CCNA

Network is the method to share hardware resources and software resources.
We can share
the resources with the help of operating system like windows, Linux, UNIX etc. To
connect multiple networks we have to use internetworking devices like router, bridge,
layer 3, switches etc.
Administrator model for networking

Server software: - which software are used to giving services that are server software.
Client software: - which gets services.
Server
Software
P
R
O
T
O
C
O
L
Stack
Apache,
IIS,
Exchange 2003,
FTP Server,
Send Mail
TCP/IP,
IPX/SPX,
AppleTalk,
Netbeui
Client
Software
Internet Explorer,
Outlook Express,
Yahoo messenger,
Cute FTP
P
R
O
T
O
C
O
L
Stack
NIC
NIC
Media
Media
If NIC are different then use bridge. If media is different then use Trans-Receive devices.
OSI Model
OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network. OSI
provides following advantages: (i)
Designing of network will be standard base.
(ii)
Development of new technology will be faster.
(iii)
Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
(iv)
Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.
Software
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Protocol Stack
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
NIC
Media
(1) Application Layer: Application layer accepts data and forward into the protocol stack. It creates user
interface between application software and protocol stack.
(2) Presentation Layer: This layer decides presentation format of the data. It also able to performs other
function like compression/decompression and encryption/decryption.
(3) Session Layer: This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.
(4) Transport Layer: Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control
Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement
(v) Response
Connection Oriented Communication
Sender
Receiver
Request for synchronize
Virtual
Connection
Or
Handshaking
Negotiation
Acknowledgement
Send
Send
Data
Transfer
Acknowledgement
Send
Acknowledgement
Terminate
Or
Connection less Communication

Sender
Receiver
Send
(i) Error checking

Transport layer generates cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and forward the
CRC value to destination along with data. The other end will generate
CRC according to data and match the CRC value with received value. If
both are same, then data is accepted otherwise discard.
(ii) Flow Control
Flow control is used to control the flow of data during communication.
For this purpose following methods are used: (a) Buffer
Buffer is the temporary storage area. All the data is stored in the buffer
memory and when communication ability is available the data is
forward to another.
(b) Windowing
Windowing is the maximum amounts of the data that can be send to
destination without receiving Acknowledgement. It is limit for buffer
to send data without getting Acknowledgement.
(c) Multiplexing
Multiplexing means combining small data segment, which has same
destination IP and same destination service.
(iii) Sequencing
Transport layer add sequence number to data, so that out of sequence data
can be detected and rearranged in proper manner.
(iv)
Positive Acknowledgement and Response

When data is send to destination, the destination will reply with
Acknowledgement to indicate the positive reception of data. If
Acknowledgement is not received within a specified time then the data is
resend from buffer memory.
(5) Network Layer

This layer performs function like logical addressing and path determination. Each
networking device has a physical address that is MAC address. But logical
addressing is easier to communicate on large size network.
Logical addressing defines network address and host address. This type of
addressing is used to simplify implementation of large network. Some examples
of logical addressing are: - IP addresses, IPX addresses etc.
Path determination
Network layer has different routing protocols like RIP, EIGRP, BGP, and ARP
etc. to perform the path determination for different routing protocol.
Network layer also perform other responsibilities like defining quality of service,
fragmentation and protocol identification.
(6) Data Link Layer

The functions of Data Link layer are divided into two sub layers
(i)
Logical Link Control
(ii)
Media Access Control
(i)
(ii)
Logical Link Control defines the encapsulation that will be used by the
NIC to delivered data to destination. Some examples of Logical Link
Control are ARPA (Ethernet), 802.11 wi-fi.
Media Access Control defines methods to access the shared media and
establish the identity with the help of MAC address. Some examples of
Media Access Control are CSMA/CD, Token Passing.
(7) Physical Layer

Physical Layer is responsible to communicate bits over the media this layer deals
with the standard defined for media and signals. This layer may also perform
modulation and demodulation as required.
Data Encapsulation
Data
Application Layer
Physical Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer 1 0
Data*
Data**
Data***
Transport Header | Data
Network Header | Segment
Header | Packet | Trailer
Data => Segment => Packet => Frames => Bits
= Segment
= Packet
= Frame
= Bits
Devices at different Layers

