Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A COURSE
OF
PURE GEOMETRY
CLAY, Manager
LONDON
EDINBURGH
CO., Ltd.
A COURSE
OF
PURE GEOMETRY
CONTAINING A COMPLETE GEOMETRICAL
TREATMENT OF THE PROPERTIES OF
BY
H.
E.
ASKWITH,
D.D.
Cambridge
at
1917
Reprinted
1911
Netc Edition
1917
n X.
PREFACE
npHIS
work
is
in
1903.
it
initio,
on
This
is
The curves
usually defined by
means
of their focus
and
are
directrix property,
Here the
is
is
it
freely used,
but the
fact
that
mind
Many
is
kept constantl}^
of the student.
Nor
is
indicated
first.
(p. xii)
But
it is
this
is
ledge
are
be covered
circle.
of cross
ratios,
harmonic
/>
section,
A /\ C\ *\ *%
involution
and the
"
and the advantage gained by the student who from the beginning sees the Conic Sections whole, as he does when they
more
mind
than compensates
for
hope
that,
Cambridge University
many
But
I shall
if I
may be informed
if
misprints to
be grateful
DiCKLEBURGH ReCTORY,
SCOLE,
Norfolk.
September 1917.
H. A.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
Vlll
CHAPTER V
CEOSS-EATIOS
PAGE
.....
Definition
six
CHAPTER
....
47
48
50
54
VI
PEESPECTIVE
............
Definition
62
Triangles in perspective
64
CHAPTER
VII
HARMONIC SECTION
Definition and properties of harmonic ranges
Harmonic property
Harmonic property
58
'.60
....
....
...
of pole
CHAPTER
71
74
75
VIII
INVOLUTION
Definition
and
80
83
Involution projective
Involution' properties of the circk'
Orthogonal involution
Pair of orthogonal X'ays in every involution pencil
.84
....
85
86
CHAPTER IX
THE CONIC SECTIONS
Definitions
........
90
91
Projective projjerties
92
93
94
CONTENTS
IX
PAGE
Parallel chords
95
96
97
(1)
Parabola
(2)
Ellipse
101
(3)
Hyperbola
102
106
CHAPTER X
PEOPEBTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS
and tangent with
Intersection of chord
directrix
....
108
110
Pair of tangents.
111
The Normal
113
Latus rectum
Carnot's theorem
114
Newton's theorem
117
Some
116
US
applications
Circle of curvature
Conic through
foiu-
120
points of a quadrangl
121
CHAPTER
XI
THE PARABOLA
Elementary properties
Tangent and normal
126
127
Pair of tangents
130
132
Diameters
134
Circle of curvature
138
CHAPTER
XII
THE ELLIPSE
Sum
of focal distance;
constant
144
145
Pair of tangents
150
Director circle
150
Conjugate diameters
151
Auxiliary circle
153
156
Circle of curvature
158
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XIII
THE HYPERBOLA
I'ACiE
Form
of curve
163
164
164
On
Pair of tangents
.166
168
Director circle
169
170
Asymptotic properties
171
Conjugate diameters
174
Circle of curvature
.187
CHAPTER XIV
THE EECTANGULAR HYPEEBOLA
Conjugate diameters
192
Perpendicular diameters
....
193
194
196
CHAPTER XV
OllTHOGONAL PEOJECTION
201
Principles
Fundamental propositions
The
....
202
205
CHAPTER XVI
CROSS-EATIO PEOPEETIES OF CONICS
constant
210
theorem
Brianchon's theorem
214
{ABCD)
Pascal's
....
215
215
.216
CHAPTER XVII
EECIPEOCATION
220
Principles
its reciprocal
224
227
CONTENTS
XI
.......
....
.......
..........
is
a circle
PAGE
228
231
234
236
Reciprocal triangles
237
CfTAPTER XVIII
CmCULAE
POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
........
.........
........
......
.......
The
Two
Generalising by projection
242
243
244
246
248
249
CHAPTER XIX
INVERSION
...........
..........
Inversion of sphere
256
258
259
Feuerbach's theorem
262
CHAPTER XX
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
..........
.........
.......'
Horaothetic figures
two
circles
267
270
271
272
Miscellaneous E.xamples
276
Index
285
Chapter
IX
this
will
work as a
be able
firsi?' t'
xl
to j^ro^^^r" to
eight chapters
69
^-
"'^
CHAPTER
iy
^1/(66%
meant
straight
4.
The
'
(c)
its
xhe centre of
middle
medians.
'y
through
^ps<5ing
its
is
meant the
circle
vertices.
the triangle.
that the
circumcentre
is
the
drawn through
tiiangle
The
(a)
incircle of a triangle is
triangle.
An
(e)
ecv.xle of
*"'
..tie
An
(i.e
a triangle
is
ecentre
of an ecircle
is
is
called
an
ecentre.
angles.
A.
G.
Sd.VK, PPOI'ERTIES
1^
(/)
Two
OF THE TRIANGLE
and angles
and angles of the
ABC be
by the notation
Proposition.
2.
a triangle on
to
orthocentre)
and
fact
A ABO = A A'B'C.
'The
peiyendiculars
from
the vertices
of
tJie
from
Through the
The
triangle
ABC, and
A'B'C
Hence the
first
is
ABC
proved.
Now
let
the circumcentre of
ABC.
Draw OD perpendicular
Then
since
P is
to EC.
PA
Hence
3.
^P is
A'B'C.
two similar triangles
twice OD.
Definition.
It
will
Prop.
The
circle
Let D, E,
ABC,
centre,
L,
M,
to the vertices
of the triangle.
the feet of
its
perpendiculars,
the circum-
the orthocentre.
Join FD,
Then
F be
since
is
the circumcentre of
ALC,
/.ELA= ZEAL.
12
And
.-.
a like reason
for
ZFLA= ZFAL.
zFLE= zFAE
= Z FDE since AFDE is a parallelogram.
..
Similarly
is
M and N
lie
on this
DL, EM,
FN at
circle.
circle lies
right angles.
DEF.
on the circumcircle of
at
is
U the
middle
point,
OP.
Now join
DU and
The two
triangles
gr uent, so that
UD =
produce
it
meet
to
AP
in
X.
seen to be con-
Hence
And
BP
Y and
and CP.
The
circle
of the triangle.
is
proved.
thus defined
Its radius
is
is
known
DEF, which
is
similar to
ABC
is
is
the circum-
and of half
its linear
diuiensions.
DX = OA,
ODXA
for
is
figure wherein
a parallelogram.
triangle.
Prop.
6.
produced
to
ABC he
P being
the orthocentre.
Join
BH.
Then Z
of
/LACB.
Thus the
triangles
their angles at
BL
B equal,
common.
\-.PL = LH.
7.
Prop.
The feet of
ABC
any point Q
Let R,
figure.
S,
be the
Q'fAS
is
T and S
are right
angles.
.-.
^AT>S = zAQS
= complement
= complement
QAS
zQBG
of Z
of
(since
QAiJ,
QBC
aie
supplementary)
= z BQR
= z BTR
.'.
RTS
This line
known
also as the
The converse
If
is
is
QBRT
is cyclic).
a straight line.
Simson
a triangle are
perpendiculars
collinear,
from a
lies
point
viz.
.-.
on
to
the
triangle.
For since
It is
line.
sides of
(since
RTS
Join
QP
Join
AL
meet the
Tlien since
QBRT
is
zQRT^zQBT
= Z QUA
= Z HQR
.'.
.-.
J/
i>
line in
in
circunicircle in
M and BC in
in
QR
is
parallel to
since
QN.
A 7\VZ = A HNL
is
parallel to
/?7'.
QK'.KP = QM.MN.
QK = KP.
.-.
J H.
QM = iMR.
= z RNM
= z iiei\^.
.-.
N.
same segment
since
PA^
K.
cyclic,
.-.
H.
to
8
9.
and
Prop.
The
this point is
a point of
trisection
a point,
and
the orthocentre P.
AB o{
the triangle
ABC cut OP
in G.
GAP, GDO, we
deduce, since
Thus
of
which
will
OP
in the
This point
The reader
is
called the
same point
G,
also.
triangle.
is
Prop.
If AD
he a
median of
the triangle
ABC,
then
AL
perpendicular to BC.
AG-' = A B' + BC - 2BC BL
AD' = AB' + BD'-2BD.BL.
.
BG
BL
and
same or opposite
directions.
then
AC' - 2 AD' =
.
=
The
11.
BC - AB' - -IJWi
+ BC - 2 BD'
AB'+ AC' = 2
/)-
2AD''
2BD-, since
lU)
D
^
BC = 2BD.
BC
then
(n
- 1)
BC
is
only a
ABC
of a triawjle
such that
AB"-
vAC- = n. AD' +
if
(l
BC.
^)
of
.-.
A C -n.AD'={\-n)AB' + BC -
BD\
(^
BC
= n.AD' + (l-^\BC
12.
incircle
A,
B,C
Prop.
of a triangle
are
a,
b,s c
of the
respectively;
and
ecircle opposite to
the distances of
are
s,
c.
10
.V
to
-b
A
respective/ 1/
,
B,
G and
a, b, c
Then
since
..
Similarly
Next
BL^BN^s-b,
let L',
M',
the sides
s,
N' be
and
GL = CM=s-c.
opposite to A.
Then
and
.-.
.'.
and
Cor.
BL'
middle point.
BG
EXERCISES
Defining the pedal triangle as that formed by joining the
shew that the pedal triangle
1.
has for
its
its
2.
straight line
PQ
is
drawn
ABC
i)arallel
AB
P and
to
to meet the
shew that
and Q intersect on the perpendicular from C
in the points
Q,
on AB.
Shew
3.
that
of a triangle
points.
The
4.
5.
loci of its
of a triangle
and two
of its vertices,
are circles.
The
6.
squares of
is
tlie
is
sphere.
7.
triangle
is
similar
ABC.
8.
triangle
AB
CA,
^^C, and
it
BC,
('A,
AB
are drawn.
diculars
triangles, of
Shew that
which Ab^Ci
is
circle,
the
a typical one,
and
circle.
9.
plane quadrilateral
points
(i)
is
internal diagonals
b\- its
for angular
of the foui-
SOME
12
I'H(>pp:hties
of the triangle
and
and
Ao,
10.
if
a triangle to that
is
vei'tex
and
A^ = 4Ao.
11.
their areas be Aj
2A +
circle
in
the circle escribed to the base touch the base, construct the triangle.
12.
equal
C,
lie
on a
ABC
circle,
lie
the
on an
circle.
13.
diameter
on the
nine-points circle.
ABC
14.
to
BC
is
a triangle,
its
circumcentre
perpendicular to
AK
will bisect
KP,
OB
perpendicular
line
through
triangle
AB
If
16.
be divided at
and
if
manner that
in such a
AO = m.
I.
OB,
AP-' +
If a, b, c
BP- =
{l
+ m) OP- +
AO' + m
locus of a point
such that a
PA^ +
PB'^ +
PC"
BO'.
ABC,
is
find the
constant.
13
CHAPTER
II
two points
same
<JP
When
Definition.
13.
saine
side of
is
OP' = square
are
such that
circle.
fur
himself that
if
a pair of
to a circle, centre
at right angles to
OP
in
a point
which
is
is
the
inverse of P.
14.
The
and
Let
is
a straight
line,
be a fixed point
in the
of the
line.
plane of a
circle,
centre 0.
Q and
meet
PL perpendicular to OA.
OP cut QR at right angles
in P.
Draw
Let
in
M.
14
PMLA
Then
.-.
..
/y is
Thus the
and cutting
is cyclic.
locus of
it
is
of radius.
the inverse of A.
OA,
It is clear
15.
})()int, viz.
And
if
we introduce
us,,
we may say
We may
is
circle
Some
by means of
it
in a later chapter.'
It
is
16.
B
BL
Let
Draw
//
others again
will
be given
treatment prevails.
polar of
its
the polar of
is
goes through A.
be the polar of
AM at right angles
OB.
OM.OB=OL.OA = sq.
Then
.-.
that
is.
Two
AM
\s
15
of radiiu
the polar of B,
on the polar o{ B.
lies
thi'
The reader
will
We
/,
VI
of
leave
it
will lie
Two
on
lies
on
ni,
/.
lines.
if
A, B,
C,
the polar of
A, B,
We
is
C,
p whose
pole
.'.
is
since
the polars of
kc, go through P.
IG
Prop.
16a.
//"
OP
OQ
and
OPQ
is
the centre of
be
in
is the
tJie
of the triamgle.
lies
the polar of P.
Similarly
OP
is
the polar of Q.
the centre to 0, P,
is
are perpen-
and therefore
circle
Prop.
If
whose centre
and Q
is 0,
he
any two
poiiits in the
plane of a
then
OP OQ=perp. from P
:
on polar of
perp.
from Q on
polar of P.
and
Q,
through
PM and QN
PT and QR
Then we have
since each
is
OP OP' = OQ
.
OQ',
OR OP = 0T.OQ
.
OQ'
since
PRQT is
cyclic,
'OP'~OQ~OR~OP' - OR QN
'
draw
is
proved.
17
18
common
we
common
points
to the two
two intersecting
them
And
introducing
the notion of imaginary points, we may say that the radical axis
of two circles goes through their common points, real or
imaginary.
19.
coplanar
perpendicular
Let
centres
from
PQ and PR
A and B.
PN
to
the circles,
PM to AB;
let
Then
^203I.AB-20L.AB
= 2AB.LA[=2AB.NP.
(see 18)
19
"
Prop.
20.
and C
circles
and
in P.
22
20
= tangent
to circle
from
= tangent from
.
21.
P is
Coaxal
P
P
to circle B.
circles.
to circle
and
C.
system of coplanar
them
is
circles
the same
is
such
called
coaxal.
same straight
all
line.
circles cut
be equal.
They
tangent from
to the
them
system of
is
on the
circles.
if
21
is
of
r,
points
circles of infinitely
They
system.
of tangent, from
to circle
of the
system.
The student
of the
real only in
Prop.
22.
liniitiny points
ivith
of a system of coaxal
circles
si/stein.
Let
Let
The
circle C.
22
to circle
C; this
will
be bisected by the
radical axis in P.
TN perpendicular
Draw
to line of centres.
L'A:AN=L'F:PT,
L'A = AN,
Then
.-.
N coincides with
.'.
L.
Therefore
The student
23.
following propositions
Eve7y
two
all the
circles
circle
points.
common
tangent
to
Common
24.
tangents to two
In general four
coplanar
Of
common
circles.
these two will cut the line joining their centres ex-
circles.
common
tangents.
transverse
common
And two
tangents.
We
shall
now prove
that the
common
cut the line joining their centres in ttuo points which divide that
line internally
and externally
Then
BQO
since
28
APO,
are similar,
.-.AO-.BO^AP.BQ.
Similarly, if
AB
in 0',
We
= ratio
tangents,
viz. to
AB
divide
circle
tangent to either
of the radii.
for
and 0'
to
and
draw a
circle.
be imaginary.
will
If one circle
both
25.
and 0'
lie
will
be imaginary.
paragraph,
R'S' as
in the figure.
We
angles at
OAR, OBR'.
have
is
and R'
Thus the
common
is less
to b(jth,
and
OR:OR'=AR:BR',
the ratio of the radii.
0/Sf'
= ratio
of radii.
24
We
circle
from
circle
On
is
R'
is
point B.
for
is
a centre of similitude.
In order
26.
is
to
a circle,
it is
often convenient to
make use
of
we can prove
If
a given
circle, in
be a
circle,
is
to a varying point Q,
which describes
ratio,
circle
on which
lies
has
P must
for
centre of similitude.
triangle
nine-points centre.
the orthocentre
is
circumcentre (which
is
and
OU = \0P
given) and
U the
it
be the
circle, since, if
nine-points centre,
is
U is
U lies
on
a circle, having
OP
its
on which
lies.
27.
Prop.
constant ratio
is
from two
Let
and
P be
Divide
ratio, so
locus.
AB internally
that C and D
Then
25
since
AP:P = AC:GB=AD:BD,
PD are the internal and external bisectors of the
..
PC and
.'.
CPD
..
the locus of
/-APB.
Cor.
is
a circle on
is
CD
D in
AB be
described,
locus
PC
P be any point
PD are the
and
A and
B, as defined in
it
its
at
which
internal
CD
and
Z APB.
If on the line
28.
of circles, centres
as diameter.
external bisectors of
CB
as diameter.
If the line
2.
C and
If the point
1.
the sphere on
Cor.
at
a right angle.
is
25,
of similitude
a circle be
circle,
CA CB = radius
:
The
tude.
circle
of
circle
on 00' as diameter
is
radius of
circle.
when we
26
EXERCISES
P
1.
P from
distance of
any point
to
A and B
If ^,
other
circle,
jB,
a point
A and
B.
the tangents
circles,
drawn from
drawn from
If tangents
3.
of
be three coaxal
If A, B,
2.
to
two given
circles
B,
C,
and
A and
A and
is
B.
X be any
X &c.
meet in
a point.
5.
The square of the line joining one of the limiting points of
a coaxal system of circles to a point P on any one of the circles
two
If
6.
circles cut
If
7.
given
circles, pairs of
is
The three
8.
circles,
two
the angle
cii'cles
If
10.
any
line
circle concyclic
with each of
circles
at
lie
circles.
11.
line
FQ
is
drawn touching
at
a circle of a coaxal
respectively
T:T' =PK.FK'.
is
Q^
and whose
radii are
27
is
is
is
straight line.
Three
13.
and
section of Ca
of intersection of C\
chord of
14.
Three circles A, B, C are touched externally by a circle
whose centre is P and internally by a circle whose centre is Q.
Shew that PQ passes through the point of concurrence of the radical
axes oi A, B,
AB
15.
is
taken in
a.
diameter of a
produced,
points of
A and B with
any point on
circle S,
respect to
pairs.
is
respect to C.
AB
or
AB
at 0.
of the point
is
the
16.
prove that any plane, not through 0, will cut them in a system of
coaxal circles.
17.
point and
its
fixed point B.
18.
circles
system
.4
;
is
28
CHAPTER
THE USE OF
III
CONCURRENCE AND
SIGNS.
COLLINEARITY
The reader
29.
is
measurement of straight
lengths measured along a
lines.
in the
line
With
this
if
A, B,
he three points
AB+BC = AG.
AC
If
lie
in this case
between
in passing from
BC is
and B,
AB + BC does
final distance
From
to B,
of opposite sign to
AB, and
to G,
reached from A.
we get
BC = AC-AB.
This
reduce
is
all
an important identity.
By means
of
it
we can
This process
Thus,
it
if
AB^OB-OA.
will
we
be convenient to
THE USE OF
Prop. If
any other point
30.
be
SIGNS.
29
AB, and
line
20M=0A + 0B.
O
AM=MB,
For since
we have
OM-OA = OB-OM,
.-.
A number
31.
20M=0A+0B.
Prop.
If A, B,
BCD
we
==
and
then
this is zero.
This
is
32.
If
A, B,
bases
OBC
of the triangle
OAB is
to
AB, BG.
Now
BG
if
we
and the
ratio
AB,
we cannot substitute for this
A 0^6* unless we have some convention respecting
are taking account of the signs of our lengths
ratio
A OAB
AB BG occurs,
:
30
AB BC will
:
it.
Thus
contour
PQR, we
nitude,
while
shall
APRQ
With
is
is
described.
to our left
will
PRQ
this convention
points A, B,
PQR
the triangle
if
be a negative magnitude,
the area
we
is
for
in
lie,
AB:BC=AOAB:AOBG,
= AAOB-.ABOG.
or
we may say
and
triangle
Again, we
OAB
is
know
and
it is
sometimes con-
venient to
the areas
for
and ^ OB.
OC sin BOG
BPA
of signs
whereby
the sign and not merely the magnitude of our ratio will be
retained.
will
be to consider angles
sense; this being effective for our purpose, since sin( ^r)
= sin x.
APB = - Z BPA.
In this case Z
PA, and
round
and
BPA
the angle
PB;
APB is to be
P from the
revolution of PA
The angle
31
PB
as the
round
so of opposite signs.
With
we may
32,
AB _ AAOB _ I OA.OBsinZAOB
'
ZAOB
and
sin
50C
as
AB
and
BC
arr
The student
useless
{ A)
=+
cos(.I).
The
following proposition,
known
as Menelaus' theorem,
is
D, E,
A, B,
of great importance.
ABC
AF.BD.CE = AE.CD.BF,
regard being had
to the
we
travel along
it.
is
them
to
We
be positive or negative
32
is
necessary, if
D, E,
Let
p, q, r
DEF, and
line
according as they are on the one or the other side of the line
DEF.
With
this convention
we have
33
F coincides
35.
vertices
Test
for
is
with F'.
completely proved.
concurrency
of
lines
through
the
of a triangle.
The following
proposition,
known
as
Ceva's
theorem,
is
fundamental.
suffi,cient
condition
t/uit
the lines
AD, BE,
34
CF
TEIE
USE OF SIGNS
ABC
F should be concurrent is
AF.BD.CE = -AE.CD. BF,
drawn through
to
meet the
opposite sides in D, E,
the
as in the last
adojyted
proposition.
in P.
AE '
'
'
'
= (-l)(-l)(- 1)^-1.
Next
D, E,
let
F be
such that
AF.BD.CE = -AE. CD
then will
AD, BE, CF
B
Let AD,
BF,
be concurrent.
BE
meet
in Q,
and
let
GQ meet
AB in
F'.
ABC
35
Ar_AF
'
BF'~ BF'
FF')BF = {BF + FF')AF.
..FF'(BF-AF) = 0.
..FF' = 0.
..(AF +
.'.
