahlwerkes der BSC
eingesetzt wurde. Die Ergebnisse dieses Versuches zusammen mit bereits
gewonnener Erfahrung zeigten, da Schweiplattierung mit einer 12% Chromschweiung den Rollenverschlei um einen Faktor von zehn verbesserte,
xxi
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und deshalb konnte Verschlei als einer der Hauptgrnde fr Rollenent

fernung ausgeschlossen werden. Die 'kalten Rollenentwrfe', wo peri
pherisch gebohrte oder Mantelsttzrollen mit schrg genutetem Kern zur
Innenkhlung eingesetzt werden, wiesen die beste Leistung hinsichtlich
ihres Widerstandes gegen permanente Biegung wegen der 'Stillstandbe
dingungen ' auf.
2.
Betriebskontrolle
Mit Thermoelementeinstzen instrumentierte Rollen sind entworfen und an

verschiedenen Positionen im Strangfhrungsbereich eingesetzt worden, um
die spezifische Wrmeumgebung zu berwachen. Die Ergebnisse und deren
anschlieende Analyse haben gezeigt, da die Rolle unter normalen Betriebs
bedingungen nicht einer Temperatur ausgesetzt werden sollte, die hher als
200 C ist. Der Einflu des Khlwassers ist bedeutend und frdert die
Gesamtkhlung der Transportrolle. Auerdem wurden die Koeffizienten der
Wrmebertragung fr die Strang und Rollengrenzflche unter normalen und
normwidrigen Giebedingungen berechnet, und zum Schlu sind die mechanischen
Belastungen unter Einsatz von Belastungszellen gemessen worden, die in
zwei Rollensegmenten an den Positionen 3 und 5 in der Giemaschine einge
fhrt wurden.
3.
Mathematische Modelle
Finite Elementsmodelle sind abgeleitet worden, um den Einflu des Rollenent

wurfs und des Leistungsvermgens des Khlwassers zu untersuchen, wodurch
die Grenzbedingungenausgenutzt werden, die man fr die instrumentierte
Rolle im Betrieb festsetzte. Die Modelle knnen benutzt werden, um die
Leistung von vielen verschiedenen Rollenentwrfen vorherzusagen, und um
zu zeigen, da der Rollenkhlungsentwurf besonders effektiv ist, wenn
man das Ausma an permanenter Biegung bercksichtigt, das wahrscheinlich
whrend einem Betriebsstillstand auftreten kann. Auerdem sind die
mechanischen Belastungen wegen dem ferrostatischen Druck innerhalb der
erstarrenden Bramme unbedeutend im Vergleich zu der Wrmebelastung whrend
den normwidrigen G iebedingungen.
4.
Untersttzende Forschung und Entwicklung
Ein Versuch wurde unternommen, um Laboruntersuchungen fr die Bewertung

der in Frage kommenden Rollenwerkstoffe zu entwickeln. Mechanische Ver
suche, Bruchfestigkeits und Wrmeermdungsdaten wurden benutzt, um das
Potential der armlegierten und 12% Cr Sthle fr Einsatz in der Rollen
herstellung zu beurteilen. Detaillierte Spezifikationen sind fr die
armlegierten Schmiedestcke aus einem Block und 12% Cr Schweiungen ent
weder fr neuen Rolleneinsatz oder Rollenrckgewinnung festgesetzt worden.
Man fand, da das Potential fr den Einsatz von arm und hochlegierten
Gustcken abhngiger von der Produktion von isotropischeren, physika
lischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften ist, um ihre Leistung unter Betriebs
bedingungen zu optimieren. Es scheint,als ob Duplex oder Verbundrollen
die beste Kombinationdes Widerstandes gegen Wrmeermdung oder Wrmesto
ribildung, Verschlei, Widerstand gegen permanente Biegung und der
Gesamtrentabilitt der Produktion bieten.
xxi
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1.
Seite
Einleitung
1.1
Zusammenfassung des geplanten Forschungs

programmes

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Einleitung
Metallurgische Untersuchung der Rollen
oberflchen
Verschlei und Wrmeermdungsverhalten der
Rollenoberflchen
Rollenbiegung
Strukturierte Rollensegmentversuche im Werk
Betriebskontrolle
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Einleitung
Instrumentierung der Rollen
Datenanalyse und Darstellung
Messungen dei mechanischen Belastung
9
10
11
15
Mathematische Modelle der Rollenentwrfe
15
4.1
4.2
16
17
4.3
4.4
Einzelheiten der Modelle

Fr den Vergleich zwischen drei Rollenentwrfen
vorausgesetzte Bedingungen
Vergleich zwischen den Rollenleistungen whrend
eines Strangstillstandes
Zusammenfassung des Vergleichs zwischen den
Rollenleistungen whrend eines Strangstillstandes
17
19
20
5.1
5.2
5.3
20
20
22
5.4
Einleitung
Werkstoffbewertung Brucheigenschaften
Einflu der Temperatur auf die mechanischen
Eigenschaften der in Frage kommenden Werkstoffe
Eigenschaften der Stoffe zum Hartauftragsschweien
22
6.
Diskussion
23
7.
Schlufolgerungen
25
7.1
7.2
25
7.3

Betriebskontrolle und Entwicklung einer
instrumentierten Rolle
Mathematische Modelle und Rollenentwurf
7.4
25
26
26
27
Literaturnachweis
28
Tabellen
33
Abbildungen
86
Anhang
111
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Aufstellung der Tabellen

1. Widerstandsfhigkeit der in den Versuchen im Lackenby Brammengiewerk
benutzten Rollen
2.
Verschlei der in den Versuchen im Lackenby Brammengiewerk

benutzten Rollen
3. Widerstandsfhigkeit
der Rollen nach Betrieb
4.
Ergebnisse der Kontrolle der Rollenbedingungen in strukturierten

Betriebsversuchen
5.
Quasistabiler Zustand der Temperatur whrend dem ununterbrochenen

Gieen (1. Versuch)
6.

Gieen (2. Versuch)
7.

Gieen (3. Versuch)
8.

Gieen (4. Versuch)
9.
Physikalische Parameter fr die mit mathematischen Modellen

untersuchten Rollen
10. Chemische Verbindungen der in Frage kommenden Rollenwerkstoffe

11. (a) Brucheigenschaften der in Frage kommenden Rollenwerkstoffe
(b) Einflu der Temperatur auf die Brucheigenschaften des
geschmiedeten 2lCrMoV511 Stahls
12. (a) Mechanische Eigenschaften der in Frage kommenden Rollenwerkstoffe
(b) Mechanische Eigenschaften bei erhhten Temperaturen
xxv
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
Aufstellung der Abbildungen

1.
Typische Betriebsanordnung
2.
Schematische Darstellung der Rollenentwrfe
3.
Ergebnisse der metallographischen Untersuchung unter Einsatz

von nachgebildeten Verfahren
4.
Oberflchennachbildungen der Brammengurollen in der Transport und

Treibrichtzone, die als Beispiel der Hauptdegradierungsmechanismen
dienen
5.
Ritiefen in den Transport und Treibrichtsegmenten
6.
Verhltnis zwischen den Rollenausfallmechanismen und der Position

in der Maschine
7.
Rolle, gezeigt werden die durch laterale Ausdehnung geschlossenen

Nuten auf der Oberflche
8.
Bruchflche einer Rolle, gezeigt wird der endgltige Ausfall von einem
kleinen, flachen Ri
9.
Bruchflche einer Rolle, gezeigt wird der endgltige Ausfall von einem
tiefen Ri
10. Wrmeribildung in der Bohrung einer Rolle

11. Plastische Deformation und Belag auf der Oberflche einer Rolle
12. Tiefe Wrmesto und Wrmeermdungsribildung unter der plastischen
Deformation
13. Darstellung des Oberf lchengefges und des Verschleies der
16CrMo44 Rolle
14. Darstellung der mit der Schweiraupenberlagerung verbundene
Ribildung
15. bersicht der Widerstandsfhigkeit Rollensegmentversuch in der
Ravenscraig Strangfhrung nach 270.OOO t
16. Oberflchennachbildung, gezeigt wird die Morphologie des Deltaferrits,
das in der vergteten Martensitmatrix mancher Rollen gefunden wird
17. Vergtungsreaktion fr die 12% Chromschweiung
18. Anordnung der Maschine Nr. 3 in Ravenscraig
19. Rolleninstrumentierung
20. Instrumentierter Stecker vor dem Einsatz in der Rolle unter Druck
Benutzter Rollenrahmen, um den Stecker unter Druck einzusetzen
21. Rollentemperaturen 1850 229 mm Strang
Segmentposition 5 Blech und Bandstahl
22. Rollentemperaturen 1850 229 mm Strang
Segmentposition 3 Blech und Bandstahl
xxvi
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
23. Rollentemperaturen whrend dem Gieen

24. Quasistabiler Zustand der Temperatur, 1. Rolle alle
gren in den Segmentpositionen 3 und 5 gegossen
Strang
25. Quasistabiler Zustand der Temperatur, 2. Rolle alle Strang

gren in den Segmentpositionen 3 und 5 gegossen
26. Vergleich zwischen der Khlung des Strangs durch Wasserspritzung und
Luftnebel Segmentposition 5
27. Vergleich zwischen der herkmmlichen Khlung des Strangs durch Wasser
spritzung und Luftnebel Segmentposition 5 fr Strang 1280 229 mm
28. Typische Schwankung der Rollenoberflchentemperatur whrend einer
Umdrehung
29. Vergleich:zwischen der Oberflchentemperatur fr zwei Rollenumdrehungen
in den Segmentpositionen 3 und 5
30. Vergleich zwischen den typischen Schwankungen der Rollenoberflchen
temperaturen und den Koeffizienten der Wrmebertragung an den Rollen/
Strangkontaktzonen in den Segmentpositionen 3 und 5
31. Instrumentierter, fester Anschlag im Segment
32. Messungen der Rollenbelastungen wegen dem ferrostatischen Druck
33. Querschnitte der nachgebildeten Rollenentwrfe
34. Teile der nachgebildeten Rolle und dem Strang, um die Temperatur
schwankung innerhalb der Rolle whrend eines Strangstillstandes zu
bestimmen
35. Fintes, benutztes Elementgitter, um die Temperaturschwankung innerhalb
der Rolle whrend eines Strangstillstandes zu bestimmen
36. Axisymmetrisches, fintes benutztes Elementgitter, um die Rollen
biegung durch die thermischen und mechanischen Belastungen zu bestimmen
37. Schwankung der Wrmeleitfhigkeit durch die Temperatur und voraus
gesetzte, spezifische Wrme fr den Strang
38. Schwankung der Wrmeleitfhigkeit durch die Temperatur und voraus
gesetzte, spezifische Wrme fr den 16CrMo44 Rollenwerkstoff
39. Vergleich zwischen den Temperaturkonturen nach einem
Strangstillstand
5 min.
40. Vergleich zwischen den Temperaturkonturen nach einem 20 min.

StrangstiIlstand
41. Vergleich zwischen den Temperaturkonturen nach einem 40 min.
Strangstillstand
42. Vergleich zwischen der vorausgesagten, radialen Rollentemperatur
whrend eines 40 min. Strangstillstandes
43. Vergleich zwischen der vorausgesagten Biegung der verschiedenen
Rollenentwrfe whrend eines 40 min. Strangstillstandes
44. Auswirkung der Fliegeschwindigkeit des Khlmittels auf die Tempera
turkonturen an der Mittelbohrung der Rolle nach einem 10 min.
StrangstiIlstand
xxviii
FR 71-9 831
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45. Auswirkung der Fliegeschwindigkeit des Khlmittels auf die

Temperaturkonturen an der peripherischen Bohrung der Rolle nach
einem 10 min. Strangstillstand
Temperaturkonturen der Mantelsttzrolle mit schrg genutetem Kern
nach einem 10 min. Strangstillstand
vorausgesagte Biegung der Rollen wegen der Wrmebelastung
48. Schnittprobenversuch - Probenorientierung
49. Makrogefge - Zentrifugal gegossener Mantel
50. (a) Daten der AufSchlagsbertragung, armlegierte Sthle
(b) Daten der Aufschlagsbertragung fr Produktionsgustcke - 16CrMo44 Stahl
(c) Daten der Aufschlagsbertragung fr den gegossenen 12% Cr Werkstoff
51. Mechanische Eigenschaften der armlegierten Sthle bei erhhten

Temperaturen
52. Vergleich zwischen der Widerstandsfhigkeit bei Hochtemperatur
53. Im Labor bewertete Verschleiraten
54. Im Labor bewertete Wrmeermdung
55. Vergleich zwischen den von Miseschen gleichwertigen Beanspruchungskonturen wegen der mechanischen und Wrmebelastungen
56. Schwankung der Streckspannung des 16CrMo44 Werkstoffes durch die
Temperatur
57. Thermographische bersicht der Oberflchentemperaturen der
Treibrichtrolle
xxix
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808

THE EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN OF
TRANSPORT ROLLERS IN CONTINUOUS CASTING PLANT
ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/808
FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT
1.
INTRODUCTION
Modern continuous casting plant for the manufacture of billets and heavy slabs
adopt a basic design below the casting tundish involving the use of water
cooled copper moulds followed by cooling grids and solid roller systems to
ensure the primary solidification of the product.
Secondary cooling zones and
support roller systems form the strand guide area of the plant where the roller
systems are set up to give a curvature between 9 m and 13 m radius, followed by
a withdrawal straightener unit designed to take the heavier mechanical loads
which are present when attempting to straighten relatively cold slabs.
The
main function of the roller system is to support the partly solidified slab by
containing the bulging forces caused by the ferrostatic head of pressure within
the solidifying slab together with additional forces caused by the movement of
the slab beyond the rollers at speeds of up to 3 m/min. Clearly different
environmental conditions and mechanical stresses apply dependent upon the
position of the rollers in the plant. For instance, in the spray chamber zone
of the plant it is likely that a corrosive/erosive environment applies due to
the large quantities of water sprayed onto the slab and available at the roller
surfaces, whereas in the straightener withdrawal area external water is not
supplied and the rollers may be cooled internally only. The bulging stresses
due to the ferrostatic pressure increase as the slab approaches the end of the
strand guide area, whereas the mechanical stresses due to the physical
straightening of the product are greatest in the withdrawal straightener area,
and it is in this area where heavy back-up rolls are used to support the
primary roller in the critical straightening area. A typical plant layout is
shown schematically in Fig. 1.
The pitching of rollers throughout the plant is a compromise between the level
of support given to the slab, the minimising of frictional forces between the
stock and the rolls, together with the largest roller diameter in order to give
good overall deflection characteristics and prolonged life in service.
Roll
lives vary markedly from machine to machine and from position to position
within the same machine, lives quoted vary from 150 000 tons to 5 000 000 tons
throughput.
Life is usually limited according to a number of factors
including:(a)
Surface degradation caused by the presence of thermal fatigue

cracking.
(b)
Wear often accompanied by environmentally assisted erosion.
(c)
Brittle fracture of the roller usually originating from crack like

defects at the surface.
(d)
Excessive distortion or bending resulting from either repeated

thermal cycles or intermittent overloads caused by abnormal
operating conditions in the plant.
Because the roller surfaces are in contact with the hot steel stock and are
heated by conduction and radiation, followed by subsequent cooling, achieved on
external or internal water cooling mechanisms, then eventually heat cracking
develops on the roller surfaces during prolonged service.
Therefore, it is
essential that the selection of materials caters for the possibility of brittle
failure initiating from these surface defects. In addition, the overall
strength of the roll at operating temperature must be sufficient to withstand
the static or dynamic stresses occurring during both normal and abnormal
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
service operating conditions. Unfortunately these characteristics are often

contradictory in terms of materials requirements and the development of a
roller with best overall performance requires consideration of both design and
material selection based upon specific mechanical and physical properties.
This report presents the results of a four year study carried out jointly
between the Teesside and Sheffield Laboratories of BSC concerning the
metallurgical and engineering factors affecting the performance of the support
rollers in continuous casting machines casting wide slabs.
1.1
Summary of Intended Research Programme
The research project involved a three-part programme aiming to improve the

performance of rollers used in the continuous casting machines and to generate
data relevant to the optimisation of design and specification of rollers.
Individual research programmes were planned, including the systematic
evaluation of rollers and their performance in production conditions, a
practical evaluation of thermal and mechanical conditions in which these
operate and detailed laboratory studies of the properties of materials used in
their manufacture.
The later sections of this document present the general details of the work
under the following headings:(a)
Roller Trials and Performance Evaluation - involving existing design

differences and the procurement of rollers surfaced using submerged
arc welding, spray coating and alternative engineered options.
(b)
Plant Monitoring - involving the derivation of operating service

conditions by the determination of roller temperatures and mechanical
stresses occurring during the casting process.
(c)
Mathematical Modelling - involving computation of operational

characteristics of different roller designs.
(d)
Supporting Research and Development Work - involving the evaluation

of thermal fatigue and mechanical and physical property evaluation
of candidate roller materials.
1.1.1
The programme of trials included most types of design used in BSC machines,
i.e.
(a)
Monobloc type.
(b)
Sleeved design.
(c)
Hard surfaced rollers either as prime supply or reclaimed.
(d)
Alternative cold roll designs.
Monobloc Rollers and Conventional Sleeved Design Rollers

The currently used En20A and 16CrMo44 rollers provided base-line performance
levels in each of the plants concerned in the development trials.
Clearly
some of the En20A in current use has unacceptable resistance to brittle
fracture and only moderate resistance to wear and thermal fatigue.
The
equivalent 16CrMo44 would be expected to have improved resistance to brittle
failure.
Different manufacturing routes for the manufacture of monobloc and
sleeved rollers were also included in the programme.
Rollers were selected to
ensure that the total programme provided a comprehensive coverage of available
manufacturing and materials options.
These comprised both low alloy and high
alloy forged and cast materials.
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Hard Surfaced Rollers