Physical Layer Devices
Hub, Modem, Media, DCE (Data comm. Equipment), CSU/DSU, Repeater, Media
converter
DCE
CSU | DSU
DTE
Channel Service Unit Data Service Unit
Data Terminal Equipment
Data Link Layer

NIC, Switch, Bridge
Network Layer Device

Router, Layer 3 Switch
All Layers Device

PC, Firewall
DCE: - DCE convert the bits into signal & send them on media.
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface
Switch forwards frames on the base of MAC address.
Router forwards packets on the base of IP address.
LAN Technologies
LAN
Ethernet
10 10000 mbps
100 m
Token Ring
FDDI
Wi-Fi
4 16 mbps
100m
4 16 mbps
up to 2 km
1 108 mbps
up to 40 km
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular LAN technology. It can support verity of media like copper
(UTP, Coaxial, fiber optic). This technology supports wide range of speed from 10mbps
to 10000 mbps.
Ethernet at Logical Link Control
To create logical link control Ethernet uses ARPA protocol also called IEEE802.3.
Ethernet adds source MAC, destination MAC, error checking information and some other
information to data. Ethernet encapsulation explain as follows
Preamble
64
1010101010..10
start frame
Delimiter 8
Destination
MAC
48
49
Source MAC
48
Length
16
Data up to
1500 bytes
10101011
Ethernet at Media Access Control

Ethernet at Media Access Control layer uses CSMA/CD protocol to access the shared
media.
In these days, we use Ethernet with switches and in switches the technology is made
CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance). So this reason Ethernet is best compare with Token
Ring, FDDI & Wi-Fi.
Sense the carrier
Receive data
Yes
Is
carrier
busy?
No
Do we have
any data to
communicate?
Yes
Send data over

media
No
Frame
Check
Sequence
16
Back off Algorithm

This algorithm runs when a collision created.
Detect the Collision
Stop transmitting receiving data
Generate a random Number
Try to communicate after delay

X r.no.
Ethernet Family
Speed
10
10
10
10/100(present)
100
100
1000(Server)
1000
10000
Base band
Base 2
Base 5
Base T
Base TX
Base T4
Base FX
Base TX
Base FX
Base FX
200-meter Coaxial cable

500-meter Thick Coaxial cable
100 meter
Twisted Pair (UTP)
100 meter
UTP
100 meter
UTP 4 Pairs used
up to 4 kms
Fiber Optic
100 meter
UTP
up to 10 kms Fiber Optic
Fiber Optic
Ethernet frame
Preamble An alternating 1,0 pattern provides a 5MHz clock at the start of each packet,
which allows the receiving devices to lock the incoming bit stream.
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)/Synch The preamble is seven octets and the SFD is one
octet (synch). The SFD is 10101011, where the last pair of 1s allows the receiver to come
into the alternating 1,0 pattern somewhere in the middle and still sync up and detect the
beginning of the data.
Length or type 802.3 uses a length field, but the Ethernet frame uses a type field to
identify the network layer protocol. 802.3 cannot identify the upper-layer protocol and
must be used with a proprietary LAN-IPX, for example
Ethernet Cabling
Coaxial cabling
Requirement: T connector, Terminator, BNC connector, Coaxial cable, 10 base2 lan cards
T Connector
Terminator
BNC
Lan card
This is used by BUS topology with 10 mbs Base 2 and Base 5. it is not used currently.
UTP Cabling
In the UTP, we have used different topology to create the network.
(1)
Hub / Switch
PC
PC
In any Ethernet UTP topology we have to use one of the two types of cables
(1) Straight cable
(2) Cross cable
TX
RX
Structure Cabling
Requirement: Rack, patch panel, Switch/ Hub( Rack Mounable), patch cord, I/O connector, I/O box,
UTP cable
Tool: - Punching tool
Problems of Ethernet technology

(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
In Ethernet only one pc is able to send data at a time, due to this the bandwidth of
Ethernet will be shared.
Not an equal access technology.
One pc will send data, which will be received by the all devices of network. Due
to this data communication will not be secured.
Collision will occur in the network and collision will lead to other problems like
latency, delay and reduce throughput.
Latency time duration to send packet from start to end.
Throughput speed to send data (output)
All PCs will have single broadcast domain. Due to this the bandwidth will be
reduced.
EMI Electro Magnetic Indication
LAN Segmentation of Ethernet Network