F' and
36.
triangle
// D, E,
ABC opposite to
AF.BD.GE
A E CD BF
.
is
F coincide.
completely proved.
he three points on
A, B,
s'mA CF sin
sin
the sides of a
respectively.
BA L) sin CBE
"
For
with
positive.
Similarly
and
'
'
AF AG
^xnACF
BF
GE
sin
BlJ'smBZ'F
BG
CBE
AE AB sin ABE'
AF.BD.GE _ sin AGF sin BA D sin CBE
AE.GD .BF~ sin ABE sin GAD sni BGF
'.]()
Cor.
OF
should be concuiTent
AD, BE,
is
s in
^Ci^ sin
sin
If
in the form
sin
sin
Z(X)sin
'
this
37.
the vertex
z GAD')
Prop.
the
vertices
// AD, BE,
of a
GF
triangle
ABG,
their
isogonal
For
sin
sin
Similarly
sin
and
sin
BGF ~
sin
AGF'
tli
rough
conjugates
sin
sin
CAD'
'
sin
5^i) sin
(75; sin
The
38.
are called
its
37
.4/)', i?A"',
ACF = -1,
BGF
symmedians.
triangle.
The student
We
39.
will
conclude
this
Let
ABC
be a triangle,
and
sides.
points
in the sides
38
It will
It
may
be
BG are
line
lines antiparallel to
parallel to
an exercise
left as
sym median
the
DBGE
lines antiparallel to
through
and that
is cyclic,
all
one another.
of the triangle
BG.
EXERCISES
The
a triangle to
its
circumcentre
The
contact with the opposite sides of the incircle and ecircles are
respectively concurrent.
3.
ABC
is
opposite sides.
If
4.
The midpoints
D and E
trisecting
of the sides
U and K.
M, and CM
point of BE.
AH in
GF
BG
and GA
respectively are
sects
AD, BE,
AG,
DE respectively,
FD,
are
a triangle;
CK
intersects
intersects
BE
ABC
BC and BA
and BL inter-
of the triangle
of the sides
AD
in N.
in L,
Prove that iV
is
39
0.
ABC
triangle
The points
6.
AB
with suffixes
1, 2,
A, B, or C.
BE.,,
BC
Sit
by the
BC, CA,
letters
D, E,
CF^
intersect at
X; F^D, and CA
at
collinear.
7.
the points
From
8.
CF
are
equal angles with the opposite sides measured round the triangle in
The
B'C CA
AE BF CD
A' B
9.
lines
AD, BE,
CF iorm
CB
AF BD.CE
^ A'C^ B'A
a triangle A'B'C.
BC.CA.AB
AD. BE. CF
two
sides.
drawn
Prove
symmedian
point.
circle through these six points has been called the cosine
from the property, which the student can verify, that the
intercepts it makes on the sides are pi'oportional to the cosines of
[The
circle,
drawn
Prove that
the six points so obtaiued are equidistant from the middle point of
parallel to each of the sides,
[The
circle
is
called the
Lemoine
circle.
131.]
of a triangle
THE USE OF
40
12.
SIGNS.
of a triangle
colHnear.
13.
If AD, BE, CF through the vertices of a triangle ABC
meeting the opposite sides in D, E, F are concurrent, and points
D', E', F' be taken in the sides opposite to A, B, C so that DD' and
BC, EE' and CA, FF' and AB have respectively the same middle
point, then AD' BE', CF' are concurrent.
,
from the symmedian point aS' of a triangle ABC, perpendiculars SD, SE, SF be drawn to tlie sides of the triangle, then
S will be the median point of the triangle DEF.
14.
If
15.
The
sides
BC, CA,
AB
BA' :A'C=CB'
Also
B'C
produced cuts
BA"
BC
:
of
triangle
ABC
are divided
C so that
:
B'A = AC'
externally in A".
CA" = CA"
A'B\
C'B.
Prove that
41
CHAPTER
IV
PROJECTKDX
40.
If
if
A'
is
A any other
meet a given plane tt
the plane tt by means
VA, produced
then
if
necessary,
<n
point,
in ^',
of the
vertex V.
It is clear at once that the projection of a straight line
on
TT
TT
a plane
tt is
a straight
If the plane
plane.
The
line,
through
V and
on the
tt
plane
is
o;i
the
tt
in the line
F parallel
in a plane
AB.
This line
this reason
p by
The vanishing
tt,
for
p and
tt,
which
is
called
tlie
axis
of
projection.
42.
lines
the
magnitude EVF.
tt
PROJECTION
42
For
let
Then
intersections of
that
is,
the plane
de
is
parallel to
Similarly df
VE.
parallel to
VF.
Aedf^/.EVF.
Therefore
Hence we
is
tt,
see that
mu/ angle in
the
plane
p projects
on
to the
TT
By
Prop.
any given
line on
a proper choice of the vertex V of projeca plane p can be projected to infinity, while
magnitude on
to
a plane
EDF,
ir
ir
properly chosen.
line.
Through
Let E, F,
AB
E',
F' he on
AB.
a.
and
/3
p'.
p'.
p which
are to
respectively.
PROJECTION
On EF,
43
Let these
respectively.
segments intersect in V.
Then
if
and
AB
project to infinity,
will
respectively (42).
yS
Cor.
Any
1.
an equilateral
triangle.
For
if
we
is
sum
60'^
the
of the
angles.
Cor.
Let
diagonal, that
is
a square.
be
its
third
pairs of sides.
Let
AC and BD
Now
if
we
intersect in Q.
project
EF
to infinity
44
PROJECTION
project
will
BA D
and
BQA
EF to
the projection of Z
AQB
the pro-
BAD into
and the
makes the rectangle a
;
square.
It
44.
may happen
preceding paragraph
projected to infinity.
EFV is
angle
V will
Suppose that
we must draw
this case
is
a line
DE is
FV in
the supplement of
a.
line
DE, D'E'
AB
which
parallel to
is
in the
to be
AB.
In
The vertex
FV with
of projection
the segment of
D'E'
is
also parallel to
the proposition of
this case
F is
is
to say
it is
a point
PROJECTION
46.
Prop.
45
is projective with
any
AV
Let A, B,
/B
Join
A'
VC
Join DB',
EC.
Let DB',
let
them meet a
A'DE diawn
EC meet in
line
ihroucrh
o
and E.
viz.
A'C
Then by means
into A', D,
V in A A'.
and
VAC in D
in the plane
V.
Join V'A'.
of the vertex V, A, B,
can be projected
can be
C.
first three.
A A'.
is
proved.
of
we can
PROJECTION
46
is
We
EXERCISES
Prove that a system of parallel
1.
on
lines in a plane
jy
will project
to
Two
2.
vanishing line in the same points are projected into angles which are
equal to one another.
Shew that
3.
in general
Shew that a
4.
plane
a.
any
line in its
is
through
its vertices
of the triangle in
the projection.
Explain, illustrating by a figure,
5.
lying on a line
PQ, and
and
6.
how
and
q,
it
PQ
is
of
that a point
it,
can be pro-
Q.
Any
NH
BC
are concurrent.
7.
If
A Ay,
and
if
AB m
B-^C-y
Co,;
meet
BC
CA
in
B.^,
If
47
CHAPTER V
CROSS-RATIOS
Definition.
48.
ratio
is
^^
1( A, B, C,
and
is
is
cross-ratio.
Some
'
anharmonic
it.
anharmonic
cross-ratio
ratio should be
may
what
ratio of
called
The
49.
:
is
an
so that
to say
when he comes
to
Chapter VII.
denominator
is
a harmonic range.
are
is
This
ratios.'
be best to avoid
will
'
one that
be harmonic, that
is
it
numerator and
AB.CD
-T-p.
TTp
jYn,
^^
stands,
IS
be a cross-ratio as
to
,.
tor it
BA. CD
jyj- y^^
BD
CA
.
is
(BAGD).
it
that
CROSS-RATIOS
48
taken
all
together,
we
Prop.
50.
{ABGD) =
Let
First
changed
we observe
that
if
\.
unchanged.
= (ABGD),
For
= (ABCD),
= (ABCD).
Hence we get
(A BGD) = {BADG) = (GDAB) = {DGBA ) = X...(1).
Secondly we observe that a cross-ratio
interchange either the
first
and third
is
letters, or
inverted
if
we
fourth.
.-.
{ADGB)==iBGDA)^{GBAD) = {DABG) = l
...(2).
A,
A,
49
CROSS-EATIOS
into 1
by interchanging the
Thus from
and
first
fourth.
(1)
this again
-\
...
(3),
letters,
(4).
letters,
and
get
(A
And now
...
(6).
A,
We
And we
all
is
Two
such ranges
51.
Prop.
and D,
may
If A,
E oilier points
be called equi-cross.
B,
(ABCD) = {ABCE),
then
must coincide
^
Forsmce
.
.-.
.-.
E.
luith
AB.CD AB.GE
AD7CB = AE~CB'
AE.CD = AD.CE.
.-.
AD {CD
DE{AD-CD) = 0.
DE.AG = 0.
.-.
DE =
{AD + DE) CD =
.-.
that
is,
and
coincide.
for
AC^O,
-f-
DE).
50
CROSS-RATIOS
52.
is eqni-cross
with
its
projection on
A BCD
51
CROSS-RATIOS
This
In
sin
is
fig.
obvious in
fig. 1.
A'VB' =
sin
B'VA,
= - sin ^ VB,
sin A' VD' =
and
sin
D'VA =
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
Further
sin
and
sin
In
fig.
3
sin
sin
sin
sin C'Fi?'
Thus
sin
'
BVC =-
sin .4
sin
VD,
CVB.
in each case
{A'B'C'D')
= {ABCD).
42
52
CROSS-RATIOS
53.
A number
meet
in a point
are said to form a pencil, and each constituent line of the pencil
V is
is
called a ray.
is
Any straight
From the last article we see that if VP^, VP. VP,, VP^
form a pencil and any transversal cut the rays of the pencil in
A, B, C, D, then (ABCB) is constant for that particular pencil;
that
is
to say it is
It will
the notation
V {P,P^P,P,).
.0
.,.^v'
.-""Pi
,^''^ P?^'''
Pi"
We
on to another plane
is
pencil.
For
let
projection.
pencil,
the vertex of
53
CROSS-RATIOS
ABCD
Then
V, V'P;, of
is
a transversal also of
v'{p;,p:,p:,p:).
.-.
54.
V(P,P,P,P,)
We
are
now in
= (ABCD)=
V'{P/P.:P,'P:).
Prop.
such
that
//
ABCD
{A'B'C'I)')
be
= (ABCD),
then
the
tivo
ranges
are
projective.
B/
V upon
VD and let these lines meet
VAD in P, Q, R respectively.
it.
A'
in the plane
a line through
54
CROSS-RATIOS
(A BCD)
{A'B'C'D') by hypothesis.
..{A'B'G'X)={A'B'G'D').
.'.
coincides with
A'PQR, and
Def.
Two
is
proved.
ranges
said to be homographic
the one
is
( 51).
V into A'B'C'D'.
55.
D'
when a
cross-ratio of
are
corresponding
points
of the
This
other.
is
conveniently
(ABCDE...) = {A'B'C'D'E'...).
Two
pencils
V(F,Q,R,S,T...) and
are said to be homographic
V (P'
when a
T'
...)
is
equal to the
56.
Prop.
Two homographic
jective.
For
two
let
pencils,
by a vertex
is,
CROSS-RATIOS
again by means of a vertex
M on
O'V
55
can be projected into
V'{P',Q',R\S'...).
57.
We
will
Let A(o,
AiOi'
lines, &>
and
to'
being the
Let
Draw any
any point
Join
Join
line
upon
Join PC.
Let
in
it.
in Q.
Aco in
B.,.
and
C,
and take
CROSS-RATIOS
56
meet
GP
in 0.
AC
meet
Let
PD
QB
shall
in D.
For
{A^B.Coi')
.-.
.'.
that
is,
PD
is
PD
and
same
line,
EXERCISES
1.
If
towards A, then
trisection of
of
AD
AD.
2,
Given a range of three points A, B, C, find a fourth point
on their line such that (ABCD) shall have a given value.
CROSS-RATIOS
If the transversal
3.
{A, B, C, D),
pencil
57
ABC be parallel
to
of
then
0(ABCD) = ^.
{ABCD) = {ABG'D'),
4.
If
If A, B, C,
median
Of the
he
a.
{AGD) = {AI)CB),
ratios = 1.
are equal to
eight to
1,
2,
and eight
to
-J-.
Any plane will cut four given planes all of which meet in a
common line in four lines which are concurrent, and the cross-ratio
7.
Taking
A, B, C,
by these
a, b, c,
lines is constant.
to the points
all in
X=(a-d){h-c),
iJ.=
(b- d)
(c
a),
(c
d) (a
b),
are
/u,
I'
/A
J'
/x
I'
/i.
made
58
CHAPTER VI
PERSPECTIVE
Def.
58.
P, Q, R, S, &c.
figure consisting of
is
an assemblage of points
concurrent in a point 0.
The point
if
the
of
perspective.
It
is
on to a plane or surface
is in
perspective with
when
projected
its projection,
the
of perspective
Let
plane
it
may be
in perspective,
it
to another plane
necessary
is
lie is
absent,
and
all
that
is
concurrent.
figures each of
it is
which
is
the projection of
PERSPECTIVE
For
if
A, B,
59
with A', B',
It
is
But
AB
Prop.
//
to itself
perspective.
For
let
Let BB',
homographic.
CC
meet
The
is
following
the case.
tivo
corresponding
and
same
&c.,
is
60.
OA, OB.
are in the
in 0.
.).
PERSPECTIVE
60
OD
Join
to cut
AB'
Then
in D".
{AB'G'D')
..
D' and
= {ABCB)
= {AB'C'D").
B"
coincide.
( 51.)
Thus the
line joining
in perspective.
61.
will according to
V are
in
in perspective, points in
V'A' points
,
We
If
B, Q,
D ...)
smd
V {A', B',
C',D'...)
in
VB
VA
V and
and
coplanar
( 59),
be
let
V (A', B',0',D'...).
VA
PERSPECTIVE
The
is,
they
lie in
lie
61
in both of the planes of
planes.
since
V(ABCD...) = (PQRS..:)^
V'iA'B'C'D'...),
The
line
corresponding rays
According
62.
is
of intersection of
in
the
given at the
be, as in
We
now prove
cannot
But
the points P, Q,
if
Szc.
we say that
graphic.
63.
It
is
The
objection to this
method
is
We
definition
we have already
given,
and we
if
keep rigidly
shall
to the
speak of two
As we have
always coaxal
perspective,
PERSPECTIVE
62
V (A,
Let
and
B, G, D, &c.)
common
with the
VB
VD' in
S,
V (A,
B',
C,
D', &c.)
V'VA.
ray
B'
in 0,
FC and V'C
in y,
VD and
B 0'
let it
VD
and
VD
and
VD'
Then
V(ABGD)=
and
coincide with
Therefore
Sj
Thus the
intersection
VD'
lies
S..
on the line
V'(AB'C'D').
S.
/Sj.
lies
on this same
line.
63
PERSPECTIVE
Prop.
65.
If ABC..., A'B'C'...,
he two coplanar
common corresponding
homo-
point, tlien if
A'B)
Now
is
not a corresponding
be convenient to denote
It will
and
Y',
to the
according as
A'B'C ...
we
consider
it
P by two
different letters,
to belong to the
ABC... or
range.
corresponding to
Then
]"'
in the other.
These two
})encils
have a
common
by
viz.
and so
From
this
it
will
of the cross-joins of
on
is
AC;
on.
B and
B',
C and
and
so
64
PERSPECTIVE
Similarly the cross-joins of any two pairs of corresponding
points will
lie
on A'T.
X'Y
This line
is
two
ranges.
This propositi(jn
is
The proof
corresponding point.
may
of this
be
common
left
to the
student.
66.
this chapter
by proving that
V {A,
B,
C.)
if
V {A', B'
and
G'...)
lines)
and join
It will
TRIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE
67.
Prop
and
conversely.
(1)
Let
ABC,
A'B'C.
Since BC, B'C are in a plane, viz. the plane containing OB
and OC, they will meet. Let A' be their point of intersection.
Similarly
GA
and G'A'
will
meet
(in
Y) and
AB and
A'B'
(in Z).
Now
A'',
V,
Z are
ABG,
A'B'G'.
Therefore they
lie
on the
line
of
intersection
planes.
Thus the
first
is
proved.
of these
65
PERSPECTIVE
Next
let
the triangles
BC and
Since
ABB' A',
of
in a point.
CC
is,
the triangles
are in perspective.
(2)
First let
Let
them be
A", Y,
Z be
in perspective, centre 0.
as before.
PERSPECTIVE
QG
We
have now
oh
that
oh'
let
parallel to
oc
.".
ah
.'.
is
parallel to
is
h'c'
n'b'.
at infinity also,
is
A',
.*.
Next
since be
are collinear.
X, y, z
is,
= oc
= oa
F,
A^,
F,
Z are
collinear.
be collinear;
we
will
OC
Join
Then
and
let it
A'C
the intersection of
.-.
But
in 0.
meet
BG and
..
BG
in G".
in perspective.
and B'G"
B'G" and
i.e.
Thus
ABG and
68.
Prop.
G"
lies
YZ in
coincides with
on the
line
YZ.
X by hypothesis.
same
line,
C".
coplanar triangles
AB,
AB., .GA,.
GA^ BC,
.
BG.,
= AG,.AG,.BA,. BA,
GB, GB,,
.
the
PERSPECTIVE
A^,
A2 being
the points in
67
A'C
meet the
points in which
corresponding side
CA' and
AB.
XYZ be
axis of perspective.
52
the
PERSPECTIVE
68
Then
X, B^
since
Co are collinear,
A B, CX BO,
AC.BX.CB,
.
'
AY.CA,.BC\
AC,.BA.,.CY
1.
AB^.CA,.BZ _
'az.ba,.cb~
Taking the product of these we have
AB,
AC,
AB.,
AG.,
But X,
Y,
BA,
Z are
BAo^
C%
CB.,
AY.GX BZ
AZ BX CY~
.
collinear,
.-.
AY.GX.BZ
AZ.BX.CY~
AB,.AB,.GA,.CA,.BC\.BC.,
=^AG,.AC,.BA,. BA, CB, GB,.
.
Next we can
For
it
is sufficient.
AY.CX .BZ
AZ.BX.GY'
.".
X,Y,Z are
Cor.
collinear
If the triangle
ABC
it is
Cj,
be in perspective with
ABC,
must
viz.
(2)
(3)
A,B
A,B
B,Co_,
G,A
B,C\, C,A,.
PERSPECTIVE
69
EXERCISES
1.
ABC, A'B'C' are two ranges of three points in the same
plane; i?C" and 5'C intersect in ^i, CA' and
A in B^, and AB'
and A'B
in Cj
ABC
2.
centre 0, through
triangle
means
^S*
ABC
triangle
by means
of tlie centre S,
with a
common
triangle.
.3.
coaxal, prove
ABC, A'B'C
If
4.
and B'C
intersect in A^,
CA' and
CA
in B^,
if
BC
in Cj,
common
axis of
perspective.
6.
Ton
and VR
point
Z,
AD
Ji lie
concurrent.
ABC,
AV.Bc'
where a,
A' B'
,
to
7.
triangles
b',
Ca =
Ac'
Ba
is
Cb',
A'B'C
opposite to
on
b'.
[Let
in Z.
AB
PERSPECTIVE
70
8.
coplanar triangles
ABC sin ABA' sin BCA' sin BC B' sin CAB' sin CAC _
sin
A CB'
[This
sin
sin
CBC
BA C
sin
command
is it difficult
BAB' ~
'
to
remember
if
The
result
is
aX A',
easily obtained.
mind
the
principle, that
Two
The
all
9.
sin
'
by which
'
is
for himself.
Nor
in perspective is
sin
is,
(1)
of travelling
be projected into
equilateral triangles.
ABC
10.
meets
is
a triangle,
IJ^ meets
respectively.
AB in
BC
in A^,
ecentres opposite to A, B,
/.j/j
C'j
meets
CA
in B^
and
/j/,
are collinear.
CF and AD', BE', CF' be two sets of condrawn through the vertices of a triangle AP>C and
meeting the opposite sides in D, E, F and D' E', F', and if EF and
E' in Z,
E'F' intersect in X, FD and F'D' in 7, and DE and
11.
\i
AD, BE,
current lines
XYZ is
in perspective
that
7.1
AD, BE, CF become the perAD' BE', CF' the medians, and
,
71
CHAPTER
VII
HARMONIC SECTION
Def.
69.
harmonic range
C,
if
{ABCB)=-l.
We
AB.CD =
AJJ
-1.
CB
AB-AC^ AB-A G
AD~ AD-AC AG- AD'
AB
''
thus
AC is
Now
a harmonic
mean between
AB and
AD.
we
( 50),
see that
if
(A BCD)
= 1,
then
'
"^^
AD, but
BD
DB
CA
We
B
is
AC
a harmonic
mean between
AB
and
also
shall
is
a harmonic
mean between
then speak of
BA
DC
CB
and
and BC,
and DA,
and CD.
as harmonic conjugates to
fact symbolically
(AC,BD) = -1.
thus
HARMONIC SECTION
72
By
and
and
we mean
this
in which, it will
and
that
all
be observed,
D alternate,
and
are equal to
1.
D as the fourth
AG is divided
BD is so divided at A and C.
harmonically at
pencil
that
is
and D.
{A,B,
G,
D)
of four rays
is
called
harmonic when
its
harmonic range.
Prop.
70.
lines containing
be the middle
jmnt
of AG, then
OB.OB=OG' = OA\
B
{ABGD) = -
For since
.-.