It should be appreciated that perhaps the greatest improvement in wear and
thermal fatigue resistance may only be economically achieved through the use of
surfacing technology.
Recent experience with weld surfaced rolls in hot
rolling mills has been of significant value in establishing the viability of
these concepts and has shown that a consistent and acceptable quality standard
can be maintained.
Weld surfacing and metal spraying offer the possibility of
manufacturing rollers consisting of an outer shell possessing excellent wear
and thermal fatigue resistance and a tough core to prevent brittle fracture.
The requirements for a new surfaced roller are:(a)
A cheap, tough, easily weldable core.
(b)
A wear and thermal fatigue resistance skin.
(c)
Thermal stability during long term normal and abnormal casting

conditions.
The two main areas in a concast strand which would benefit from the use of a
composite roll are the strand guide and straightener withdrawal sections.
Different surface properties may be required in these areas and a number of
surfacing materials were tested including low alloy and stainless steels.
Alternative Cold Roll Designs
All BSC continuous casting plant producing wide slab operate with a variety of
roller designs.
These include centre-bore and bearing cooling arrangements
(hot roller design) and designs which incorporate a central scroll cooling
configuration which allows more effective cooling of the surface regions of the
roller (cold roller design).
The ongoing research project incorporates an
evaluation of novel cold roller designs with even more effective water cooling
arrangements.
These comprise either a double flow fabricated scroll and shell
or a peripheral bored cooling system (Figs. 2 and 3 3 ) .
Three of the four
designs were evaluated in a single eight roller segment in service on works
production for a period of one year.
Performance Monitoring
Roller performance monitoring for all designs and materials was planned in all
plants producing heavy steel slabs and involved many conventional and trial
rollers. In addition to recording details of tonnages, life, temperatures,
breakages, etc., it is essential to determine wear patterns and the occurrence
and depth of any thermal cracks.
1.1.2
Plant Monitoring
Knowledge of plant conditions leading ultimately to the degradation of roller

surfaces and to product quality problems associated with surface integrity and
dimensional tolerances is an essential pre-requisite to the selection of roller
design and materials.
In practice it is the specific thermal cycles and
mechanical loads imparted to the rollers during casting which determine
performance.
This rather basic knowledge is essential to the optimisation of materials for
the design and construction of rollers.
Therefore, it was planned to measure
temperatures and loads in selected rollers at selected positions in different
plant throughout BSC. Thermocouple implants specifically designed to record
not only the maximum temperatures occurring at the roller surface but at
various depths in the roller were used to provide accurate data for the
determination of temperature gradients close to the roller surface. This in
turn provided the boundary conditions for calculating the thermal stresses at
various positions in the roller. Load cells positioned below rollers in
critical parts of the strand provided data on the essential overall mechanical
loads encountered during both normal and abnormal operating conditions.
FR 71-9 831
1.1.3
7210.CA/808
Mathematical Modelling and Roll Design
The experimental data obtained from the plant trials were to be used in a suite
of mathematical models which were developed to simulate the performance of the
rollers during operation.
A finite element approach was adopted for the major models which enabled roller
temperature and stress distributions to be determined.
This phase of the
investigation has been separated into two parts:(a)
The development of a mathematical model to simulate roller performance

under normal operating conditions (i.e. when the roller and strand are
moving).
(b)
The development of a finite element model to simulate roller

performance during machine stoppages (i.e. when the rollers and steel
are stationary and one part of the roller is in contact with the
steel for a long period).
Since the finite element models are relatively complicated it was reasoned that
time would be needed before they were fully developed.
As an interim measure,
a simplified model was to be constructed using a finite difference technique.
This model is not as powerful as the proposed finite element model but it does
enable the temperature distributions for simple designs (such as a solid roller
with a central cooling hole) to be determined relatively quickly.
The model
would also be a useful check during the development of the finite element
model.
1.1.4
Supporting Research and Development Work
The wide range of weld surfaced products and alloy steel forgings and castings,
together with the various roll design possibilities under consideration,
totally prohibited complete in-service evaluation of all but a few of the
options available.
Therefore, it was imperative that laboratory tests were
conducted on the prospective materials in order that the service trials could
be limited to the most likely candidates.
Roller life in service is limited by a number of factors which can be divided
basically into three groups:(a)
Surface degradation caused primarily by the presence of excessive

thermal fatigue cracking and abrasive/erosive wear.
A test method was to be designed to simulate plant conditions in the continuous

casting machine; parameters obtained from the plant monitoring programme were
used to define the testing conditions.
(b)
Brittle fracture of rollers, usually originating from crack like

defects at the surface.
Fracture toughness properties of both monobloc and duplex roller candidate

materials were to be determined, the results being used in conjunction with
other properties to estimate the probability of failure from both manufacturing
and service defects.
(c)
Excessive distortion or crack initiation resulting from high thermal

stresses or intermittent overloads.
One problem which can occur using duplex and hard surfacing materials is the
possibility of producing brittle fracture of this layer by high local thermal
stresses and superimposed mechanical loads.
Obviously the core material must
be able to arrest these cracks and prevent failure of the roll.
The candidate
metals and weld/core combinations were to be tested by simulating the imposed
thermal and mechanical cycle experienced by the roll surface.
The resistance
of the weld metals to crack initiation, crack growth rates and the arrest
characteristics of the core material were to be evaluated.
FR 71-9 831
2.
2.1
Introduction
7210.CA/808
Before describing the details of rollers examined during the contract period it
is worth noting that British Steel Corporation employ a variety of roller
designs in its wide slab machines.
Casting machines designed by Concast AG
and Demag operate with significantly different roller designs.
In principle,
however, the rollers close to the mould have the smallest diameter, between 180
and 250 mm, and rely upon limited internal cooling, usually concerned only with
cooling their bearing journal areas.
Throughout the strand guide, or spray
chamber zone, rollers are through cooled; the simplest design employing a
simple central bore and water acceleration tube device, other designs relying
upon more complex cooling nearer the roll shell using a scroll system or
latterly peripheral bored cooling ducts close to the roll surface.
Rollers
outside the spray chamber area and making up the mechanical straightener
withdrawal units of the plant are designed to carry heavier mechanical loads
and therefore are greater in diameter, up to 430 and 480 mm, and may also
continue to adopt either the simple or complex roll cooling designs.
The thermal mechanical loading of the rollers is complex and varies with the
position in the strand.
Clearly roll bulging forces tend to increase along
the strand guide yet the mechanical loading during slab straightening may be
greatest at the tangent point of the machine.
In addition, the thermal
stresses are greatest during abnormal casting conditions associated with either
reduced casting speeds or actual prolonged strand stoppages.
Such conditions
clearly produce thermal shock conditions at the roll surface leading to the
possibility of permanent roll bending or, in extreme cases, roll surface
cracking.
The different roller designs are shown schematically in Fig. 2, which
highlights the design configurations for 'hot' and 'cold' operational rollers.
Both types of design have been studied during the research programme, which
incorporated conventional and 'surfaced' types of materials in low alloy and
stainless compositions.
Details of the methods of examination and the
relevance of results are presented in a later section of this report.
During the research programme rollers were put into service in the same plant
environment in order to compare directly the following variations:(a)
Conventional low alloy steel forgings based upon a high temperature

1% Cr 0.5% Mo steel.
(b)
Submerged arc weld surfaced 'refurbished' rollers (including some

rollers hard faced using the 'bulk weld' powder consumable
technique) using 12% chromium bearing consumables.
(c)
Metal spray coated rollers.
Manufacturing details and compositions of the above variants are given in

Appendix 1.
2.2
Metallurgical Examination of Roller Surfaces
A surface replica technique was devised in order to provide more detailed

metallurgical and microstructural information regarding both the quality of
incoming rollers and in order to compare the degree and severity of damage and
surface degradation occurring during service.
This information was
supplemented by detailed hardness surveys of new and used rollers.
In
practical terms it is also possible to estimate the surface operating
temperatures by examining the microstructure and hardness variations.
Typical microstructures for the three types of rollers examined are shown in
Fig. 3.
The conventional low alloy steel roller comprises a microstructure
containing mixtures of bainite and ferrite typical of low alloy, medium
hardenability, heat resistant grades.
In contrast, the rollers weld surfaced
with 12% Cr martensitic stainless steel exhibited almost fully martensitic
structures with approximately 10% delta ferrite.
The appearance of delta
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ferrite in the microstructure is deliberate as this constituent in relatively

small amounts is known to improve both the weldability of the weldment and its
resistance to hot cracking in service.
The metal spray coated material exhibits a complex microstructure containing
chromium carbides together with some chromium borides fused in a matrix of
nickel.
In practice, the conventional and weld surfaced rollers exhibited hardness
bands from 230-510 HV and the metal spray coating was measured at 750 HV.
Details of the rollers examined are described in Table 1.
2.3
Wear and Thermal Fatigue Behaviour of Roller Surfaces
During the early part of the project an opportunity was made to examine in
detail a complete segment of 245 mm diameter strand guide rollers removed from
service in the Lackenby slab casting machine. The segment comprised several
rollers which had been weld surfaced using either low alloy or 12% chrome alloy
weldments, together with conventional rollers. These were first examined
in-situ when only the entry and exit rollers could clearly be seen. The
surfaces of the top rollers were extremely bright and free from thermal
cracking and wear. Additional visual inspection showed that eight of the ten
rollers were corroded whilst the other two were relatively bright with machine
tool marks clearly visible across the length of the body. This series of
rollers facilitated a useful comparison of material performance using surface
examinations and measurement of the overall roller dimensions. The degree of
wear is obviously a very important criterion for roller performance and
therefore it was necessary to measure this feature on each of the rollers. The
measurements are presented in Table 2.
Surface replicas taken from the roller surfaces are shown in Fig. 4 and
exemplify the various types of surface degradation which can occur.
In practice the most common form of surface degradation is thermal fatigue
and/or thermal shock damage and this aspect of performance was followed in
greater detail for a large number of rollers.
A summary of the results showing crack depth for both monobloc and weld
surfaced rollers is shown in Fig. 5.
It is very clear from the results obtained that the hard surfaced rollers have
shown overall better wear performance than the conventional low alloy steel
rollers in the strand guide area.
In addition, those rollers surfaced with a
martensitic corrosion resistant steel have performed better than the low alloy
weldments with respect to both wear and corrosion resistance and resistance to
fire cracking.
The results obtained using in-situ replica techniques to compare the type and
degree of surface degradation occurring in both the strand guide and withdrawal
straightener units as demonstrated in Fig. 4 clearly demonstrate the type of
surface degradation occurring in hard surfaced rollers where both plucking out,
corrosive abrasive wear and thermal cracking are clearly evident in the
micrographs.
Later in the project an opportunity was taken to examine in detail the failure
of rollers and the reasons for withdrawal from service.
The incidence of each type of roller failure is shown schematically in Fig. 6
where it is clearly shown that either severe cracking or permanent bending form
the major part of removal causes.
It should be noted that the majority of these rollers contained surface grooves
as part of their original design and had been manufactured from low alloy
1% CrMo steel forgings.
In addition, many of the rollers had been in the
machine for long periods.
The crack depths measured are taken from the roller surface and do not take
account of the depth of the groove.
(Maximum depth should be 10 mm.)
It is
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7210.CA/808
also interesting to note that the grooves were designed with a 'U' shaped
profile at intervals of 25 mm along the roller barrel in order to allow the
unrestricted expansion of the immediate roller surface and hence reduce the
thermal stresses. In practice, the machine environment created lateral
expansion of the metal to such an extent that the grooves were enclosed and the
roller surface took on the appearance of a plain barrelled roller at its centre
(Fig. 7). It was also found that many of the grooves had been machined with a
squarer profile which clearly acts as an initiation site for cracking.
Fractures had occurred in rollers of each of the designs used in BSC plant1
and with low alloy steel weld surfaced and plain or grooved designs. In
addition, the critical defect size varied considerably from 4 mm deep by 15 mm
long (Fig. 8) to full roll thickness (Fig. 9 ) . Fracture toughness/z tests
carried out on failed material varied from 55 MN m - 3 / 2 to 117 MN m~
and
indicated a need to produce a more stringent metallurgical specification for
roller material. A detailed specification has been developed by the plant
metallurgists in order to ensure much more uniform mechanical properties in
material supplied from a variety of sources.
A further examination of the failed rollers showed that a considerable change
in hardness had occurred along the roller barrel even after relatively short
periods of service.
In addition, other rollers which were ready for
refurbishing also showed a similar fall off in hardness towards the centre of
the barrel.
Table 3 shows the results of hardness measurements taken across a
number of rollers where the end position measurements correspond approximately
with the as-received values.
As these forgings are supplied in the hardened and tempered condition it is
clear that the fall off in hardness may be related to service temperatures in
excess of the initial tempering temperatures, e.g. where the initial tempering
would normally be carried out at 580C, a residual hardness at the centre of
the roller after service would be commensurate with a service temperature in
excess of 650C.
Later results in this report indicate that a plant stoppage can result in a
surface temperature of 600C.
However, should the water cooling system be
impaired temperatures in excess of 600C could easily be achieved.
Further
evidence of this effect can be seen in terms of the appearance of thermal
cracking at the bore cooling zone of the simpler roller design (Fig. 10).
In certain cases it was noted that thermal cracking may be masked by surface
plastic deformation and scale (Fig. 11) which when removed by machining readily
showed deep thermal shock and thermal fatigue cracking (Fig. 12).
2.4
Roller Bending
Considerable attention has been given to the increased frequency of roller

removal due to the occurrence of permanent bending outside the prescribed
limits for producing good slab quality.
Two rollers which had been withdrawn
from service due to bending have been examined in-situ to assess the nature of
the deformation.
Visual examination showed that each roller surface was of good quality with
little wear and thermal cracking and with the original surface machining marks
still intact.
Hardness measurements along the roller barrels surface showed a
fall in hardness of approximately 50 HV at the centre positions which was
uniform around the roller circumference.
This change in hardness was again
consistent with a surface operating temperature in excess of 600C.
Examination indicated little metallurgical change of the roller surface, the
microstructure being predominantly bainitic.
2.5
Structured Roller Segment Works Trial
During the course of the project specially instrumented rollers were fitted
into strand guide segments in a series of trials conducted in BSC Ravenscraig
Works.
In order to complement the instrumentation trials (see Sections 3
and 4 ) , metallurgical examinations were instituted on the final trial segment.
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2.5.1
7210.CA/808
Trial Segment
The four pair, 310 mm diameter, roll segment contained rollers manufactured to
three different designs:(a)
Four rollers with the conventional centre bore cooling system.
(b)
Two rollers with the peripheral bore type of cooling.
(c)
Two rollers to a scroll cooling design.
These designs are shown schematically in Fig. 2.

One objective of the trial
was to ascertain the effect of the design of the roll cooling system on the
roller performance under recorded works practice conditions.
The centre bore
rollers were to be used as the standard comparators and were placed at the
entry and exit positions of the segment.
The other two designs were placed in
pairs, top and bottom, in the central positions.
Each of the rollers had been
weld surfaced with a 12% chromium martensitic stainless steel using a wide bead
oscillating wire technique with the exception of the instrumented centre bore
roller which was a conventional forged low alloy 16CrMo44 material.
2.5.2
Segment Service
The segment entered service in the No. 5 position of the No. 1 strand.
After
a period of approximately one month during which 20 400 t were cast the segment
was withdrawn from service in order to be subsequently re-entered into
position 3 in the strand.
There followed a period of nine months in service
with a further 250 000 t cast before the segment was withdrawn from service
because of unacceptable roller bending deformation.
Whilst the segment was in
the casting machine both 'hard' and 'soft' strand cooling techniques had been
employed and several strand stoppages had occurred.
Some details of these
events are given in Section 3.
2.5.3
Metallurgical Examination
The opportunity was taken to examine the rollers metallurgically on withdrawal

of the segment from position 5 after casting 20 400 t and again on withdrawal
from position 3 after casting a total of 270 400 t. The procedure used on both
occasions included a visual examination and measurement of crack depths, and a
hardness survey. The final examination also included a dimensional check and
an 'in-situ' metallographic examination on each roller.
(a)
Visual Examination
After casting 20 400 t the general surface condition of each of the rollers was
satisfactory and crack free with the exception of the top peripherally bored
roller where pronounced circumferential cracks were noted in the central work
area.
The crack depths were measured using a potential drop crack depth gauge
and found to be of the order of 8-11 mm. There were also three areas where
small pieces had spalled from the surface.
After casting 270 400 t the surfaces had acquired distinct characteristic
appearances.
Each 12% Cr weld-clad roller still exhibited the original lathe
tool machine marks visible over much of the surface indicating very little
wear.
By contrast the 16CrMo44 roller had a very rough surface showing
considerable wear, Fig. 13.
Only superficial cracking had occurred on each
of the bottom rollers but the top rollers were showing deeper cracks.
Where
cracking had occurred it was associated with the weld bead overlap position and
delineated the weld bead (Fig. 1 4 ) . These cracks were up to 9 mm deep, but the
cracks on the top peripherally drilled roll had not increased significantly
since the first examination after 20 400 t of production. None of the cracks
had extended into the water channels. However, the top scroll cooled roller
did contain one crack up to 20 mm deep and the welded joint between sleeve and
scroll had failed on the shoulder permitting a severe water leakage.
(b)
Hardness Survey
Hardness readings were obtained using an Equotip Portable Hardness Tester.

