1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

1.1 Genetically Modified Food (GMF)
World Health Organisation defined Genetically Modified Foods (GMFs) as the foods that
produced from or using Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs). Genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) referred as organisms such as animals, plants or microorganisms in
which the genetic material (DNA) has been artificially manipulated or altered in a way
that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The process which
involves laboratory works involves the knowledge of modern biotechnology, recombinant
DNA technology or genetic engineering. This technology allows selected individual genes
to be transferred from one organism into another, also between nonrelated species.
1.2 Purpose of GMFs
Genetically Modified Foods are developed and marketed as there is demand and some
perceived advantage to the food producer and also the consumer. GMF intended to
product a food product with a lower price but with greater benefit such as in the terms of
durability or nutritional value or both. GMF crops could decrease the cost of production
and have positive effects on the environment in both developed and developing countries.
The advancement of GMF also greatly contributed in agricultural industry. Some benefits
of genetic engineering in agriculture especially in plants are:
i.
Increased crop yields
ii.
Reduced costs for food or drug production
iii.
Reduced need for pesticides
iv. Enhanced nutrient composition and food quality
v. Resistance to pests and disease
vi.
Greater food security and medical benefits to the world's growing population.
vii.
Developing crops that mature faster and tolerate extreme environmental condition,
allowing plants to grow in conditions where they might not otherwise flourish
A number of animals have also been genetically engineered to increase yield and decrease
susceptibility to disease. For example:
i.
Cattle have been enhanced to exhibit resistance to mad cow disease. (United States
ii.

Department of Energy, 2007).

Salmon have been engineered to grow larger and mature faster.

1.3 Method of GMFs Production

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GMFs are made through a process known as genetic engineering. Genes of interest are
transferred from one organism to another. Two primary methods currently exist for
introducing transgenes into plant genomes.
i.

The first involves a device called a gene gun. The DNA to be introduced into the
plant cells is coated onto tiny particles. These particles are then physically shot
onto plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off and is incorporated into the DNA of

ii.

the recipient plant.

The second method uses a bacterium to introduce the gene(s) of interest into the
plant DNA.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of how GMF are made

1.4 Example of GMF Application
Some example of GMF application are summarize in Table 1 below:
Table 1: Examples of GMOs Resulting from Agricultural Biotechnology (Adapted from
Phillips, T., 2008)
Genetically

Organisms

Genetic Altered
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Conferred Trait
Insect resistance

Corn

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally-occurring soil

borne bacterium that is found worldwide. There are
several strains of Bt, each with differing Cry proteins.
Proteins have been found with insecticidal activity
against the European corn borer (Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac,
Cry9C). Most of the Bt corn hybrids, targeted against
European corn borer, produce only the Cry1Ab
protein; a few produce the Cry1Ac protein or the
Cry9C protein. Modifying a corn plant to produce its
own Bt protein overcomes these problems. Plants
produce the protein in tissues where larvae feed.
Finally, the protein is present whenever newly-hatched
larvae try to feed, so the timing of Bt application is not
a problem. The result is an efficient and consistent

Herbicide

built-in system to deliver Bt proteins to the target pest.

Glyphosate herbicide kills plants by blocking the

Soybean

tolerance

EPSPS

enzyme,

an

enzyme

involved

in

the

biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, vitamins and

many secondary plant metabolites. There are several
ways by which crops can be modified to be
glyphosate-tolerant. One strategy is to incorporate a
soil bacterium gene, Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
strain CP4 that produces a glyphosate-tolerant form of
EPSPS. Another way is to incorporate a different soil
bacterium gene that produces a glyphosate degrading
enzyme.
Vitamin enrichment

Rice

Golden rice is a variety of rice

(Oryza

sativa)

produced

through genetic engineering to

biosynthesize beta-carotene, a
precursor of vitamin A, in the
edible parts of rice. The
research was conducted with
the

goal

of

producing

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fortified food to be grown and

consumed in areas with a
shortage of dietary vitamin A.
A key breakthrough was the
discovery

that

phytoene

desaturase

single
gene

(bacterial Crtl) can be used to

produce

lycopene

from

phytoene in GM tomato, rather

than having to introduce the
multiple carotene desaturases
that are normally used by
higher plants. Lycopene is
then cyclized to beta-carotene
by the endogenous cyclase in
Golden Rice.Golden rice was
created by transforming rice
with only two beta-carotene
biosynthesis genes:
i.