1,
AB.GD = -AD.GB.
.-.
0A=- OG.
But
.;
.-.
(OB+OC)(OD-OG)=-(OD+OG)iOB-OG).
OB.OD + OG.OD-OB.OG- OG"= - OD OB + OG OD - OB OG + 0G\
20B.On = 20G'.
0B.0D = 0G"- = A0'' = 0A\
.
.-.
.-.
Similarly
if 0'
Cor.
The converse
0'G.O'A = 0'B'=0'D\
that
if
OG' =
1.
ABGD
OB OD,
.
be a range and
then (AG,
is
BD) = -
1.
true, viz.
^Cand
73
HARMONIC SECTION
Cor.
2.
point
circle
on
AB as
diameter, then
// {A C, BD) =
Prop.
71.
is
1,
Let
Let this
we
describe a
A C as dia meter
the circle on
of the circle on
in a line, to find a
=-
AC
B and
D.
A C.
circle cut
any
circle
through
and
in
then
OB.OD=OC'=OP\
Therefore
OP
is
BrD\
thus the
A and C.
ABCD he a range,
BD
will
cut orthogonally
Cor.
1.
If
and if
the circle
on
D,then
AC
B
as
and
(AC,BD) = -1.
before,
we have
OB.OD = OP'=:OC\
.-.
Cor.
is
2.
If fioo
{AC,BD) = -1.
HARMONIC SECTION
74
Prop.
72.
angle, then
PC
PA
If P(AB, CD)
and PB are the
= -1 and
bisectors
APB
be
a right
and PP.
PD
of the
Tht
AD.BC
AC:AD=CB:BD.
P lies on the circle on AB as diameter we have by
PC:PD = CB:BD=AG:AR
PA and PB are the bisectors of the angle GPD.
.-.
as
..
27
.".
73.
Prop.
If on a chord
PQ
{PQ,AA') = ~l.
Draw
which A'
Let
the diameter
lies,
CD
through
A, on
in L.
be the centre.
of the polar,
OL.OA=^
.-.
But the
circle
on
0C-\
{CD,LA) = -1.
CD
as diameter
A A'
(i.e.
and
( 71).
and L.
A A'
as diameter.
HARMONIC SECTION
But the given
circle passes
.'.
through
usefulness.
It
Chords of a
divided at
the
may be
ciixle
and
and
Q.
(PQ,AA') = -1.
and
75
of great importance
is
through
a point
are harmonically
polar of A.
Prop.
74.
lateral
is
Each of
taken in
F its
of a plane quadn-
PQR
Project
DA
is,
the intersections of
its
pairs.
EF ave
be the
EF to
its
ti-iangle
infinity.
by corresponding small
diagonals.
formed by
its
diagonals.
in the projection
letters.
bp
Then
bq
dq
bp
dp
dp
1,
bci
= -1.
q being at
HARMONIC SECTION
76
{AFCR) = -l.
(FQER = n {FQER) = (.4 FOR) = -1.
Similarly
Also
{AC,FR) = -l,
The
Cor.
(BD,FQ) = -1,
FQR
circumcircle of
{EF,QR) = -l.
Note.
that
the
if
It has
75.
on
at infinity
= -l.
is
It
is
important
too that at this stage of the subject the student should learn "to
containing an area
plane, which
meet
is
lines in
and
the three lines joining such of the vertices as are not already
we mean two
By
the quadrilateral.
76.
quadrangle
is
to
by
six straight
HARMONIC SECTION
lines, called its sides or lines
two of these
which do not
sides
meet
And
77
point.
This
name
is
is
called a diagonal
it is
suggested
ABCD is the quadrangle. Its sides are AB, BC, CD, DA,
AC and BD.
AB and CD, AG and BD, AD and BC are pairs of opposite
sides and the points P, Q, R where these intersect are the
diagonal points.
The
triangle
PQR
may be
of the quadrangle
is
conjugates
harmonic
in that point.
The student will have n(^ difficulty in .seeing that this can
be deduced from the harmonic property of the quadrilateral
proved in 74,
On
HARMONIC SECTION
78
EXERCISES
If
that
it is
and
JS^
AB
and
CJJ.
Z>._,
{BC, A,A.^ = -
= -l,
{CA, B,B,)
1,
{AB, C,C.^^-l.
3.
[Take
The
4.
collinear points A, D,
is
From any
5.
MC
and meeting
intersect
M'B'
in
point
intersect in Q,
AC
in P.
M in
AB
P,
and
AP
and
27.]
is
Prove that
the side
drawn parallel
and AC in B' and
and
CB is any other
any moving point
the lines CQ and DE
BD
are
are given:
MB' and
A-^Ac^, B^B,,,
Use Ex.
F.
P is
a fixed point
to
intersects
C".
The
B'C
in
lines
BC
M'.
and GB'
Prove that
M'C'^MB MC.
:
6.
of
so on.
The -lines
7.
VA',
by the
lines joining
ABC
and A'
lies
and A,
A and
B', 6"
with respect to
B.
and
G,
collinear.
A^Bj^
AA-^^,
meets
AB
HARMONIC SECTION
9.
i^
the tangent at P.
the locus of
10.
and P a variable
^i^ at right angles to AP
the rectangle FAPQ be completed
is
meets in
79
is
a straight
line is
The
If
line
line.
two
to the
11.
circles.
to A, B, C.
A^, B.,,
0-2.
A and B. If
CCi be concurrent.
with
ABC opposite
A.,, B.^,
and
B^, Bo with
C and A
A.^
are
C\, C^
12.
AA^, BBy, CCi 3-re concurrent lines through the vertices of
a triangle ABC B^C^ meets BC in A.^, C,Ji meets CA in B.,, A^B^
meets AB in Cj. Prove that the circles on A^A^, B^B.^, C^C^ as
diameters all cut the circumcircle of ABC orthogonally, and have
[Compare Ex.
same straight
line.
3.]
MA.
length
14.
If
jugate for each circle of the system, then the radical axes of the
circles,
15.
taken in
If a
system of
circles
have a
common
circles,
AGO'.
of the
80
CHAPTER Yin
INVOLUTION
Definition.
77.
If
B, Bi
C,
C'l
lie
= k,
The point
is
is
called conjugates;
associated
and sometimes
conjugate points
Two
lie
will
be
two
real
points
that
is
why we
It is clear that
{AA^, KK') =
is
K'
iLj.
1,
and so
points.
If ^ be negative,
sides of 0,
they will form a coaxal system, whose axis cuts the line on
lie in 0.
INVOLUTION
81
on
KK'
as diameter.
We
pairs of points on
involution.
Prop.
78.
condition that a
siifficient
to the involution
determined
{ABCA,)={A,B,C\A).
First
its
we
will
shew that
OA
OA, =
OB
to the involution.
OH,
= OC 0C\ =
.
Let
be
k.
[ob,~oaJ \oa~ocJ
[oA OaJ \0n\ ~ 00
OB,OA,)
{OA
-0C\) ^ A,B,.C,A
_
^
{OA- OA,) {OB, - OC,) 'A,A C\B,
(
y^^^^^'^^^)-
is
necessary.
theorem
will
be
by
this
and
let
let
C be
is sufficient.
{ABCA,) = (A,B,C,A)
the mate of
A,A,i B,B,.
A. G.
INVOLUTION
..{A,B,C\A) = {A,B,G'A).
.*.
Cj
1.
If A, A,;
and 6"
is
coincide.
established.
to the
same
involution
{ABGI))
Cor.
2.
If
= {AACM.
We may
79.
prove the
first
follows.
same
involution,
Let
P be a point
Then
the angles
( 77).
and
therefore
P(ABCA,) = F(A,B,C\A).
(ABCA,) = (A,B,C,A).
.-.
The
still
circles
may
The
proposition
greatest importance.
we have
just proved
is
of the very
INVOLUTIOX
The
83
of points belong
the
to
same
one taken
from
should be equal
wi'ite
the
We
{AA,CB) = {A,AC,B,)
{AA,C\B) = {A,ACBy).
or
All that
essential
is
cross-ratio, three
Prop.
81.
is
range in involution.
For
let
projections be denoted
by corresponding small
{ABCA ,) = {A, B, C, A
{ABC A,) = {abca,)
(zi,B,C^A) = {aAciCi).
{abca^) = {a^biCia).
Then
But
and
let
the
letters.
).
.'.
..
Note.
a,
The
tti
6, 61
r,
d form an
involution.
We
Involution Pencil.
now
see that
VP,
if
we have
VF;
A, A,
B,B,\
C, C, &c.
so.
62
84
INVOLUTION
The double lines of the involution pencil are the lines through
on which the double points of the involutions formed by
different transversals
lie.
From
lines are
rays.
VD
and
VU
he the double
lines
VA, VA^.
lines are
We
83.
to
shall
use of
84.
Prop.
a
line
form a range
the points
Let
Let
circle
lie
line
with the
OPQ
is
CK be
on
PK.KQ= KO.KC.
.-.
line
I.
/.
Then
along
circle.
be the pole of
Let
which
of intersection of the
Thus
is
KP.KQ=OK.KC.
I.
its
orthocentre
INVOLUTION
85
or imaginary according as
real
PQ
circle.
If
thus
we
tion.
since each
The
is its
own
and
conjugate.
foregoing,
easily
is
Prop.
deduced from
Pairs of conjugate
lines
form an involution
tangents from the point.
through a point
lines are the
is
it.
for a
circle,
luhich
in
pairs of
pass
will
meet
Hence the
pairs of conjugate
lines
through
form an
involution pencil, the double lines of which are the lines joining
to the points in
which
its
is
the
tangents from 0.
be within the
If
85.
circle the
real.
special case of
an involution puneil
is
is
in involution
is
its
centre at that
point.
VP, VP^;
by taking any transversal t to
A, A^; B, B^ &c. and drawing the perpendicular
But we can
^^Q,
cut these in
VO
on to
then
0A.0A, = -0V'=0B.0B,.
INVOLUTION
86
Thus the
of points
pairs
Hence
Such an involution
Note that
is
called
this property
an orthogonal involution.
may
an involution.
If they can
must be
in involution.
Let
P be
an orthogonal
one.
Take any
transversal
I,
and
let
makes on
it,
and
let
k be the
Thus
and P'
according as
Bisect
meet the
is
/..
PP'
line
will
in
such that
OP
OP' = k.
positive or negative.
in
M and
draw J/C
at right angles to
PP'
to
in C.
OP
C and
radius
OP
or
CP'
to cut
and A^.
The
points
^1
in the involution
OA .OA,= OP.OP' = k.
on
for
INVOLUTION
Also the angle
APA^
87
being in a semicircle
is
a right angle.
pair of rays
PA
and PA^
and
is
coincide.
PO
is
perpendicular to
PP'
rays, for
involution range on
In this case
infinity.
to
/,
parallel to
is
it is
PO
and the
along
/.
87.
involution,
involution.
For
let
A.,
A^; B, Bi]
Then
.-.
in the
.4,
A^
C, C^ &c.
;
and
let 0'
B, B^; C, Cj &c.
planes in
0.
an involution range.
is
an involution.
ir
be the projection of
is
p and
plane into
INVOLUTION
88
must be an orthogonal
may be remarked
Then the
pencil in the
one.
too that at
tlie
Note.
xA.s
lines, it is clear
if
we can
( 43).
an involution pencil
is
double
real
to be projected
An
involution
lines, if
the projection
is
to
be a real one.
vertex of projection.
The reader
will
do not
is
here
in that
plane
EXERCISES
1.
Any
of points
If
A",
A, A^; B, By belong
3.
angles, they
in involution be at right
of the angles
of conjugate rays.
4.
A.'
B'C
The corresponding
sides
BC, B'
ifcc.
of
AA', BB',
CC
two
triangles
ABC,
R respectively; and
PQR in P\ Q', K'.
89
EXERCISES
5.
The centre
system of
6.
circles
Shew
quadrilateral
also
lies
that
is
formed by the
on the radical axis of the
if
circle is
is
the radical
axis.
90
CHAPTER IX
THE CONIC SECTIONS
Definitions.
88.
The Conic
They
are
It is
not necessary that the cone should be a right circular one, that
is,
that
its
vertex should
on the
lie
it.
The
89.
line
it
touches the
parabola;
curve
is
if
circle,
and
curve of projection
is
By
'
is
by a plane
circular base,
cone.
If the vanishing
called an ellipse;
circle the
sections parallel
all its
if
called
circle,
called a hyperbola.
is
generating line
'
is
meant a
forms
the
which
its base.
An
ellipse is
plane parallel to
it
A hyperbola, is
parallel plane
it.
The curves
are illustrated
91
by the following
figure
and
it
90.
Focus and
Every conic
we
its vertex.
directrix property.
namely that
it is
the locus
its
The
fixed point
is
is
It
Avill
92
91.
when
by
fact
every conic
that
section, even
defined
easy
it
is
its
focus
when the
We
shew how
to prove
Projective properties.
The
possess
all
must
circle.
will
The
(2)
property
'
That
of the circle.
is,
'
circle.
This line is
through the points of contact of the tangents.
the chord of contact,' but strictly speaking the
often called
'
chord
The
is
polar
(3)
is
unlimited in length.
for a conic
must go through A.
goes through B,
Two
pole of
lines.
Also
I'
if
will lie
on
/,
two such
lie
lines
on another line
I',
the
93
(5)
As an
by
projection.
which
lie
along
the points
(7)
(if
The curve
of projection of a circle
is
Prop.
If
luhicJi is the
form an orthogonal
its
projection of the
involution, then
centre at P.
at the extremities of
lines
through
is
on a line through
Hence the
it.
That
the curve
is,
Cor.
point within
at every
point of
circle
it
is
a circle with
can be projected
as centre.
into
another circle
luith
any
Note.
The point
Note
to 87).
to
if
the projection
94
94.
Prop.
//'"
plane of
in the
polar.
of projection of a
the curve
IS
an orthogonal
is
one,
circle
formed hi/
then 8 and
Let
let
the
Join
ST
cutting
PQ
in R,
and
in F.
let
PQ
QN perpendicular
to the polar
of S.
Then ST
is
since that of
T goes through F.
SF and ST are conjugate
lines at
goes through
also goes
it
*S^
through
lines.
form an orthogonal
involution.
TSF
.-.
And by
.-.
.-.
a right angle.
{FR,PQ) = -l.
SF are the bisectors of the angle PSQ,{^
SP:SQ = FP:FQ
= PM QN (by similar triangles).
SP PM = SQ QA\
ST
and
.-.
is
72).
Note.
infinity
and directrix
If the polar of
<S'
for
is
constant, that
the curve.
We may
to their distance
its
95
is
a circle
( 93).
may be
considered to
have the focus and directrix property, the focus being at the
centre,
is
The
line at infinity.
eccentricity
Parallel chords.
95.
we go on
Before
shewing that
for all of
them there
we
shall
do by
we
will establish
a straight
line,
and
the tangents
to the chords.
middle jwints.
<>f
^1/ its
middle
point.
as concurrent in a point
infinity
line
that
is
Thus
points
is
so too.
R at
on the vanishing
(qq',mr)^-l
on the polar of
r.
is
96
let
P is
parallel to QQ'.
those at
that
is
on the
line
which
is
7\
r,
the chords.
Also every line through r will have its pole on the polar of r,
and therefore every line through R in the plane of the conic
will have its pole on the line PM, that is, every line parallel to
the chords
is
is
We
now
and directrix
We
separately,
shall
and
take
the
parabola,
ellipse
and hyperbola
Prop.
tivo
is at infinity.
97
circle in
co.
r.
= -l.
it
at
N so
that
is
Thus
at infinity.
all
.-.
FN=^^F\
is
Ail
are bisected
by
it,
is
The
and
in the point
As
which
is
at infinity.
is
rw subtends a right
of the curve
is unity.
7
P be
axis,
Let PNP'
and cutting
it in iY.
The tangents
at
and P'
on the
Then
.'.
as
Now
YS
is
let
at infinity,
it
polar of
be
TA = AN.
the tangent at
at right angles to
The
Let
T is
as
PF to
will
meet that at
meet the axis in
in
]'
and draw
S.
( 95).
P parallel
to the axis in
M.
Now
as
*S'
is
the pole of
XM
An) = -i.
TA = AN we have TS = XN = MP.
But TY.YP=^TA.AN=^\, so that A TYS ^APYS, and
TS=PS.
and the
Thus PS = PM, that is P is equidistant from
(xs,
.-.
>S^
polar of S.
ST
Further, since
SPMT is
Thus
is
rhombus and
PT bisects
ASPZ = AMPZ,
Now Z is
S
PM and SP = PM,
the angle
SPM.
and Z
(since that of
99
since -Z'P is
a tangent at P.
SP
Hence SZ and
at right angles to
So
also are
ST
and the
line
through
it ( '95).
XM
eccentricity
98.
are focus
is
SP
Prop.
*S'
is
an orthogonal one.
Thus
*S'
( 94),
and its
and the
PM
The projection of a
its plane is either a
circle
not
met by the
a closed curve
having two axes of symmetry, mutually perpendicular, on which
are intercepted by the curve chords of unequal length.
vanishing line in
^\
circle or
100
Using corresponding
G and
its
infinity.
is
the line at
bisected at C.
For this
is
chords through
it
The tangents
and the
is
at the extremities of
parallel,
through
shall
FC =CF'.
.-.
for
we
divided harmonically at
is
meet
in the polar of
c,
which
the vanishing
is
circle
line.
curve
is
is
an orthogonal one
then the
circle ( 93).
pencil
is
not an orthogonal
one; then there must be one and only one pair of conjugate
lines
through
Draw
the chords
FQ
and
FR
Then
as
fl' is
lines chords
perpendicular to
N and
( 86).
and let
of A A' and BB'.
Jli,
FQ
A A'
and BB'.
A A'
and BB'
and H' be the
{FQ,Nn') = -l.
FN=NQ.
.-.
FM = MR.
Similarly
AGA',
is
We
shall
now shew
that
But
and
GK
GK
bisects
Hence
and
meet
GK an'd
( 95).
is
cannot be equal.
in
K, then
GAKB is
AB.
jugate lines
axes.
parallel to
AB,
for
bisected at G.
parallel to
AB
are con-
lOl
But these
thus
GA
if
lines
GB
and
We
^^'
shall
Then
suppose
called the
is
equal.
circle,
is less
than unity.
With
centre
to
GA
describe a circle
The
polars of
Let these be
the tangent at
Now
perpendicular to
S' are
in
F and
cutting
A A'
in
AA'
( 95).
F'.
through
S and
goes
FB
tangent.
.-.
SB
We
is
will
SB
is
102
^ince
is
/S'X) = -1.
CS.GX = CA"-.
(^^',
.-.
Now
Then
draw
SK parallel
BK
to CB to meet BF in K.
=
KF OS SX = CS (CX - OS)
= GA"- - CS-'
=^SB'-GS'=SK'
FSB is a right angle.
.
.'.
103
w and
co' ,
and
let c
line.
Then
with WW.
shall
at
at infinity.
.-.
FC = CP'.
is
it
meets the
curve, since in the plane of the circle there are lines through c
Of each
the
it.
meet
lines.
through
lines,
Thus there
through
will
it
( 86).
104
Let
this pair
CA
be
is
the one
CH
Since
G {mr, AB)=--l
..
GA
Since
GB
and
are
(82).
at right
angles,
GVL' ( 72).
PQ
(PQ, NZ')
.-.
Similarly
= -1.
PN = NQ.
PM = MR.
of symmetry mutually at right
which meets the curve, and the other not.
AA'
is
and
GB
is
Note.
We
At present
is
point to be emphasised
is
on to make
it
definite
the
we cannot determine
points
and B' on
it
as
Prop.
and
The
lines
KL
and K'L' will be perpendicular to the transwe have seen, GA bisects the angle OCH'.
..
on the
will lie
We
will
KL
which we
now shew
S and
and K'L'.
that
AA'
in
its
{AA',
.'.
KCl
is
..
S and S\
polar
KL
are focus
and
SX) = -
1.
CS.CX = CA'=CK\
CKS is a right angle.
.-.
Now
denote by
X and A".
the polar of
through K.
will
Let
lines,
105
a tangent at O.
Sn
is
the polar of
A",
that
is >S7i
lines.
But
Sfl
is
is
parallel
to KQ., that is
perpendicular to SK.
pairs of conjugate
lines
line
Hence the
SC
through
>S'6'
S,
and the
( 95).
*S'
KX
106
The
eccentricity
Sn
the ratio
is
perpendicular from
II
on
KL
unity.
C'>S^:
We
It is the ratio
C'J..
SA AX
= CS- CA CA - CX
= CH CX - CA CX CX {CA - CX)
= CA (CA - CX) CX (CA - CX)
= CA CX.
:
102.
We
We
have proved in
Diameters.
ellipse
is
a straight
Clearly in the
line.
is
centre,
is
r,
which projects into the locus of the middle points of the system of
chords, passes through ro the point of contact of the circle with
Thus the locus of the middle points of the
the vanishing line.
system of parallel chords of the parabola passes through fl, that
is,
the line
is
and
parallel to its
These
lines
They are
107
and bisected
at a definite" point.
Ordinates of diameters.
103.
Def
The
by a particular
The
is
called
we have seen
parallel to
The
that axis.
The ordinates
an
ellipse,
'
'
PN
axis, as
the case
may
be.
a conic will be
104.
The contents
importance
for
right
foci lie.
The student should now have a good general idea of the form
of the curves, and, as it were, see them whole, realising that
they have been obtained by projecting a circle from one plane
on to another.
which
all
We
shall in the
conies have in
108
CHAPTER X
PROPERTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS
Proposition.