The readings were taken along each roller in a longitudinal plane to determine
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7210.CA/808
the general profile and in a circumferential plane to ascertain the effect of

prolonged stoppages with the roller resting on the hot slab (Fig. 1 5 ) .
After
casting 270 400 t a considerable decrease in hardness was noted to varying
degrees on each of the top rollers.
There was some tendency for the fall in
hardness to be greatest at the 1/3 and 2 / 3 position along the roller.
In the
cases of the peripherally drilled and the scrolled designs these positions had
fallen to the equivalent of 210 HV.
The bottom rollers showed less of a
decrease in general hardness falling to a minimum of 280 HV.
The
circumferential hardness profiles did not show any major variations except for
the bottom scrolled roller which exhibited two deep troughs with a decrease of
approximately 150 HV.
(c)
Dimensional
The amount of roller bending and wear is recorded in Table 4.

Excessive
bending was found in the scrolled rollers whilst the peripherally bored rollers
remained acceptable. The amount of wear was negligible on the 12% Cr weld
surfaced rollers.
(d)
Metallographic Examination
Areas representative of each weld surfaced roller were prepared and examined
metallographically by the in-situ surface replication technique.
The
microstructures observed were composed of delta ferrite in tempered martensite
which is typical of the type of cladding employed.
There was some difference
in the morphology of the delta ferrite, which was present as a mixture of a
fine interdendritic type and a more massive type (Fig. 1 6 ) . The occurrence and
proportion of each phase was variable and could not be associated with any of
the topographical features of the rollers. It is known that the level and
morphology of the delta ferrite can be influenced by the manufacturing
parameters.
2.5.4
Discussion
Comparison of the surface condition of the 12% Cr weld surfaced rollers and the
conventional forged 16CrMo44 steel roller confirms the previous observations of
the superiority of the former in both wear and corrosion resistance
(Section 2.3).
During manufacture, the weld surfaced rollers were post-weld heat treated at
550C. This production process has resulted in hardnesses in the range
350-450 HV. After service the minimum hardness on each top roller is in the
range 200-250 HV. The temper response curve shown in Fig. 17 indicates, that
to achieve this lower hardness the surface of the rollers must have been at a
temperature in excess of 600C for some period of time. Consideration of the
Larson-Miller parameter suggests that temperatures much below 600C would
require an excessive time at temperature to achieve the decline in hardness
encountered.
In the event of a reduction in the amount of cooling water, the surface of the
scrolled roller will attain a higher temperature than the surface of the centre
bore or peripheral bore rollers.
This is because of the partial insulation of
the scroll from the sleeve by the water channels.
In these instances greater
bending forces will ensue.
The failure of the sleeve/scroll weld has further
exacerbated the problem by the resultant loss of effective cooling water.
This effect has been noted previously on a similar design of roller.
3.
PLANT MONITORING
3.1
Introduction
As part of the broad investigation on the performance of support rollers in

continuous casting machines a comprehensive series of works trials has been
carried out with specially instrumented rollers fitted into the strand guide
segments.
The purpose of these trials has been to:(a)
Derive the service conditions by determining the temperatures and

mechanical loads the rollers experience during normal and abnormal
casting.
FR 71-9 831
(b)
7210.CA/808
Provide a detailed roller temperature history of both the surface

and sub-surface temperatures during plant operation to aid the
development of a suite of mathematical models which can be used in
the design of new rollers and improve the life of existing rollers.
Four trials - the first two using a roller without a surface thermocouple and
the second two with a surface thermocouple - have been successfully completed
at BSC Ravenscraig Works.
The reason for carrying out two similar trials was
because of the delay in delivery from the manufacturers of the roller
thermocouple instrumentation with the special surface thermocouple.
Rather
than hold up the trials it was decided to proceed with a preliminary set using
a roller without a surface thermocouple.
This would not only provide data for
the model work but also would test the instrumentation and data analysis system
prior to carrying out the main trial with the roller fitted with a surface
thermocouple.
In the trials both the rollers were first installed in segment position 5 of
the Ravenscraig No. 3 machine and then moved up to segment position 3, see
Fig. 18.
A further series of trials, similar to those carried out at Ravenscraig, was to
have been carried out at BSC Lackenby Works with an instrumented roller
installed in the withdrawal section of the machine.
However, immediately
after the installation of the instrumented roller it was seriously damaged by a
plant mishap.
The extent of the damage was such that it was not possible to
rebuild another roller and conduct the trials before the end of the project.
3.2
Roller Instrumentation
A standard four roll strand guide segment was specially instrumented to provide
the following data during casting:(a)
Roller surface and sub-surface temperature profiles.
(b)
The mechanical forces transmitted from the strand to the segment.
(c)
Angular position of thermocouple plug relative to strand.
(d)
Casting speed.
During the trials, all other major casting parameters (e.g. zone water flows
strand temperatures etc.) were recorded simultaneously with the measurements
from the instrumented segment.
The roller temperatures were measured by means of thermocouples embedded at
different depths from the roller surface.
The thermocouples were fitted into
tapered plugs of roller material, Fig. 19, which were force fitted into
matching tapered holes machined in the rollers. A specially constructed frame
was used to press the tapered plugs into the rollers, Fig. 20 and Appendix 2.
For one of the rollers, a special surface thermocouple was fitted within the
tapered plug.
This special thermocouple was formed by a sandwich of very thin
thermocouple wires, mica insulation and roller material as shown in Fig. 19.
The sandwich was manufactured in the form of a small tapered pin which was
pressed into the main instrumentation plug.
This design enables the
thermocouple junction to be renewed continuously throughout the roll life.
Since the thermocouple was manufactured using roll material the temperatures
obtained accurately represented the true surface temperature of the roller
(i.e. the temperature of the roller when no surface thermocouple is present).
This design also has a very rapid response to change in temperature and is
mechanically robust.
The instrumented rollers had an outside diameter of 310 mm and a 60 mm diameter
central water cooling hole.
Thermocouples were positioned at 5.5, 16, 69 and
118 mm from the roller surface of the first roller and at 0, 4.5, 17.5, 48, 83
and 120 mm from the surface of the second roller.
The plugs were installed at
a central position along the barrel of the rollers and the thermocouple lead
wires passed through the central water cooling holes.
These were connected to
a slip ring unit mounted on the exposed end of the roll, see Fig. 19.
10
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Also located on the roller end was a transducer to measure very accurately the
angular position of the plug as the roller rotated, in order to be able to
relate temperature variation to cause (i.e. roller in contact with strand,
under spray etc.).
A specially constructed box, which was air-purged during
casting, was fixed to the roller bearing housing to protect and locate the slip
ring, transducer and associated electronic equipment from drainage and water
ingress.
During casting the thermocouple and transducer signals were recorded
simultaneously on chart recorders and a data logger.
3.3
Data Analysis and Presentation
A considerable amount of data on roller temperatures has been recorded during

the trials with both of the instrumented rollers.
For each of the rollers in
each segment position, several representative casts of the same strand size
have been analysed in detail.
Typical results from this analysis are shown in
Figs. 21-23.
In addition to this 'quasi' steady state temperatures have been
determined for every signal cast with each roller in each segment position.
These results are summarised in Tables 5-8 and are shown in Figs. 24-26.
Detailed analysis of the surface temperature variations for the trials with the
second roller have been carried out on several different section sizes in both
segment positions 3 and 5, the results of which are shown in Figs. 27-29.
3.3.1
Temperature Variations During Normal Production
Shown in Figs. 21 and 22 are representative examples of the temperature

variations recorded to complete a cast of plate/strip grade steel under normal
casting conditions in both segment positions 3 and 5.
The typical temperature variation recorded for a strand 1850 mm 229 mm in
segment position 5 is shown in Fig. 21. The considerable cyclic variation in
temperature within the outer layers of the roller can be clearly seen. On each
revolution the temperature of the roller surface rose to a maximum as contact
was made with the strand, and the temperature then dropped to a minimum as the
roller rotated further and the surface cooled.
During the first 8 to 10 revolutions of the roller the maximum surface
temperatures reached increased steadily.
Subsequently, however, considerable
differences may be observed in the maximum surface temperature attained from
revolution to revolution.
After approximately 20 min, when 'quasi' steady
state conditions had been reached, the maximum surface temperatures varied
between 120 and 190C with the majority within the range from 120 to 180C.
It is thought that, in general, the differences in maximum roller surface
temperatures are due largely to variations in heat transfer between the strand
and the roller caused by varying thicknesses of scale both along the strand
surface and adhering to the roller surface.
Similar differences in maximum
surface temperatures have also been recorded with roughing mill rolls2, and are
thought to result from the same causes.
The temperatures at 4.5 mm below the surface responded in a similar pattern but
clearly at this depth the cyclic variation was less than at the surface.
As
before the temperature rose relatively quickly for about 10 revolutions after
which time the minimum temperature at the end of each revolution had reached
about 90C and again remained within 5C of this level for the rest of the
cast.
The maximum temperature generally varied between 110C and 140C.
At
this depth it can be seen that the cyclic temperatures are lower than those at
the surface as would be expected, i.e. the temperature rise resulting from
contact with the strand decreased with depth from the roller surface.
The
minimum temperature reached was, however, slightly higher.
This is most
probably due to the external cooling of the roller giving a slightly lower
minimum temperature on the surface at the end of each revolution.
Similarly at 17.5 mm from the roller surface the temperature rose relatively
quickly for about 10 revolutions after which time the minimum had reached a
steady level of about 100C and remained within 5C of this level for the
remainder of the cast.
At this depth the maximum reached was generally about
115C to 120C.
The temperature variation at these three positions, i.e. the
surface 4.5 and 17.5 mm clearly show that, as the depth from the surface
11
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
increases, the maximum temperature reached per revolution decreases while the
minimum increases.
This is most likely due to the effects of external cooling
on the roller surface.
The temperatures at the 69, 83 and 120 mm (3 mm from the central cooling hole)
positions increased comparatively slowly to 90, 75 and 60C respectively after
about 20 min casting and remained substantially constant for the rest of the
cast.
It is most interesting to see that at the end of the cast when the strand speed
is significantly reduced for 'capping off' the temperatures on the surface and
at 4.5 and 17.5 mm below the surface increased significantly due to the greater
time of contact of the roller with the strand.
These higher temperatures were
not the maximum temperatures that would have been attained had the thermocouple
plug been in direct contact with the strand.
The maximum temperature would
have occurred in the part of the roller which was in direct contact and this
was some distance away from the thermocouple plug. However, the higher
temperatures recorded do serve to show how quickly the roller can heat up
locally as a result of a strand slowdown or stoppage.
Figure 22 shows the temperature variation recorded in segment position 3 for
the same size strand (1850 mm 229 mm) cast. The cyclic temperature variation
can again be clearly seen at the surface and at positions 4.5 and 17.5 mm below
the surface. These tended to follow a very similar pattern to those recorded
with the roller in segment position 5, shown in Fig. 21. However, it should be
observed that the temperatures recorded in segment position 3 were noticeably
lower. In this position, for example, the surface temperature fluctuation per
revolution varied from a minimum of 70C to a maximum of, generally, between
100-120C in comparison with segment position 5 where the surface varied from a
minimum of about 110C to a maximum of, generally, between 120 and 190C. The
lower temperatures in the segment 3 position can also be seen at the other
depths. Those differences in roller temperatures for the two segment positions
may be attributed to the different conditions in the roller/strand contact
region at the two segment position. As will be seen in the later sections of
this report the mean angle of contact in segment 3 was 20 compared with 4 in
segment 5.
However, the typical maximum heat transfer coefficient between the strand and
the roller was only 300 W/m2 in segment 3 in comparison with 1300 W/m2 in
segment 5 despite the significantly greater angle of contact. The difference
is probably due to the lower contact pressure between the strand and the roller
in segment 3 resulting in a lower heat transfer coefficient.
3.3.2
Effects of Reduced Casting Speed and

Reduced Strand Cooling
During the trials with the first roller, without the surface thermocouple, and
the roller in segment position 5 data were collected during the casting of a
niobium grade of steel. The casting sequences were made at a speed of
0.7 m/min with 'soft' strand cooling (i.e. reduced water sprays to the strand)
in order to avoid problems with strand quality. The temperatures recorded
during these casting sequences are shown in Fig. 23. Comparison of these data
with those in Fig. 21 at all positions other than the surface, shows that the
roller temperatures were some 20-30C higher than those measured during the
casting of plate/strip grade steel.
From the steady-state thermal analysis it has been found that these temperature
increases are almost certainly due to the reduced strand cooling and not as a
result of the lower strand speed when casting the niobium quality. It may also
be seen from Fig. 23 that the temperature recorded at a depth of 118 mm reached
93-98C during casting. Since the central cooling hole is only some 7 mm from
this position the temperature on the inside surface of the cooling hole would
be similar (_90C) and very close to the boiling point of the cooling water.
If boiling had occurred, a significant increase in roller temperatures could
have resulted due to the reduced cooling at walls of the cooling hole caused by
the formation of steam.
12
FR 71-9 831
3.3.3
7210.CA/808
Effects of Casting Conditions on 'Quasi'

Steady State Temperatures
Tables 5-8 summarise the temperatures measured within the roller during
uninterrupted casting for each of the four trials. These are referred to as
'quasi' steady-state temperatures, and give the temperature levels attained
after the initial warm-up period when the roller has reached thermal
equilibrium. The temperature values given in Tables 5-8 are the average
maximum of all the strands of the same section size cast in each trial. For
example, in Table 7 the temperature given for the strand size 1760 mm 229 mm
is the average of 7 casts during which 23 ladles were cast with the roller in
segment position 5.
The surface temperature has not been included in any of this analysis as it
tended to be so variable from revolution to revolution as has been seen
earlier.
During the trials with the second roller, different types of strand
cooling were used and the results of these are recorded separately.
Shown in Fig. 24 are the quasi steady-state temperatures recorded for each
section size cast with the first roller, without the surface thermocouple, in
both segment positions 3 and 5. Similarly, shown in Fig. 25 are the
temperatures for each section size cast with the second roller, again in both
segment positions 3 and 5. Whilst these two sets of results cannot be directly
compared with each other because of the different strand cooling used in the
trials with the second roller they both show quite clearly that the
temperatures recorded with the roller in segment position 3 are lower.
The results also show that, in general, as the strand width increases so does
the temperature of the roller.
This is thought to be due mainly to both the
reduced axial heat flow within the roller (i.e. heat flow from the centre of
the barrel to the colder ends) when casting wider sections and the amount of
water used for cooling the strand being varied with changes in strand width.
In addition, the effects of strand speed on roller temperatures, as shown for
example in Fig. 25, demonstrate that when casting section of size 1530 and
1510 mm 305 mm, for each segment position, at a reduced strand speed of
between 0.5-0.7 m/min there was no obvious increase in roller temperatures.
This was due to the fact that although more heat would be transferred to the
roller during the increased contact period with the strand; there would also be
a corresponding increase in the amount of heat removed during the extended
period of external cooling by the strand sprays. Thus, the increases in the
roller heating and cooling per revolution, due to the reduction in strand
speed, tended to have cancelled out and the roller temperatures therefore
showed little change.
During the trials with second roller in segment position 5, some of the casts
recorded had conventional spray strand cooling while the others had air mist
strand cooling.
The quasi steady state temperature for both types of cooling
are given in Fig. 26 for all casts recorded. It can be observed from these
results that in all cases the roller temperatures recorded with air mist strand
cooling are significantly higher. A direct comparison of air mist with
conventional spray strand cooling for one typical strand size 1280 mm 229 mm
is shown in Fig. 27 and from which the difference in roller temperature for the
different types of cooling can be quite clearly seen. There are similar
differences for the other section sizes, although this difference does tend to
reduce slightly with increase in strand size.
These results and those discussed earlier on niobium grades and presented in
Fig. 23, show conclusively that variations in strand cooling produce a
significant effect on the roller temperatures during normal casting.
3.3.4
Surface Temperature Variation During Normal Production
The variation in the roller surface temperature for a single revolution is

shown in Fig. 28 and was obtained from the data collected during the casting of
a strand 1760 229 mm in segment position 5.
The information from this type
of analysis enables the different heating and cooling conditions to be
examined.
The details of the temperature record shown in Fig. 28 are as
follows.
The temperature rise of the roller surface at starting point J was
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due to radiation from the approaching strand surface.

The following rapid
rise to point K was due to contact with the strand, after which the roller
surfaced cooled mainly by conduction into the roller.
At point L a slight
depression in surface temperature was produced by water from the strand cooling
sprays and similarly at M.
This was followed by a greater depression at N
probably caused by a layer of cooling water trapped between the roller and
strand.
This type of detailed information enables the boundary conditions to be found
for the construction of mathematical models to investigate both roller and
strand operating conditions.
Further analysis of the roller surface
temperature history enables the strand/roller contact angle to be determined
together with the variation in heat transfer coefficient between the strand and
the roller.
3.3.5
Heat Transfer Conditions Within Strand/Roller Contact Area
As has been noted above, appreciable differences may be seen between segments 3
and 5 in the maximum roller surface temperatures attained during contact with
the strand.
In segment 3, typical maximum temperatures reached were between
100 and 110C approximately (Fig. 22), in comparison with between 150 and 160C
approximately in segment 5 (Fig. 21).
The
further differences between the two segment positions.
From the roller surface temperature history the variations in heat transfer
coefficients have been calculated between the strand and the roller.
A
typical set of results are shown in Fig. 30 for each segment position. The
variations in roller surface temperature at the contact zone with the strand
are shown in detail, together with the corresponding variations in heat
transfer coefficients.
The differences in the rates of surface temperature
increase are particularly obvious in this figure.
At segment position 3 the
surface temperature gradually increased to a maximum during an angle of
rotation of the roller of some 45.
In contrast, however, at segment
position 5 the surface temperature reached a maximum after only 8 of roller
rotation.
As has been noted previously, the initial rise in roller surface temperature in
the strand contact zone was due to radiation' from the approaching strand
surface.
This was followed by a more rapid rise in temperature due to contact
with the strand.
From this, the angle of roller contact with the strand can
be seen to have been 4 in the segment 5 position.
Confirmation is provided
by the variation in heat transfer coefficient which rose rapidly during this
2
period to reach a maximum of 1300 W/m K and then reduced rapidly again.
However, at segment 3 the effect of the strand contact is not as clearly
visible.
This is due to both the lower maximum temperature reached and the
extended period of rise in temperature.
Nevertheless, examination of the
surface temperature history and the heat transfer coefficient variation has
shown that area of roller/strand contact extended over approximately 20 in
this segment.
The heat transfer coefficient in the contact area can be seen
to have been considerably less than at the segment 5 position, and attained a
maximum of only 300 W/m2 K approximately.
In both segment positions, considerable differences were observed in the
maximum roller surface temperatures attained from revolution to revolution, as
has been noted above.
In general, these may be attributed largely to
variations in the thicknesses of scale adhering to both the strand and the
roller surfaces. Because scale is a thermal insulator, variations in its
thickness would have had a significant effect on the amount of heat transferred
from the strand to the roller, and consequently on the maximum roller
temperature attained. The variations in heat transfer coefficient shown in
Fig. 30 are typical for the two segment positions, and are representative of
the averages for some 80 to 90% of all roller revolutions. A severe thermal
loading situation was simulated in the mathematical modelling of the different
roller designs, see below, by taking a maximum heat transfer coefficient of
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5000 W/m2 K for the strand/roller contact zone.