There are three methods to perform LAN segmentation
(1) LAN segmentation using bridge.
(2) LAN segmentation using switches.
(3) LAN segmentation using Routers.
LAN segmentation using bridge.
Existing
Hub
Hub
Hub
New
Port1
Bridge
Port3
Port2
Hub
1st collision domain
Hub
2nd collision domain
Hub
3rd collision domain
1 broadcast domain
Working of Bridge: Working of Bridge explains in following steps: (i)
Bridge can receives a frame in the buffer memory.
(ii)
The source MAC address of frame this stored to the bridging table.
Port number
MAC address
1
2
3
(iii)
According to the destination MAC address the frame will be forwarded or
drop
(a) If destination MAC address of the frame is known then frame is
forwarded to the particular port.
(b) If destination MAC address is unknown by bridging table then frame
is forwarded to the all port except receiving port.
(c) If destination MAC address is broadcast MAC address ff.ff.ff.ff.ff.ff.
(d) If destination MAC address exist on the same port from which port
received then frame is dropped.
Collision domain
A group of pc, in which collision can occur, is called a collision domain.
Broadcast domain
A group of pc in which broadcast message is delivered is called broadcast domain.
LAN segmentation using Switches
Due to perform Lan segmentation using switches. We have to remove hubs from the
network and replace hub with switches the working of switches. The working of switch is
exactly like a bridge. A multiport bridge can be used as a bridge.
Switch
Switch
Switch
1 broadcast domain
Collision domain = micro segmentation
Switchs working is same like bridge
Advantages: (1) Bandwidth will not be shared and overall throughput will depend on wire
speed of the switch. Wire speed is also called switching capacity measured
in mbps or gbps.
Minimum port on switches = 4
Maximum port on switches = 48
(2) Any time access technology.
(3) One to one communication so that network will be more secures.
(4) Switches will perform micro segmentation and no collision will occur in
network.
Lan segmentation using router
If we are facing high concession in the n/w due to the large number of broadcast then we
can divide broadcast domain of network. So that number of broadcast message will be
reduced.
Exist: Switch | Hub
Switch | Hub
Switch | Hub
New: R
Switch | Hub
1st Broadcast Domain

Router is unicast.
Switch | Hub
2nd Broadcast Domain
Switch | Hub
3rd Broadcast Domain
We have to install router between multiple switches to divide the broadcast domain. Each
broadcast domain has to used different network address and router will provide inter
network communication between them.
Router operation
When a pc has to send data to a different network address, then data will be forwarded to
the router. It will analysis IP address of the data and obtain a route from the routing table.
According to the route data will be dropped, If route not available.
Pc Architecture
K/B
Controller
Processor
Keyboard
Memory controller
I/O
Controller
RAM
Serial
Parallel
USB
BIOS
ROM
HDD
CMOS
RAM
Display
Card
FD
CDD
Sound
Card
V.D.U
Router Architecture
LAN
Processor
I/O
Controller
Memory
Controller
BIOS
ROM
Incomplete
IOS
NVRAM
RAM
WAN
Ports
Flash
RAM
O/S
IOS
Startup Configuration
Non-Volatile
RAM
(1) Processor
Speed: - 20 MHz to 1GHz
Architecture: - RISC
Reduce Instruction set computer
Manufacturers: - Motorola, IBM, Power PC, Texas, Dallis, Intel.
(2) Flash RAM
Flash Ram is the permanent read/write memory. This memory is used to store one
or more copies of router o/s. Router o/s is also called IOS (Internetwork Operating
System).
Flash Ram stores the only o/s.
The size of flash ram in the router is 4mb to 128mb. The flash ram may be
available in one of the following three packages: SLMM Flash: - Single Line Memory Module
PCMCIA Flash: - Personal Computer Memory Card Interface Architecture
Compact Flash: - (Small Memory)
(3) NVRAM
NVRAM is a Non Volatile Random Access Memory. It is used to store the
configuration of the Router. The size of NVRAM is 8 KB to 512 KB.
(4) RAM
Ram of the router is divided into two logical parts.
(i) Primary RAM
(ii) Shared RAM
Primary RAM
Primary RAM is used for: (a) Running copy of IOS.
(b) Running configuration
(c) Routing table
(d) ARP table (IP address to MAC address)
(e) Processor & other data structure
Shared RAM
Shared RAM is used as a buffer memory to shared the data received from
different interfaces. Size of ram in a router may vary from 2 mb to 512 mb. The
types of memory that may be present in a ram are: (a) DRAM -> Dynamic RAM
(b) EDORAM -> Extended Data Out Ram
(c) SDRAM -> Synchronous Dynamic Ram
(5) BIOS ROM
The BIOS ROM is the permanent ROM. This memory is used to store following
program & Routines: (i)
Boot strap loader (doing booting)
(ii)
Power on self test routines
(iii) Incomplete IOS
(iv)
ROM Monitor (ROM-MON)
Booting difference between router & Pc
Router
ROM-MON
Incomplete IOS
FLASH
PC
CMOS Setup
Bootable Floppy/CD
O/S From HDD
Router Interfaces & Ports