105.
between
SP
Fig.
if e
1.
For, drawing
have,
SF
and SQ.
PM and
QR
be the eccentricity,
SP:PM=e = SQ:QR,
SP:SQ = PM:QR
.-.
= FP:FQ
(by similar
As FQR, FPM).
we
in
fig.
in figs 1
2
and
3, *S'^
it
109
PSQ
PSQ, and
itself.
106.
directrix in
angle.
This
is
The
'
'
meet
at
Z in
Thus SZ and
lies
on SZ.
SP
conjugate
will
PSQ
lines, since
the pole of
SP
110
But the
But
plane
ZSP
Therefore
angles.
we
as
curve
projection of
is
a right angle.
some
circle,
we
the
is
will give
at
is
very close to P.
angle of
And
Now
if
Thus Z
ZSP =
the limit of
=a
FSP' when
P' approaches
right angle.
should be observed
It
that
determined by drawing
PSQ
SZ at
meet
ZQ
107.
We
shall
now
establish
and
directrix
Prop.
property
Every
is the projection
of some
circle.
jjart of
is
Now
is
orthogonal involution
111
( 87).
meet
and
s,
the pro-
to the chord.
curve
is
It follows of course
108.
s,
in the plane
then the
tricity
<jf
circle
the circle
if
if
the eccen-
line.
109.
is
Pair of tangents.
Prop.
from a point
Z
TSF is
a right angle.
FQ
in R.
112
Since
polar of
But
through
this goes
through F, the
the polar of
must go
8.
Thus 8T
is
the polar of F.
8F
Hence
Further
Thus
SP
and
SR
SQ
Note.
and
SF
It will
be seen that
T lie
PSQ, but
if
ST
bisects
The
between
( 72).
tangents from
the angle
FR) = -l
S(PQ,FR) = -1.
(PQ,
.-.
ST
PSQ.
shew the case v/here
S.
TP
and
TQ
easily
The above
T.
ST
Join
and
let it
in
K and K'.
Take
KK') = -
that {TR,
TP
TQ
and
.-.
the pole of
such
the directrix in F.
P and
Q.
and through a
focus,
on SF.
/SfT lies
of SI'
on the
is
T goes
the polar of
figure
KK'
lines.
i^ is
The
in
ST and SF
For as
113
of
directrix.
the polar of
is,
goes through
since (TR,
is
F goes
through T.
through F.
is,
PQ
is
KK') = -
1.
the chord of
The Normal.
111.
Def.
The
line
Prop.
and
be
If
the
normal
a focus of the
normal at that
point.
to
eccentricity.
meet the
directrix corresponding to
SinZ.
Draw
Then
since
A. G.
114
and
cyclic
^^
where
this case
is
it will
So that the
112.
The
The
In
latus rectum.
focal
lies is called
Thus the
latus
rectum
is
103),
Prop.
S.
be found
Def.
the focus
for
is
aharmonic mean
Let
aS7>
Draw
and
PM and QR perpendicular
QK perpendicular to
Then
PSQ
any
focal chord.
to the directrix,
and
PN
the axis.
SP:P3f = e = SL:SX
= 8Q QR.
:
And by
similar triangles
SP .SQ = SN: KS
= XN - XS XS - XK (Fig.
= MP - XS A^S' - RQ
= e{MP-XS):e(XS-RQ)
= SP- SL SL - SQ.
:
..
SP,
SL and SQ
and
_L J_ SP'^SQ'~SL'
This proposition requires some modification
on opposite branches. We ijow have
if
and Q are
115
XR :KX + XS (Fig.
= e{XS-3IP):e(QR + XS)
= SL-SP:SQ + SL
SP SQ = SN KS = XS :
Fig.
.-.
2)
Fig. 2.
1.
1 __L_ ^
''
Thus
in this case
Cor.
it is
IVie rectangle
SP,
SP
SQ'SL'
SL and SQ
contained by
tJie
that are
h.p.
- SQ
SP
SL
'
according as
SP SQ
.
.-.
that
SL
SP.SQ = '^^'xPQ
SP.SQozPQ.
is
SP
lie
on the
direction,
the circle.
82
of
116
For
let
Take the
for the
through
lines
then exactly as in
is
87);
circle.
Note.
that
is
may be
tangents from
must
to the conic
lie
must not be
(Note to
real
87),
Carnot's theorem.
Prop.
114.
If a
ABC in
by corresponding small
projection
Then
since
abi
Ci
bcy
.'
.
..
ahi
ah,
ca-i
ca.,
bci
ah =
letters.
ac^
= c6i
bc2
buy.
= aCj
ac2,
cb.2
ba.2,,
ac.^
CB,.
COa
bc.2
( 68).
bui
ba^
ttj^a, b^Co,
cb^
063.
c^a^ is in
per-
117
is
in
ABC.
.-.by 68
CA.^
BC, BC,
.
CB,
CB.,.
Newton's theorem.
115.
and PQ,
Prop.
RS be
If
a variable
be
jjoint in the
plane of a
conic,
OP.OQ
OB. OS
IS constant.
Let 0' be [any other point and through 0' draw the chords
PQ and RS.
Now
RS
at infinity
in
CI.
in T.
coP'
but
&>
meet
(oP
OR OS TP' TQ'
TR TS OP OQ
.
o)Q'
~p;=
loP
&>(
1,
118
TR. TS ~ OK.OIS'
Next apply Carnot's theorem
and get
TP'.TQ' ^ O'F'
.O'Q'
Hence
,L
that
IS,
OR.OS~
OP.OQ
77^57T-<
UK
(Jo
O'R'.O'S"
IS
constant.
This proposition
is
known
as
Newton's theorem.
OR
so for
and OS.
Newton's theorem
116.
We
is
of great importance, as
will
OP
Let the
shall
it.
its use.
Prop.
the ratio
we
be made of
intersect in
lengths of the
qSq'.
OP OF OQ
.
OQ'
have OP'
= - OP
and OQ'
.-.
We
Note.
=-
= Sp Sp Sq Sq'
= pp':qq ( 112 Cor.).
.
is
we
OQ.
OP"-:OQ^-=pp':qq'.
OP
Sj^ and
when one
119
Then
q lies on the opposite branch to the other three.
one of the focal chords pp', qq will join two points on opposite
and
q,
branches and the other will join two points on the same branch.
If
branches otherwise
it is
OP.OP:OQ.OQ'^pp:qq'
is
So
also
it is
same convention
as to sign, that if
CQ
And
CP,
pp' qq'
:
two
focal chords,
= CP' CQ\
:
branch and the other two points on opposite branches, only one
can meet the curve in real points for the ratio CP-
a negative value.
then
Let the
focal
Then regarding
OQ
Sq
Sq',
OP\:OQ^=pp:qq'.
.-.
Whence we
OP as
similarly,
same
sign.
from a point to
equal to that of the diameters parallel to them.
a central conic
118.
is
Prop.
//"
circle
cut
P,
Q, P', Q'.
Draw
qSq
parallel to
PP' and
QQ'.
120
OP.OP'-.OQ. OQ' = Sp
Sp'
Sq
Sq'
= pp':qq'.
But from the
circle
op.OF = OQ.oq,
^^d ^P ^P' = ^9 ^'j'chords have the same sign, their
lengths are ecjual and the rectangles contained by their segments
PP =
'
Thus the
parallel
'Vl'
focal
are equal.
These
choi'ds
make
CoR.
two
make
and cut it at
and the chord
the axis.
Circle of curvature.
119.
An
infinite
number
of circles can be
drawn
to touch a
These
the
conic in two other points, but in the special case where one of
curvature at P.
This
circle
the
may be
The
subject
of curvature
principal
properties
of
it
the
properly
belongs
to
the
circles
curvature
of
conies*
PQ
Q then
The
121
poipt of a conic.
Self-Polar Triangle.
119a.
Prop.
If a
regard
to the conic
that
is,
each vertex
is
four
is
i^oints of
self-polar with
Mde.
Let
triangle.
Let
PQ
cut
AD and BC in X
and
F.
122
(AD,XR)=-1,
Then
.'.
the polar of
goes thi'ough
A'"
92
(5)),
{BC\YR) = -1,
and
the polar of
.'.
.'.
Similarly
QR
is
PQ
is
goes through Y.
PR
is
of Q.
proved.
J?
the polar of R.
this proposition
when taken
would be
to say that
conic.
The
triangle
PQR
is
to the conic.
EXERCISES
Given n conic and a focus and corresponding directrix
1.
shew how to draw the tangent at any point.
2.
is
directrix,
PQ
4.
end
5.
of a latus
T then TA =AS.
any point
of a conic
/*
meet a directrix
in
then
the eccentricity.
If the normal at
6.
in 0,
SD SP =
it,
circle.
3.
prove that
of
to a conic
i-adius
rectum.
if
7.
If
PSP'
PQ
and
PQ
F',
FSF'
F and
a right angle.
8.
ABO
in I), U,
respectively then
AD, BE,
CF
123
oi
a.
triangle
are concurrent.
[Use 114.]
By means
9.
is
of
ordinate of a point
if
PX
be the
PN'^
AJ^
the curve.
Conies are drawn through two fixed points I> and E, and
10.
DE
DE
a fixed point.
The polar
11.
directrix on
of
the diameter
to a conic meets a
focal
chord
drawn
12.
in
the
it
is
[Use
95 and 106.]
13.
conic,
meet a directrix
iu
and
shew that
MX
subtends at the
P and
14.
conic,
Q.
point.
15.
16.
two conies
sponding directrices.
If
17.
of a conic of
which
is
>S
a focus, and
if
18.
focus,
rectum
is
circle.
124
TP
If
19.
TQ
and
PQ
TP
intercepted between
TQ
and
A diameter of a
QR
chord
which
PQ is a
PQ
21.
the pole of
and S
is
22.
is
AA\ BB\
If
is
meets a directrix in
CC
PQ
prove that
TS
through
AB,
23.
AC
and
U, F,
PC
PC"
lie
on a straight
0.
A, B, C,
BD
ZK.
parallel to
is
in
D
;
circle.]
AB,
in
CD
meet in E;
prove that
AD
[Project
and
BG
circle.]
24.
two
if
a hexagon be inscribed in a
two pairs
P any point
on the polar of A. The tangents from P to the conic meet a given
line in Q and R.
Shew that AR, PQ, and AQ, PR intersect on a
26.
is
fixed line.
for
centime.]
27.
A system
fixed point,
PQ
meets
28.
of conies touch
and BD,
BC
CD
AB
and .^C at
and
of the conies in P, Q.
C.
Shew
is
that
in a fixed point.
If a conic pass
intersection of
meet one
AG
and BD,
of xlZ/and
A and
CD,
C,
D, the points of
B and
of the tangents at
are collinear.
125
A on a conic two
and *S" are two fixed points and P a variable
PS, PS' meet AI, AT in Q, Q' respectively,
point on the conic
shew that QQ' passes through a fixed point.
Til rough
29.
AI,
AT
a fixed point
are drawn,
S'
30.
A-^A.2,
AA.2, BB.2,
31.
two
BC, CA,
AB
of a triangle
ABC
in
B^B^, C1C2, and AA^, BB^, CC^ are concurrent, then will
GC^ be concurrent.
When
a triangle
is
two and
onl}^
infinity
form a
self-
conjugate triangle.]
.S',
conies can be
Prove that a
a given point
it
126
CHAPTER XI
THE PARABOLA
The form
120.
and
in 96
properties of the
vertex,
for
we have
Prop.
curve.
the focus,
for
97.
Throughout
will
4<AS.
the directrix.
121.
Prop.
If
PN
PN' = ^AS.AN.
Let
PN meet the
let
LSL' be the
latus rectum.
NP
115),
NA Na SA Sn
^NA:SA
NP' SL SL =
:
'
since
is
at infinity.
THE PARABOLA
127
PN'-AAS' = AN':AS;
PN"- = 4.AS.AA'.
.-.
This
case of a
The preceding
122.
The
I'.
line
is
the axis,
To determine
of the line
//
is
its
is
the parabola
the point
lies.
I'
we ought
If
it
may
know on which
to
lie
side
the locus
123.
Prop.
and
If the tangent
respectively,
and
(2)
The
We
first
meet the
axis in
P,
NG = 2AS.
tangents at
and normal at
PN be the ordinate of
TA=AN
(1)
P and
if
in P', the
axis, that
is,
they
THE PARABOLA
128
intersect in T.
{TN,
polar
.-.
Also since
TPG
is
PN'-
.-.
Def.
NG is
a right angle
TN NG = ^AN
.
124.
Prop.
AN
NG.
{ll^l),
NG = 2AS.
called the suhnormal of the point P.
equal angles
and
TA=AN.
PN'-=4.AS.
But
of the pole
Aa) = -l;
is
Thus
in
constant.
luith the
129
THE PARABOLA
Now
since
MPZ which
SP = PM,
and
PZ
is
common
to the
As SPZ,
A SPZ = A MPZ
SPT = Z TPM =zSTP.
.-.
and Z
P meet
If the normal at
Cor.
the axis
then
SG = SP = ST.
That ,ST =
and
SP
SPT
STP.
Further the complements of these angles must be equal
.-.
zSPG = ^8GP;
.-.
We
SG =
SP.
SG
and
SP
in a parabola
SG = e SP
any conic
( 111).
The
We
first
and SY-
it
thus
= SA
will bisect
SP.
is
meet the
axis in T.
-Since
ST=SP,
TP.
at the
vertex.
A. G.
THE PARABOLA
130
Further as SY2^
ST, SY'
is
YA
perpendicular to
= SA ST = SA SF.
.
Cor.
1.
Cor.
2.
zSPY=zSYA.
If the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from
line,
then the
its
point.
Def.
When
is
Pair of Tangents.
Prop.
126.
Tangents
to
a parabola at
tJte
extremities of a
directrix
we know
already, since
Let
PSQ
directrix in Z.
Then
as
let
we have seen
in
to the directrix.
124
ASFZ^AMFZ,
.-.
Si milarly
Thus
z.SZF = aMZF.
Z
SZQ = Z FZQ.
QZF = i
=a
of
two right Z
right angle.
THE PARABOLA
We
If TP and TQ be two
SPT, STQ are similar.
Prop.
127.
the triangles
know
131
tangents to a parabola,
PST, TSQ
are
equal
vertex
( 109).
Y and
Then
Z, then
ZSPT = ZSTQ;
Thus
.-.
and
STQ
Cor.
Z.
ST' = SP.SQ
SP ST = ST SQ.
TP' TQ' = SP SQ
1.
fur
Cor.
STP =
are similar.
2.
for
TP'
7Y,)'^
= ASPT A,STQ
= SP.ST:ST.SQ
:
since
ZPST = Z.TSQ
= SP:SQ.
128.
parabola
Prop.
is
equal
ttvo
tangents to a
THE PARABOLA
132
the axis in
P and Q meet
F and K respectively.
Then
in T,
and
let
them meet
= zSQK-zSPT
129.
When
triangle
is
But
it
must be
clearly understood that the triangle does not enclose the parabola,
for
no
finite triangle
extent.
is really
When
is
infinite in
escribed to
it,
that
is, it
sides produced.
Only
triangles
which have
the line at infinity for one of their sides can enclose the parabola,
and
word be said
to circumscribe
it.
It is convenient
'
circumscribe
'
Prop.
three tangents to
THE PARABOLA
Understanding the word
may
129 we
If a
'
133
'
as explained in
its
circumcircle goes
circumscribe
This can be seen from the fact that the feet of the perpendiculars from the focus on the three sides of the triangle which
lies
( 7).
proposition in another
way
TLM as
in
the figure.
Then
And
as
as
zSLM= zSTM,
.-.
that
is,
T,
L and M.
Cor.
j'jora-
For
centre
if
is
'TLM be the
to the ortho-
*S ( 8).
lie
on the
directrix.
is,
as
we
THE PARABOLA
134
Prop.
131.
triangle
SLM
is
tangents at
//' the
cut
and Q
them in
SPT and
PL.LT= TM MQ = LR RM.
similar
to the triangles
:
By
TLM.
to
a parabola
and M,
STQ, and
the
lies
on the circumcircle of
zSML= Z.STL
ZSLM = ^ SPT from the similar As SPL, SLR.
A SLM is similar to A SPT and therefore also to A STQ.
Further A SLR is similar to ASTM for ZSLM=ZSTM,
.-.
and
.-.
SRL = Z SLP
= 180 - z SLT = z SMT.
and
.-.
LR:TM=SR:SM
= MR MQ
LR RM = TM MQ.
:
.-.
Similarly
Hence
132.
(by similar
As SRM, SMQ).
PL LT = TM MQ = LR RM.
:
Diameters.
We
THE PARABOLA
135
on that diameter
Prop.
( 95).
TQ and TQ'
//
then
be tangents to
QQ' in
and
a parabola, and
TV
P
TP = PV.
PV being parallel
For
.-.
Note that
133.
TA =
Prop.
through O.
{TV,Pn) = -l,
TP = PV.
AX (
123)
is
this.
is
four times
the distance
it
focal
chord,
PV
the diameter
which
in V.
ZP=PF( 132).
But ZSV is a right
angle
.-.
Now
draw
RM and
106).
SP = PV = ZP.
R'M' perpendicular
to
the directrix.
THE PARABOLA
136
Then
is
RR'
= RS + 8R' = RR';
.-.
RR' = 4.PV=4.SP.
134.
and we proved
Prop.
it
QV he
//
equal to
4>S^^.
an ordinate of a diameter
PV then
QV = 4aSP P V.
.
QF
in Q'.
RR'
to
QV=VQ'.
Draw
will
The diameter
RSR'
PV in
be bisected by
tl (say).
PV meets
D, at
an
infinity,
VQ
.-.
VQ. VQ'
.VP.Vn=UR.UR':UP. Un
UR UR'= VP. Vn.UP.Un=VP:
VQ'
:
.-.
QV':RU^-=PV:PU:
UP.
THE PARABOLA
FV
PU
137
SP
133)
= 4SP.
.-.
QV"-
= ^SP.PV.
FN- = 4 AS.
AS
of 121
135.
The preceding proposition shews that a parabola may
be regarded as the locus of a point in a plane such that the
square of
The
line
is
and
If a be the angle
I'
is
a tangent at
axis in 134
which
QV
QF=perp. from*Q on
and
.*.
I'
intersect.
PF x
cosec
a.
PF= perp.
a;
(Perp. from
Q on PF)on tangent at
(Perp. from
rerp. from
where SF
is
cd
cosec
ot-
*S^
on the tangent at P.
a.
THE PARABOLA
138
Thus
if
move
a point
is
k times
its
distant
-r
tion of
with
from
and
it,
I'
The
it.
The
I.
and
it
is
I'
of intersection with
is
makes
point
^122
in
if
I'
the lines
and V are at
Circle of curvature.
136.
We
its
I.
As already explained
right angles
and
I'
I'
i',
line
is
have explained in
We
shall
circle of
the
at P, if then
this circle in
circle
of this chord
then
any
PD
will
and perpendicular
the circle
make equal
Now
in D,
at
any point
for
they
through
at
to it to
axis
it
diameter of the
Q and let
Draw
in R.
it
Draw
meet the
QV the
circle
P and cutting
circle
again in
we have
RQ.RK = RP"';
RP"'
07^
PV.
THE PARABOLA
Now
in the limit
cides with P,
through
when Q moves up
139
to
Hence
CoR.
The diameter
-r^.
Diameter
cos
= sin Z
= sin Z
P=
AiSP-o-r>-,
ox
For
axis)
_SY
~ spNote.
circle of
curvature through
P are
curvature
is
commonly
circle of
THE PARABOLA
140
EXERCISES
PSP'
1.
is
PN. P'N' =
2.
series of parabolas
4.
AS''
on a
common
circle.
If
3.
= iAN. AN'.
moment
The ordinates
4.
of points
ratio,
is
another
parabola.
The
5.
is also
is
parabola.
li
6.
QV
be an ordinate of
If tlie
7.
normal at
PV
the diameter
QD^ =
4:AS
and
to a parabola
QD
be
PV.
in
then
PG"^iAS.SP.
PR
PQ,
8.
are
diameter through
through Q in
two chords
in
prove that
a parabola;
of
the point
EF is
and
PE
PQ
meets the
centre.]
9.
diameters through
Q and
A' will
and cut
meet the
circle
it
at
Q and
R, the
again in points on a
[Use 116
10.
variable
PL
TM
11.
If
Cor.]
TP
and
TQ
respectively the
tangent cut them in L and
are equal and^constant.
and TL
:
If
two tangents
tangent in L and
ratios
QM
TP
and
TQ
M respectively then
TL
TP
"^
TM_~
TO
THE PARABOLA
If the
12.
normal at
PN be the
Q and
to a parabola
141
meet the curve again in
of PQ^
T the pole
Pq:PT = PN:AN.
ordinate of P, and
13.
If the tangent at P meet the directrix in
rectum produced in D, then SD ~ SZ.
14.
through
Z and
the latus
15.
The any
If
T meet
and
to a parabola
nP- = 4:SP.RQ.
PQ
the chord
If
IG.
17.
PN and
XX'
the circle on
which
aS',
then
normal at
is
to a parabola
SQ = 2.S'P.
XP + X'P' = XX'.
7'P and
IS.
QL
are
TQ
drawn perpendicular
respectively to
TQ and
Tl',
PK
and
prove that
the triangles
19.
PP'
and the
line
through
7'
parallel
to infinity.]
chord
If 7'P
21.
PQ
22.
and
TQ
be normal at P, then
The
triangle
ABC
SC
TP
through A, B,
as
The tangents
to a parabola at
and R'
Prove that
PR
and P'
intersect in
in
is
the
axis again
THE PARABOLA
142
A given
24.
triangle
ABC
moves
Shew
straight line.