This value is representative
of the upper 5% of the values determined for segment 5 and corresponds,
therefore, to the highest maximum temperatures measured.
The differences between the conditions at the strand/roller contact zone at the
two segment positions may be attributed to the effects of the differences in
the thicknesses of the solid shell of the strand at the two positions.
At
segment 3 the shell would have been much thinner and the strand, being more
flexible, would have tended to deform more around the circumference of the
roller to extend the arc of contact.
Thus, the area of strand/roller contact
would have been greater than in segment 5 where the strand would have been more
rigid due to its thicker shell.
Consequently, the average contact pressure
between the strand and the roller would have been considerably less in
segment 3, because the measurements of mechanical loads applied to the roller
(see below) have shown that the loads were approximately the same in the two
segment positions.
Due to the reduced contact pressure, therefore, the mean
heat transfer coefficient would have been less in segment 3 than in segment 5,
as the results have shown.
3.4
Mechanical Load Measurements
Measurement of the mechanical loads applied to the roller by the strand were
carried out using load cells.
Each of the four roll segments in the
Ravenscraig No. 5 machine comprise of a top and bottom assembly both with four
rollers each.
The two halves of the segment are clamped together by means of
hydraulic cylinders fitted to each side of the segment.
During casting the
ferrostatic pressures from the liquid core of the slab attempts to separate the
two halves of the segment.
In order to maintain the correct thickness of
strand therefore, the clamping force from the hydraulic cylinder must be in
excess of the separating force exerted on the segment by the slab.
To fix the desired gap between the top and bottom set of rollers (to cast slabs
of a specified thickness), packing pieces of the required thickness are placed
at each corner, between the upper and lower halves of the segment.
The
packing arrangement consists of fixed stops, which are permanently bolted to
the underside of the top frame, and removable packing pieces which are changed
according to the thickness of strand being cast, see Fig. 31.
The mechanical
loads transmitted from the strand to the rollers were determined by using a set
of fixed stops, modified by fitting strain gauges, to act as load cells. Thus,
the total net clamping force between the top and bottom halves of the segment
could be measured continuously. The load applied to the roller by the strand
could then be determined from the difference between the net clamping forces
before and after the strand had entered the segment, since the roller loading
by the ferrostatic force reduces the segment clamping force applied by the
hydraulic cylinders.
The results of these measurements are shown in Fig. 32.
In the lower part of
the diagram the loads produced by the strand on a single roller are shown
plotted against the strand width.
The loads are the average for the four
rollers in a segment, and it can be seen that the roller loads increased with
strand width within both segments 3 and 5.
In the upper part of the diagram the roller loads have been plotted as a
percentage of the theoretical total ferrostatic force, which assumes that the
solid skin of the strand has no load carrying capacity.
These results show
that the solid skin of the strand carried a significant portion of the total
ferrostatic load.
At the segment 3 position some 50% of the total ferrostatic
load was supported by the strand and at the segment 5 position with an
increased amount of solid skin the strand supported 65% of the total
ferrostatic load and only 35% was transferred to the rollers.
For both
segment positions the proportion of loading carried by the rollers can be seen
to have decreased with reducing strand width due to the increasing contribution
of the loading supported by the solid skin at the edge of the strand.
4.
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ROLLER DESIGNS
A suite of mathematical models has been developed to enable the performance of

different roller designs to be compared under varying operating conditions.
Emphasis has been given in this work to the analysis of roller conditions
15
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during strand stoppages.

The most severe loadings on the rollers have been
shown to occur during these situations due to the extremely high thermal
loadings which are produced within the rollers.
These high loadings are the
result of the side of the roller in contact with the strand becoming
significantly hotter than the other side.
High thermal strains are produced
within the roller material on the hotter side which causes the roller to bend
into the strand.
For short periods of strand stoppages this bending is wholly
elastic, or 'temporary', since the roller straightens again when casting is
resumed.
However, during prolonged strand stoppages higher temperatures are
produced in the roller which lead to greater thermal strains.
These can cause
localised permanent deformation of the roller material in contact with the
strand which will result subsequently in permanent bending of the roller.
The models are based on the finite element technique using the 'PAFEC' system3.
Use of the models enables the effects on the roller designs of different
operating conditions to be assessed. For example, the effects of reducing the
flow rates of internal coolant on both the roller temperatures and bending have
been analysed. Because the models may be readily modified, the effects of an
alteration in detail design of a roller such as changing the position or size
of an internal cooling channel can be rapidly predicted. In addition, the
likely performances of new roller designs can be readily anticipated and
compared with those of existing designs, see Appendix 3.
It should be noted that the roller bending calculated by these models is the
temporary bending that occurs during the strand stoppage, not the permanent
bending which may be expected to remain after a lengthy stoppage.
The amount
of permanent bending is considerably less than the temporary bending, but its
calculation is complex and cannot be performed at present.
A three
dimensional non-linear elastic/plastic finite element analysis is required and
this is not yet available in the 'PAFEC' system.
Nevertheless, for a particular roller design the amount of permanent bending
will be a function of the temporary bending produced during the strand stoppage
period.
Thus, the comparison of different roller designs on the basis of the
temporary bending produced under similar conditions will provide a comparison
of their likely performances with regard to resistance to permanent bending.
4.1
Details of Models
The determination of roller bending due to thermal loading requires two finite
element models.
The first model is used to calculate the temperature
distribution within the roller at different times during a strand stoppage.
This temperature information is then input to the second model which determines
the amount of bending due to these thermal loadings.
The second model also
calculates directly the bending due to the mechanical loadings which are
applied to the roller by the strand ferrostatic pressure.
Three roller designs have been modelled and these are shown in Fig. 33. The
designs include a conventional centre bore roller, a peripheral bore roller,
and a scrolled roller. The models are based on the 310 mm diameter rollers
which are used in the strand guide region of the Ravenscraig No. 3 casting
machine.
Because temperature conditions during the strand stall situation may be
considered to be symmetrical about the centrelines of both the strand and the
rollers, only one half of a roller and a portion of the strand need to be
modelled for the temperature analysis, as indicated in Fig. 34. Such
techniques, based on symmetry, are frequently employed in finite element
analyses because the sizes of the models are reduced and considerably reduced
computer run times are needed for the solutions.
The corresponding finite element meshes used to determine the temperature
variations within the three roller designs are shown in Fig. 35. Elements
which model convective heat transfer conditions have been used in the internal
cooling passages of the rollers. These elements enable the effects of change
in coolant flow rate to be simulated by variation of the heat transfer
coefficients and coolant temperatures.
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Similar element types have been used to model the contact zone between the
roller and the strand.
The varying conditions within the contact zone in
different positions of a casting machine can be simulated by changing the heat
transfer coefficients and by altering the size of the elements to vary the
length of the contact arc.
The mesh used for the calculation of the amount of roller bending is given in
Fig. 36. The particular mesh shown corresponds to the centre bore roller, but
the meshes for the other two roller types are similar. Again, due to symmetry
about the middle of the roller (Y axis), only one half of the roller has needed
to be modelled. In addition, because the roller is also symmetrical about its
central axis, the finite element solution rotates the mesh about its X axis to
effectively simulate a complete half roller by forming a solid of revolution.
4.2
Conditions Assumed for Comparison of Three Roller Designs
For the comparison of the likely performances of the three roller designs, a
strand stoppage of 40 min has been modelled.
Conditions have been simulated
which are similar to those occurring at roller position 26 of the Ravenscraig
No. 3 machine, Fig. 18.
The conditions assumed are given in Table 9. The
heat transfer conditions within the arc of contact between the roller and the
strand have been derived from the measurements of roller surface temperature in
this position, see Section 3.
As has been observed, some considerable
variation in heat transfer conditions was evident from the results. The value
of the heat transfer coefficient taken for the present analysis is
representative of the upper 5% of all values determined for roller position 26,
and corresponds therefore to the higher peak temperatures. Thus, the analysis
simulates a severe or 'worst case' thermal loading situation for the three
roller designs.
A strand stoppage lasting 40 min has been simulated, and as indicated in
Fig. 35, a strand thickness of 305 mm was modelled. At the start of the
simulated stoppage the strand was assumed to have a solid shell 75 mm in
thickness. The liquid core was taken to be at a temperature of 1500C and the
temperature within the shell was assumed to vary linearly from 1500C at the
liquid/shell interface to 1000C at the surface of the strand. The rollers
were set at an initial uniform temperature of 25C in order to simulate the
effects of cold rollers at the start of casting when the resulting thermal
loadings may be expected to be more severe than later on in casting when the
general roller temperatures would have been higher.
Mild steel material was assumed for the strand and 16CrMo44 material for the
rollers.
The thermal properties of both materials were allowed to vary with
temperature during the analyses, as shown in Figs. 37 and 38. The data given
in Fig. 38 are based on measurements of thermal diffusivity made on actual
roller materials using a laser pulse technique1*.
4.3
Comparison of Roller Performances During a Strand Stoppage
(a)
Performances With Full Internal Coolant Flow Rates
For the first analysis of the relative performance of the three roller types,
conditions have been simulated corresponding to internal coolant flow rates of
35 litre/min.
This is the flow rate specified by the roller manufacturers for
these designs.
Figures 39-41 show comparisons of the resulting predicted temperature profiles
at 5, 20 and 40 min during the strand stoppage period. Considerable
differences may be seen between the temperature contours of the centre bore
roller and the peripheral bore and scrolled designs, particularly as the time
of strand stoppage lengthens. The increases in temperature within the centre
bore roller can be seen to progress steadily with time throughout the roller,
whereas the temperature increases within the other two designs are limited to
the region adjacent to the contact with the strand. These differences are due
to the relative effectiveness of the internal cooling arrangements. In the
centre bore roller the internal cooling is remote from the strand contact
region and therefore heat readily conducts into the main body of the roller.
However, in the peripheral roller the cooling effects produced by the
peripheral cooling holes close to the strand contact region significantly limit
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heat conduction into the main body of the roller.

A similar effect is
produced by the cooling channel of the scrolled roller.
Thus, steady-state
temperature conditions are attained approximately within 5 min of the start of
the strand stoppage period in both the peripheral and scrolled rollers, whereas
steady-state conditions are approached only towards the end of 40 min in the
centre bore roller due to the greater heat input.
Consequently, appreciably
higher temperatures are attained within the latter roller.
These differences in roller temperatures can be seen clearly in Fig. 42 which
shows the increases in predicted temperatures along the radii normal to the
strand during the 40 min period. It is along these radii that the maximum
radial temperature distributions are attained. The predicted temperatures
reached within the peripheral and the scrolled designs can be seen to be
significantly less at a given depth than those within the centre bore roller.
Up to a depth of 65 mm from the roller surface, the maximum temperatures
attained within the former two designs are at least 100C lower than those
within the centre bore design.
In particular, the maximum roller surface
temperatures are 430C compared with 540C for the centre bore design.
These lower roller temperatures have been shown to produce significantly
reduced bending of the peripheral and scrolled designs.
Figure 43 shows the
variation in bending for the three roller designs over the 40 min strand
stoppage period.
Bending due to the thermal loading alone is shown together
with that for the thermal loading combined with the mechanical loading which is
applied by the strand ferrostatic pressure.
The directions of roller bending
produced by each type of loading are in opposition: thermal loading causes the
rollers to bend into the strand and mechanical loading causes bending away from
the strand.
It can be seen that the bending produced by the thermal loadings
are predominant by far.
A considerable difference can be seen in the behaviour of the centre bore
roller and the other two designs due to the differences in internal temperature
distributions.
The bending of both the peripheral bore and the scrolled
rollers due to the combined loading quickly stabilises at some 0.9 mm within
5 min from the start of the strand stoppage. Because the rollers have attained
steady-state temperature conditions by then, this bending remains constant
throughout the remainder of the 40 min period. However, the bending of the
centre bore roller continues to increase throughout most of the period to reach
4.1 mm after some 35 min, as steady-state temperature conditions are eventually
approached.
(b)
Performances With Reduced Internal Coolant Flow Rates
Further analysis of the performances of the three roller designs has been
performed with the finite element models.
The likely effects have been
assessed of reduced flow rates of internal coolant on the amounts of roller
bending attained during a strand stoppage, similar to that of the previous
analysis.
Figures 44-46 show a comparison of the predicted temperature profiles within
each of the three roller designs for different flow rates of internal coolant.
The figures show the temperature profiles at 10 min after the start of the
strand stoppage.
It may be seen from Fig. 44 that a reduction in the internal coolant flow rate
from 35 to 0.2 litre/min causes little change in the temperature contours of
the centre bore roller. As has been observed above, this is due to the
remoteness of the central cooling bore from the strand contact region and the
resulting ease by which heat may be conducted into the main body of the roller.
Little effect may be observed also on the temperature profiles within the
peripheral bore and scrolled rollers for a reduction in flow rate from 35 to
20 litre/min.
Due to the considerable effectiveness of their internal
cooling, the temperature contours are still confined to the region adjacent to
the strand even with the reduced flow rate.
However, as the flow rate is
reduced to 5 litre/min, the temperature contours begin to penetrate further
into the rollers.
This can be seen in the scrolled rolled, particularly, and
is due to the reduced cooling on the inner surface of the roller shell
permitting increased conduction of heat around the shell in the circumferential
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direction.
Comparison of Figs. 45 and 46 shows that, at this flow rate of
5 litre/min, the temperature contours have penetrated further into the scrolled
roller than the peripheral roller.
At the greatly reduced flow rate of 0.2 litre/min the temperature profiles of
both these rollers can be seen to be similar, although the temperatures within
the scrolled roller tend to be slightly higher in the circumferential direction
and less in the radial direction than in the peripheral roller.
This may be
attributed to the effects of both the coolant and the reduced area for heat
conduction in the radial direction because of the presence of the helical
cooling channel itself.
The effects of the reduced flow rates on the amount of predicted roller bending
are shown in Fig. 47 for strand stoppages of 5 and 10 min.
The bending shown
is due to thermal loading only, since the bending due to mechanical loading is
small, as has been seen previously.
In general, the amounts of bending predicted for all three roller designs
increase with reduced flow rate to become the same with zero flow rate.
However, the characteristics of the individual rollers are different because of
the varying effects of reduced flow rate on their temperature distributions, as
noted above.
The bending of the centre bore roller is appreciably greater than that of the
other two designs for flow rates between 10 and 35 litre/min.
The effect of
reduction in the flow rate on the bending of the centre bore roller is slight
due to the small changes in roller temperature distributions that are produced
because of the remoteness of the central cooling bore from the strand contact
region.
The amounts of bending of the peripheral and scrolled rollers are virtually
identical over the range of flow rates from 20 to 35 litre/min.
In addition,
bending is very little affected by a change in flow rate in this range due to
the small changes produced in the internal temperature distributions of the
rollers.
Reduction of flow rate below 20 litre/min, however, causes the
bending of the scrolled roller to increase rapidly until, at a flow rate of
5 litre/min, its bending approaches that of the centre bore roller.
This is
caused by the temperature effects of the increasing circumferential heat
conduction into the shell of the scrolled roller as the flow rate is reduced.
Of the three roller designs, the performance of the peripheral bore roller can
be seen to be the best over the total range of flow rates.
A significant
increase in bending of the peripheral bore roller only begins to occur when the
flow rate is reduced to below approximately 10 litre/min. Nevertheless, the
bending of this roller is still only about one half of that of the centre bore
and scrolled rollers at a flow rate of 5 litre/min.
4.4
Summary of Comparison of Roller Performances

During a Strand Stoppage
The finite element analysis of roller conditions during a 40 min strand

stoppage has shown that, for the situation studied, roller bending due to the
thermal loading is considerably greater than that due to the mechanical
loading, produced by the strand ferrostatic pressure.
With internal cooling
flow rates of 35 litre/min, as specified by the roller manufacturers, the
predicted temporary bending of the peripheral and scrolled rollers are
identical and considerably less than that of the centre bore roller.
This is
due to their significantly improved internal cooling.
Because any resulting
permanent roller bending will be a function of the temporary bending produced,
the peripheral and scrolled roller designs should have an appreciably greater
resistance to permanent bending than the centre bore roller.
For strand stoppages of up to 10 min, the reduction of the internal coolant
flow rate from 35 to 20 litre/min results in only a slight increase in
temporary bending of the peripheral and scrolled rollers - due to the
effectiveness of their internal cooling arrangements.
Therefore, their
resistance to permanent bending should not be reduced significantly.
However,
as the flow rate is reduced further below 20 litre/min, the temporary bending
of the scrolled roller begins to increase rapidly with reducing flow rate until
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the bending approaches that of the centre bore roller at 5 litre/min.