Interface is used to connect LAN networks or wan networks to the router. Interface will
use protocol stacks to send/receive data. Ports are used for the configuration of routers.
Ports are not used to connect different n/ws. The primary purpose of port is the
management of router.
Router Interfaces
Interface
Connector
Ethernet
RJ45
color
yellow
AUI
DB15
yellow
Fast Ethernet
Serial
RJ45
DB60
yellow
blue
Smart Serial
BRI ISDN
SS
RJ45
blue
orange
VOIP
RJ11
white
Speed
10 mbps
Use
to connect Ethernet LAN
Using UTP media
10 mbps
Using Trans-Receiver
100 mbps
E1-2 mbps
to connect WAN
T1-1.5 mbps Technology like Leased
Lines, Radio link, Frame
Relay, X.25, ATM
192 kbps
to connect ISDN Basic
Rate Interface
to connect Phones, Fax,
EPABX
AUI Attachment Unit Interface

EPABX Electronic Private Automatic Branch
PSTN Public Services Telephone Network
Router Ports
Port
Console
Connector
RJ45
Auxiliary
RJ45
Virtual terminal Vty
Types of routers:(1) Fixed configuration router

(2) Modular router
(3) Chassis based router
Color
sky blue
black
-
Speed
9600bps
Details
used for configuration
Using PC
depend on to connect remote
Modem
router using PSTN line
to connect remote router
with telnet protocol via
interface
Other interfaces:(1) Token Ring RJ45

Violet
To connect Token Ring network.
(2) E1/T1 controller RJ45
White
(3) ADSL
RJ11
(Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line)
4/16 mbps
E1-2048 kbps
T1-1544 kbps
up-640 kbps
Down-8 mbps
Router Access Modes

When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
User mode
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not enable to
manage & configure router.
Privileged mode
In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.
The command to enter in this mode is enable. We have to enter enable
password or enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority
than enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will
work.
Global configuration
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router.
For e.g: - router hostname or access list of router
The command enter in this mode is configure terminal.
Line configuration mode
This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main types
of line that are configured.
(i) Console
router(config)#line console 0
(ii) Auxiliary
router(config)#line aux 0
(iii) Telnet or vty
router(config)#line vty 0 4
Interface configuration mode

This mode is used to configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interface <type> <number>
Router(config)#interface serial 1
Routing configuration mode
This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.
Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10
Configuring Password
There are five types of password available in a router
(1) Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
to erase password do all steps with no command.
(2) Vty Password
router>enable
router(config)#line vty 0 4
(3) Auxiliary Password
router(config)#line Aux 0
(4) Enable Password
router>enable
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit
(5) Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in configuration
where as enable secret password is the encrypted password with MD5 (Media Digest 5)
algorithm.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit
Encryption all passwords
All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password. We can encrypt
all passwords using level 7 algorithm. The command to encrypt all password are
Router(config)#service password-encryption
Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(1) Startup Configuration
(2) Running Configuration
(1) Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to save
settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in to the
Primary RAM.
(2) Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a command
for configuration, this command is written in the running configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
To erase old configuration

Router#erase startup-configuration
Router#reload
Save[y/n]:n
Access Router using console

Com/Port--------DB9------------------------Console
Cisco Console
RJ45 Router
In windows
Click start=> program=> accessories=> comm.(communication)=> hyperterminal
Type any name
Select com port
Set settings
Speed 9600
stop bit 1
Data bits 8
Parity no
Click ok
Press shift+home to default prompt
CISCO command line shortcuts

Tab to auto complete command
? To take help
Ctrl+P to recall previous command
Ctrl+N next command
Ctrl+Z alternate to end command
Ctrl+C to abort
Q to quit
Ctrl+Shift+6 to break connection
Command line editing shortcuts