psy

(phytoene

synthase) from daffodil

(Narcissus
ii.

pseudonarcissus)
crtl
(carotene
desaturase) from the
soil bacterium Erwinia

Faster maturation

Salmon

uredovora
A type 1 growth hormone gene injected into fertilized
fish eggs results in 6.2% retention of the vector at one
year of age, as well as significantly increased growth
rates. The GM eggs hatched two days earlier than the
non-GM cohort (4 versus 6 days). GM salmon had
reached a size more typical of two-year-old non-GM
salmon raised in the hatchery. The one-year-old GM
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fish had also passed from the parr to smolt stage of

development, while this transformation took two years
for the non-GM salmon. The GM salmon became
sexually mature at two years of age, whereas the nonGM salmon required three years to reach this stage of
development.

1.5 Debate on GMF

There are a number of ethical concerns over genetically modified (GM) foods and these have
all affected public support of the products. The issues have also triggered controversy and
regulations around GM foods and any company that produces these crops or products.
Concerns range from the environment to risks to our food web or issues concerning disease,
allergies and contamination.
1.5.1 Benefits: The Acceptance of GMF
i.

Economical
Farmers were convinced that they stand to make enormous profits from growing GM
crops. Initially, the GM crops are verycostly but money can be saved on other
expenditure such as on pesticides. To produce the GM crops, modern biotechnology is
used which requires highly skilled people and sophisticated and expensive
equipment. Large companies need considerable investments in laboratories, equipment
and human resources, hence the reason why GM crops are more expensive for farmers
than traditional crops. However GM crops are a far better option as it takes a shorter
time to produce the desired product, it is precise and there are no unwanted genes.

ii.

Herbicide-resistant crops
GM crops can be produced to be herbicide resistant. This means that farmers could
spray these crops with herbicide and kill the weeds, without affecting other the crops.
This can reduce the amount of herbicide used which subsequently reduces the costs for
farmers and consumers. Biotechnology companies are even experimenting with crops
that can be genetically modified to be drought and salt-tolerant, or less reliant on
fertilizer, opening up new areas to be farmed and leading to increased productivity.
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iii.

Better quality foods

Animals that genetically modified can be leaner, grow faster, and need less food. They
could also be modified to have special characteristics, such as greater milk production,
high nutritional content of vitamins, lower cholesterol level and suitable for people
with certain allergies. These modifications contribute to the improvement of
productivity for farmers and ultimately lower costs for the consumer. Modified crops
could perhaps prevent outbreaks such as foot and mouth disease, which has devastated
many farmers and local economies.

1.5.2 Risks: The Rejection of GMF

The major concerns of those who oppose GM foods focused on the:
i.

Environmental damage
The problem with GM crops is that effect in the ecosystem is still unknown. The
genetic structure of any living organism is complex and GM crop tests focus on shortterm effects. Not all the effects of introducing a foreign gene into the intricate genetic
structure of an organism are tested. There is always the possibility that GM crops
might not be able to be destroyed once they spread into the natural ecosystem. In
Europe, for example, a strain of sugar beet that was genetically modified to be
resistant to a particular herbicide has accidently assimilated the genes to resist another.
This was discovered when farmers attempted to destroy the crop in Britain, France and
Netherlands, where it was being tested, and 0.5% of the crop survived.

ii.

Lack of biodiversity
When a GMF is first introduced, the seeds are usually derived from a single strain. If
this crop becomes greatly popular, it will result with multiple farmers planting one and
only one strain or variety of the crop, leaving all of the new crops exposed to disease.
For example, the Rainbow papaya, the strain chosen to receive the transgene for
ringspot-virus resistance turned out to be vulnerable to the blackspot fungus. The
problem can be avoided by breeding the GM trait into several varieties using
conventional methods. GMFs are not the only crops lacking biodiversity, nor are lack
of biodiversity a new concern. This would likely be less of a problem if more GMF
companies were able to enter into the market providing more variety of crops, or if the

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GMF crops could be allowed to hybridize with other strains. In other words, it's a
problem caused by the restrictions on GMF crops.