Shew
25.
AG
will
envelop a parabola.
two given
two given circles
circles is a
2G.
axis.
line
xiQ
meets a parabola
drawn
is
parallel to
of
is
in
AB
on a given
^4
Pp
to
equal to the
sum
of the ordinates
of
The distance
27.
is
half the
sum
two tangents
to
points of contact.
If
28.
P meet
at any point
29.
cii'cle
Shew
the focus S.
that at
QQ'
is
SL LP = VL
.
VL'.
in F, then
is
the normal at
(^
or
is
not
less
than SP.
again in Q', QP is equally inclined to the axis with the normal and
T is the middle point of QQ' and
meets the curve again in P
,
PV meets
the axis in
shew that
QSPP
lie
on a
circle,
*S'
being
the focus.
axis,
of each
is
32.
circle
touches
ordinate
PP'
to the axis.
R
Q
EF is
point on
it,
EM
34.
If a parabola roll
THE PARABOLA
143
35.
If P be any point on a parabola whose vertex is A, and
PR perpendicular to AP meet the axis R, a circle whose centre is
R and radius RP will pass through the ends of the ordinate to the
parabola through R.
circle
circle.
Shew
Y
in
of
curve.
YZ- = ^HP.TV.
38.
PQ
is
it
intersection
at a constant angle.
a straight
is
The radius
The diameter
line.
of
rectum of a parabola
41.
tangents to
40.
of
is
curvature
at
its
other
extremity.
42.
in
PQ
If the tangent at
and the
= iPT.
T,
43.
If
on a parabola,
44.
45.
of
any point
PR
curvature at
Pof
circle
its
vertex
The chord
is
of curvature
iPYa i^arabola
is
Y being
/-.
at
any point
144
CHAPTER
XII
THE ELLIPSE
We
137.
have already in
to
CA
foci
it
ellipse,
from
of the
minor
externally in
eccentricity.
major
and X'
so that
axis,
A A'
and to these
and cutting
GS CA = CA CX =
It is convenient to call
and
the
e,
It will
is
the ratio
CS CA
:
the more does the ellipse approximate to circular form, and the
greater
C>S'
CA
is
We
have always
CS'=CA'-CB'
so that, keeping CA constant, CB diminishes as GS increases,
and vice versa. And we have already explained that a circle
may be regarded as the limiting case of an ellipse whose two
foci coincide
We
which
now proceed
all ellipses
Sum
138.
Prop.
ellipse is
have in common.
THE ELLIPSE
Let
through
145
Then
.
.
Two
Cor.
the perpendicular
is,
foci in
The proposition
139.
we
is
sum
may
of
whose
constant.
And
of
piece of string to two pins stuck in the paper so that the string
is
not tight, and then holding the string tight by means of the
make
its
mark
By keeping
it,
same major
we can draw
ellipses all
having the
It will
be
seen that the nearer the pins are together the more does the
ellipse
approximate
140.
Prop.
bisect
to circular form.
and
at
any point of an
ellipse
10
THE ELLIPSE
146
.-.
.-.
in
8' P.
SG:GS' = SP:PS';
PG bisects
PT which
the angle
SPS'
at right angles to
is
PG
must
bisect the
CG.CT=CS-'
Cor.
for since
SP
PG
and
PT
between
and S'P,
(GT, SS')
= - 1.
Prop.
141.
the tangent at
circle
SY.S'Y' = BC\
Produce
SY
to
meet S'P
in
K.
ASPY= AKPY
^SPY=ZKPY (140)
Z SYP = 4 KYP being right angles and PY is
Then
for
.-.
PK^SPsiUclKY^^SY,
KS'= KP + PS' = SP + PS' = AA'
Now
CY is
since
Y and C
parallel to
138).
common.
SK
and SS',
THE ELLIPSE
Thus
lies
147
on the
circle
AA'
on
as
diameter.
Moreover as Y' YS
again in a point
is
a right angle,
meet the
will
circle
is,
C.
YS
so that
SZ=S'Y'.
CS'^
= BC\
P will
1.
The
SP and S'P in points 'aild E' such that PE = PE'= AC.
PE'==CY = AC and
For PYGE' is a parallelogram.
diameter parallel to the tangent at
Cor.
meet
.-.
PE = AC.
similarly
Cor.
2.
The envelope
perpendicular on
which has
Cor.
3.
it
within
it, is
side of
an
The envelope
the perpendiculars on
same
it,
is
it
constant
ellipse
lies
having
*S'
on a fixed
for
circle,
a focus.
ft-om
is
an
Def.
is
142.
Prop.
inP,CV.CT=CP\
102
THE ELLIPSE
148
143.
is
F'.
Then
as
T and
GV CT=GP\
is
GN .CT^GA'
GM.Gt=GB\
T and
t,
THE ELLIPSE
144.
Prop.
149
If
the
to
the
FF.Fg = AC\
Draw
the ordinates
FX and FM to
in the figure.
t
in
K and L as
THE ELLIPSE
150
Pair of tangents.
144b.
Prop.
an
ellipse
Let
make equal
TP
and
TQ
be the tangents
it
is
required to prove
/.PTS = ^S'TQ.
Draw 8Y,
TP, and
8Z
pendicular to TQ.
(|
141)
SY:8Z = S'Z':S'Y'.
Also Z F5f^
the
145.
Prop.
ZSTY=S'TZ'.
Director Circle.
The locus of points, from which the tangents to an
a ciixle {called the director circle
of the
ellipse).
Draw
THE ELLIPSE
Also
AaSFT= A A^FT,
Y are
the angles at
.
>ST =
for
151
right angles.
.-.
PTQ = a
144 b).
right angle.
Now 2CT= +
26'S'-^
.ST-
+ ^T-
10)
= 4C^^
.
is
radius
146.
Conjugate Diameters.
The student
lines of a conic,
is
two
lines
meet
When
convenient to
call
them
conjugate diameters.
It
is
clear that
they are such that the tangents at the points where either
Moreover
all
the
by the other
( 95),
The axes
THE ELLIPSE
152
147.
of an
PGP'
ellipse,
QV'-:PV.VP'=CIP:CP\
Fur, producing
QV
to
meet the
ellipse
again in
Q',
by
But
.-.
148.
If
PN and PM he
ellipse then
B
P,--""^
THE ELLIPSE
For
SL
if
SD AS
These properties
149.
153
in
AS
SA' = BC\
ellipse
may be
its
and
I",
the point.
The
I" are
line
is
ellipse,
and the
lines
I'
and
The property
established in
ellipse ma}-
square of
its
I'
necessarily perpendicular to
point.
and
The
line
is
its
I),
and on opposite
sides of
the
l'
notation of 147
on tangents at
Auxiliary Circle.
Prop. If P he any point on an
150.
ordinate of the major axis, and if NP meet
ellipse
Q on PP'
Q and Q'
and
PN
the
in p, then
NP:Np = BC:AC.
For by
148
PN':AN.NA' = BC-':AC-'
and as Z ApA' being
pN^.-.
= AN.NA']
PN:pN=BG:AC.
THE ELLIPSE
164
points will
For
(
let
meet the
line of the
the tangent at
meet
it
in
then
T,
CN'.CT=CA-
143).
.'.
7' is
goes through T.
if
an ordinate
for
circle,
that
is,
the tangent at
meet the
circle
on BB' as
PM:p'M=AC:BG.
From
all
this
it
same
ratio,
Draw
the ordinates
Now
since
CD is parallel
.-.
But
as
in
T.
PN, DM.
to
TP,
PN:DM = NT:MC.
THE ELLIPSE
pN:dM==NT:MC,
.-.
that
pN NT = dM
is
.'.
as the
As pNT
155
unci
dMC
MC.
and
i\^
be conjurjate semidiameters
of
ilf
.'.
Cd
is
parallel to Tp.
zMCd^zXTp.
angle.
Cor.
Whence
also
we have
PN:CM = BC:AC,
DM:CN = BC.AC.
Prop.
152.
an
If
CP
and
CD
ellipse
CP-'+CD"-
cp^
and CD'
.-.
CM-'
GX-'
last proposition
+ PX' =
+ DM' = i^^' +
= CA-'+CB\
av-^
~,
px-'
RC-
7?r"
THE ELLIPSE
15G
ellipse is constant
= AA"^ + BB'".
and
proposition thus
151 we proved
pN = CM,
CM' +
= pN'- +
.
.
CN-'
CN-'
= Cp' = A C\
FN' +
Whence by
DM''
= BC\
GP' + CD-
= AC + BG\
Equiconjugate Diameters.
152a.
There
addition.
circle
is
lie
along the
rectangle
157
THE ELLIPSE
Since
is
.-.
Prop.
153.
twrmal
at
P meet
// P be amj point on an
BCD', the diameter conjugate
ellipse,
to
CP,
and
the
in F, then
PF,CD = AC.BC.
Draw
the tangent at
Join
SP
foci (jn
Pand
it.
let
are similar.
in E.
THE ELLIPSE
158
.-.
.-.
SY:8P==S'Y':S'F
As SYP,
since the
PFE are
.-.
that
is,
The area
Cor.
similar.
BC'-:CD-' = PF':Aa'
PF.CD = AG.BC.
of the parallelogram formed by the tangents
is
constant
= 4.AC.Ba
Circle of Curvature.
154.
'point
2G]>
GP
Let
Q be
and
QV
the
Consider the
in Q.
QK
Let
circle
QK be
and cutting it
Let
at
in R.
THE ELLIPSE
Then from
159
the circle
RQ.RK = RP\
RK when
approaches
X Limit
VF'
2CD'
^x2Crp=^^.
Cor.
The diameter
of the
circle
of curvature
2CD"-
Diameter
2011 =
CF
sec
CF FF.
:
Diameter
2CJy
2CD'
FF
ACTBC'
FF
THE ELLIPSE
160
EXERCISES
Prove that in the notation
1.
as
SL
If
2.
be
tlie
of this chapter
ex = CS'^
CA^
SL =
SX
Obtain also the length of the latus rectum by using the fact
116, 117) that the lengths of
two
If Y,
3.
an
ellipse
Z be
PN
YNZ passes
ellipse.
circle
where
it is
\.
/^
and
circles
5.
If
6.
If the tangent at
NG be
to
an
ellipse
'l\
the subnormal,
CT .NG=BC\
7.
If
PN
P, then
from the
P
foci
an ellipse and
on the tangent at
of
YNY'.
If the
9.
If the normal at P meet the major axis in G, PG is a
harmonic mean between the perpendiculars from tlie foci on the
tangent at P.
10.
If
an
THE ELLIPSE
11.
an
If
the locus of
ellipse slide
its
centre
is
161
a circle.
12.
The
13.
is
circle.
The
14.
ellipse
is
Prove that the foci of an ellipse and the points where any
it meets the tangents at its vertices are concyclic.
15.
tangent to
If
16.
CQ
which is normal
normal at Q.
17.
If
to the
curve at P, then
CP
.S'
is
conjugate to the
and
.S",
and
.4
be a
tangent at P.
18.
In an ellipse whose centre is C and fuci S and S', GL is
drawn perpendicular to C P, and CJ/is drawn parallel to S' P meeting
PG in M. Prove that the triangles CLM, CMP are similar.
19.
A circle is drawn touching an ellipse at two points, and Q
any point on the ellipse. Prove that if ^7' be a tangent to the
circle from Q, and QL perpendicular to the common chord, then
is
QT=^e.QL.
If a
20.
parabola have
and parabola
21.
Shew how
axes of an
ellipse,
will
its
to determine the
of the
its
centre and a
are given.
If P be any point on an
23.
and AP, A' P meet a directrix in
ellipse
E and
',
AN
NA'
constant.
A. G.
11
is
THE ELLIPSE
162
ends
26.
of a
Ellipses
27.
PQ
SY is
28.
tangent, and
that the square of the tangent from A' to the director circle
is
double
The
29.
circle of
of
If
31.
If
S and
the chord
and B an extremity of
minor axis in the centre
SS'B
of curvature at B.
The
32.
circle of
curvature at a point
of
an
ellipse passes
The
33.
ao'ain in
circle
Q and
ellipse
The tangent
shew that
Q'
of curvatui-e at
the tangent at
at
ia
163
CHAPTER
XIII
THE HYPERBOLA
155.
is
We
have eeen in
| 100,
line,
has two
named the
foci
S and
The
directrices
A A'
as
foci are
the directrices
the eccentricity
156.
(e)
If A'
= CS CA = CA CX.
:
set
forth
the
principal
much
own.
11-2
THE HYPERBOLA
164
157.
Prop.
Tlie difference
a hyperbola
constant,
is
transverse axis.
Let
PMM'
Draw
directrices,
as
the
in
figure
perpendicular
to
the
then
and SP = e.PM.
S'Pr^SP = e.XX'^AA'.
S'P=e.PM'
.-.
SP =AA' and
for points
Cor.
Two
Prop.
at
any point of a
T and
G.
Then by
111,
SG =
.-.
THE HYPEEBOLA
..
PG
is
165
PT, perpendicular
PG, must
to
angle.
Cor.
1.
CG.CT= CS\
Cor.
2.
If
an
ellipse
for {SS',
TG) = -
1.
Prop.
159.
//'
on the circle
luill
SY meet
Then
to
he constant.
S'P
since
K.
and
and
in
PF is common,
.-.
And
A5rPF= A/fPF
SY^YK, PK = SP.
and
since
parallel to
F and C
S'K and
and SS',
CY is
Thus
THE HYPERBOLA
166
If S'Y'
right angle,
^SCY= AS'CZ
Also
and
and S'Z=SY.
constant.
is
Cor.
SP
SY.S'Y'=S'Z.S'Y' = S'A'.S'A^CS"--CA'
.-.
which
is
1.
to the
tangent at
P will meet
Cor.
The envelope
2.
perpendicular on
3.
it
it, is
lies
a hyperbola having
The envelope
>S'
on a fixed
circle
for a focus.
the perpendiculars on
it
constant
is
sides of
it, is
its foci.
Compare
160.
On
3.
We
it
It is convenient,
and
this will
be understood better as wo
THE HYPERBOLA
proceed, to measure off a length
that
This
will
BG\
BB' on
BC' -
GS-^
make SY.S'Y'
(Compare
GA"-
G,
A'S.
141.)
BB'
and
= ^,S'
will for
16^
is
it
convenience be called
must be
clearl}^
lie
on the curve.
It will easily
be seen that
if
a rectangle be drawn
and having
its
under-
and
A',
length
off as
explained above.
if
the tangent at
AGKS= A GAG.
Hence
THE HYPERBOLA
168
Pair of tangents.
162.
Prop.
TJte
from a
point to a
Fig.
Let TP,
angles
TQ
be the tangents,
STP, S'TQ
perp. to
SY.
.-.
Also
it is
1.
S' Y'
= BO' = SZ
to
TQ.
S'Z'.
SY:SZ=S'Z':S'Y'.
of the
THE HYPERBOLA
169
equal angles
Hence the As
SYZ and
z >S'rP
while in
fig.
it
in
fig.
2 each being
are cyclic.
= z >SZF= z aS"F'Z' = z
= supplement of Z >S"TQ
>S'TZ'
in fig.
1,
= Z S'TQ.
focal
or
same branch
of the curve.
Director Circle.
163.
Prop.
Let
TP
Draw
and
TQ
8Y perp.
Then by
159,
Also
Thus
ST= KT
.
TP
to
meet S'P
in K.
and z
KTY = Z ST Y=
Z KTS' = Z
PTQ = a
Z.
QTS'
right angle.
162).
170
THE HYPERBOLA
its
foci
its
and
171
directrices,
nor
they in general
will
The
foci
A A' and
CS:GA.
the line
S and
lie
on the
eccentricity is (7S
if
line of
the eccentricity
GB, which
GA = GB.
lie
is
is
on
only
When
said to be rectangular.
i-ight
is
is,
as
we
what
made
of
follows.
Asymptotic properties.
Prop. // R be any point on an asymptote of a hyperand RN^ perpendicular to the transverse axis meet the
hyperbola in P and 'p then RP Rp = BG^.
166.
bola,
THE HYPERBOLA
172
Avhich
lies
in E.
Then
fl
RP Rp
.
.'.
Rn^'
= EA-
En--.
will
special case of a
167.
Prop.
of any point
//
PN
PN"~:AN.A'N^BC':AG\
166 we have
- PN' = BC\
PN^ = RN'-BG\
RN^ BG"- - RN' EA'
= GN' GA\
RN"' - BG' BG' = GN-' - GA' GA\
PN"-:BG' = AN.A'N:CA'.
PN':AN.A'N = BG'':AG\
RN-'
.-.
.-.
.-.
.-.
only a
of a Ityperhola
But
is
THE HYPERBOLA
or
we may
173
write this
BC':AC\
This too will be found to be but a special case of a more
general theorem.
Comparing
ellipse ( 148)
this property
we
see that
way
to establish the
Prop.
168.
hyperbola
RPN,
in an asymptote of a
Let
its
its
to
conjugate
the
other
the hypei^hola
asymptotes at
We
the transverse
first
infinity.
observe that
AB is
lines
parallel to CVl'.
through
and
perpendicular to
THE HYPERBOLA
174
E\ we have
e,
=EA
EB-.BE'
3IN
Also
A B,
parallel to
is
-.Ae.
for
GA CB = GA:AE^ CN RN
= CN CM.
GA CN = CB CM.
RN"^-PN' = BC'
^^^'
'
RM'^ - DM' = AC
RN"- - PA''' RM' - DM' = CM' CN'
:
.'.
Now
and
'
.-.
^RN'-.RM'.
RN':RM' = PN':DM'.
.-.
(DP, Tn')
.'.
and
GP
CD
and
GP
and
its
CO
lines.
its
pencil formed
.-.
Cfl'
= -i.
double
bola and
will
and
CD
lines
through
C.
conjugate.
parallel to
169.
'
On
GP.
If the lines
bola and
its
PC,
then
of the hyperbolas.
PGP'
not,
DC
is
but
But
it
must be
clearly understood
that
DCD'
is
THE HYPERBOLA
Of two
175
The
line
in so far as
BCD'
it is
is
it is
it Avill
bisect a
that
for
it
Prop.
170.
is,
it
meets the
V 1.
conjugate diameters
Let
figure.
We
The tangents
at
and
PD
bisected by
CO.
CD
168) that
is
and GP.
These tangents then form with
having one diagonal along CO.
GP
and
GD
a parallelogram
THE HYPERBOLA
176
Similarly the tangents at P' and D' meet on Cfl, and those
at P', i) and P,
D' on CiY.
The portion
Coil.
is
LP = L)C=GD' = Pl.
For
171.
in the Corollary ot
may
170 can be
circle,
and we
nn'
to the circle
line
K.
in
C
L
The
polar of
goes through
GP
Let
is
GP
the polar of K.
meet HH'
.-.
.-.
in F.
(/iP,
.-.
Thus
with
an') = -
1.
= -i.
{KP,Ll) = -\.
C(ifp, aa')
in the hyperbola
and
.-.
LP = Pl.
on an asymptote of a
Prop. // through any point
172.
hyperbola a line he drawn cutting the same branch of the hyperbola in Q and q, then RQ Rq is equal to the square of the semi.
to
RQq.
THE HYPERBOLA
177
Let
Let
Let
it
Let
CD
in
to Qq.
and
I.
parallel to Qq.
RQ.Rq:
.-.
Thus
the line
if
the rectangle
R on
We may
point
Rn^-
= LP'
LQ.\
RQ Rq
.
be always drawn
is
in a fixed direction
the asymptote.
^vlite
RV'-QV'^CD'.
And
if
RQq meet
...
.-.
and
.'.
we have
rV2-qV^=CI)\
rV - qV = RV' - QV\
RV=
Vr
RQ = q>:
of a hyperbola
its line
12
THE HYPERBOLA
178
Wc
hyperbola
Prop.
// a
line he
asymptote of a hyperbola
in
Q and
q then
qR.
to
RQ =
on an
to
Qq.
= GP GP' CHl
RQ.Rq = -GP\
RQ.Rq:
.-.
.-.
As
RVt"-
it
qR.RQ = GP\
portion of
we can shew
that
Qq and the
middle point.
QV-':PV.P'V = GD':GP\
Let Q V meet the asymptote Gfl in
in Q'.
Through
PGP'.
THE HYPERBOLA
179
.-.
that
Rq'
is
QV':PV.P'V=CD':CP"-.
This
is
107
is
special case.
We may
QV:CV'-CP'=CD':CP\
175.
From
1G7, 174
we can
may be
product of
its
its
varies as the
is
l'
and
I"
on the same
If
I'
and
l"
be perpendicular to
If r
and
/"
l',
I"
then
and
l',
I"
/,
the transverse
is
the tangents at
of the hyperbola,
it
and
then
its vertices.
is
a diameter
where
122
THE HYPERBOLA
180
Prop.
176.
of
tJie
If QQ', RR'
squares of
tlie
he chords of
a hyperbola
OQ OQ' OR OR'
secting in
diameters -parallel
is
equal
to the respective
inter-
to that
chords.
Through
r
and
draw irr'
parallel to
ORR'
to
in
r'.
= sq.
of diameter parallel to
sq. of
Lr'
diameter parallel to
177.
OQ
lie
.
if
QQ'
RR\
the ends of
OQ' and
OR
OR' be regarded
we must
LQ
so that,
for
LQ
parallel to QQ',
of diameter parallel to
QQ'
sq.
of diameter parallel to
RR'.
THE HYPERBOLA
178.
It
181
imnecessarj^ to
make a
separate
But
117
117.
and
itself,
may be used
signs of
all
meet the
the diameters of
instead.