Ctrl+A to move cursor at start of line
Ctrl+E to move cursor at end of line
Ctrl+ B to move cursor one character back
Ctrl+F to move cursor one character forward
Ctrl+W to delete word one by one word back
Ctrl+D to delete one character
Ctrl+U to delete one line
Esc+B to take cursor one word back
Esc+F to take cursor one word forward
Configuring HostName
Router#hostname <name>
<name>#exit or end or /\z
Configuration Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration. By
default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use different
commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Configuring IP, Mask and Enabling the Interface
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Interface Numbers
Interface numbers start from 0 for each type of interface some routers will directly used
interface number while other router will use slot no/port no addressing technique.
Eth 0
Serial 0
Serial 1
Slot 1
Serial 1/0
Serial 1/1
To configure Interface description

Router(config-if)#description <line>
Configuring optional parameter on LAN interface
Router(config-if)#duplex <half|full|auto>
Router(config-if)#speed <10|100|auto>
Router(config-if)#end
Configuring optional parameter on WAN interface
Router(config)#interfac <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#encapsulation <protocol>
Router(config-if)#clock rate <value>
Router(config-if)#end
Slot 0
Serial 0/0
To display interface status

Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
Router#show interface <type> <no>
This command will display following parameters about an interface
1) Status
2) Mac address
3) IP address
4) Subnet mask
5) Hardware type / manufacturer
6) Bandwidth
7) Reliability
8) Delay
9) Load ( Tx load
Rx load)
10) Encapsulation
11) ARP type (if applicable)
12) Keep alive
13) Queuing strategy
14) Input queue details
Output queue details
15) Traffic rate
(In packet per second,
bit per second)
16) Input packet details
17) Output packet details
18) Modem signals (wan interface only)
19) M.T.U maximum transmission rate (mostly 1500 bytes)
Configuring sub interface
Sub interface are required in different scenario. For e.g:- in Ethernet we need sub
interface for Vlan communication and in frame relay we need sub interface for multipoint
connectivity. Sub interface means creating a logical interface from physical interface.
Router#config ter
Router(config)#interface <type> <no> <subint no>
Router(config-subif)#
Router(config-subif)#end
Router(config)#interface serial 0.2
Configuring secondary IP
Router#config terminal
Router(config-if)#IP address 192.168.10.5 255.255.255.0

Router(config-if)#IP address 192.168.10.18 255.255.255.0 secondary
Router(config-if)#no shutdown (to enable the interface because they always shutdown)
Router#show run (to display secondary IP)
Managing Command Line History

We can use CTRL+P & CTRL+N shortcuts to display command history. By default
router will up to 10 commands. In the command line history, we can use following
commands to edit this setting
To display commands present in history
Router#show history
To display history size
Router#show terminal
To change history size
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config-if)#history size <value(0-256)>
Configuring Banners
Banners are just a message that can appear at different prompts according to the type.
Different banners are: Message of the day (motd)
This banner appear at every access method
Login
Appear before login prompt
Exec
Appear after we enter to the execution mode
Incoming
Appear for incoming connections
Syntax:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner <type> <delimation char>
Text Massage
<delimation char>
Router(config)#
Example:Router#config terminal
Router(config)#banner motd $
This router is distribution 3600 router connected to Reliance
$
Router(config)#
Configure Login
Router generates the log message, which has stored in the router internal buffer and also
displayed on the console.
To display log buffer
Router#show logging
To send log messages to sys log server
Router#config ter
Router(config)#logging <IP address>
Router(config)#exit
To configure synchronous logging on console
Router(config)#line console 0
Router(config)#logging synchronous
Router(config)#exit
syslog server windows->search on google to install syslog server on our pc which creates
a file in which we store logging buffer memory on the pc.
Configuring Router Clock

We can configure router clock with the help of two methods.
(1) Configure clock locally
(2) Configure clock on NTP server (Network Time Protocol)
Router does not have battery to save the clock setting. So that clock will reset to the
default on reboot.
To display clock
Router#show clock
To configure clock
Router#clock set hh:mm:ss day month year
00-23: 00-59:00-59 1-31 JAN-DEC 1993-2035
To configure clock from NTP server
Router(config)#ntp server <IP address>