2.0 CONTENT
2.1 Consideration of Current Health Factors and Concerns When Developing New Food
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are a broad group of plants, animals, and bacteria
that are engineered for a wide variety of applications ranging from agricultural production to
scientific research. The types of potential hazards posed by GMOs vary according to the type
of organism being modified and its intended application. Most of the concern surrounding
GMOs relates to their potential for negative effects on the environment and human health.
Because GMOs that could directly affect human health are primarily products that can enter
the human food supply, this website focuses on genetically modified food. To date, the only
types of products that have been approved for human consumption in the U.S. are genetically
modified plants (FDA website).
All genetically modified foods that have been approved are considered by the
government to be as safe as their traditional counterparts and are generally unregulated (FDA
website). However, there are several types of potential health effects that could result from the
insertion of a novel gene into an organism. Health effects of primary concern to safety
assessors are production of new allergens, increased toxicity, decreased nutrition, and
antibiotic resistance (Bernstein et al., 2003).
i.

Food Allergy
Food Allergy affects approximately 5% of children and 2% of adults in the U.S. and is
a significant public health threat .Allergic reactions in humans occur when a normally
harmless protein enters the body and stimulates an immune response .If the novel
protein in a GM food comes from a source that is known to cause allergies in humans
or a source that has never been consumed as human food, the concern that the protein
could elicit an immune response in humans increases. Although no allergic reactions to
GM food by consumers have been confirmed, in vitro evidence suggesting that some

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GM products could cause an allergic reaction has motivated biotechnology companies

to discontinue their development.

ii.

Increased Toxicity
Most plants produce substances that are toxic to humans. Most of the plants that
humans consume produce toxins at levels low enough that they do not produce any
adverse health effects. There is concern that inserting an exotic gene into a plant could
cause it to produce toxins at higher levels that could be dangerous to humans. This
could happen through the process of inserting the gene into the plant. If other genes in
the plant become damaged during the insertion process it could cause the plant to alter
its production of toxins. Alternatively, the new gene could interfere with a metabolic
pathway causing a stressed plant to produce more toxins in response. Although these
effects have not been observed in GM plants, they have been observed through
conventional breeding methods creating a safety concern for GM plants. For example,
potatoes conventionally bred for increased diseased resistance have produced higher
levels of glycoalkaloids.

iii.

Decreased Nutritional Value

A genetically modified plant could theoretically have lower nutritional quality than its
traditional counterpart by making nutrients unavailable or indigestible to humans. For
example, phytate is a compound common in seeds and grains that binds with minerals
and makes them unavailable to humans. An inserted gene could cause a plant to
produce higher levels of phytate decreasing the mineral nutritional value of the plant.
Another example comes from a study showing that a strain of genetically modified
soybean produced lower levels of phytoestrogen compounds, believed to protect
against heart disease and cancer, than traditional soybeans.

iv.

Antibiotic resistance
In recent years health professionals have become alarmed by the increasing number of
bacterial strains that are showing resistance to antibiotics. Bacteria develop resistance
to antibiotics by creating antibiotic resistance genes through natural mutation.
Biotechnologists use antibiotic resistance genes as selectable markers when inserting
new genes into plants. In the early stages of the process scientists do not know if the
target plant will incorporate the new gene into its genome. By attaching the desired
gene to an antibiotic resistance gene the new GM plant can be tested by growing it in a
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solution containing the corresponding antibiotic. If the plant survives scientists know
that it has taken up the antibiotic resistance gene along with the desired gene. There is
concern that bacteria living in the guts of humans and animals could pick up an
antibiotic resistance gene from a GM plant before the DNA becomes completely
digested. It is not clear what sort of risk the possibility of conferring antibiotic
resistance to bacteria presents. No one has ever observed bacteria incorporating new
DNA from the digestive system under controlled laboratory conditions. The two types
of antibiotic resistance genes used by biotechnologists are ones that already exist in
bacteria in nature so the process would not introduce new antibiotic resistance to
bacteria. Never the less it is a concern and the FDA is encouraging biotechnologists to
phase out the practice of using antibiotic resistance genes.
v.