Thus,
at this flow rate the resistance to permanent bending of the scrolled roller
would be significantly reduced and would become similar to that of the centre
bore roller.
The performance of the peripheral bore roller has been shown to be the best of
the three roller designs over the full range of flow rates.
The peripheral
bore roller is much less affected than the scrolled roller by a reduction in
internal coolant flow rate.
It is only when the flow rate is reduced to less
than 10 litre/min would a loss be anticipated in its resistance to permanent
bending.
Even so, the performance of this roller at a flow rate of
5 litre/min should still be appreciably better than the other two roller
designs.
5.
5.1
Introduction
During the course of the research project an attempt has been made to enhance
the results of plant trials, instrumented rollers and mathematical modelling by
deriving data concerning the variations in mechanical properties of candidate
roller materials.
This involved measurements of:(a)
Fracture properties.
(b)
Room temperature and elevated temperature mechanical properties.
(c)
Thermal fatigue properties
(mainly surfacing materials).
Table 10 describes the chemical compositions of those candidate materials which

were subjected to more detailed evaluation.
The alloys fall within three
broad categories, i.e. low alloy steels, medium alloy steels and weld surfacing
consumables.
The first two categories are readily available in both cast and
wrought forms from electric melted degassed steels.
It was anticipated that
the low alloy grades would exhibit moderate elevated temperature mechanical
strength and excellent toughness following quality heat treatment.
The second
category of candidate materials is based predominantly upon the super
12% chromium steels, Class II (5) containing 12% to 13% chromium, up to
1% molybdenum and further additions of other carbide forming elements such as
vanadium. These alloys were also tested in the fully heat treated condition
and both forged and cast forms. The latter process route usually employed
centrifugal casting technology in order to provide greater homogeneity and
cleanness of the working shell and surface of the cylindrical roller. The
final range of candidate alloys was based upon low alloy and 12% chromium
bearing weld surfacing consumables usually deposited on the roller surface
using modern, high integrity submerged arc welding techniques. Due to the
limited volume of material available then these alloys were subjected to
limited testing involving thermal fatigue property derivations and temper
response characteristics only.
It was decided to adopt the cut-up testing configuration shown schematically in
Fig. 48, which details the position, direction and types of test pieces adopted
for this part of the research programme.
5.2
Materials Evaluation - Fracture Properties
Premature roller failure has been shown to be associated with two contributory
factors, i.e. low base material toughness and the occurrence of high stresses
due to random operating abnormal loads caused by thermal-mechanical changes at
the roller surface.
All fracture and fatigue cracking during this test programme was carried out on
a 200 kN capacity electrohydraulic facility under force control.
The testing
and analytical procedures used to devise the fracture toughness data are fully
explained in the appropriate British Standards 6 ' 7 .
Measurements have been made of the fracture properties of a 12% chromium steel
cylinder manufactured using the centrifugal casting technique. The casting is
intended for use as a sleeve in the production of slab casting machine rolls.
20
7210.CA/808
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The purpose of this fracture study was to determine if the fracture properties
of the casting were adequate for such an application.
The fracture properties were measured using the experimental techniques and
analysis procedures of fracture mechanics.
The results facilitate not only a
comparison of different materials but permit the calculation of the size of
defect necessary to cause fracture under specified loading conditions.
Three fracture orientations were studied using the largest compact tension and
bend test pieces that were appropriate.
Linear elastic stress intensities
(K) and crack opening displacement (COD) results were recorded for all the
tests.
The most important fracture plane for rolls is the through-thickness
transverse plane and this was studied using specimens notched from both the
inner and outer faces.
Detailed testing results obtained were as follows:K
(MN m _ 3 / 2)
(MN m - 3 / 2)
m
COD (mm)
Longitudinal
73.8
71.1
89.1
131.7
134.2
145.7
0.165
0.512
0.739
Through-thickness
(inner face)
(outer face)
82.0
88.2
82.4
71.8
138.2
137.9
131.1
110.0
0.413
0.122
1.07
0.80
It is clear from the foregoing results that the toughness of this 12% chromium
steel is very variable and dependent upon the orientations tested.
These
differences in behaviour are associated with the localised fracture
characteristics in the region of the fatigue cracks induced in the specimens
prior to testing.
Examples of these characteristics are shown in Fig. 49. The casting exhibits a
coarse columnar grain structure occupying 75% of the cylinder wall thickness
with an equiaxed structure at the inner surface.
The significance of
structure property relationships will be the subject of a more detailed
assessment later in this report.
Fracture toughness tests were performed at room temperature (+20C) for a wider
range of materials in order to compare and contrast their behaviour. A limited
amount of testing was performed at temperatures between -40C and +40C in
order to derive valid fracture toughness values. In addition, an attempt was
made to determine the impact transition temperature based upon 50% fibrous
fracture using standard Charpy V-notch samples. Details of these results and
typical impact transition curves are summarised in Table 11 and Fig. 50.
It should be noted from the foregoing table describing the results obtained
from the 12% Cr cas t sleeve that, as considerable plasticity may occur at the
crack tip in non-va lid fracture toughness tests, then COD (crack opening
displacement) value s should be used to compare the fracture toughness levels of
However, these results have shown a considerable
the materials teste d.
scatter in the test programme and hence mean values have been taken when
comparing the mater ial properties as shown in Table 11. These results confirm
the superior toughn ess levels achieved in the more recently specified 16CrMo44
and 21CrMoV511 mate rials supplied as fully heat treated forgings (Appendix 1).
Adequate toughness can be achieved in cast and/or forged sleeves; however,
there are two probi ems, the occurrence of low fracture toughness results in
positions X and Y a nd the different behaviour of the inner and outer shell
material. Clearly, variations in macrostructure and microstructure can produce
variations in mecha nical properties particularly in castings. The centrifugal
casting process is designed specifically to improve the integrity and
homogeneity of the cast sleeves and therefore is characteristic of the best
manufacturing proce ss currently available for roll making. The significance of
the possible scatte r in results must be taken into account when attempting to
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design rollers and in the selection of materials with optimum mechanical

properties. This aspect will be discussed further in Section 6 of this report.
5.3
Influence of Temperature Upon the Mechanical Properties

of Candidate Materials
A comparison of the mechanical properties of forged and cast low alloy and
medium alloy steels is shown in Table 12 and Fig. 51. It was not possible to
determine such properties for weldments although an indication of their high
temperature strength may be deduced from the results of hot hardness
measurements (Fig. 52). It should be remembered that in practice the elastic
bending of a selected support roller design is a function of Young's Modulus
for the roller material. These values are seen to vary little with the changes
in composition or" manufacturing route. However, in contrast, the resistance to
permanent bending is a function of high temperature yield strength which has
been shown to vary considerably within the range of materials studied. The
significance of these results will be discussed in the later sections of this
report.
5.4
Properties of Hard Surfacing Consumables
Whilst the mechanisms leading to surface deterioration of concast plant support

rollers is not well understood it is clear that the surfaces degenerate by both
corrosive erosive wear and by thermal fatigue cracking.
The severity of these
mechanisms may vary with position in the strand and with changes in the plant
environment when casting different grades of steel. During the early part of
this research programme an attempt was made using available data to
characterise the wear and thermal fatigue resistance of potential weldments for
improving the overall performance of the rollers. Data for conventional
forgings, low alloy weldments and 12% chromium containing weldments are shown
in Figs. 53 and 54. The potential benefits of adopting the medium alloy 12%
chromium surfacing consumable are clearly demonstrated both in terms of
wear resistance and resistance to thermal fatigue cracking.
It is clear that
both the wear test and thermal fatigue tests are appropriate to the evaluation
of other materials which may be intended for roller manufacture in the future.
Details of the test methods employed are described in the final report of ECSC
Project 7210.EA/80l(8).
It is imperative that the enhanced properties of these weldments are maintained
during the full service life of the roller and with this in mind the temper
response characteristics of the materials are important.
Typical values for
the medium alloy 12% chromium weldment are shown in Fig. 17.
An attempt was made to refine the thermal fatigue simulation testing by
reproducing the thermal loading using larger specimens and thermal mechanical
loading.
This approach unfortunately produced unreliable crack nucleation and
growth characteristics and could not be used to compare the properties of the
candidate materials.
Technical details of the test method were detailed in
Technical Report No. 5 9 ) .
An important feature of the weld surfacing method which has not been explored
to date is that related to the residual stresses which may be in-built during
the welding and post-weld heat treatment cycle.
It is well known that
in-built residual compressive stresses are advantageous at the surface of
components which may undergo fatigue damage during service.
It is anticipated
also that such residual stresses may influence the behaviour of rollers both
during normal and abnormal casting conditions where the resistance to thermal
shock cracking and permanent roller bending are most critical.
A technique has been developed to establish the level and direction of residual
stresses present in rollers after manufacture with a view to establishing a
basis to judge the effect of subsequent normal and abnormal service conditions
upon roller stresses.
The method adopted is described in detail in Ref. 10 and was performed on a
430 mm diameter roller weld surfaced with 12% Cr weldment to the detailed
specification outlined earlier.
An attempt was made to measure the surface
and sub-surface residual stresses on the weld cladding which was 10 mm thick.
The residual stresses were measured at the quadrant positions around the sample
22
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
using the trepanning technique.

This involved cutting a circular groove
around a rosette strain gauge with measurement of the stress relief at every
0.5 mm increment of depth.
The strain gauges used were FRA-2, 2 mm gauge
length, three element rosettes.
A 12 mm bore cutter with a 3 mm wall
thickness was driven manually into the roller to a maximum depth of 13 mm.
At this depth the relaxation of stress in the central pillar left by the
machining operation was complete.
Although the original intention had been to
make two determinations of residual stress at each quadrant, the measurements
were such that repeats were considered unnecessary at the 270 and 360
position.
The results were calibrated against a fully stress relieved piece of weld
material.
The results for surface residual stress were compressive and were large in
magnitude as follows:-
Position
Stress, N/mm 2
Hoop
Axial
-319
-286
-283
-233
90
-329
-303
-273
-248
270
-296
-248
360
-294
-242
The accuracy of these tests was considered to be 10 N/mm 2 .

It was not
possible to estimate quantitatively the change in sub-surface residual stresses
albeit likely that within a few mm of the cladded surface there would be a
change from compressive to tensile residual stresses.
These latter stresses
would be adequately contained within the body of the roller material.
6.
DISCUSSION
The performance of transport rollers in continuous casting plant is clearly

dependent upon the physical and mechanical properties of the roller material,
the effectiveness of the roller design (in terms of stiffness and intrinsic
cooling characteristics), and the plant environments (imposed mechanical and
thermal stresses and external water cooling systems).
The interplay of these
factors is complex yet may be more clearly understood by studying:(a)
The actual metallurgical and physical changes which have occurred

during service of known roller materials in continuous casting plant
producing large tonnages of wide slab, and
(b)
The detailed analysis of selected variables such as mechanical and

thermal loading situations which occur during normal and abnormal
casting conditions, the necessary data having been gained from actual
measurements or computed thermal profiles of a variety of roller
designs.
This research programme has endeavoured to blend the results of a

multi-disciplined engineering and metallurgical approach to explain the
differences in performance of a variety of selected materials and roller
designs and to provide guidelines to the selection of these in future designs
of plant and equipment.
It is particularly important to determine quantitatively the working
environment of the support roller system and the mechanical and thermal loading
which occurs during normal and abnormal casting conditions.
It is clear from
the measured and computed thermal profiles that under all conditions the
thermal stresses are significantly greater than the mechanical stresses arising
from the ferrostatic pressure exerted by the molten steel within the
23
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
solidifying slab.
Under normal casting conditions with adequate roll cooling
the bulk operating temperatures of the roller are below 200C. Hence the
strength levels available from the CrMo steels are more than adequate to resist
the imposed forces. However, when the plant conditions become more severe,
i.e. using minimal external water cooling and particularly when a stall
condition is reached, severe temperature rises occur.
These, coupled with
substantial thermal gradients, can create stresses which exceed the yield
strength of the roller material, and cause instability and permanent bending of
the roller. In addition, thermal shock cracking might occur which could lead
to catastrophic roller failure. It is important to utilise the data generated
in this research programme to select the combination of material and roller
design which best suits individual plant requirements. The most critical
parameter is that of roller stress particularly during a prolonged stall
situation.
Using the finite element models, a limited amount of roller stress analysis has
been performed.
Figure 55 shows a comparison of the calculated stress
distributions through a centre bore roller due to mechanical and thermal
loadings, corresponding to a strand stoppage of 20 min.
The distribution of
Von Mises stress contours are shown for the centre plane of the roller.
For a point in a body with a complex stress distribution, the Von Mises stress
is a single stress value which is determined from the maximum shear strain
energy within the material.
The use of the Von Mises stress forms a
convenient criterion to determine whether the material of the body would have
failed at that position.
Thus, the value of the Von Mises stress is compared
with the yield stress of the material measured by a simple tensile test.
If
the yield stress is exceeded by the Von Mises stress, then the local material
may be assumed to have yielded and taken up a permanent deformation.
From Fig. 55 it can be seen that the Von Mises stresses due to the mechanical
loading are very low in comparison with the stresses due to the thermal
loading.
The maximum Von Mises stress contour due to mechanical loading is
12 N/mm2, whereas the stress contours due to thermal loading increase rapidly
towards the roller/strand contact region from 100 to 900 N/mm2 due to the high
temperatures within this area of the roller, Fig. 40.
These stress contours have been determined on the assumption that the roller
material remains completely elastic.
However, the yield stress of the roller
material varies between 380 and 250 N/mm2 - depending on the material
temperature, Fig. 56.
Thus, the shaded area in Fig. 55 indicates where the roller material would have
failed due to the local Von Mises stresses exceeding the tensile yield stress.
In determining the boundary of this shaded area, allowance has been made for
the effect of material temperature on yield stress. The roller material within
the shaded area would have become permanently deformed. This localised
permanent deformation of the roller material would result subsequently in the
permanent bending of the roller.
The amount of permanent bending would be a function of the extent of the
material which had become permanently deformed, and this would depend on the
roller temperatures attained during the strand stoppage.
These, in turn, will
depend on the heat transfer conditions at the roller/strand interface, the
period of the strand stoppage, and the internal cooling arrangements of the
particular roller design.
As has been noted earlier, the calculation of the
amount of permanent bending is complex and cannot be performed at present.
However, it would be expected that materials with higher yield strength at high
temperatures would be more resistant to the onset of permanent bending.
Further practical experience with the higher strength 16CrMo44 and 21CrMoV511
materials should confirm this view, although care should always be taken to
ensure the material retains its inherent lower temperature toughness
characteristic in order to prevent catastrophic roller failure from brittle
fracture.
In addition, the onset of thermal fatigue cracking is related to surface
operating temperature as earlier work2 has shown that steels and irons do not
readily fail by cracking if the operating temperature is maintained below
_400C. At first sight the results of the three independent assessments
24
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
of roller temperature appear to vary, i.e. metallurgical assessment predicts

600C, temperatures measured are approximately 250C maximum and computed stall
results were approximately 500C maximum. There are various reasons why this
situation has arisen. In the first place the surface temperatures at slab
contact position were never measured for a true stall condition as by chance
the thermocouples were away from the strand contact position at this time. In
addition, the thermocouple position was located at the centre position only and
that external water cooling from the process water was particularly effective
in cooling the roller surface. It is postulated that without the influence of
external water cooling then roller surface temperatures could easily attain
500-600C especially after a 5 or 6 h casting sequence. In practice, the top
rollers always appeared to operate hotter presumably due to the lesser effect
of process water there. Each of these factors could have contributed to the
observed metallurgical effects observed during the roller trials described
earlier in Section 2 of this report. It is interesting to note that results
from earlier work11 involving roller surface temperature measurements confirmed
the view that surface temperatures may exceed 500C. This programme of work
involved an assessment of the surface temperature of rollers within the
straightener-withdrawal area of a slab casting machine. Temperature
measurements were performed using an AGA thermovision camera and typical
temperature scans are shown in Fig. 57. The maximum temperatures recorded were
around 590C, which occurred at a position l/3 distance along the roller
barrel. These particular rollers experience little cooling from external
process water due to their position outside the spray chamber zone. Further
metallurgical observations of the rollers showed very clearly that the thermal
fatigue/thermal shock cracking also occurred at positions w 3 and 2 / 3 distance
along the roller barrel. It is postulated that some process water may be
carried along with the slabs on entering the straightener section and leads to
the temperature distributions observed in this trial. (NB. Rollers situated in
the bottom position exhibited less major firecracking and greater uniformity of
surface degradation.)
7.
CONCLUSIONS
7.1
(a)
Variations in the performance of rollers have been followed by
metallurgical examination of roller surfaces after long term in-plant service
campaigns. Surface degradation takes place by both corrosive/erosive wear and
thermal fatigue cracking which, in the case of low toughness roller arbors, may
lead to catastrophic failure by brittle fracture.
(b)
The overall wear and thermal
microstructure of the roller surface
enhance the roller performance. The
steel weldments reduces dramatically
was measured even after 100 000 t of
cracking is related to chemistry and

and hence weld surfacing was used to
use of 12% chromium martensitic stainless
the wear and little reduction in diameter
slab were cast through the machine.
(c)
Specifications have been designed for roller materials manufactured as
prime forgings followed by weld surfacing.
(d)
The evaluation of results of works trials involving 'hot' and 'cold'
roller designs showed that under normal operating conditions there was little
to choose between the conventional centre-bored 'hot' roll design and the more
sophisticated scroll-roll, and peripheral bored roller designs.
However, when
the plant environment is more hostile, e.g. during a stall condition, then the
'cold' roll designs offer greater resistance to permanent roller bending.
(NB. The scroll-roll design monitored during this research project exhibited
some anomalous results which require further detailed metallurgical and
engineering investigation.)
7.2
Plant Monitoring and the Development of an