Router(config)#exit
C:\>ping pool.ntp.org
To get ntp server ip from internet
C:\>route print
Status message of Interfaces

When we use Show Interfaces command on router. The first two lines will display the
status message. It will display one of the following four messages.
Interface is administratively down, line protocol is down.
This message means that the interface is shutdown by the administrator using shutdown
command. We can change this status with help of no shutdown command.
Interface is up, line protocol is up.
This message will appear when everything working fine and interface is able to
communicate with other devices. In case of Ethernet, this message will display when
interface is connected and enabled. In case of serial, this message will display when end
to end connectivity is established.
Interface is down, line protocol is down
This message will appear when interface is not receiving clock rate. This message will
never appear in case of Ethernet. In case of serial, this message may appear due to
following reasons.
R x-----x--------m x---------------x-------------x m--------------R
Fault
Interface is up, line protocol is down
This message will appear due to the encapsulation failure. In case of Ethernet, this
message may appear when interface is not connected properly. In case of serial, this
message may appear due to following
R ----------M----------------M------x------x R
Fault
e.g:router#show Interface serial 0
router#show Interface eth 0
Router Booting Sources

A router can boot from various sources. By default, it will boot from the flash memory
and we can control the sequence with the help of configuration system or commands. A
router can boot from following sources: -
(1) First file in flash

(2) Specific file in flash
(3) Incomplete IOS
(4) TFTP Server
(5) Rom Monitor (from Bios)
The first to control boot sequence using configuration system register. We can modify
configuration register value with the help of config-register command in global
configuration mode. We can also modify register value from ROM monitor mode.
Configuration Register
Configuration Register is 16-bit value, which is stored in the NVRAM. At the time of
booting the Bootstrap Loader reads the value of configuration Register and according to
the value it configure its booting behavior.
0x2102 (IOS with Config)
With this value the router will boot from first file present in the flash memory. This is the
default value of configuration register. After loading IOS the router will also load startupconfig into running-config.
0x2101 (Incomplete IOS with Config)
The router will boot from incomplete IOS and then load the startup-config.
0x2100 (Rom Monitor)
With this router will not boot. But enters to the Rom Monitor mode.
0x2142 (IOS without Config)
The router will boot from first file in flash. But bypass the startup configuration
0x2141 (Incomplete IOS without Config)
The router will boot from Incomplete IOS but bypass the startup-config.
To change Config-Register from global mode
Router(config)#config-register <value>
Router(config)#exit
Router#reload
Note: - this is the only value, which is configured in the configuration mode and does not
need to be saved.
To change Config-Register using Rom Monitor
Steps: (1) Power on the router
(2) Press ctrl+break from console with in 60 sec.
(3) The router will enter to the Rom Monitor. Type following commands
Rom Mon>confreg <value>
Rom Mon>i
Note: - in 2500 series router o/r command should be used in place of confreg
command.
Boot System commands
Boot system command is the second method to control sequence of router. These
commands will be executed only when configuration register is set to 0x2102.
Boot system commands are executed in global configuration mode. These commands are
executed in the same sequence they are applied to the router. If one boot system
command is successful then next boot system command is not executed in the router.
Router(config)#boot system flash <file name>
To boot router from specific file in flash
Router(config)#boot system tftp <file name> <IP address>
To boot router from TFTP server/network
Router(config)#boot system flash
To boot from first file in flash
Router(config)#boot system rom
To boot from incomplete IOS
TFTP server
TFTP server is modified form of FTP. It is used to transfer file without performing
authentication. TFTP has only home directory, in which subdirectories are not allowed.
Directory browsing is not allowed in the home directory.
TFTP is the udp-based protocol, which works on port no 69. TFTP has following
features in comparison to the FTP.
(1) Only get file and put file service is available.
(2) Authentication is not supported.
(3) Home directory may not have subdirectories
(4) Directory browsing is not allowed
Installation and Configuration of TFTP server
In windows system, we have to execute following steps to use the pc as TFTP server.
(1) Download TFTP server software from Internet.
(2) Install the TFTP server software on pc.
(3) If software is not installed as the service then software should be running on
screen. Configure home directory of server or use default.
Functions to be perform with the help of TFTP server