Whenever the
how
We
179.
can see
now
that
DCD'
if
be a diameter of the
8,
S'
in
which
it
and
Ch'-'
= - CD\
also clear
Geometry
is
The equation
of the hyperbola
is
,.,
.,
a-
(1),
^
b-
Thus Ci^Tcsponding
{ix, ii/)
(2).
on (2) there
is
a point
And
if
bola (2) in
180.
y)
Prop.
it will
If
meet the
CP
and
CD
be conjugate semi-diameters
of a ItyperboUt
Draw
the ordinates
conjugate axes.
PN
and
DM
to
THE HYPER150LA
182
on an asymptote
(|
we have
CT- =
C'iV-
^CR'-BC^
(166)
168),
and
THE HYPERBOLA
182.
Prop.
If
GP
and
CD
Draw
the
183
he conjugate semi-diameters
meet
CD
PF.CB = AC.BC.
perpendiculars SY and S'Y'
in F, then
from the
tangent at P.
Then
that
is
the
SY
S'Y'
SP
S'P
S'Y'-SY
S'P-
similar
-IPF
we have
PF
foci
on the
THE HYPERBOLA
184
P,P',D,D'
(170).
Moreover /\CLl
gram formed by
is
A GLl = CA
which
is
Cor.
182),
constant
The envelope
is (
GB,
line
with
Prop.
184.
lines.
//
of a hyperbola, and
and
polar, for
we have
{PP\ TV) = - 1.
.-.
GV.GT = GP\
185.
of a hyperbola, and
bola in
then
VG.CT=GP\
THE HYPERBOLA
185
CT
meet the
have
if
we
179)
Cp'=-CP\
.'.
CV.GT^Cj)'
(184)
= - CP\
VG.CT = CP\
.-.
BCD' be
Draw
the ordinate
el to
TQ
QW to
in
t.
is,
PP'.
Then by
similar
As
tWQ.,
tCT
TC:WQ=Gt:tM\
.'.
TC.
]VQ:WQ'=Ct.CW:GW.tW
^Gt.GW-.GW'-Gt.GW.
TG.
WQ WQ' = GD'^
:
proof,
CW'^
- GD\
QW
is
THE HYPERBOLA
186
GP'
But
.-.
.-.
The
186.
WQ'=CD'
GW - GD'^
174).
TG.WQ = GP\
VG.GT=GP\
propositions.
If the tangent at
conjugate axes in
to these
T and
to
t
a hyperbola meet
respectively
the transverse
and PN,
PM he
and
ordiiiates
axes
GT.GN^GA"-
MG.Gt=GB\
For the tangents from Twill be TP and TP' where P' is the
PN again meets the hyperbola and the tangents
from t will be tP, tQ where Q is the point in which
again
meets the hyperbola.
point in which
PM
187.
transverse
in F, then
THE HYPERBOLA
This
proposition
can
be
established
( 144).
18^
exactly
like
the
THE HYPERBOLA
188
3.
any point
the tangent at
If
T and SP
asymptote in
/*
Shew
that
of
hyperbola cut an
when a
(^)
then
SQ =
Q'f.
S.'\
completely determined.
If
If
is
PK be drawn
PH,
CO in // and
Pll.PK^\CH\
[Use
of
one
A',
CO, CO' of
then
183.]
8.
From any point R on an asymptote of a hyperbola IIPN is
drawn perpendicular to the transverse axis to cut the curve in P
RK is drawn at right angles to CR to meet the transverse axis in K.
Prove that
PK is the
CN=
[Prove that
normal at P.
e'-
OK.
188.]
10.
If
of
a hyperbola
meet the
If
bfi
foci are
S and
THE HYPERBOLA
189
15.
If PP' and DD' be conjugate diameters of a hyperbola and
Q any point on the curve then QP- + QP'- exceeds QD'~ + QD'- by a
constant quantity.
16.
of a parabola
axis,
17.
If
its
focus
is
of its
a hyperbola.
to
If the tangent
in
T and G
The base
circle,
of
a hyperbola.
hyperbola
is
23.
P,
If
an
ellipse
is
it
is
parallel to
intersect in
circle of the
elli]>so.
a constant
ratio.
THE HYPERBOLA
190
If
28.
asymptotes Jin
mean
L and
L',
is
The tangents
normal
and the tangent at
CL
proportional between
29.
C,
CN
a point P of
P intersect the
of
and CL'
is
the
and CO.
to a conic
lines
30.
Given a
focus,
If
is
conic, the
circle.
CJJ^--2BC-.
33.
If
and <S"
be any point on a hyperbola whose foci are
lies on the tangent at one of the
^S'
With two
each other.
35.
Prove that a
circle
the hyperbola.
[Project the hyperbola into a circle and
V into
the centre.]
CP
and
THE HYPERBOLA
191
When
40.
P and Q
to a coaxal system of
PLQ
is
on
at L.
41.
If a conic
symmedian point
of the triangle.
192
CHAPTER XIV
THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA
190.
is
rectangular hyperbola as
its
its
trans-
We
will
now
191.
Prop.
1)1
QV
he
QV"-=PV.P'V.'
CP' - CD' = GA ' - GB'
For we have
( 1 80)
=
and
QV-':PV.PV=GD':GP'
= 1.
192.
Prop.
(174)
Cor.
1.
tangents at
asymptotes.
Any
its
( 72).
Any
2.
diameter bisecting
193.
to the
it
diameter perpendicular
This
bola
is
193
is
obvious
when we
to it
is
equal
and
its
centre perpen-
plane.
194.
to
its
other to
Let
its
CP
and
CQ
must be a rectangular
one.
Q on
the
194
PN^':CN'-CA' = BG-':AG'
Now
and
(167)
QM^- CM":
whence we get
&
and
vtv>
^C-
BC =
GAP
QM'-
BG^'
AG-
tvtt:
PN''
^^'U^-fil?^,
since GN-'
Prop.
195.
Let
it
J.C'
AG-
= J5a
the
its
orthocentre and
AD
the
on BG.
AD
again in p.
them
BG-'
+ PN' + 0,
be the triangle,
perpendicular from
parallel to
of a triangle
ABG
1.
vertices
will
conjugate hyperbola.
Thus
and the
DB.DG and
Dp. DA
will
( 177),
BD.DG=Dp.DA.
=
.-.
that
BD DC = AD DQ
But
-AD.DP
Dp.
DA = DA
.:
Dp==DP
195
(6).
.DP.
coincides with P.
is ])
When
Cor.
lie
centre will
lie
lie
Prop.
196.
tri-
//'
meeting
It
in the orthocentre P.
is
must be a hyperbola,
since
it
is
chords
AP
Now
BC= the
BG do
and
since
to the other,
and the
so intersect.
BD DC = AD
.
PD,
opposite sign
Prop.
197.
( 177).
is
a rectangular one
Let
ABC be
( 194).
of the triangle.
the sides.
Let
an asymptote cutting
Since
OF
angles with
AB and AC in
OIL'
L and
L'.
AB, OF and
AB
make
equal
zFOL = zFLO.
132
19()
z EOL' = z EL'O.
Similarly
.'.
.'.
lies
DEF, which
circle is
the nine
Prop.
on
PQ
is
PQ
equal
to
of a rectthe angle
Then
VRC = Z VCR
PLC = Z PCL
Z
Z
and
2).
(192, Cor. 1 ).
zLPR = ^CLP-zCRV
.-.
192, Cor.
197
= zP6'Z-zFCi^ = zF6'P
==ZQP'P
Prop.
199.
(since
CV is
parallel to QP').
Art/ chord of a rectangular hyperbola subany diameter angles ivJiich are equal or
supplementary.
Let
QR
be a chord, and
and
L',
In
cuts
PCP'
and
a diameter.
F meet
the asymptotes in L,
I'.
fig. 1,
QR
where Q and
lie
internally,
zQPL = zQP'P
(198)
Z RPl = Z RP'P.
and
.-.
QPR = supplement
=
Fiff.
In
cuts
fig. 2,
QR
of
sum
of
and RPl
Fig. 2.
1.
where
QPL
supplement of Z QP'R.
Q and
lie
externally,
ZLPR = ZRFP
and
.-.
^LPQ = ZQP'P.
^RPQ = zQFP-zRFP = zQFR.
IDS
rectangular hyperbola
thp:
In
fig. 3,
QR
cuts
where Q and
In
fig. 4,
QR
cuts
QPR = z QPL
+ z LPP' + z P'PR
= z QP'P + z PP7' + z PP7'
= zQP'R.
where Q and
lie
Z QP'P
.-.
lie
externally,
z
and
internally,
=Z
QP'X'
2 right
s.
EXERCISES
1.
The portion
tercepted between
of contact
2.
If
3.
at
any tangent
asymptotes
is
its
point
hyperbola, and
from
of
its
PG
of
any point
on a rectangular
the tangent
CK be
any point
are similar.
PC A, CAK
PQR
4.
is
the angle at
If
is
PP'
6.
any chord
is
perpendicular to
PQP'
is
per-
QR.
j^endicular to
5.
199
of a rectangular hyperbola,
it
of a rectangular
PQ and
P'Q'.
and a diameter
If
7.
8.
The distance
9.
the centre
of
the geometric
is
foci.
If
10.
is
C, then
C P'
is
perpendicular
to the tangent at P.
The centre
11.
on any
centres.
12.
13.
of a rectangular hyperbola,
E and F, PC touches
CEF.
Two
hyperbola.
Prove
make
circle
intersect in
four
common chords is a diameter of the hyperother common chord is a diameter of the circle.
bola
16.
their foci
on a rectangular hyperbola.
shew that
200
17.
If
hyperbola
QA
The
QR
QR = AQ.
The base
of a triangle
The
its
and the
vertex
circles described
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
on parallel chords
of a rectangular
If
pedal triangle
22.
is
a self-conjugate one.
At any
point
is
equal to
At
24.
equal to
-p^
it,
201
CHAPTER XV
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
When
200.
figure
is
p on to
means of which a
another plane
vr is
at a
very great distance from these planes, the lines joining corre-
What we may
to being parallel.
its
projection
come near
the
tt
We
V is
vertex
when the
at infinity.
on the
is
plane
tt
is
tt
plane
The
which
it is
drawn.
Thus
all
points
lie
it
will
as
we
circle.
orthogonal projection.
201.
projection
It
may be
we have no vanishing
(ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
202
The
ir.
perpendiculars to the
ir
infinity
ji
This
it
on the
line at
at infinity.
Avill
be another
The
202.
Prop.
Tlie projection
of a straight line
is
another straight
line.
This
is
is
only a
the
in
cuts this
203.
TT
plane.
Prop.
Parallel straight lines p7'oject into 2Ja'>'allel
and in the same ratio as regards their length.
straigJit lines,
Let
J^i)
and CI) be
one another.
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
Then ab and cd must be
a point
p,
p Would
parallel, for if
203
common
to
AB
and CD.
since
AB
is
parallel to
be
parallel),
F and G are
the angle
.'.
A ^i^5
.-.
AF CG = AB
.-.
ab:cd
Prop.
to p's intersection
OH
IT will
Let
be
is
similar to
Lengths
same ratio.
204.
angle
GCD
CG
(for these
to
right angles.
Cor.
in the
FAB = the
to
we have proved
A CG^D.
CD.
= AB:CD.
//
be
with the
a limited
ir
same
line in the
p plane
parallel
line parallel to
and of
I,
the
and ab
same
its
length as
I.
orthogonal projection.
204
ORTHO(;OJN'AL PROJECTION
BD
Draw J.Cand
of
p and
Then
TT.
ACDB is
Also since
Aa
perpendicular to
a parallelogram.
Ga and Dh
tt,
are
parallel to each
other.
AACa = ABDb
AC^BD, zAaC = Z BbD
/.AGa= ^ BDb for AO and Ca are parallel
Further
for
and
.-.
.".
as C'a
and Db are
.-.
205.
Prop.
perpendicular
bear
BD
and Db.
ab
= CD = AB.
to
Ca = Db.
p and
ir
'
plane perpendicular
to
to this line
Let
AB be
meet
it
tt,
and
in C.
Then ab and
AB
meet
in C,
and ab
AB = ac AC
:
= cos aCA
= cos ( Z between p
and
tt).
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
206.
Prop.
to that
plane
205
ivill
project into
For we
number
of"
may
narrow rectangular
p and
which runs
The lengths
parallel
to the intersection of
slips are
The
207.
We
ellipse
and
Now
viz.,
its
of the
have seen
another,
tt.
of a
circle.
BC:AC.
AA'
let
until it
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
206
new
the
circle will
its
it
on the auxiliary
ellipse.
is
some
We
proceed to
illustrations.
Prop.
208.
diameters of an
ordinates P'M,
CP
If
and CD he a pair of conjugate semiand CP', CD' another such pair, and the
drawn to CP, tlien
ellipse,
D'N he
P'M CN = D'N: CAl = CD CP.
:
For
let
adjusted to
make an angle
be denoted by small
Then Cp and Cd
in
BC
letters.
parallel to
Cd',
Cd
will
and
p'm Cd = Cn Cp
by
d'n
Cd = Cm
Cp.
203
P'M:GD=CX:CP
D'N:CD=CM:CP.
PM
CN - CD CP = D'N
:
Cp and
be perpendicular to
CM.
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
207
ellipse
meet
he conjugate
Ct' are
t'
J'
= Cp- = Cd
tp:Cd = Cd:pt.
TP:CD = CD:PT'.
TP.PT' = CD\
.'.
'".
tp pt'
.
.-.
Prop.
210.
CA
and
CB
For the
is IT.
make an angle
Area of ellipse
on
to
Area of
= BC A C ( 206
= tt BC .AC.
:
).
circle.
circle
ellipse
ellipse.
another plane
jKirallel to the
of the
BC
Prop.
211.
semi-axes are
Area of auxiliary
.-.
plane
ellipse ichose
circle tilted to
The area of an
CA.cn.
p and
Let
tt
A A'
circle
which
planes.
project into
aa equal
to
it ( 20-1).
is
parallel to
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
208
Let
PN be
A A'
and
let
pn be
its projection.
p/i
..
is
= PN cos a
where a
perpendicuhxr to cm'
Now p7i-
CD)
na
is
the Z between
p and
= cos- a
1.
Hence the
axis,
and
The
its
eccentricity
CoR.
1.
into similar
is
easily seen to
major
a.
will
parallel to the
is
be sin
for its
and pn
ir,
( 205),
Cor.
Two
2.
circles.
EXERCISES
1.
The
is
ellipse
which
ellipse.
If a parallelogram be inscribed in
parallelogram
3.
an
If
jugate to
is
BC.A<'.
PQ be any
CP in 7\
PQ PT --=2CR.
where
CR
is
the semi-
The greatest
has one of
its sides
and the
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
6.
209
If a straight line
situated ellipses,
equal.
7.
The
BP,
If
BD
CP,
CD
is
a concentric, similar,
ellipse.
be conjugate serai-diameters of an
be joined, and
AD, A'P
ellipse,
and
BDOP
will be a parallelogram.
Two
9.
ellipses
10.
Shew that a
ellipse itself
its circles of
circle
of
ellipse
and one
curvature.
14
of
210
CHAPTER XVI
CROSS-RATIO PROPERTIES OF CONICS
212.
and
Prop.
If A, B,
a variable point on
G,
he
the conic,
P (ABCD)
is
conic,
constant
and
to the
P{ABGD)=p{ahcd).
Then
But p (abed)
is
P {ABCD)
is
p moves on
the circle;
constant.
a, b, c,
d cut that in p in
circle.
and
Then
Oa-^,
p {abed) =
..
.-.
Cor.
211
(ciibiCidi)
(ajbiCidi).
P{ABCD) = {A^B,C,D,).
we have
A'{ABGD) = P{ABGD).
.-.
T be
if J.
the tangent at A,
A (TBCD) = P{ABCD).
Note. In the special case where the pencil formed by
joining any point P on the conic to the four fixed points A, B,
C, D is harmonic, we speak of the points on the conic as harmonic.
Thus if P {ABCD) = -\, we say that A and C are harmonic
conjugates to B and D.
Prop.
213.
points in a plane
the locus
Let
of
P is a
conic.
Q {ABCD) = P (ABCD).
Then
if
it
cut
QA
does not
in Q'.
.-.
.-.
by
212.
(A, B, G,
D)
142
are
212
Therefore
A, B,
C,
But
D are
that
is,
We
collinear.
is
goes through Q.
proved.
E as
we may regard
a conic through
such that
four non-
P {ABCD) = E {ABGD).
214.
Prop.
TJie envelope
of a
is
a conic touching
the
four
lines.
by Reciprocation
The
following
Let the
line
is
an independent proof
the points A, B, G,
such that
{ABGD) =
a, b,
c,
d in
213
Let the
Then
if
b, c,
d cut
.-.
q'
d,p,
{A'B"C"D")
= {ABCD) by
= {A' BCD').
common
b, c,
212
are therefore
homo-
corresponding point.
( 60),
which
is
contrary
d are non-concurrent.
a, h, c,
q'
a, b,
C, D' such
= (A BCD).
Let
same four
that {A'B'C'D')
as
that
which touches
d, p.
And
215.
our proposition
Prop.
//'
is
established.
(A, B, C,
B C
D)
be a pencil in the
plane of
FD with
D, the poles of
respect to S, then
P{ABCD) = (A,B,CM.
We
as
we have
which
214
Let
PR
circle.
This proposition
is
poses of Reciprocation.
We
form a pencil
the range.
216.
PascaPs theorem.
If a
This theorem
Chap. X). Or we
may
may
be proved by projection
proceed thus
The pairs
BG and EF; CD
CD
Then
meet
EF in
Z respectively.
H, and
DE meet FA
A (BDEF) = C
since
.-.
is,
XY,DH and
and
Z, the intersection of
XDEG
YHEF
have a
corresponding point ^.
.-.
that
in G.
(BDEF),
(XDEG) = (YHEF).
common
and FA.
215
AB and DE
is
DH and
FG,
lies
( 60),
on
XF.
proved.
satisfy
six
given
vertices.
217.
Brianchon's theorem.
hexagon the
If a
conic be inscribed in a
and may be
left
216,
We shall content
To the
modem Geometry we
shall
come
in the chapter
immediately
following this.
218.
Prop.
fixed points
Let
is
a conic.
516
DA
respectively.
Draw
Oil//,
DA
respectively.
Then
Oifi,
OM;
OM,,
0M
OM,' are
{M,M,M,M,) =
.-.
side
is
{M,'M.^M;m:).
OM,
&c. are
in fixed directions.
(MJl^MsM,)
.-.
the locus of
.*.
Cor.
The
1.
is
is
constant.
conic on which
lies
M^, M,.
M^
For
points
if Oi, 0.^,
through
O3, O4, O5
lie
ilfi,
M M
M^.
J/j,
M..,
M^, M^,
M,
all lie
five points.
the locus of 0.
Cor.
2.
The
locus of
also passes
through P, Q,
the
lines
So
is
the pair of
for
Q and
R.
Prop. If
[AA', BB', CC'\
219.
and if a conic he draivn through to cut
C, C, then the chords A A', BB' GC are
,
Let
A A'
he
an involution pencil
the rays in
A, A', B,
B',
for
concurj-ent.
in P.
Using small
we
/.
CC
that
is,
cc
217
involution.
goes through
p.
goes through P.
AA'
CC
BB',
when
212.
The point
called
tlie j)ole
is
called an
is
of the involution.
EXERCISES
If {P,
1.
Note on
(see
if
PP' be
at P.
The
The
straight line
PP'
straight lines
cuts a conic at
PQ
PP
3.
Shew
that
if
two
sides of the
218
4.
vl/,
Deduce from
PAf,5.
at any point
The tangent
L^
and
= PL^.rL,.
if
AA'BB'CC
[Take a hexagon
near to ^, B, C]
6.
C are
drawn
Through a
fixed point
on a conic a
line is
A\ B\
8.
C".
Shew
A, B, C,
that
[PA'B'C)
AD
asymptote meets
CB
in
Any two
points
\n
A",
DL
KL is
and
Prove that
//.
10.
constant.
is
CK parallel
AB.
and
E are taken on
on a conic
a hyperbola of which
CA and CB through
and U respectively meet in Q the tangent at D meets CB in P,
and the tangent at PJ meets CA in T.
Prove that T, Q, R are
GA and CB
the parallels to
collinear, lying
1 1.
The
on a
lines
line parallel to
CA and CB
and
CD^ GD'^CII.
:
DE.
on the conic.
Prove that
CK GH
:
The
line
A and B,
CD
cuts
GK.
12.
Through a fixed point A on a conic two fixed straight lines
AI, AI' are drawn, iS'and S' are two fixed points and P a variable
13.
If
two triangles be
in Q, Q' respectively,
lie
219
14.
If
15.
If the lines
of a conic
respectively,
APQCRS
Y and
Y'.
position of P.
17.
li A,
diameter, shew
and
PB
how
shall cut
CD
in
CD
be a given
to find a point
PA
220
CHAPTEE XVII
RECIPROCATION
220.
If
we have a number
a__conie
^goin ts
in the plane
and Q
rg_spect to
and
a,g
is .
of th e
r,
fcc.
in a plan e
thenjbhe^m^^jommg^a^y;!^^^
y e- Ji aye
nterse ction of
J ines p
q.