Gene transfer.
Gene transfer from GM foods to cells of the body or to bacteria in the gastrointestinal
tract would cause concern if the transferred genetic material badly affects human
health. This condition related to antibiotic resistance genes that used as markers when
creating GMOs, were to be transferred. Even though the possibility of transfer is low,
the use of gene transfer technology that does not involve antibiotic resistance genes is
encouraged.

vi.

Outcrossing.
Outcrossing referred to the migration of genes from GM plants into conventional crops
or related species in the wild as well as the mixing of crops derived from conventional
seeds with GM crops. This may cause an indirect effect on food safety and food
security. Some cases that have been reported where GM crops permitted for animal
feed or industrial use were traced at low levels in the products proposed for human
consumption. Some countries have approved strategies to reduce mixing, including a
clear separation of the fields within which GM crops and conventional crops are
grown.

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Figure 2: Growing Evidence of Harm from GMO

Figure 3: Growing Evidence of Harm from GMO

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2.2 Changing of Consumer Lifestyle on Food Product Development

Food product development needs to be based on consumers needs and wishes to be
successful. Factors that have become relevant in respect to changing in consumer lifestyles in
the world and their impacts upon worldwide food product development are presented
discussed like:

Cultural influences
Aging and health issues
Busy lifestyles
Food safety and ethical issues
Environmental issues

i. Cultural Influences
Culture has been defined by Hofstede and Hofstede (2005) as the collective programming
of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from
another. Harrison and Huntington also added to the culture definition that the ideas that
distinguish one group of people from another must be socially inherited and customary;
and they must actually be constitutive of different ways of life. Common examples of
factors that usually shape a culture include religion, behavior, relation with nature, relation
with other humans, and traditions. In short, cultural factors are coming from the different
components related to culture or cultural environment from which the consumer belongs
and influence the consumers behavior on food choices.
In respect to this factor, food industries have development various food products that
fit into consumer market from different parts of the world. For instance, McDonalds is a
brilliant example of adaptation to the specificities of each culture and each market. Well
aware of the importance to have an offer with specific products to meet the needs and
tastes of consumers from different cultures, the fast-food giant has for example: a
McBaguette in France (with french baguette and Dijon mustard), a Chicken Maharaja Mac
and a Masala Grill Chicken in India (with Indian spices) as well as a Mega Teriyaki Burger
(with teriyaki sauce) or Gurakoro (with macaroni gratin and croquettes) in Japan. While all
the ingredients used by McDonalds in arabic and muslim countries are certified halal. The
fast food chain is not offering, of course, any product with bacon or pork.
ii. Aging and Health Issues
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The number of older persons - defined as aged 60 and over is growing in virtually all
countries, and worldwide trends are likely to continue. In 2002 there were an estimated 605
million older persons in the world, nearly 400 million of whom were living in low-income
countries. According to WHO (2012), by 2025, the number of older persons worldwide is
expected to reach more than 1.2 billion, with about 840 million of these in low-income
countries. As populations in high-income countries age, it becomes more apparent that
investments in ageing and health, including nutrition are essential, ensuring that older
persons continue to contribute productively to society as workers, volunteers and providers
instead of being only recipients of care. Besides, many of the diseases suffered by older
persons are the result of dietary factors, some of which have been operating since infancy.
For example, osteoporosis and associated fractures are a major cause of illness, disability
and death, and are a huge medical expense.
In the last decades, consumer demands in the field of food production have changed
considerably. Consumers more and more believe that foods contribute directly to their
health (Mollet & Rowland, 2002; Young, 2000). Today foods are not intended to only
satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutritionrelated diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad,
2003 and Roberfroid, 2000b). In this regard, functional foods play an outstanding role. A
food marketed as functional contains added, technologically developed ingredients with a
specific health benefit (Niva, 2007).
Most early developments of functional foods were those of fortified with vitamins
and/or minerals such as vitamin C, vitamin E, folic acid, zinc, iron, and calcium (Sloan,
2000). Subsequently, the focus shifted to foods fortified with various micronutrients such
as omega-3 fatty acid, phytosterol, and soluble fiber to promote good health or to prevent
diseases such as cancers (Sloan, 2002). More recently, food companies have taken further
steps to develop food products that offer multiple health benefits in a single food (Sloan,
2004). Functional foods have been developed in virtually all food categories such as
probiotics, prebiotics, functional meats, functional eggs and etc.