Instrumented Roller
(a)
Specially instrumented roller segments and individual thermocouple
implants have been used to measure the mechanical loading and temperature
profiles in rollers during normal and abnormal casting conditions.
The
instrumented rollers were sensitive to changes in plant environment associated
with the different grades of steel slab cast and gauge changes. Special
25
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
surface thermocouple implants were used to establish conditions at the

slab/roller interface and to provide base-line data for use in the mathematical
modelling of roller designs.
(b)
Generally the maximum roller operating temperatures did not exceed
200C even when the casting speed was reduced or during a short stall.
It is
significant that in these latter situations the surface thermocouple implant,
whilst recording a fairly rapid temperature rise, was some distance from the
position of the slab/roller contact zone.
Results also showed that the strand
cooling water played a significant part in maintaining low operating
temperatures.
The heat transfer coefficient varied with segment position with
calculated values at 300 W/m 2 K in segment 3 and 1300 W/m 2 K at segment 5
position.
(c)
Mechanical loading increased with strand width. Less of the
ferrostatic load was transferred to the roller in the lower strand segments,
e.g. 50% of the calculated ferrostatic load was measured at segment 3 and 35%
at segment 5 position.
7.3
Mathematical Modelling and Roller Design
(a)
Finite element mathematical models have been derived to simulate roller
performance during normal operating conditions where both roller and strand
move continuously and during stall conditions when the machine stops for a long
period. The suite of models has utilised the results of the instrumented
roller trials in order to establish operating conditions for rollers of
different design to those observed in practice.
(b)
The mathematical models have established that thermal loading,
particularly that arising from stall conditions, is significantly greater than
the mechanical loading arising from the ferrostatic pressure within the
solidifying slab.
The influence of roller cooling design is significant in
reducing the degree of permanent roller bending, and the performance of the
'cold' roller designs involving both scroll cooling and peripheral bored
cooling channels is less dependent upon the volumes of cooling water used.
(c)
Taking a typical stall condition for a simple centre-bored roller and
calculating the Von Mises maximum stress shows that local yielding will occur
during a stall.
The degree of improvement resulting from changing to a cold
roll design has not been calculated in this project but is likely to be
beneficial.
In addition, improving the high temperature yield strength of the
roller shell material is also likely to be beneficial.
7.4
Supporting Research and Development
(a)
The results of a comprehensive test programme have shown that two low
alloy steels possess excellent combinations of fracture toughness and
mechanical strength in the forged and heat treated condition.
Centrifugally
cast low alloy and 12% chromium steels have adequate combinations of mechanical
properties but exhibit anisotropic properties.
(b)
Weld surfacing using 12% chromium martensitic stainless steels offers
the best combination of wear and thermal fatigue resistant roller surfaces.
(c)
In-built residual stresses were shown to exist in fully heat treated
weld surfaced rollers.
It is postulated that these stresses are beneficial in
resisting the nucleation and growth of thermal fatigue cracks.
The role of
residual stresses in limiting roller bending is, as yet, uncertain.
(d)
The high temperature strength of the low alloy, 16CrMo44 and
21CrMoV511, steels are more than adequate to resist the mechanical-thermal
stresses occurring during normal casting conditions.
In addition, the
improved toughness levels achievable even at low temperatures should lead to
major improvements in performance with respect to resistance to catastrophic
brittle failure in the presence of pre-existing thermal fatigue cracking.
26
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
8.
REFERENCES
1.
McCann, J., 'Evaluation, Development and Design of Transport

Rollers in Continuous Casting Plant', Technical Report No. 3,
BSC Ref. 71-3(STF)802, ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/808.
2.
Stevens, P.G., Ivens, K.P. and Harper, P., 'Increasing Work Roll
Life by Improved Roll Cooling Practice', JISI, Jan. 1971.
3.
'Pafec 75 Theory, Results', Pafec Ltd., Strelley Hall, Strelley,

Nottingham, England.
4.
Parker, W.J., Jenkins, R., Butter, C.P. and Abbot, G., 'Flash
Method of Determining Thermal Diffusivity, Heat Capacity and
Thermal Conductivity', Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 32,
No. 9, pp 1679-1687, Sept. 1961.
5.
Briggs, J.. and Parker, T.D., 'The Super 12% Cr Steels', Climax
Molybdenum Company Publication.
6.
'Methods for Plane Strain r Fracture Toughness Testing of

Metallic Materials', Britisrrstandards Institution, BS5447, 1977.
7.
'Methods for Crack Opening Displacement (COD) Testing', British

Standards Institution, BS5762, 1979.
8.
Sidgwick, S.E. and McCann, J., 'The Effect of Lubrication, Cooling

and Metallurgy Upon the Performance of Hot Mill Work Rolls', ECSC
Agreement No. 7210.EA/801, Final Report.
9.

Rollers in Continuous Casting Plant', Technical Report No. 5, BSC
Ref. No. 71-5(STF)812, ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/808.
10.
Wolf, H. and Stucker, E. et al, Arch. Eisenhuttenwes, 48, No. 3,

March 1977.
11.

Rollers in Continuous Casting Plant', Technical Report No. 2, BSC
Ref. No. 71-2(STF)801, ECSC Agreement No. 7210.CA/808.
EJF
27
7210.CA/808
TABLE 1
HARDNESS OF ROLLERS USED IN LACKENBY SLAB CASTER PLANT TRIALS

Roller
Position
Mean
HV
350-400
470-510
440-480
400-415
380-415
370
495
460
410
400
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Top Entry
Top Exit
26
30
12% Cr Weld
12% Cr Weld
380-390
380-400
385
390
Top Second
Top Third
Top Fourth
27
28
29
Low Alloy Forge

Low Alloy Forge
Low Alloy Forge
220-250
240-260
230-240
230
250
235
Spray Coat
690-730
710
Strand
Guide
Zone
III
Entry
Second
Third
Fourth
Exit
TABLE 2
Alloy
Alloy
Alloy
Alloy
Alloy
Weld
Weld
Weld
Weld
Weld
WEAR OF ROLLERS USED IN LACKENBY SLAB CASTER PLANT TRIALS

Shoulder Dia.
mm
Roller
No.
Roller Type
27
29
21
22
26
30
Low Alloy Forge

Low Alloy Forge
Low Alloy Weld
Low Alloy Weld
12% Cr Weld
12% Cr Weld
Spray Coat
TABLE 3
Work Area Dia.

mm
Posn.
1
Posn.
2
Posn.
1
Posn.
2
Posn.
3
243.51
243.56
244.75
244.83
243.56
243.56
309.97
243.61
243.59
244.86
244.88
243.56
243.56
310.01
243.31
242.47
244.75
244.37
243.50
243.56
309.98
242.49
242.21
244.30
244.48
243.56
243.54
309.97
242.90
242.80
244.63
244.53
243.49
243.48
310.03
Loss in
Dia., mm
(Min.
Shoulder
Dia. - Min.
Work Dia.)
1.02
1.35
0.45
0.46
0.07
0.08
Nil
. ROLLER HARDNESS AFTER SERVICE

Roller Type
Design
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Hardness Range
Equivalent
Vickers No.
21
22
23
24
25
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Strand
Guide
Zone
II
Roller
Type
Roller
No.
Bore
Bore
Bore
Bore
Bore
Bore
Hardness Equivalent Vickers No.

Material
Cooled
Cooled
Cooled
Cooled
Cooled
Cooled
Edge
Centre
Edge
En20A Forged
En20A Forged
En20A Forged
12% Cr Welded
12% Cr Welded
12% Cr Welded
270
260
240
380
370
360
220
230
210
260
260
205
170
175
180
300
250
190
250
180
180
290
270
245
250
190
270
400
380
350
Scroll Cooled
Scroll Cooled
Scroll Cooled
13CrMo44 Forged
Low Alloy Welded
Low Alloy Welded
220
280
280
185
180
260
180
160
270
185
175
280
230
280
280
Journal Cooled Only
12% Cr Welded
440
360
280
350
430
28
7210.CA/808
TABLE 4
RESULTS OF ROLLER CONDITION MONITORING IN STRUCTURED

WORKS TRIALS
Roller
Cooling
Design
Roller
Surface
Bend
mm
Wear
mm
Top Entry
Top Exit
Bottom Entry
Bottom Exit
12% Cr
12% Cr
12% Cr
16CrMo44
3.0
0.6
1.7
2.0
Scrolled
Scrolled
Top Third
Bottom Third
12% Cr
12% Cr
Peripheral Bore
Peripheral Bore
Top Second
Bottom Second
12% Cr
12% Cr
Centre
Centre
Centre
Centre
Roller
Position
Bore
Bore
Bore
Bore
TABLE 5
Crack Depth
mm
Max.
Others
0
0
0
3.8
22
4
7
8
4-8
1-4
3-5
2-6
6.5
4.0
0
0
30
9
6-9
3-5
1.0
0.2
0
0
13
3
7-9
1-3
QUASI STEADY STATE TEMPERATURE DURING UNINTERRUPTED

CASTING (TRIAL 1)
Quasi Steady State
Roll Temperature, C
Strand Size
mm
920
1280
1310
1530
1850
1530
229
229
229
305
229
305
TABLE 6
Casting Speed
m/min
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.5-0.6
0.9-1.0
0.7
Strand
Cooling
Conv. Spray
Conv. Spray
Conv. Spray
Conv. Spray
Conv. Spray
Soft Cooling
Depth from Surface

Ro11, mm
5.5
16
69
118
109
115
113
132
138
169
91
89
96
100
106
147
74
71
80
80
84
100
62
62
62
60
67
95

CASTING (TRIAL 2)
Quasi Steady State
Roll Temperature, C
Strand Size
mm
920
1100
1280
1550
1810
229
229
229
229
229
Casting Speed
m/min
1.0
1.1
0.9
0.85
Strand
Cooling
Conv.
Conv.
Conv.
Conv.
Conv.
29
Spray
Spray
Spray
Spray
Spray
Depth from Surface

Roll, mm
5.5
16
69
118
103
105
100
117
126
83
83
82
102
. 98
68
69
70
74
78
55
53
60
65
66
7210.CA/808
TABLE 7

CASTING (TRIAL 3)
Strand
Size
mm
1100
1100
1190
1280
1280
1510
1760
1760
1850
1850
229
229
229
229
229
305
229
229
229
229
TABLE 8
TABLE 9
0.9
0.95
0.95
1.0
1.0
0.7
0.9
0.95
0.85
0.90
Strand
Cooling
Depth from Surface o f Roll, mm
Conv.
Air Mist
Conv.
Conv.
Air Mist
Air Mist
Conv.
Air Mist
Conv.
Air Mist
4.5
17
48
83
122
81
119
93
90
111
127
104
133
98
122
66
97
76
80
95
106
87
106
85
100
61
89
69
71
85
97
81
95
78
88
52
78
62
67
81
85
75
85
71
78
43
62
54
60
63
70
62
71
63
65
QUASI STEADY STATE TEMPERATURE DURING

CASTING (TRIAL 4)
Strand
Size
mm
1100
1190
1280
1530
1760
1790
1850
Casting
Speed
m/min
Quasi Steady Stat Roll

Temperature, 3 C
229
229
229
305
229
229
229
Casting
Speed
m/min
0.95
1.0
0.9
0.55
0.9
0.9
0.95
UNINTERRUPTED
Quasi Steady State Roll

Temperature, C
Strand
Cooling
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Air
Depth from Surface of Roll, mm
Mist
Mist
Mist
Mist
Mist
Mist
Mist
4.5
17
48
83
122
96
98
101
97
105
102
102
90
91
94
88
99
94
98
79
81
82
76
87
83
86
70
72
75
68
78
76
77
63
68
69
63
72
69
72
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS FOR ROLLERS STUDIED BY MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Strand Dimensions
1830 305 mm
Roller Mechanical Load

Applied by Strand
169 kN
Roller/Strand Contact
Area
Contact angle = 2
Heat transfer coefficient = 5000 W/m 2 K
Initial Temperature of
Rollers
25C
Initial Strand Conditions
Solid shell thickness = 75 mm; shell temperature;

linear variation from 1500 to 1000C through
thickness; liquid core temperature = 1500C
Material of Rollers
16CrMo44
Cooling of Rollers
No external cooling
Internal coolant flow rate = 35 litre/min
Coolant temperature = 25C
30
7210.CA/808
TABLE 10
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CANDIDATE ROLLER MATERIALS
Candidate Roller Material
Chemical Composition
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
Ni
0.25/
0.35
16CrMo44
0.13/
0.16
0.15/
0.35
0.50/
0.80
0.90/
1.20
0.40/
0.50
21CrMov511
0.17/
0.25
0.30/
0.60
0.30/
0.50
1.20/
1.50
1.00/
1.20
0.6
max.
Medium Alloy Class II 12%

Chromium Steel
0.10/
0.23
0.15/
0.40
0.30/ 11.00/
1.0
13.50
0.70/
1.20
0.30/ 0.20/
1.00 0.35
Surface Weldment
Matching
0.05/
0.10
0.30/
0.80
1.5/
2.0
1.0/
2.0
0.5/
1.0
13% Cr
0.10/
0.20
0.30/
0.90
1.0/
2.0
10.0/
14.0
1.3/
1.7
Low Alloy Forging
TABLE 11(a)
2.0/
2.8
FRACTURE PROPERTIES OF CANDIDATE ROLLER MATERIALS
Specimen
Orienta
tion
Energy
at -20C
J
50%
FATT
Shelf
Energy
J
COD
IC
MN m~ 3 / z mm
Forged
16CrMo44
50/100
90/150
134
109
0.68
0.32
Forged
21CrMoV57
50
28
70/120
155
125
0.30
0.18
Forged
21CrMoV511
35
+18
>80
114
Centrispun Low Alloy Casting
195
175
-45
-35
260
235
190
140
0.51
1.80
Centrispun 12% Cr Casting
47
35
+27
+12
160
142
130
120
0.93
0.26
TABLE 11(b)
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON THE FRACTURE

PROPERTIES OF FORGED 21CrMoV511
Test Temperature, C
Specimen Orientation
-20
+21
+40
L
L
L
31
K
IC
MN m" 3 / 2
90
114
116
7210.CA/808
TABLE 12(a)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CANDIDATE ROLLER MATERIALS
0.2%
Yield
Strength
N/mm*
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
N/mrrr
Elongation
%
Reduction
of Area
%
Forged Roll
16CrMo44
486
616
26
78
Forged Bar
16CrMo44
407
704
19
61
Forged Bar
21CrMoV47
562
968
15
38
Forged Roll
21CrMoV511
1044
1125
17
62
Low Alloy Centrispun Sleeve
545
629
24
80
12% Cr Centrispun Sleeve
475
622
23
73
TABLE 12(b)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES
Roller Material
Test
Temp.
0.2%
Yield
Strength
N/mm2
Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
N/mm2
Elongation
%
Reduction
of Area
%
Forged
16CrMo44
RT
300
400
500
600
486
432
407
374
270
616
606
572
475
342
26
22
26
25
38
78
75
80
83
92
Forged
21CrMoV511
RT
300
400
500
600
1044
917
827
693
356
1125
1025
948
805
544
17
14
16
18
28
62
52
67
76
82
RT
300
600
475
425
199
622
549
282
23
19
31
73
70
87
Centrispun Sleeve 12% Cr
32
OD
OJ
COOLED I ZONE I ROLLS l80 mm 0

MOULD
OJ
STRAND
GUIDE
SECTION
to
TYPICAL PLANT LAYOUT

FIG. 1
WITHDRAWAL-STRAIGHTENING SECTION
n
>
CO
o
en
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
Externally Cooled
\, Y/YYYY.
Internally Cooled
'Hot' Rolls
'Cold'
VA
'
'
Rolls
V
'
va' KU ' '\J IJ '\
?2+SS
4
w
^t&/
>;;/>;/>;;;;/>/>//>/>;/>;;/>/>;;;/>;;/>/>/>;;/>;;;;/;;/,
t^t-
KVVVVV
l^^Vfci^ W
ZZ7,
/ >////////////////////// ZZZZZ22
VZZZZZ
kasfi&g&g&B&S3
wwwwwwww^:^
?J
; /
>>>>>>>>
>} >
{/y.///-
s;/;////;//;;;/;;////////////
\\\\\\\\v\\\ w w w
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF ROLL DESIGNS
34
FIG. 2
)>>>>)>
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
400
Conventional low alloy
steel roller showing a microstructure
of upper bainite with ferrite
400
12% Cr weld surfaced
roller showing a microstructure of
delta ferrite stringers in a
tempered martensite matrix
>
. * . ' .
"''
.;...
.'..
'.
'.
,'
:;,:-
'
'
'
. .
.'''.
' . '
^ . . - v . , *
-
. . .
...
..'
" * - . *
'"'
'-'.'*?
. I
'
. .
..
'
'
140
Metal spray coated roller
showing chromium carbides and borides
in a nickel matrix
RESULTS OF METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION USI NG REPLICA TECHNIQUES
35
FIG.
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
;^f
'>
A
l_* -^
'Plucking out' of
roller surface
Heavy, uneven
surface wear
,. mm
'Grooving' damage
Extensive thermal
fatigue cracking,
up to 5 mm deep
'Bruising' of a
trial spray coated roller
(e)
SURFACE REPLICAS OF WITHDRAWAL STRAIGHTENER SLAB CASTING ROLLERS