It will
be convenient
lines
of points P, Q, R,
(pq),
and the
Thus
if
we have
fi
gure
cojisisti ng of
t hea^jcorrespondinp' toJ.t^
Two
consistmg^f_linSjand-^>oints
called
relation
in
medium
to
one
another
Using
is
snch
we
an aggregate of
h av e a GignreJ^'
fignrea^Xand^^re
Recipr ocal
Ji^reS;_JThe
the_conic^J\_
to a pencil of lines,
221
RECIPROCATION
"Rj^mPflTis nf
221.
t,V.p
of a figure consisting
property of a
prinniple.
of correspondence enun-
^ve. are
able frOTnji
p oints and
of
lines
The o ne property
is
kn ov^^^,property
to
another
infer
nnd points.
is
and
known
as
Reciprocation.
We
will
give examples.
We know
222.
A'B'C
now
that
if
ABC,
(C'A'),
(AB) (A'B')
intersect in collinear
points X, Y, Z.
Fig. F.
Now
if
we draw the
ABG, we have
three lines
a, h, c
And
forming
similarly
for A'B'C'.
we have the
in
figure F'.
(BC)
222
RECIPROCATION
of the figure
following
If
respectively be
abc, a'h'c
collinear,
{ah)
and
{ah'), {he)
and
(6'c'),
(ca)
viz.
(ab)
Fig.F'.
The two
stated thus
reciprocal,
may be
coaxal.
The student
will of course
and
lines,
vice versa.
223.
harmonic
quadrangle.
Let
a, h,
c,
d be the
A, B,
C,
the
RECIPROCATION
223
(ac)
(bd)
Let the
and (cd) be
and {hd) be
(ad) and (he) be
{ac)
Fig. F'.
p,
q,
r.
224
RECIPROCATION
of the quadrilateral
is
expressed
symbolically thus
{{ab){cd), {pr)(pq)]
The
= -l,
{(ad) (be),
(pr){qr)}=-l,
{{ac){hd),
(pq){qr)}=-l.
reciprocation gives
= -1,
[{AD){BC\ (PR){QR)} = -1,
{{AB)iCD), (FR){PQ)}
viz.
of the
sides
The student
sees
now
that
the
'
diagonal points
'
of a
from which
it
is
Hence
derived.
the
term
diagonal points.'
Prop.
224.
to
a.
conic into
For
let
an involution
pencil.
The
c, Ci
p.
pencil obtained
by reciprocation
will
be
a,
a^
h,
h^;
= {ABGA,)
= (A,B,C,A) by
(ABCA,) = {A,B,C, A) by
{ahca^) = (a^biCia).
Also
{ahca,)
and
{aAc.a)
But
215.
78.
.".
Thus the
225.
pencil
is
Involution
in involution.
property of the
quadrangle
and
quadrilateral.
225
RECIPROCATION
Let
ABCD
be the quadrangle
( 76).
A,
Let a transversal
cut
AB, CD in E, E^,
AG, BD in F,F
AD, BG
Let
AD
and
BG meet
in G, G,.
in P.
{GEFG,) = A{GEFG,)
= (FBCG,)
Then
= D{PBGG,)
= {GF,E,G,)
= Gt] ", Fi Or) by
(
interchanging the
letters in pairs.
ad
(aB)
Hence E,
A. G.
",
F, F^
G, Gi belong to the
same
involution.
15
RECIPROCATION
226
We
other:
tliis
Thus
in our figure T,
an involution
Prop.
226.
(ac), (bd)
of
t,
(ad), (be)
pencil.
circles described
IVie
vertices
DA
The diagonals
Let
BD
.-.
are
AG and
as diameters.
by
..
the circle
86 Z
right angles.
225).
'
RECIPROCATIOX
Similarly the circle on
EF goes through
BD and AC.
22/
the other point of
That
Cor.
is,
The middle
The
middle points
sometimes called
is
Desargues' theorem.
of points belonging
Let a transversal
A, B,
G,D
in
to the
same
involution.
and P,.
Let the same transversal cut the two pairs of opposite sides
BD of the quadianglo in E, E, F, F,.
We
now have
{PEF1\) = A{PEFI\)
= A {PBCP,)
= D(PBCP,)hy^2l2
= (PF,EJ\)
= (PiEiF^P) by interchanging
the
letters in pairs.
.-.
F, F,.
152
RECIPROCATION
228
'I'hus all
t
ABCD
in pairs of points
Desargues' theorem,
of 225
lines
is
AD, BC
be regarded as one
As we
228.
theorem
the following
is
four
lines.
We
229.
Reciprocation
are
is
now going
(jn
to explain
how the
principle of
applied to conies.
C(Hiic r,
For
P and
let
to points
be the corresponding
on S
but we must
correspond to points on
S,
and
let
>S".
p and
p'
lines.
at
of
with
Then the
Now
as
>S'
its
Hence
envelope.
to tangents of
Each of
the curves
*S'
correspond points on
S and
S'
is
S'.
230.
point on
Then
If S
Prop.
Let A, B,
C,
be
is
S.
P {ABCD)
is
constant.
another conic.
S,
and
P any
other
RECIPROCATION
P (ABOD) =
But
229
by
.-.
..
the envelope of
is
215.
is
j3
constant.
a, b, c,
( 214).
Hence S'
is
a conic.
follows.
'being a conic,
<S,
straight lines in
its
is
plane cut
it
in
is,
real
or imaginary.
that
If S and S'
Prop.
231.
it
its
is,
S'
is
to
Let
[It is
and
TUhe
that
a conic.
and polar of S
corre-
vice versa.
that
is
spond
class,
The
polar of
Let
QR
be any chord of
tangents at
Q and
meet
S which
passes through
in the line
if
any point
tangents from
.'.
p and
it
TU,
at
p and
then the
say.
(tii)
are so related
to
S\
of
RECIPROCATION
230
Cor.
Conjugate
1.
jxiints of
Cor.
2.
We
232.
lei
1.
will
now
some
set forth
If a conic
(i.e.
reciprocal theorems in
the conic
contact of
with the
(acj
a conic be circnmscribed
If
be inscribed in
a three-side figure),
to
triangle
sides
three-point
(a
figure),
of
(ab)
The
vertices
points
The
two
vertices to
joining
the
tx'iangle
to
the
intersection
of
the
six
lines
of
of
envelope a conic.
on a conic.
3.
S'.
columns.
a triangle
2.
self-conjugate triangle of
a self-conjugate triangle of
The three
of inter-
lines joining
the
six-point figures
are collinear.
PascaPs theorem.
intersections
conic
of
formed by the
lines
are
touching
concurrent.
Brianchon's theorern.
4.
If
a conic circumscribe a
by
its
diagonal
points
is
self-
If a conic
be inscribed in a
by
its
diagonals
is
self-conjugate
RECIPROCATION
Prop.
233.
an
is
of
231
ellipse,
is within, on,
Hence tangents
to
will reciprocate
tangents to
Hence
if
will
the centre of
If the centre of
is
therefore an
a hyperbola.
is, <S' is
F be
viz.
the
a parabola.
within
*S',
el
Case where F
234.
is
a circle.
is
denote
will
it
obtain.
to
And
is
thus the angle between any two lines in the one figure
by the
In particular
to
it
may be
noticed that
For
if
OP
and
OQ
is
if
a rectangular hyperbola.
P and Q
POQ
is
a right angle.
a rectangular hyperbola
Further
let it
is
always obtained.
RECIPROCATION
232
is
at
will
orthocentre
at
This
0.
the
student can
easily
verify
for
himself.
It can
235.
are connected
1.
'lies
now be seen
by reciprocation
on the directrix.
2.
hyperbola
lies
on the curve.
(i
95, 130).
by
reciprocation.
Let us now see how the second can be derived from the
first
G having
its
centre
Now
viz. 0, lies
on the
reciprocal curve.
And
is
is
Further
is
Thus we
see that
if
Prop.
236.
respect to
circle
If 8
Let
p)
and we
reciprocate luith
a conic having
S.
be any tangent to S,
circle
for a focus.
Let A be the centre of
Let
be
can
its orthocentre.
its
point of contact.
to G.
to a.
with respect
RECIPROCATIOX
Then
since
AQ
233
is
theorem (17)
qp_PM
0A~ AQ
Thus the
is
TTiT= the
FM
locus of
constant ^rr,
AQ
which
is
is
0,
without
This
>S'.
is
OA
that
AQ
hyperbola according as
in
agreement with
is
>S'
is
an
within, on, or
233.
237.
be the centre of S,
KL
any diameter,
Q any
point on
the circumference.
and a point
{kl)
on
it
corresponds to {KL).
the
RECIPROCATION
234
to
*S''
Now {QK)
angle at
the focus of
Hence the
tangent
reciprocal
subtends a right
theorem
is
to
{ql)
/S".
Prop.
238.
system,
of non-intersecting coaxal
circles
can
Let
L and
Then
one
all
C whose
centre
is
at L.
for
focus.
is
L with
respect to that
RECIPROCATION
of
235
same,
Therefore
all
common
well as a
Therefore they
viz,
the
( 22).
common
centre as
focus.
have a second
all
common
focus, that
is,
they
are confocal.
We know that
239.
if
be;
common tangent
them
at
and
Q,
to
PQ
two
circles
subtends a
right angle at L.
Now
The two
L.
conies, the
circles
of the confocals,
common
and
common
point
point.
This fact
We
reciprocates into a
Hence
common tangent
is
of course
known and
easily
proved otherwise.
Again
.240.
it is
known
(see Ex.
if
and
S.2
Now
having
reciprocate
its
this
centre at L.
>S\
property with
and
S.,
respect
to
a circle
236
RECIPROCATION
as one focus
/S/
and SJ,
line
{PQ)
the points
p and
viz.
q,
and Q
which
reciprocate.' into
tangents to
be at right angles
will
and the
As the envelope
of
{PQ)
is
it
a circle.
is
tivo
tangents
from a point
This also
is
T is
circle.
241.
We will conclude this chapter by proving two
theorems, the one having reference to two triangles which are
self-conjugate for a conic, the other to two triangles reciprocal
for a conic.
Prop.
same
and
Let
ABC, A'B'C be
conic
conic.
respect to a conic S.
Project
for
c lie
on
Further
..
a'h'c' is
triangle.
circle
is
circle.
RECIPROCATION
Let a conic be placed through the
and
'237
five points a, U, c,
h.
..
c also lies
and
orthocentre.
its
five
points
named
Hence the
,.
six points a,
h, c,
a,
h',
The second
part
the
of
242.
Prop.
If two
all lie
on a
also lie
proposition
we have
conic.
on a conic.
follows
at
once by
just proved.
Let
of
..
288
RECIPROCATION
Using small
is
the pole of
he,
Also since
hh'
which
aa'
h' is
is
perpendicular to
is
we
he.
is
perpendicular to ac
Similarly cc
is
perpendicular to ah.
.'.
aa', hh', cc
meet
.'.
A A',
CC
BB',
are concurrent.
EXERCISES
1.
If tlTe conies
*S'
and
r with
2.
respect to
aS"
*S"
aS'.
Shew
parallelogram.
that
quadrangle
can
be
reciprocated
into
239
RECIPROCATION
Reciprocate with respect to any conic the theorem
4.
The
a conic.
is
Exx. 5
12
inclusive.
5.
The tangent
6.
7.
8.
9.
is
at
any point
of a circle
and
The polar
10.
of a point with
respect to a circle
is
perpen-
dicular to the line joining the point to the centre of the circle.
The
11.
is
Chords of a
12.
a concentric
circle
circle.
Two
13.
conies
will reciprocate
into
14.
conic
*S".
circle
.S'
is
reciprocated by
the radius of
IS
is
means
of a circle
the geometric
into a
mean between
of 6".
fourth.
1 6.
common
prove
and
all
the centres
17.
centre at
lie
line.
the theorem
If a triangle
ABC
its
circumscribe a parabola
KECIPROCATION
240
whose focus
to SA, SB,
C perpendicular
respectively
concurrent.
18.
^S",
is S,
SC are
20.
dicular to
shew that the corresponding directi-ix is perpen10 and meets it in a point -V such that 10 0X= AO OD,
where /
0, the orthocentre
is
A on BC.
21.
of a conic
Shew
also
how
is
to find
its
22.
on the circumcircle
its
centre
lie
having
will also
Prove and
24.
following
respect to
P, Q,
If
anj'^
again in
intersect
26.
respect
to
are collinear.
the extremities
circle
with
A fixed
25.
reciprocate
ABC
on a
point
A and B
and
Q.
of
Shew
OB
meet the
P and Q
rectangular hyperbolas.
RECIPROCATION
27.
If
two
of perspective
241
is
the conic.
28.
Prove that the envelope of chords of an
subtend a right angle at the centre is a concentric
ellipse
which
circle.
ABC
is
BC
C^A^,
CA
A^By, AB.
[Use Ex.
27.]
16
242
CHAPTER
CIRCULAR POINTS.
We
243.
XVIII
FOCI OF CONICS
Now
lines.
and
asymptotes.
its
But
move one
Let
h'
C, then
a, h
circle G, a, h' of
and
Therefore
on the
Q and
another
infinity,
and
h,
line at infinity.
Our
conclusion then
is
that
all circles
in a plane go through
lirte
at infinity.
These
CIRCULAR POINTS.
.
The
FOCI OF CONICS
243
and they are the imaginary double lines of the orthogonal involution at that point.
244.
It
point
may
if
we
moment
digress for a
to touch
aspect of them.
The equation
The asymptotes
is
y-
of the form
is
a-.
that
-f
?/2
= 0,
= ix and y = ix.
y
These two
circle.
The
circular points.
If
we
still
of the circle does not alter in form, so that the asymptotes will
make
new
with the
i)
axis of
x as
This at
first
sight
is
paradoxical.
is
ex-
plained by the fact that the line y = ix makes the same angle
tan~^ {%) with every line in the plane.
For
let
= mx
be any other
that y
tan~'
;-
mx,
W + imj
:;
line
= ix makes
with
this,
measured
in the
is
tan
{
\
-,
1
-.
+tm
- \
tan
i.
Prop.
245.
// AOB be an angle of constant magnitude
and n, n' he the circular points, the cross-ratios of the jJencil
(fl, n', A, B) are constant.
16-2
CIRCULAR POINTS.
244
^ (nQ.'AB)
,r^r^>
i,s
=
^
4
For
FOCI OF CONICS
HOCl'
^.,
nOB
^AOB
sin
sin
-.
sin
and Z
Of i
all
AOB is
constant by hypothesis.
.-.
Prop.
246.
tvy7v^>
sni
0(nn'.4i?)
is
constant.
(fre circles.
Let
points,
which we
Then
will
>S'
denote by
and
asymptotes of
And
that
is
>S'.
double
same
lines.
Hence ^
is
of
are
all
orthogonal.
a circle.
all
This
is
effected
now go through
they are
The
circular
so
is
all circles.
The student
an imaginary
one.
We
will
247.
now proceed
to
is
cut by a system
FOCI OF CONICS
CIRCULAR POINTS.
From
theorem
245
227),
namely
For
if
we
the conies
become
all
Moreover the
circles.
is
form a
circles
common.
The
is
a particular
which
all
We
248.
circular points,
in
the theorem: If a triangle he self-conjugate to a rectangular hyperbola its circumcircle passes through the centre of the hyperbola.
Let
self-conjugate triangle, O,
Now
observe
first
that
fl'
ABC the
OHO'
is
at right
Therefore
angles, belong.
( 82),
to the
that
is
which
,.
OD.,
is
OnO'
Also
.-.
and
is
is
a self-conjugate triangle.
ABC is
a self-conjugate triangle.
must be a
this conic
..
A, B,
Cor.
its
on'
centre
C,
circle as it passes
on a conic
through
ft
241)
and
ft'.
are concyclic.
on the nine-points
rectangular hyperbola.
is
circle.
triangle
is
self-conjugate
for
the
CIRCULAR POINTS.
246
Prop.
249.
Concentric
FOCI OF CONICS
circles
have double
contact
at
infinity.
For
if
points at infinity,
and
f)
That is,
and n'.
all
circles, D,,
Vl'
the circular
O'.
all
Foci of Conies.
250.
Prop.
imaginary.
Since conjugate lines at a focus form an orthogonal involution,
and since the tangents from any point are the double lines of
the involution formed by the conjugate lines there, it follows
that the circular lines through a focus are the tangents to the
conic from that point.
But the
circular lines at
il
and H'
Thus the
foci
tangents from
by drawing
and taking their four
and iV
to the conic,
points of intersection.
Hence there
are four
foci.
figure as if
and H'
real points.
Draw
S, 8', F,
F and
Now
is
F'.
0.
the quadrilateral.
(Reciprocal of
..
is
..
is
i.e.
119
it
HO'
a.)
CIRCULAR POINTS.
Further OflCl'
is
FOCI OF CONICS
247
quadra^^Ze SS'FF'.
0(nn',FS)==-h
.-.
.'.
OF and OS are
OF and OS
(76)
And OF and OS
triangle formed
for the conic
..
OF and
axes.
pairs of
foci,
Now we know
F were
real,
real point,
..
which
F and
Cor.
is
FS
say
S and
>S",
are real.
For
line at infinity in
The
to the conic
coney clic.
the line
foci,
F and
248
CIRCULAR POINTS.
Prop.
251.
FOCI OF CONICS
Let
being A, C;
B,D; E,F.
E and F into
Project
plane of projection.
.'.
A,
and B, D
by 250.
projection,
Cor.
lines.
252.
We
will
now make
If
which
is
not unimportant.
vertices
Let
of the triangles
ABC, A'B'C
all lie on
same
conic.
all
*S^.
tt
jection
Project
and
Further
S^
.-.
S projects
into a parabola,
a,
A, B,
.-.
h',
c',
C, A', B',
a,
co'
0),
on a
lie
circle.
on a conic.
The converse
see
are concyclic.
b', c'
lie
we
..
249
FOCI OF CONICS
CIRCULAR POINTS.
by
reciprocation.
We
253.
article
obtained a proof of
if
of
what
is
lie
through the
focus.
This process
is
known
as generalisiiig by projection.
254.
co
and
to'
tt
We
will
it.
in the
plane by w,
co'.
tt
plane by
Then of
But
plane.
The
255.
figures in the
and
and
tt
planes
when
Ci.
and
fl'
&>
co'
1.
points
2.
Circles in the
o)
and
co'
tt
Parabolas in the
in the
tt
plane.
have seen,
having
co
and
co'
for
conjugate points.
250
CIRCULAR POINTS.
The
4.
FOCI OF CONICS
plane, since
5.
6.
pair of lines
OA,
a>'
OB
it is
the pole
cow'.
in the tt plane.
plane
Ota'.
Oft),
that
fact
OH, OH'
0{AB,
therefore
o{ah,
&)&)')
7.
120')
= -!
conic with
as focus in the
ft)
the two
and
256.
that
foci
&>'
S and
*S^'
plane.
In
&)
by drawing tangents
tt
plane.
tu'
by
follows that
it
It is of
and
ft)
the
from
are
belong, and
= 1.
And
OB
and
tt
plane
when
Xl'.
and
points in the
Our
plane.
So then we use to
If H and H'
are the circular points in the p plane, <w and w are not the
circular points in the ir plane and if w and co' are the circular
points in the tt plane, ft and H' are not the circular points in
the p plane. That is to say, only one of the pairs can be circular
points at the same time.
projections of the corresponding capitals.
and
and
fl'
respectively.
We
257.
isation
will
now proceed
to
some examples
of general-
by projection.
is
circle to
any
The
co'
CO,
at
generalised theorem
of a conic meet in
c,
is
251
FOCI OF CONICS
CIRCULAR POINTS.
to
and w
the centre
&)&>'.
and a
a{tc,
oi(o')
= 1.
258.
Next consider the theorem that angles in the same
segment of a circle are equal.
Let AQB be an angle in the
segment of which AB is the base. Project the circle into a
conic through w and to' and we get the theorem that if q be any
point on a fixed conic through the four points a, b, (o, w q (abuxo)
,
is
constant
Thus
conies.
245).
ment of a
of
CIRCULAR POINTS.
262
FOCI OF CONICS
Again we have the property of the rectangular hyperif PQR be a triangle inscribed in it and having a
right angle at P, the tangent at P is at right angles to QR.
259.
bola that
for
eo
and
If p
be
any iwint on a
coco')
k (pq,
coco')
260.
q,
= 1 and
= 1.
Lastly
we
tivo
w and
co
are con-
if the tangent at
will generalise
meet qr in k then
CIRCULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
253
The
points fl and H' and so project into two conies having double
contact at
The
C, is
w and
centre
the pole of
&)'.
is
c,
the projection of
woi'.
tiuo conies
projection
is
then
c,
and if pq
co
be
lo' and
any chord
aiid
c (pqcoo)')
is
constant.
EXERCISES
If
1.
be
centre of a conic,
tlie
12,
12'
2.
lines,
the points of contact of these two straight lines will always meet
FF'
in a fixed point.
3.
If three
common
conies have
two points
in
<S'._>
5.
If a conic pass
6.
If
foci of a
CIRCULAR POINTS.
254
7.
of
If a conic
two given
FOCI OF CONICS
conies,
Prove that,
common tangent
if
to
any two
by
the third.
9.
8.
If
[Project
11.
circular points.]
pairs gives six points on a conic, either the four conies thus deter-
lines
is
self-conjugate
is
the circumcircle.
to the
of the
Deduce that the polar reciprocal of any circle with regard to any
to the circular points as tangents, and
has the lines from
point
the reciprocal of the centre of the circle for the corresponding chord
of contact.
The centre
is
taken in
17.
The
lines
CIRCULAR POINTS.
IS.
Generalise
The
FOCI OF CONICS
of a triangle
255
on to the sides
collinear.
{PQ,
20.
RT)^-\.
is
its directrix.
If a
Moreover
if
this line
conjugates of
23.