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iii. Busy Lifestyles

These changing consumer needs were a result of major macro-economic changes that
occurred worldwide in the last few decades. Increased female participation in the
workforce, increased incomes and general economic growth has resulted in many cash
rich, time poor consumers. Busy lifestyle encouraged the convenient food products.
Forbairt (1998) defines convenient foods as all products which have undergone secondary
processing including ready meals, processed meats, pizzas, pies, savoury products, icecream and confectionery products, dairy desserts, soups and other prepared consumer
ready products. In a study of Consumer Watch (2002), convenience was associated with
reducing the input required from consumers in either food shopping, preparation, cooking
or cleaning after the meal.
A case study has been done in Ireland, between 1986 and 1996 the number of couples
where both partners worked increased from 108,000 to 226,900 (CSO, 1986 and CSO,
1996). Dual-income households are busy families or couples with somewhat larger
disposable income; an implication of this has again increased the use of convenience foods.
Gofton (1995) suggests that in these households the family is often served convenience
foods when parents are too tired and/or do not have enough time to prepare a home cooked
meal. McKenzie (1986) reported that although working women enhance the financial
circumstances of a household, a situation of time poverty may develop. This leads to less
time available for household chorus and meal preparation.
iv. Food Safety and Ethical Issues
Henson and Traill (1993) define food safety as the inverse of food riskthe probability of
not suffering some hazard from consuming a specific food. Potential undesirable residues
in foods span a broad range, from natural (e.g. mycotoxins) and environmental
contaminants (e.g. dioxins) to agro-chemicals (e.g. nitrates and pesticides), veterinary
drugs, growth promoters, packaging components, and many more. Microbiological
considerations are an even greater challenge to safety of food because potentially harmful
microorganisms have the ability either to grow rapidly from very low numbers in food or
to proliferate in the human body once ingested (Tent, 1999).
Genetic food engineering makes foods tolerant to herbicides and resistant to insect
damage via the incorporation of bacterial genes. A large number of novel foods or food
ingredients, such as new-leaf potatoes, soya, mazine and oilseed rape have been derived
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through genetic modifications (Moseley, 1999 and Robiston, 1997). At the ethical level,
there are concerns about scientists playing God, such that genetic manipulation breaches
the natural boundaries between species that nature has established through the process of
evolution. Moreover, there are considerations that genetic manipulation of the technology
is expensive and will not be available to poor farming communities and that this may
even distort the economies of third world countries (Moseley, 1999).
At the consumer level, the primary concern about genetically engineered foods is
their safety, even though novel foods undergo extensive assessment for safety before
approval is granted (Robiston, 1997). There are also worries about the future safety of the
technology, such as the creation of super-weeds and the development of serious illness.
Thus far, there have been no reports of illness from the consumption of genetically
modified foods (Moseley, 1999). However, consumers around the world differ in their
concerns about genetic food engineering. Hence, food manufacturers are required to make
a clear label on the GM (genetic modified) food products for consumers recognition.
v. Environmental Issues
Environmental factors are things that help reduce the impact of food production on the
environment and might cause someone to choose to buy a product. For example, locally
produced food doesn't have to be transported as far, so less carbon dioxide gas, CO 2 is
produced. This means there is less of an impact on the environment. Contemporary food
production and consumption cannot be regarded as sustainable and raises problems with its
wide scope involving diverse actors.
Moreover, in the face of demographic change and a growing global population,
sustainability problems arising from food systems will likely become more serious in the
future. For example, agricultural production must deal with the impacts of climate change,
increasingly challenging land-use conflicts, and rising health and social costs on both
individual and societal levels. The unsustainability of current arrangements arises from the
industrialization and globalization of agriculture and food processing, the shift of
consumption patterns toward more dietary animal protein, the emergence of modern food
styles that entail heavily processed products, the growing gap on a global scale between
rich and poor, and the paradoxical lack of food security amid an abundance of food.
In regard to the above issues, the world have diverted to the practice of sustainable
food consumption and production. Sustainable consumption and production in food and
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agriculture is a consumer-driven, holistic concept that refers to the integrated

implementation of sustainable patterns of food consumption and production, respecting the
carrying capacities of natural ecosystems. There are food-policy instruments available and
currently in use in EU member states to promote sustainable food systems as summarized
in Table 1.
Table 2: Framework of policy instruments to promote sustainable food systems.