EXEMPLIFYING THE PRINCIPAL DEGRADATION MECHANISMS
36
FIG. 4
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Depth of machined groove

Depth, mm
70
Weld surfaced rollers
Top Position
60
50
40
30
20
10
Seg. 1
Depth, mm
70
Seg. 1
Seg. 2
Seg. 3
Seg. 4
Seg. 5
Seg
Seg. 4
Seg. 5
Seg. 6
Bottom Position
Seg. 2
Seg. 3
CRACK DEPTHS IN STRAIGHTENER/WITHDRAWAL SEGMENTS
37
FIG. 5
(R1/7270)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Proportion of roll failures

cracks/bending
90
Crack
80
70 60
Crack
50
Crack
40
30
Bending
20
10
Bending
0
Strand guide
Straightener
Withdrawal
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROLLER FAILURE MECHANISMS

AND POSITION IN MACHINE
38
FIG. 6
(R1/7269)
FR 7 1 - 9
831
7210.CA/808
ROLLER SHOWING ENCLOSURE OF GROOVES BY

LATERAL EXPANSION OF THE SURFACE
39
FIG. 7
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Origin (15 mm long 4 mm deep)
Arrest
point
Arrest
point
FRACTURE FACE OF A ROLLER SHOWING FINAL

FAILURE FROM A SMALL SHALLOW CRACK
40
FIG. 8
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
FRACTURE FACE OF A ROLLER SHOWING

FINAL FAILURE FROM A DEEP CRACK
THERMAL CRACKING IN THE BORE OF A ROLLER
41
FIG. 9
FIG. 10
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
PLASTIC DEFORMATION AND SCALE ON THE SURFACE OF A ROLLER
FIG. 11
DEEP THERMAL SHOCK AND THERMAL FATIGUE CRACKING

BENEATH PLASTIC DEFORMATION
FIG. 12
42
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
SHOWING SURFACE TEXTURE AND WEAR OF 16CrMo44 ROLLER
SHOWING CRACKING ASSOCIATED WITH WELD BEAD OVERLAP
43
FIG. 13
FIG. 14
rd
Vickers hardness number
00
OJ
400 -
Position along roller

(a)
Longitudinal Survey
Bore Design
Ji
400
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
300
400
300
Centre
Peripheral
Scroll
Centre
Centre
Peripheral
Scroll
Centre
Position
Bottom entry
Bottom second
Bottom third
Bottom exit
Top entry
Top second
Top third
Top exit
A
Position around roller
(b)
Circumferential Survey Central Position

-j
to
HARDNESS SURVEY - RAVENSCRAIG STRAND GUIDE

ROLL SEGMENT TRIAL AFTER 2 70 000 t
FIG. 15
(R1/9481)
n
>
s
co
o
co
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
SURFACE REPLICA SHOWING THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE

DELTA FERRITE FOUND IN THE TEMPERED MARTENSITE MATRIX OF
FIG. 16
x 250
SOME ROLLERS
Hardness, HV30
550 500 -
450
400 -
350
300
250
400
450
500
550
600
Temperature, C
650
700
TEMPER RESPONSE FOR 12% CHROMIUM WELDMENT
45
FIG. 17
(R1/5315)
rd
CO
OJ
* Instrumented roller inserted

into these positions
4^
Spray chamber
^J
to
LAYOUT OF RAVENSCRAIG NO. 3 MACHINE
FIG. 18
(R1/8124)
CO
CO
rd
JO
CO
OJ
Slip ring
unit
Special surface
thermocouple
Tapered plug fitted
with thermocouples
at various depths
.
^J
Thermocouple junction
formed at roll
surface by grinding
to produce a cold weld
Mica insulation
to
Enlarged view of surface thermocouple

ROLL
INSTRUMENTATION
F I G . 19
(R1/9482A)
>
CO
CO
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Instrumented plug prior to force fitting into roll
Roll frame used to force fit plug
48
FIG. 20
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
t.3
Capping off
Ladle change
1.0
U^"
L_i
g "I
\ J
Cu
CO
0.0
10
250
60
70
90
100
HO
120
3B
HO
ISO
200
0 mm
10
2"
30
200
<0
30
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
MO
ISO
Average maximum
steady state'
4. 5 mm
10
200
30
1
ISO
50
60
70
90
100
110
120
130
HO
150
Average maximum
steady state'
100
17.5 mm
30
10
30
130.
100.
30
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
HO
ISO
'Average
Average maximum
maxin
steady state'
48 mm
83 mm
120 mm
50
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
110
ISO
Time, min
ROLL TEMPERATURES - 1850 229 mm STRAND
SEGMENT POSITION 5 - PLATE/STRIP GRADE STEEL
49
FIG. 21
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Speed, m/min
2.
1 ..
1-
Temperature, "C
150
100
mm
50
-t
150
100
4. 5 mm
50 .
1-
100
17.5 mm
50.
0.
1-
100
48 mm
83 mm
120 mm
50
20
40
60
80
l-
100
120
HO
160
180
200
Time, min
ROLL TEMPERATURES - 1850 229 mm STRAND SEGMENT POSITION 3
PLATE/STRIP GRADE STEEL
50
FIG. 22
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
itoli temperatures - 1530 305 mm strand

- segment position 5 niobium grade steel
ao
40
60
BO
vnr
100
120
MO
ISO
1H0
eoo
Distance
from Surface
of Roll
(1)
. 5 mm
150
20
40
E0
80
100
120
" 140
1C0.
180
200
(2)
1 6 mm
80
100
120
MO
160
180
69 mm
100
(4)
118 mm
150
60
80
100
120
MO
1C0
160
TIM. ((1IN3)
ROLL TEMPERATURES DURING CASTING
51
FIG. 23
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
Water spray strand cooling

Segment position 3
^
120
V
CD
UJ
100
\\1 *'K.>.
\
er
80 .
" ^^
V* a = I ^ _
'>* ^"~
^"*^_
UJ
Q_
,
^.
^^^5^^^.
^
"
**
_^
' ~~*~ '
**^^~^
60 .
"*~*-=:^'
' -K
^^TJ
Y
*
0
+
40
20
\
160..
1810 229 mm
1550 229 mm
1280 229 mm
1100 229 mm
920 229 mm
Water spray strand cooling

Segment position 5
140
120..
CD
JJJ5 1 0 0
80 .
60
40 .
20..
\
Y
D
x
0
+
1530 305 mm (niobium steel)

(casting speed 0.7 m/min)
1850 229 mm
1530 305 mm (casting speed 0.5-0.6 m/min)
1310 229 mm
1280 229 mm
920 229 mm
All strands cast at a speed of
approximately 1 m/min except where stated
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Distance from roller surface, mm

QUASI STEADY STATE TEMPERATURES 1ST ROLLER
ALL STRAND SIZES CAST IN SEGMENT POSITIONS 3 AND 5
52
FIG. 24
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Air mist strand cooling

Segment position 3
120..
100
.
.^k^
80
60
40 .
S^S**^-^-^
1850
1790
Y 1760
D 1530
1280
01190
+1100
229
229
229
305
229
229
229
mm
mm
mm
mm (casting speed 0.55 m/min)
mm
mm
mm
20 .
Air mist strand cooling

Segment position 5
140 +
120
100
80
60.
40..
Y
0
+
1850
1760
1510
1280
1100
229 mm
229 mm
305 mm (casting speed 0.7 m/min)
229 mm
22 9 mm
20
approximately 1 m/min except where stated
20
40
60
80
100
120
MO
Distance from roll surface, mm

QUASI STEADY STATE TEMPERATURE 2ND ROLLER
ALL STRAND SIZES CAST IN SEGMENT POSITIONS 3 AND 5
53
FIG. 25
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Water spray strand cooling (all cases)

Segment position 5
NB. Using air mist nozzles without the air
1850 mm
0 1760 nun
1280 mm
0 1190 mm
+
1100 mm
120
100
X 229 mm
X 229 mm
X 229 mm
X 229 mm
X 229 mm
o
60
1U
60
40..
20
Air mist strand cooling (all cases)

Segment position 5
D 18 50
x
17 60
Y 1510
0
1280
+ 1100
140
120
J5
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
229 mm
2 29 mm
305 mm (casting speed 0.7 m/min)
229 mm
229 mm
100
80
60
40

approximately 1 m/min except
where stated
20 .
20
40
60
80
100
120
110
COMPARISON OF WATER SPRAY STRAND COOLING AND AIR MIST STRAND COOLING
SEGMENT POSITION 5
>J,
FIG. 26
TI
50
Temperature, C
CO
CJ
140
120
100
O..
O- _
80
.Air mist strand cooling
Ui
60
Conventional water spray
strand cooling
40
20
20
40
J.
60
80
-L
100
J_
120
140

-J
1\J
COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL WATER SPRAY STRAND

COOLING AND AIR MIST STRAND COOLING
SEGMENT POSITION 5 FOR A STRAND 1280 229 mm
F I G . 27
(R1/9483)
>
CO
CO

pa
CO
Temperature, C
CO
200
180 -
160 -
140 120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 20 -
-
30
r35
-1
40
45
- I
50
55
60
65
Time, s
SJ
TYPICAL VARIATION IN ROLLER SURFACE TEMPERATURE

DURING A SINGLE REVOLUTION
FIG. 28
(R1/9483A)
>
CO
O
co
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Strand size 1850 229 mm

Segment position 5
Temperature, 'C
E
169
HO
120
IOC
60
V
^ V ^
pv/
to
<0
20
20
<0
60
80
100
120
HO
160
120
Strand size 1790 229 mm

Segment position 3
Temperature, C
iea r
(0
63
100
120
HO
160
IC3
Time, s
COMPARISON OF SURFACE TEMPERATURE FOR TWO ROLLER REVOLUTI ONS

IN SEGMENT POSI TI ONS 3 AND 5
37
FIG. 29
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Roller surface
temperature, C
Angle of roller contact
100
Heat transfer
coefficient. W/m2 K
400
200
20
Angle of
roller contact
with strand
= 4
Heat
transfer
coefficient
W/m2 K
30
40
Angle of roller rotation, degree
Roller surface
temperature, C
160
- 140
1400
120
1200
- 100
1000
800 -
Heat transfer
coefficients calculated
on basis of strand
temperature remaining
constant at 1000C
throughout contact period
600 -
400 -
200 -
0
10
20
Angle of roller rotation, degree
COMPARISON OF TYPICAL VARIATIONS IN ROLLER SURFACE TEMPERATURES AND
HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS AT ROLLER/STRAND CONTACT ZONES
IN SEGMENT POSITIONS 3 AND 5
58
FIG. 30
(R1/9484)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Top roll
Top frame
ixed stop
Packing
pieces
Bottom roll
Bottom frame
INSTRUMENTED FIXED STOP IN SEGMENT
59
FIG. 31
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Roller load as a
percentage of theoretical
total ferrostatic force*
80 r
60
Segment 3
40
Segment 5
20
k
900
i.e. assuming solid skin of strand has

no load carrying capability
_i_
1000
_i_
1100
J_
_i_
1200
1300
Strand width, mm
Load applied to roller

due to ferrostatic
pressure, kN
120
J_
1400
-1-
1500
1600
Segment 3
Segment 5
100
80
60
Strand thickness = 229 mm
Casting speed
= 0.8/1.0 m/min
40
20 -
900
_!_
1000
_1_
1100
1200
1300
1400
Strand width, mm
1500
1600
MEASUREMENTS OF ROLLER LOADS DUE TO FERROSTATIC PRESSURE
60
FIG. 32
(R1/8127)
Details of Scroll
All dimensions in mm
20
f\
\ \
Vfe\
1\
/
2 45 PCD
11 equispaced
20 dia.
holes
Scrolled Roller
Centre Bore Roller
Peripheral Bore Roller
CROSS SECTIONS OF ROLLER DESIGNS MODELLED
FIG. 33
(R1/9485)
:.
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Strand centreline
Portions of roller
and strand modelled
PORTIONS OF ROLLER AND STRAND MODELLED TO DETERMINE TEMPERATURE VARIATION

WITHIN ROLLER DURING STRAND STOPPAGE
FIG. 34
(R1/8129)
62
so
Peripheral Bore Roller
Centre Bore Roller
Scrolled Roller
Heat transfer
elements used to
model roller/strand
contact zone
HJNJ
Ul
c
o
A:
g
m
in
II
JJ
'Y
A
l<
01
VJ
Heat transfer elements used to model effects of

ii.'; internal coolant
FINITE ELEMENT MESHES USED TO DETERMINE TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS
WITHIN ROLLERS DURING A STRAND STOPPAGE
FIG. 35
n
>
All dimensions in mm
AXISYMMETRIC FINITE ELEMENT MESH USED TO DETERMINE ROLLER BENDING FROM

THERMAL AND MECHANICAL LOADINGS
FIG. 36
(RI/8131>
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Thermal conductivity, W/m 2 K

55i-
Specific heat capacity, J/kg K

1600 1400 -
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
1400 1600
Temperature, C
VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
AND SPECIFIC HEAT ASSUMED FOR STRAND
65
FIG. 37
(R1/9486]
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
Thermal
conductivity, W/m 2 K
40
30 -
20 -
10 -
Specific heat
capacity, J/kg K
600
500
400
300
200
100
_L
100
X
200
J_
300
J_
400
500
600
700
800
Temperature, C
VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND
SPECIFIC HEAT ASSUMED FOR 16CrMo44 ROLLER MATERIAL
66
FIG. 38
(R1/9487)
I SCROLLED ROLLER
STRAND
INTERNAL FLOWRATES = 35 L/MIN |
COMPARISON OF TEMPERATURE CONTOURS AFTER A 5 m i n STRAND STOPPAGE
FIG.
39
:>
"
PERIPHERAL-BORE ROLLER
CENTRE-BORE ROLLER
| SCROLLED ROLLER|
100 C
1S0C
200C
250C
300C
350C
100C
150C
500C
777T7
STRAND
| INTERNAL FLOVvTlATES = 35 L/MIN [
FIG.
40
>
PERIPHERAL-BORE ROLLER
I CENTRE-BORE ROLLER |
SCROLLED ROLLER
STRAND
I INTERNAL FLOWRATES = 35 L/MIN 1

FIG.
41
FR 7 1 - 9
7210.CA/808
831
DEPTH .OW 1101,1.KM

SURFACE ( mm
5
10
"C
200
10
15
20
25
30
r~
40
Time (mins)
| 1'KHI P H E K A L
BORE
DEPTH UELOW ROLLER

SURFACE (mm)
ROLLI
5
L0
100
65
125
10
15
20
Time (mins)
I SCROLLED ROLLER]
DEPTH BELOW
ROLLER SURFACE (mm)
10
200
Temperature D i s t r i b u t i o n s
Shown Along T his Radius
I
1
/->.
//
)
J
I n t e r n a l Coolant Flowrate = 35 L/min for a l l designs
COMPARISON OF PREDICT ED RADIAL ROLL T EMPERAT URE

DURING A 40 m i n ST RAND ST OPPAGE
70
FIG.
42
Xl
I
CD
CO
CO
-.i.
>
rH
J
Thermal Loading
TJ
hH XI

o
>
O
i 4
*
C
tu
Cj
4J
Ol
JJ
.in
ro
X

M
Ci
>
>
A3
1-3
r^
<
Mechanical and Thermal Loading
Internal Flowrates = 35 ./min|
0
C
Ci
Cu
r l
Peripheral
Bore Roller
H
0
K
UH
0
en
C
n
c
01
ca
Thermal Loading
Mechanical and Thermal Loading
. Centre Bore
I Roller
20
30
Duration of Strand Stoppage, Min
"
40
Scrolled Roller
_ 1 I
rn
co
^1
Ji.
CO
>
OD
O
CO
Internal Coolant Flow Rate =
35 g./min
20 ,/min
5fi,/min
0.2 ,/min
100-C
200C
250C
400 cK
EFFECT OF COOLANT FLOWRATE ON CENTRE-BORE ROLLER TEMPERATURE

CONTOURS AFTER A 10 MINUTE STRAND STOPPAGE
FIG. 44
90
Internal Coolant Flow Rate
35 /min
20 /min
5 ,/min
CD
0.2
/min
CO
100C
150C
200C
?50C
300C
350C
350 C
Strand
EFFECT OF COOLANT FLOW RATE ON PERIPHERAL BORE ROLLER TEMPERATURE CONTOURS
AFTER A 10 min STRAND STOPPAGE
^i
M
FIG. 45
(R1/8137)
>
CO
CO
Internal Coolant Flow Rate

35 t/min
20 ,/min
5 ,/min
EFFECT OF COOLANT FLOW RATE ON SCROLLED ROLLER TEMPERATURE

CONTOURS AFTER A 10 MINUTE STRAND STOPPAGE
0.2 8,/min
FIG. 46
>
TI
sa
co
CO
Tl
n
ri
10 MINS STRAND STOPPAGE
H
O
TI
n
o
o
r
>
'!
F
Cl
~
>
jo
rH
13
re
M
rH
rJ
CO
M
CENTRE BORE
ROLLER
~~"
4-1
Ul
X
1-3
Ul
777777777
NS STRAND STOPPA'
C
H
CU
0
| SCROLLED
ROLLERI
0
Di
C
PERIPHERAL
ROLLER
BORE
fH
en
Ti
f71
10
-r-
20
20
Internal Flowrate
30
(L/min)
40
>
00
o
co
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
430 mm
YX
I
0
LC
LT
Longitudinal compact tension