CD
and
meet
CD
in P,
X{PT, LL') =
are hai-monic
L and
L'.
a point
meet a
any point on
taken such tiiat
to a conic
is
is
is
a straight
line.
conjugate lines
circle
PB
and
24.
PA
I.
is
is
256
CHAPTER XIX
INVERSION
We
261.
two
have already in
inverse points
'
'
13 explained what
with respect to a
meant
is
by-
being the
circle.
As
curve
P describes
S and
S'.
If
is
called the
That
is,
whether
with respect to
be confined to a plane or
OP
not, if
OP' = A constant
such
k",
It
is
to another point
that
is
P with
respect to
j)oint 0.
*By this
is
meant
respect to
its jilane is
lie
on the
circle.
a point
257
INVERSION
Draw
Let
the diameter
OA,
let
OP. OP'
Then
.-.
PAA'P'
is cyclic.
,*.
the angle
AA'P'
P'
circle,
its inverse.
= Ic'=OA. 0A\
the supplement of
is
APP', which
is
right angle.
right angles to
,,
J. 'P' is at
..
A A'.
is
Next
Let
let
P be
Let
OP
Let
P'
circle,
circle.
its inverse.
circle.
OQ = sq,
of tangent from
Take
on
and BP'
is
parallel to
OA
to the circle
t"
(say).
qp;^^
~
OQ
such that
OB
OA
t''
k'
is
a fixed point
AQ.
17
INVERSION
258
BP'
,
^
And
.vY
AQ
.'.
OB
= 7=nr =
OA
h^
t,
>
^^
^
^
constant.
t-
P' describes a
circle
is
round B.
another
circle.
is
a circle passing
2.
centre of inversion
is
a centre of similitude
25)
and the
radii
8 and
of Q.
Note.
The
*.S
which
and
convex to
is
is
concave to 0,
vice versa.
Two
of the
common
tangents of
S and
S' go through 0,
and
be inverse points.
263.
point
is
Prop.
to
any
a sphere or a plane.
round
OA
as axis
last
by rotating the
and line
is
the inverse
of the other; and in the second figure the two circles will
INVERSION
Prop.
264.
0,
not in
its
For the
The inverse of a
is a ciixle.
259
a point
plane,
circle
may
is
Prop.
265.
a point
in
its
This
OPQ
that
is
and
That
is,
part which
Cor.
1.
the centre
from
if
of inversion.
Q, since
OP OQ =
.
convex and
Any system
it
and
follows
points.
OT-
vice versa.
2.
Any
it
the radius.
172
as
INVERSION
260
Prop.
266.
any point
Let
same angle as
in their plane.
8,
Then
since
OP. OP'
.'.
.-.
at
QPP'Q'
OQ'.
is cyclic.
^OPQ = zOQ'P'.
Now
S
= k' = OQ
let
the tangents at
Now.
if
S\
and
*S^2
if
intersecting at P,
and
INVERSION
/S/,
261
their tangents,
it
^t^pt, = at,'P't:.
Thus
>S'i
Cor.
as their inverses.
at the inverse of P.
Prop.
267.
P,
If a
circle
he inverted into
inverses
of
and Q
^respectively,
circle S',
P' and
and
Q', the
ivill
respect to 8'.
Let
Since
and
through 0, P,
Therefore
the
P and
Q,
and
cuts
in particular the
Q.
inverse
of
the
circle
OPQ
will
cut
8'
orthogonally.
But the
centre of inversion,
Therefore P'Q'
is
lies
OPQ
is
a line
Again,
since 0, the
OPQ.
is,
passes through
8'.
since
orthogonally,
on the circumference.
it
8' orthogonally
every
circle
through
and Q cuts 8
P' and Q' cuts
INVERSION
262
Therefore,
if
^j be the centre of
S',
Prop.
268.
S'.
Now L
to
each
circle of
is
at infinity.
of the circles.
Feuerbach's Theorem.
269.
'
The
of inversion
principles
may
be illustrated by their
and
the three
escribed circles.
Let
ABC
be a triangle, I
its
incentre and /j
ecentre
its
opposite to A.
Let
M and
ilfj
Let the
Draw
line
BC.
AII^ which
AL perpendicular
centre, orthocentre
Draw OD
circle in
Now
BO.
Let 0, P,
cut
U be
BG
in
R.
the circum-
perpendicular to
BC
and
let it
K.
since
BI
the
internal
and
external
bisectors of angle B,
.'.
.-.
.'.
since
inclined to
RLA
BC
is
( 27,
(AR,II,) = -1,
II,) = -1.
L(AR,
a right angle,
Cor.
2).
LI and
INVERSION
the polars of
.-.
will
263
Now the
polar of
Let
for
since
is
MiX
is
the polar of
MM,
( 12,
OD
in
X.
are
Cor.)
i.e.
L and
circles.
tangent from
M and that
AXM,D = AXMD.
aXM,D = zXMD.
for
.-.
Let
MX be the polar of L
Then
.".
through M^.
XL, then
INVERSION
264
.-.
DM = DM,.
ND the radical
two
circles
but so also
is
i) since
axis,
is
.'.
Now
and
.\
DN
is
KNP
.'.
And
.'.
is
since
JV
Now
line of
is
its
middle point.
circle.
whose centre
circle
is
and radius
ND
NL.
The two
BG
UN=\OK.
K bisects KP.
N
is
must
line
circle,
But
.*.
the
nine-points
for
must be a
and the
line,
.*.
and
DL
is
circle.
circle
N being on the
touches both
ecircle.
the
incircle
and
ecircle.
Similarly
CoK.
it
The point
ecircle the
EXERCISES
1.
sphere
is
to a system of meridians
two systems
and
parallels
its
surface
on the surface
circles
can be
lines.
;
shew that
will correspond
INVERSION
If A, B, C,
3.
265
A', B',
C, D'
the
and
If
4.
i*i,
P^, Pg
jfec.
circles,
P"
If
5.
be
its
circles,
P.-,,
with respect to a
P" with
P'" of
circle,
respect to another and so on, then P', P", P'" &c. are concyclic.
of a circle and
Prove that the locus of the other intersection
6.
point.
POQ, P'OQ'
is
a second fixed
7.
circle of the
system
circle.
result of inverting at
a coaxal system
circles of
is
of
a fixed
is
of the circles
which
circle
so equivalent
is
Shew that
8.
BCD with
(internally
given
circles.
9.
Three
of points
if
circles cut
AB'C
touch at A.
10.
Prove that
if
of intersection of the
two
CC
AA\ BB',
ACD,
PCD bisects
tiie
is
circle.
circles
C'l
^S*!
is
shew
If A, B,
tliat
the triangles
Also that
0,
OBC, OCA,
if
any other
the centres P, Q,
OBC, OCA,
meet
drawn through
OAB
0,
0,
respectively, at right
in a point
OPQR.
point,
circumscribing
which
lies
on the
INVERSIOX
266
Shew that
14.
FCD;
and the
the circle
PAD
the circle
if
PAC
circle
PAR
PBG
circle
The
then
orthogonally.
15.
PBD;
ABC
with the
HY is
contact
drawn
BC in
A meets
tangent
The
to the incircle.
of this tangent
and
H.
From
H the otlier
BC
cuts the
A, B,
is
incircle of a triangle,
Shew
that
a,
if
h,
A and B
A circle
radical axis of
19.
is
*S'
S and
Shew that
shew that
circle.
c.
is
the
its
inverse
is
ABC
KM
KNBL,
ABC.
[Invert the three circles into the sides of the triangle by means
of centre K,
22.
Examine the
If A,
inverses of P,
particular case of
on
of inversion lies
Q be three
Q with respect
P,
lies
tlie
circle.]
proposition of
151,
*S'.
collinear points,
to 0,
and
AP. AQ
if
OA'-
A.P'.A^Q' "
UI}
24.
ABC
and the
line joining
opposite to
between
AB
with
BC of the
ecircle
and AC.
[Invert with
as centre so that
267
CHAPTER XX
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
Homothetic Figures.
270.
of points typified
by P, and
we may regard
as an assemblage
if
constant (=
is
k),
said to be similar
Two
such
honiotlietic,
We
figures
are
to F.
Prop.
271.
The
F is
F' ivhich
is
homothetic with
it,
and
a constant
ratio.
and Q be two points in F, and P', Q' the correOP OP' = OQ OQ' it follows that
and P'Q' are parallel, and that PQ P'Q' = OP OP' the
For
if
PQ
constant
P'Q'
ratio.
PQ
= the
.-.
is
in the line
OP -.OQ - OP =0P'
OQ'
OP'.
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
268
.-.
.'.
If the figures
Cor.
them
to
OP:PQ=OP':P'Q'.
PQ.P'Q'=OP:OP'.
*S^
at corresponding points
the tangent at
is
is
if
the intersection of
Or
PP' and
Q, Q'
be given
QQ'.
in the case
in this line
The point
is
is,
OP
and OP'
direction.
273.
If
now two
we
shall
similarly situated.
Two
and
is
Two
such figures
to be directly similar
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
Z POPi between
points
and Pj
PQ:PiQi =
the
is
lines
joining
constant.
Also
OP
269
two corresponding
OP^ is constant, and
to
:
OPQ, OPjQi
are similar.
is the
For since
Z.OPQ=zOP,Q^
QRQj.
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
270
OPR
..
.-.
POP.R
Similarly
QiOQR
is cyclic.
is
is
proved.
It has
Px nor with
If
far that
Qj.
P coincide
is itself
the centre of
similitude.
If
coincide with Qi
we can draw
QT
z P,Q,T,
then
= Z PQT
and Q,T,
QT= P,Q, PQ
:
275.
When
similar,
members
sides of
0,
and
collinear with
it,
the figures
is
may be
called
homothetic centre.
When
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
276.
If
we
271
circles.
is
We
'
circles.
centres of similitude
'
before,
but we now see that they are only particular centres of similitude,
and it is clear that there are other centres of similitude not
of one
may
Pi of the other.
Let
The
triangles
PSA, P^SA^
SA SA, = AP
:
A,P,
= ratio
of the radii.
272
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
Thus S
lies
Thus the
on the
circle
on 00' as diameter
( 27).
homothetic centres.
This circle we have already called the circle of similitude
and the student now understands the reason of the name.
277.
If
if
^ be
a figure in a plane,
OP
of
^ in
OP'
is
constant,
of inverse similitude.
Draw P'L
OX and
in Pi.
Then
plainly, since
OX bisects Z POP'
AOLP'=AOLP
OP, = OP'.
and
,'.
OPi
OP
is
constant.
let it
meet
OP
273
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
Thus the
figure formed
by the points Pj
will
be homothetic
with F.
figure
The student
that
F',
P.2
if
any
will
have no
OY be
difficulty in
taken through
if
typified
by P^
will
proving
himself
F and
and produced to
to
for
in the plane of
and
so
line
OY
where
will
not be
coincides with
OX.
278.
If
in the figure F,
and
P', Q'
we
279.
we
to
OP
it,
OP',
P'OQ').
In
of
between figures
similar.
in tivo inversely
A. G.
similar figures,
To
we observe
that
if
PP'
cxrt
the axis
18
274
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
OX
in F, then
PF
FP' =
OP
OP'
angle POP'.
PF:FP'=PQ:P'Q'.
.-.
Hence
if
P, P'
these lines at
is
Q, Q'
F and G
in
the axis.
the
the axis.
EXERCISES
1.
in
two
If P, P'
;,
Q, Q'
will, if
orthogonally projected,
figures.
F'Q'R' are
sin)ilar in
PQR,
3.
If S and *S" be two curves directly similar, prove that if S
be turned in the plane about any point, the locus of the centre of
similitude of
4.
circle,
S and
.*>"
will
be a
circle.
Shew
If
two
same
circle so as to
be
inversely similar, shew that they are in perspective, and that the
axis of perspective passes through the centre of the circle.
G.
If on the sides BC, CA,ABoi-e. triangle ABC points X, Y, Z
be taken such that the triangle X YZ is of constant shape, construct
the centre of similitude of the syltem of triangles so formed and
;
XYZ
is
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
If three points
7.
ABC
opposite to A,
X^
T,
B,
Z be
and
respectively,
common
The
275
if
A YZ,
BZX and
CXY,
point.
circle of similitude of
two given
coaxal system whose limiting points are the centres of the two given
circles.
9.
two coplanar
If
circles
10.
this case.
when Q and
similarity,
still
is
of similitude passes
is
is
circles
S" is
is
a diameter
E,
AD
ABCD is a
BC in F
and
cyclic quadrilateral
;
EF
prove that
AB,
CD
Generalise by projection
similitude of
two
circles is coaxal
is
AC
and
BD
intersect in
as diameters.
with them.
182
276
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Prove that when four points A, B, C,
1.
circle,
lie
on
lie
a circle, the
on an equal
which joins the centres of these circles is
of three to one by the centre of mean position
of the points A, B, C, D.
2.
ABC
is
the centre of
a triangle,
its
inscribed circle,
and
AB
Jj, 5i, G^ the centres of the circles escribed to the sides BC% CA,
respectively Z, M, JV the points where these sides are cut by the
;
ABC
is
and having
a triangle, Z,
Mj,
N-^
its
orthocentre at 0.
M.2
ZjZg,
is
ABC
is
PQR.
5.
If circles
in
L and
shew
passing
one.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Two
6.
one so that
circles are
its sides
277
Shew
that
the points of
if
ABC
meets the
\s,
Four intersecting straight lines are drawn in a plane. Reciprocate with regard to any point in this plane the theorem that
the circumcircles of the triangle formed by the four lines are concurrent at a point which is coucyclic with their four centres.
8.
E and F are
9.
bola,
PE meets
and
two fixed points, P a moving point, on a hyperan asymptote in Q. Prove that the line through
asymptote meets
PF.
through
parallel to
Any
10.
and with
its
parabola
is
Prove that
is
conic.
11.
8hew how
whose
tangent
is
drawn
to
an
is
a minimum
shew that
it
same
line.
lie
is
poristic,
when the
three given points are collinear and the three given lines are concurrent.
16.
collinear
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
278
also
into which
conic through A, B, C,
transformed into
is
itself.
17.
Shew
C,
A; and
A,
a conic circumscribing
Three triangles have their bases on one given line and their
Six lines are formed hy joining the
point of intersection of two sides, one from each of a pair of the
triangles, with a point of intersection of the other two sides of those
triangles, choosing the pairs of triangles and the pairs of sides in
Prove that the six lines form a complete
every possible way.
18.
quadrangle.
19.
problem
points.
Determine in
An
20.
is
equilateral triangle
the centre
An
21.
ellipse,
OA, OB,
prove that AD, BE,
F respectively
22.
and
its
to
ABC,
in
OC
is
23.
Three parabolas have a given common tangent and touch
one another at P, Q, R. Shew that the points P, Q, R ai'e collinear.
Prove also that the parabola which touches the given line and the
tangents at P, Q,
lias its
axis parallel to
PQR.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
Three
25.
circles pass
intersections are A, B, C.
on the
are concyclic
F on
OCA,
circle
if
279
OAB.
Prove that
where
0,
AF, and so
which must be taken.
for the chord
D, E,
AF
AF.BD. CE = - FB DC EA,
stands
on.
26.
Shew that a common tangent to two confocal parabolas
subtends an angle at the focus equal to the angle between the axes
of the parabolas.
27.
The
vertices
the locus of
28.
straight line
AB
X at
A and
29.
On
AB, the
30.
ABC
BE,
in
CF
cuts
two
and Y, so
The tangents
fixed circles
oi
that P, Q, P,
lie
on a fixed
in four points
circle.
P
Y are
Shew that as P
PQ
is
of constant length.
ABCD
Shew
P, Q, R, S.
such that
6'.
in
a point P.
locus of i2
is
X and
a hyperbola of
ABC.
if
circle,
centre 0,
thi'ough
ABC.
The
inscribed in a triangle
is
Two
Shew
that
AU
BE' CF'
,
are parallel.
bola,
and
Shew
PQ
is
a para-
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
280
With
35.
at
Show
to (A).
any point
and
its
meets
TSD
\xi
BOY, COZ
OR
l)ethe
Shew
What
D
its
circle passes
BY
and
AB
ABC, and X,
Y,
AOX,
CZ
OQ and
Q and
be respectively
R,
shew that
The
39.
of a quadrilateral
on
if
is
AX
and AX,
that,
ellipse
any point
is
points
ai'e
an
38.
Prove
fixed in direction.
is
If
37.
lines,
*S'
asymptotes
described similar
it.
is
and
as focus,
it
Shew
intersect.
is
The
40.
a given circle; B-^C^, C-^A^ intersect in P^, and B^C^, C^Ao in P.,.
Shew that the radical axis of the circles which circumscribe the
P^A.^B^ passes through the centre of the given
txnangles P^A^B.-,,
circle.
A transversal
41.
in P, Q,
and
respectively in
P\
PQ'
QR' RP'
.
=-P'Q
OC
a.
triangle
and
Q'R R'P.
.
oi
Prove that
Q', R'.
42.
AB
ABC
is
sides in P, Q, R.
\
43.
drawn
From any
to a
point
on a given
is
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
first
281
shew that the chord joining the points where these tangents
first circle is fixed in direction and intersects QQ' on the line
cut the
of centres.
44.
If
sides of a fixed
through a fixed point.
45.
to a conic.
AB
'
46.
The
side
BC of a
triangle
ABC
BK pass
through L.
are described
is
one touching
a second touching
third touching
at A, B,
AL,
tliey all
CX,
BM at
BM,
AL
CN at
at N,
M,
L and
N and passing
through
passing througli
C.
Prove that
OA
circle
49.
given
the
circle,
common
A circle
is
and another
that the lines joining the points of contact of each circle with the
hypothenuse and that side intersect one another at i-ight angles, and
being produced pass each through the point of contact of the other
circle with the remaining side.
Also shew that the polars of any
point on either of these lines with respect to the two circles meet on
on either
51.
ordinates be
a triangle
drawn from
282
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
the line joining the feet of the ordinates will pass through the points
of contact of
PQ, PR.
53.
Shew that the point of intersection of the two comn)on
tangents of a conic and an osculating circle lies on the confocal conic
of osculation.
In
a triangle
55.
circle
through the
of
foci
a rectangular hyperbola
is
hyperbola.
If
56.
A circle can be drawn to cut three given circles orthogonally.
any point be taken on this circle its polars with regard to the
to
focal.
and
on two conies JJ
Prove that the corners of the quadrangle whose
pairs of opposite sides are the tangents at P, P' and Q, Q' lie on a
conic which passes through the four points of intersection of f/'and V.
58.
and V
59.
P,
If
respectively.
common
The tangents
real
common
self-conjugate triangle
focus.
to a conic at
meet
in 7\
prove that
T(A'AB'B, = T'{A'AB'B).
circle
another fixed
to the
circle.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
62.
system of triangles
is
283
Shew
circles.
that
if
lies
straight line
Shew
Four points
lie
perpendicular to AB.
A, B, C,
AB
BC, CA,
in a,
drawn meet
lines so
b, c
respectively
Da,
that
a, /3,
66.
Db',
in a point.
a,
b,
AB
EF
and
a,
with respect to E, F.
in a,
/3,
y respectively.
b' c
The
Shew
y are collinear.
Three
circles intersect at
that the polar of the centre of the circle with regard to the conic
is
The
triangles
PQP,
P'R
Prove that
P{QR'Q'Ii) = P'{QJi'Q'Ji)
and P, Q, R, F,
69.
Q',
If A', B',
an involution, and
CO', DD',
R'
lie
on a
conic.
C, D' be the
/-,
Q, R,
points conjugate to A, B, G,
in
70.
ABC
is
a triangle.
If
ABC
be concurrent, then
71.
If
A'',
Y,
Z will
be collinear.
be a triangle and
ABD,
ACD
(i)
the
touches a parabola:
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
284
(ii)
72.
Two
BD,
ABC, ACB.
(7/) respectively.
variable circles
S and
a^S"
find
circles,
the locus of the points which have the same polars with regard to
>S^
and
S'.
74.
Two
circles
is
another
circle
chord
AC
How many
If A, B,
B may be constructed
these circles A, B, C,
CI,
are
If
ABC,
DEF be
SF
two coplanar
triangles,
SC
and
AB
S'
be a point
respectively in
FF, FD,
DE
ABC
is
circle escribed to
way.
a triangle, i)
BC E
\
and
is
CA,
AB
BC
of the
in the
same
parallel to
AD, BE,
the incentre.
CF respectively
lines
AB
meet at
INDEX
The
Isogonal conjugates
37
Antiparallel
Asymptotes
36
103, 171
147, 153, 165, 205
Axes 101, 104, 107, 166
Axis of perspective 61, 62
Menelaus' theorem 31
Newton's theorem 117, 126, 136, 152,
177, 178, 179, 180
Nine points circle 3, 195, 262
Auxiliary circle
11(2
Focus and
directrix
10,
figures
113,
127,
145,
149,
164,
186
Ordiuates 107
Oithocentre 2, 133, 194, 232
Orthogonal circles 22, 73
Orthogonal involution 85, 94
Pair of tangents 111, 130, 147, 150,
168
Parallel chords 95
Parameter 136
214-
5, 133
Pole and polar 13, 92, 229
Projective propeities 45, 50, 53, 92
Quadrangle
249
54,
59, 60, 62
Homothetic
Normals
Pedal line
Incircle
Medians
Pascal's theorem
233, 246
Generalisation by projection
Loci
245
Signs 28, 119, 180
Similar figures 268
Simititude, centres of 24
Similitude, circle of 25, 271
Simson line 6
267
262
222, 224
76,
Subnormal 128
Symmedians 37
216,
Tangents
108,
127,
145, 164
Triangles in perspective
64
CAMBRIDGE
J. L.
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