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As many consumers shifted to vegetarianism, this opens the market for vegan foods
which believe to help to reduce meat consumption and reduce environmental impacts.

For

example, an article in Marketing Week (http://www.marketingweek.co.uk 2011) mentions that

UK consumers can relate to flexible vegetarianism or Flexitarianism and that it is a solution
for many who want to reduce their meat consumption without giving up meat totally.
However, around half of the consumers surveyed stated health and reducing their grocery bills
as the main reasons for buying meat free products, whereby only 4 % stated environmental
reasons. Quorn has positioned itself as a non - threatening alternative to meat, as it can easily
be used as a substitute for meat in everyday meals without too much trouble. It has a 22 %
share of the meat free market. Quorn (microbe-protein) shows a significant development of
sustainable food production by application of biotechnology and microbiology.
Besides, advances in food processing and packaging play a primary role in keeping the
food safe to be consumed. Packaging protects food between processing and usage by the
consumer. Following usage, food packaging must be removed in an environmentally
responsible manner. Packaging technology must therefore balance food protection with other
issues, including energy and material costs, heightened social and environmental
consciousness, and strict regulations on pollutants and disposal of municipal solid waste
(MSW).
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of GMF
The number of countries growing genetically modified crops has increased in recent years
causing much debate over the safety of these products. Supporters claim it will feed the world
and promote better health and ecological welfare, while others believe the food contains risks
to human health. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) include crops, vegetables and fruit
that have been created using genetic engineering methods. Scientists combine desirable genes
from various species to create new genetically-altered crosses with enhanced nutritional,
productive and ecological value. This differs from traditional breeding in that genetic
transference between unrelated species does not occur biologically in nature.
The process of combining inter-species genes, which is called recombinant DNA
technology, does not have the checks and balances that are imposed by nature in traditional
breeding. Because of this there is a risk of genetic instability. This means that no one can
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make any accurate predictions about the long-term effects of GMOs on human beings and the
environment. Extensive testing in this regard is either very expensive or impractical, and there
is still a great deal about the process that scientists do not understand.
This is the crux of the matter in the ongoing debate of GMOs. Food is an emotional
topic. It matters a great deal to all of us. We are what we eat after all. The subject is also of
vested interest for the corporations that manufacture genetically modified seeds and
agricultural technologies. The arguments are intense and passionate.
2.3.1 Advantages of GMF
There are many advantages in application of GMF towards human and environment. Some
GMO foods have been modified to make them more resistant to insect pests. The University
of California in San Diego reports that a toxic bacterium can be added to crops to make them
insect repellent, yet safe for human use. This can reduce the amount of pesticide chemicals
used on the plants, thus potentially reducing exposure to pesticides. Oklahoma State
University reports that the increase of GMO crops and animals often requires less chemicals,
time and tools, and may help to reduce environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions
and soil erosion. This can improve the general beauty and health of the environment
surrounding farms and contribute to the sustaining of better air and water quality, which can
indirectly benefit your personal well-being. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations reports that some GMO foods have been engineered to be more nutritious in
terms of mineral or vitamin content. Not only does this help you get the nutrients you need, it
can also play a significant role in battling malnutrition in the developing world. The United
Nations advises that vitamin A-enhanced rice is helping to reduce global vitamin A
deficiencies. Other advantages are:

Crops are more productive and have a larger yield.

Could potentially offer more nutrition and flavor (although this is debated).

A possibility that they could eliminate allergy-causing properties in some foods.

Inbuilt resistance to pests, weeds and disease.

More capable of thriving in regions with poor soil or adverse climates.

More environment friendly as they require less herbicides and pesticides.

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Foods are more resistant and stay ripe for longer so they can be shipped long distances
or kept on shop shelves for longer periods.

As more GMO crops can be grown on relatively small parcels of land, they are an
answer to feeding growing world populations.