Single edge notch bend notched from inner face
Single edge notch bend notched from outer face
Longitudinal Charpy specimens from outer and
inner surface
Longitudinal tensile specimens from outer and
inner surface
CUT UP TESTS
SPECIMEN ORIENTATION
76
FIG. 48
(R1/4504)
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
MACROSTRUCTURE - CENTRIFUGALLY CAST SLEEVE
77
FIG. 49
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
Impact energy
Fracture appearance
Impact energy, J
100% brittle
21CrMoV511
100
60
-40
-20
Temperature, C
IMPACT TRANSITION DATA, LOW ALLOY STEELS
78
FIG. 50(a)
(R1/9486A)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Impact energy, J
240 r
220 U
FATT <- 20C
FATT -6C
FATT +20C
X
FATT -2C
20
I
I
I
I
I
J
I
60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0
10 20
Temperature, C
I
30
I
40
I
50
I
60
IMPACT TRANSITION DATA FOR PRODUCTION CASTS

16CrMo44 STEEL
FIG. 50(b)
Impact energy, J
180
60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0

10 20
Temperature, C
30
40
50
IMPACT TRANSITION DATA FOR 12% Cr CAST MATERIAL
79
60
FIG. 50(c)
(R1/9486B)
FR 719 831
7210.CA/808
0.2% Proof stress

Ultimate tensile strength
1 100
.
_jnCrMoV51"*^^
1000
900
800
\
\
700
O
600
^^
16CrMo44
500 "O.
"
400
300
\\
\
200
100
n
100
200
300
400
500
J
600
Temperature, C
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

LOW ALLOY STEELS
80
FIG. 51
(R1/9487C)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Vickers hardness number

450r
400
350
300 -
250 -
13% Cr weldment
200 -
Matching weldment
150
12% Cr cast
100
16CrMo44
50
X
100
j
200
L
300
400
500
600
Test temperature, C
COMPARISON OF HIGH TEMPERATURE
81
HARDNESS
F I G . 52
(R1/9487A)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Wear rate, mg wt. loss/metre of slip

Maximum Hertzian contact stress: 600 N/mm2
10
Slip speed: 3 m/min
Forged
steel
(200 HV)
Matching
weldment
(300 HV)
V/////A
12% Cr
weldment
(400 HV)
Material
LABORATORY EVALUATED WEAR RATES
FIG. 53
Crack depth, mm
after 5000 cycles RT 600C
2.5
2.0 -
1.5-
Forged
steel
1 .0 -
0.5 12% Cr
weldment
0
Material
LABORATORY EVALUATED THERMAL FATIGUE
82
FIG. 54
(R1/9487B)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Stress Distribution Due

to Mechanical Loading
Stress Distribution Due

to Thermal Loading
Total load applied by strand = 169 kN

Strand dimensions
= 1830 305 mm
Strand stall period

= 20 min
Internal coolant flow rate = 35 litre/min
Temperature distribution given in Fig. 40
shown
lly
The
shaded area adjacent to the
strand indicates where the
material may be assumed to
have yielded and consequently
to have taken up a permanent
set
Von Mises equivalent
Stress, Oyjj =
where
if
xx - )
-r
+ ( YY
'zz'
XY
'zx
- YZ2)
= Direct stress in roller axial direction

= Direct stress in roller radial direction
= Direct stress in roller circumferential direction
, , Y2 are shear stresses on corresponding planes
XX
COMPARISON OF VON MISES EQUIVALENT STRESS CONTOURS

DUE TO MECHANICAL AND THERMAL LOADINGS
83
FIG. 55
(R1/9488)
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
Tensile yield stress, N/mm 2

400r
300
200
100
100
_L
200
300
_L
400
500
600
Temperature, C
V A R I A T I O N I N T E N S I L E YIELD
WITH TEMPERATURE OF 1 6 C r M o 4 4
STRESS
MATERIAL
F I G . 56
(R1/9489A)
Top half
of slab
470 to 535C
Hot slab
Bottom half of roll
23 min after start of cast
335 to 405C
405 to 460C
510C
Roll raised
60 min after start of cast
THERMOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF STRAIGHTENER

ROLLER SURFACE TEMPERATURES
85
FIG. 57
FR 71-9 831
APPENDIX 1
7210.CA/808
MANUFACTURING OUTLINE
A.l
CONVENTIONAL LOW ALLOYED FORGED STEEL ROLLER
A.l.l
Material
The material is based on the German Specification Werkstoff No. 1.7337

(Kurzname 16CrMo44) with an aim composition of:C
Si
Mn
Cr
Mo
0.16
0.25
0.80
0.90
0.50
The steel is to be fully killed with aluminium to give a final grain size of
ASTM5-8.
The hydrogen level is to be reduced to a level commensurate with a
forging free from hairline cracks.
A.1.2
Manufacture
(a)
Forging
For roller forgings with a finish diameter of 380 mm or more the minimum
forging ratio for the roller body must be 3:1.
For forgings of a smaller
finish diameter the forging ratio should be 5:1.
(b)
Heat Treatment
If the cast has not been vacuum treated then it will be necessary to anneal the
forging to remove hydrogen.
Following proof machining the forging is to be
hardened and tempered to give the following minimum sample properties:Ultimate tensile strength at 20C
650 N/mm 2
0.2% proof strength at 20C
480 N/mm 2
Elongation at 20C
15%
325 N/mm 2
Charpy V-notch impact transition temperature as determined by

the 50% crystallinity fracture appearance (FATT) shall be
less than 0C
Charpy V-notch minimum impact energy at -20C to be 30 J
(A typical treatment could be oil harden from 930C and
temper at 625C furnace cooled.)
(c)
Finish Machining
Before finish machining confirm that all tests have been conducted and the
results agreed.
After machining to drawing ensure the roller is identified
and marked in a position and manner with a unique number as instructed by the
works.
A.1.3
(a)
Testing and Inspection

Chemical Testing
One sample analysis is required from every individual melting furnace cast.
grain size and hydrogen sample must be taken from the forging.
(b)
Mechanical Testing
The mechanical properties are to be gained from samples taken from the roll
neck extension forged and heat treated as an integral part of the forging.
Charpy samples are to have their notch running transverse to the longitudinal
86
FR 71-9 831
7210.CA/808
roller axis.
The tests are to be conducted on samples taken from the end of
one forging per heat treatment batch.
If forgings from more than one steel
melt are heat treated in any one batch then tests are required for each steel
melt.
In the event of any results being unacceptable then the remainder of
the test sample may be wired to the parent roller and reheat treated.
(c)
Ultrasonic Inspection
Each roller is to be tested ultrasonsically by the roller supplier in

accordance with British Standard BS4124 Part 1.
Each test is to be recorded
and the size and position of any defect is to be reported.
The roller is
rejected for defects with responses equivalent to, or greater than, a 6 mm flat
bottomed hole.
(d)
Surface Inspection
After finish machining the roller surface is to be inspected by magnetic

particle (British Standard BS4124 Part 2) or liquid penetrant (British Standard
BS4124 Part 3 ) .
Inspection of the central third of the barrel shall be 100%
and the remainder 20%.
Cracks of any description are not acceptable.
(e)
Hardness Test
The surface hardness is to be recorded on each roller at positions

corresponding to the roll centre and 100 mm from both roller ends.
The
instrument to be used and any hardness number correlation must be agreed.
hardness is to be 210-230 Vickers Hardness number.
A.2
HIGH STRENGTH, LOW ALLOYED FORGED STEEL ROLLER
A.2.1
Material
The
The material is based on the German Specification Werkstoff No. 1.8070

(Kurzname 21CrMoV5.11) with composition in the range:C
Si
Mn
0.17/
0.25
0.30/
0.60
0.30/
0.50
0.035
max.
0.02
max.
Ni
0.6
max.
Cr
Mo
1.20/
1.50
1.00/
1.20
0.25/
0.35
The steel is preferred vacuum treated to give a hydrogen level commensurate

with a forging free from hairline cracks.
A.2.2
Manufacture
(a)
Forging
As per A.1.2 (a) .

(b)
Heat Treatment
If the cast has not been vacuum treated then it will be necessary to anneal the
forging to remove hydrogen.
Following proof machining the forging is to be
hardened and tempered to give the following minimum sample properties:Ultimate tensile strength at 20C
750 N/mm 2
600 N/mm 2
Elongation
18%
400 N/mm 2
Charpy V-notch minimum longitudinal impact

energy at 20C
,-. ,
(A typical treatment could be water quench from 930c followed

by a temper at 680-700C.)
87
FR 71-9 831
.2.3
7210.CA/808
As per A.1.3 with the exception of the hardness range which will be 230-270 HV.
A.3
HIGH CHROMIUM FORGED STEEL ROLLER
A.3.1
Material
The material is based on the 12% chromium martensitic stainless steel.

composition will be in the range:C
0.10/
0.23
Si
Ni
0.15/
0.40
0.30/
0.04
max.
0.04
max.
0.30/
1.00
1.0
Cr
11.00/
13.50
The
Mo
0.70/
1.20
0.20/
0.35
This fine grained steel must have a hydrogen level commensurate with freedom
from hairline cracking.
A.3.2
Manufacture
(a)
Forging
As per A.1.2(a).
(b)
Heat Treatment
The steel is to be hardened and tempered to give the following typical

properties:Ultimate tensile strength at 20C
700 N/mm2
550 N/mm2
Elongation at 20C
18%
375 N/mm2
Charpy V-notch minimum longitudinal impact

energy at 20C
-n
(A typical treatment could be harden from 975C and

tempered at 700C.)
A.3.3
As per A.1.3 with the exception that the hardness range be 210-230 HV.
A.4
13% CHROMIUM WELD SURFACED ROLLER
A.4.1
Material
The surfaced roller should have a minimum depth of 6 mm of martensitic low

carbon 13% chromium steel within the composition range:C
0.10/
0.20
Si
0.30/
0.90
Mn
Ni
1.0/
2.0/
2.0
2.8
Cr
10.0/
14.0
Mo
1.3/
1.7
The composition is to be balanced to gives a final microstructure of not more

than 10% delta ferrite and no retained austenite.
88
FR 71-9 831
.4.2
Manufacture
(a)
Preparation
7210.CA/808
The roller shall be machined to remove all previous service damage and to
permit the required depth of sound weld deposit.
The depth shall be such as
to accommodate weld dilution and ensure the peripheral 6 mm is within
specification.
(b)
Welding
A preheat should be employed to prevent cracking of the arbor material.

An
interpass temperature should be used to maintain the weldment in the austenitic
state during welding.
(c)
Heat Treatment
Following welding the roller should be cooled to allow full transformation

prior to a stress relief/temper treatment to attain a through working depth
deposit hardness of 350-400 HV.
(A typical tempering temperature would be in the range 570-610C.)
A.4.3
Non-destructive Testing and Inspection
(a)
Surface Inspection
After finish machining the roller surface is to be inspected by magnetic

particle (BS4124 Part 2) or liquid penetrant (BS4124 Part 3 ) .
Cracks of any
description are not acceptable.
(b)
Ultrasonic Inspection
The deposit on each roller is to be tested ultrasonically (BS4124 Part 1 ) .

Lack of interrun and base metal fusion is not permitted.
Single defects
greater than 1 mm diameter 5 mm long are not allowed and aggregated defects
asre subject to approval.
(c)
Hardness Test
The surface hardness is to be recorded on each roller at positions

corresponding to the roll centre and 100 mm from each end.
The hardness must
be within the range 350-400 Vickers Hardness Number.
A.5
METAL SPRAY COATED ROLLERS
A.5.1
Material
The roller is to be spray fuse coated by a nickel-chromium-boron hardfacing

alloy.
A.5.2
Manufacture
(a)
Preparation
The roller shall be machined below finish diameter by an amount equivalent to

the thickness of the deposit.
The surface must be crack and defect-free. The
area to be coated must be grit blasted.
After blasting the area must not be
touched or contaminated.
(b)
Spraying
The roller is to be heated above 150C and spray coated whilst still warm.
(c)
Heat Treatment
The spray coating is to be fused to the roller.

order of 1050C is normally employed.)
89
(A surface temperature of the
7210.CA/808
FR 71-9 831
.5.3
Inspection
A close visual inspection is to ensure:(a)
Adequate fusion.
(b)
No surface blisters from contamination.
(c)
No porosity from gas evolution during spraying.
90
*1
ro
I
CD
'
"
TAPERED PLUG PRIOR TO FITTING OF THERMOCOUPLES
FIG. A2.1
o
>
v.
CO
03
00
CO
1 - sheathed thermocouples, 1mm diameter

Mineral - insulated incone
cemented into slots with epoxy resin
Tapered plug of roller material
Thermocouple lead
wires
Surface thermocouple fitted within small

tapered plug of roller material
Section A-A
50
1
S c a l e , mm
1
|NJ
FiFTAILS OF INSTRUMENTED ROLLER PLUGS
FIG. A2.2
(R2/1417)
>
00
OJ
FR 71-9 831
APPENDIX 2
7210.CA/808
DETAILS OF INSTRUMENTED ROLLER PLUGS
As described previously ( 10), the roller temperatures were measured by means

of thermocouples which were embedded at different depths below the roller
surface. The thermocouples were fitted into tapered plugs of roller material,
Fig. 19, which had been force-fitted into matching tapered holes machined in
the rollers.
A specially constructed frame was used to press the thermocouple plugs into the
rollers, Fig. 20.
Figure (A) shows one of the plugs after machining, before the thermocouples
were fitted. Figure (B) shows the plug arrangement after the thermocouples had
been installed. The temperatures below the roller surface was measured by
means of mineral-insulated sheathed thermocouples, 1 mm in diameter, which were
cemented with epoxy resin adhesive into the slots machined in the plug.
Inconel sheathing was selected due to its ability to be able to be bent
relatively without cracking.
The special thermocouple to measure the roller surface temperature, described
previously (p 10), was fitted within a small tapered plug which was pressed
into the main tapered plug. This surface thermocouple assembly was both
manufactured and fitted by the Nanmac Corporation, 9-11 Mayhew Street,
Framington Centre, Mass. 01701, USA.
93
FR 71-9 831
APPENDIX 3
7210.CA/808
ROLLER MODELLING : DETERMINATION OF INTERNAL

COOLING CONDITIONS
In the finite element modelling of roller performance, (p 15), the coefficients

of heat transfer between the walls of the internal cooling ducts of the rollers
have been derived assuming steady flow in straight circular pipes, Reference
A3.1. For the cooling ducts of rectangular cross-section of the scrolled
roller, Fig. 33, an equivalent circular pipe diameter. D E , has been assumed:4A
where D E = p
where A (m) = cross sectional

area of duct
P (m) = wetted perimeter
REFERENCE
A3.1
Kutateladze, S.S. and Borishanski, V.M., 'A Concise

Encyclopaedia of Heat Transfer'. Pergamon Press
(Translated from the Russian by J.B. Arthur)
94
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Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

Commission of the European Communities

technical steel research

EVALUATION, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN

J. McCANN, P.G. STEVENS

>ECSC-EEC-Euratom, Brussels Luxembourg

Evaluation, Development and Design of Transport Rollers

British Steel Corporation

British Steel Corporation

ROLLER TRIALS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

A system of performance monitoring was established involving the physical and

SUPPORTING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

An attempt has been made to develop laboratory tests to evaluate candidate

ROLLER TRIALS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF ROLLER DESIGNS

Summary of Intended Research Programme

SUPPORTING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Roller Trials and Performance Evaluation

Supporting Research and Development

Hardness of Rollers Used in Lackenby Slab Caster Plant Trials

Wear of Rollers Used in Lackenby Slab Caster Plant Trials

Roller Hardness After Service

Results of Roller Condition Monitoring in Structured Works Trials

Quasi Steady State Temperature During Uninterrupted Casting (Trial 1)

Quasi Steady State Temperature During Uninterrupted Casting (Trial 2)

Quasi Steady State Temperature During Uninterrupted Casting (Trial 3)

Quasi Steady State Temperature During Uninterrupted Casting (Trial 4)

Physical Parameters for Rollers Studied by Mathematical Models

Chemical Compositions of Candidate Roller Materials

Fracture Properties of Candidate Roller Materials

Influence of Temperature on the Fracture Properties of

Mechanical Properties of Candidate Roller Materials

Mechanical Properties at Elevated Temperatures

Typical Plant Layout

Schematic Representation of Roll Designs

Results of Metallographic Examination Using Replica Techniques

Surface Replicas of Withdrawal Straightener Slab Casting Rollers

Crack Depths in Straightener/Withdrawal Segments

Relationship Between Roller Failure Mechanisms and Position in Machine

Roller Showing Enclosure of Grooves by Lateral Expansion of the Surface

Fracture Face of a Roller Showing Final Failure from a Small Shallow

Fracture Face of a Roller Showing Final Failure from a Deep Crack

Thermal Cracking in the Bore of a Roller

Plastic Deformation and Scale on the Surface of a Roller

Deep Thermal Shock and Thermal Fatigue Cracking Beneath Plastic

Showing Surface Texture and Wear of 16CrMo44 Roller

Showing Cracking Associated with Weld Bead Overlap

Hardness Survey - Ravenscraig Strand Guide Roll Segment Trial After

Surface Replica Showing the Morphology of the Delta Ferrite Found in

Temper Response for 12% Chromium Weldment

Layout of Ravenscraig No. 3 Machine

Instrumented Plug Prior to Force Fitting Into Roll

Roll Temperatures - 1850 229 mm Strand

Roll Temperatures - 1850 229 mm Strand

Roll Temperatures During Casting

Comparison of Water Spray Strand Cooling and Air Mist Strand

Comparison of Conventional Water Spray Strand Cooling and Air Mist

Typical Variation in Roller Surface Temperature During a

Comparison of Surface Temperature for Two Roller Revolutions in

Comparison of Typical Variations in Roller Surface Temperatures and

Instrumented Fixed Stop in Segment