2.3.2 Disadvantages of GMF

Although GMF give many benefits to us, it also has its negative impact to us and
environment. GMO foods can present significant allergy risks to people, according to Brown
University. Genetic modification often mixes or adds proteins that weren't indigenous to the
original plant or animal, causing new allergic reactions in the human body. In some cases,
proteins from an organism that you're allergic to may be added to an organism that you
weren't originally allergic to, prompting the same allergic reaction experienced from the first
organism. Some GMO foods have had antibiotic features built into them to make them
immune or resistant to diseases or viruses, according to Iowa State University. When you eat
them, these antibiotic markers persist in your body and can make actual antibiotic medications
less effective. The university warns that such ingestion of GMO foods and regular exposure to
antibiotics may be contributing to the decreased effectiveness of antibiotic drugs that is being
noticed in hospitals around the world. A constant risk of GMO foods is that the modified
genes of the organisms may escape into the wild. Brown University warns that herbicideresistant genes from commercial crops may cross into the wild weed population, thus creating
"superweeds" that are impossible to kill with herbicides. A related risk is that the escape of
genetically enhanced animals and vegetation can create new super-organisms that can
outcompete natural animal and plant populations to drive certain species into extinction. Other
disadvantages are:

Scientists can choose which genes to manipulate, but they don't yet know where in the
DNA to precisely insert these genes and they have no way of controlling gene
expression. Genes don't work in isolation, changing a few could change the whole
picture, with unpredictable results.

The use of genetically modified food should not be encouraged without research into
the risks.

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Not labeling is wrong and unfair to the consumers who should have the right to know
what they are buying so they can decide for themselves whether they want to buy the
food or not. Even if health safety factors are not an issue, some people might have
moral or religious objections. They should not have to eat GMOs if they don't want to.

Genetically modified crops pose a risk to food diversity as the plants are much more
dominant.

Herbicide-resistant and pesticide-resistant crops could give rise to super-weeds and

super-pests that would need newer, stronger chemicals to destroy them.

GMO crops cross-pollinate with nearby non-GMO plants and could create ecological
problems. If this were to happen with GMO foods containing vaccines, antibiotics,
contraceptives and so on, it would very well turn into a human health nightmare.

The claim of ending world hunger with GMOs is false. World hunger is not caused by
a shortage of food production, but by sheer mismanagement, and lack of access to
food brought about by various social, financial and political causes.

GMO technology companies patent their crops and also engineer crops so that
harvested grain germs are incapable of developing. This is not empowering to
impoverished Third World farmers, who cannot save seeds for replanting and have to
buy expensive seeds from the companies every year. The new technology also
interferes with traditional agricultural methods which may be more suited to local
environments.

GMOs are not the answer to world hunger and health. Instead we should focus on
improving organic agricultural practices which are kinder to the earth and healthier for
humans.

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3.0 CONCLUSION
Since the first introduction of GM Foods which is herbicide-resistant soybeans on the market
in the mid-1990s, there has been a great concern and debate about GMF among scientist,
politicians, activists and consumers, especially in Europe country. In the term of food,
consumers curious about the safety of the food because they aware that GMF applied modern
biotechnology to create new species. Medicinal practitioners are concerned that many
consumers are ready to accept this biotechnology advancement as beneficial for their health
such as vaccines, medicines with improved treatment potential or increased safety. The
potential for GM in agricultural result in bigger yields per cultivated area should lead to lower
prices of agricultural food products. However, public concern arises and focuses on the risk
side of the risk-benefit like the potential environmental impacts and public health effects of
GMOs. This also had an impact on discussions and debate about the acceptability of GM
foods. Consumers have questioned the validity of risk assessments, both with regard to
consumer health and environmental risks, focusing in particular on long-term effects. Other
topics debated by consumer organizations have included allergenicity and antimicrobial
resistance. Consumer concerns have triggered a discussion on the desirability of labeling GM
foods, allowing for an informed choice of consumers. Although the benefits of genetically
modified foods cannot be overlooked, precautionary measures must be taken before
transgenic crops conquest the food industry. It is imperative that we consider the health of the
human population as well as the good of the environment before we put such potentially
harmful species into our fragile environment. More research and sterner regulations and
guidelines must be implemented in the process of genetic modification in order to assure the
safety of our earth and its populations.

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