(1) To boot router from TFTP server
(2) Backup IOS and configuration
(3) Restore IOS and configuration
(4) Upgrade IOS
(1) To boot from TFTP server
i) Run the tftp server s/w on pc. And copy IOS image file in the Home directory of tftp
server.
ii) Test connectivity between router and tftp server.
iii) On router use following commands:Router#conf ter
Router(config)#boot system tftp c1700-1s-mz.122.3.bin 10.0.0.18
Router(config)#exit
Router#copy runn start
Reload the device. Make sure that configuration register set as 0x2102.
2) To backup IOS
i) Test connectivity and make sure TFTP server is running.
ii) Type command: Router#show flash (note the IOS filename)
Router#copy flash TFTP
Source filename = ?
Destination filename=?
IP of TFTP server=?
To backup Configuration
ii) Type commands: Router#copy running-config tftp
Or
Router#copy startup-config tftp
Remote IP: ________
Destination Filename: ______________
3) To restore Configuration
ii) Make sure configuration file is present in home directory and note the filename.
iii) Type commands: Router#copy tftp running-config
Remote IP: __________
Source Filename: _______________
Destination Filename[running-config]: _______________
4) Restore/Upgrade IOS
There are four different conditions in which we can restore/upgrade ios.
Case 1: old ios is present and flash is in read/write mode.
i) Copy ios image in tftp servers home directory.
ii) Test connectivity and make sure tftp server is running.
iii) On router use commands: Router# copy tftp flash
Source file: Destination file: IP address: Erase Flash [y/n]:
Case2: old ios is present but flash is in read only.
i) In this case, we have to set config-register to 0x2101 to boot the router from
incomplete ios.
ii) After booting the flash will be read/write mode. Now use same command as in
condition case 1.
iii) When ios loading is complete reset config-register to 0x2102.
Case3: old ios is not present but incomplete ios is present in bios.
The router will automatically boot from incomplete ios. And we have to execute
same commands as in case1 and case2.
Case4: complete ios and incomplete ios is not present in router.
There are two methods to load ios with the help of Rom Monitor mode.
Method1: loading ios using xmodem
In this case we have to use xmodem command and the ios will be loaded with the
help of console cable. Tftp is not required in this case.
i) Enter to the Rom Monitor and type following command.
Rom Mon 1>xmodem <filename>
ii) When router display a message Ready to receive file then click on
HyperTerminal then Transfer>> Send file>> use browse to select file>> select protocol
xmodem>> send.
Method2: in this case we have to use tftp server in Rom Monitor.
i) Connect the pc tftp server make sure tftp is running and ios image present in the
home directory.
ii) Enter to the Rom Monitor mode and type following command.
Rom Mon>IP_ADDRESS=10.0.0.2
TFTP_SERVER=10.0.0.1
TFTP_FILE=<filename>
DEFAULT_GATEWAY=10.0.0.1
IP_SUBNET_MASK=255.0.0.0
>tftpdnld
When ios transfer is completed then type command.
Rom Mon>boot
Router#show version
To view from where ios boot.
Router#show flash
Resolving Host Name

In router, we can communicate with the help of IP address as well as host name and
domain name. There are two methods to resolve hostname into IP address.
1) Using local hostname database
We can use local hostname database by using IP host command. We can use this
command with following syntax: Router#config terminal
Router(config)#IP host <name> <IP address>
Router(config)#IP host abc 202.144.55.6
Router(config)#exit
Router#show hosts
Router#ping abc
2) Using a DNS server
We can configure router to send DNS queries to DNS server. The DNS server will
resolve hostname and then pc or router will try to communicate with destination. We can
create maximum 6 IP.
Router(config)#IP name-server <IP> [<IP2>]
Router(config)#IP name-server 202.56.230.6
Router(config)#exit
Managing Telnet connection

Our router is able to telnet other devices as well as other devices can also perform telnet
to our router.
To allow Telnet access to router
For this purpose we have to configure IP address, vty password and enable secret
password. IP must exist between client and router. When router will be able to perform
telnet access. On telnet client we have to use following command: Router#Telnet <IP of router>
To display connected users
Router#show users
To disconnect a user
Router#clear line <no>(to view no use show users & show line commands)
To telnet a device from router

Router#telnet <IP>
Or
Router>telnet <IP>
Or
Router><IP>
To exit from telnet session
Router#exit
To exit from a hanged telnet session
Ctrl+shft+6
X
Router#disconnect
To display connected session
Router#show sessions
This command shows those sessions, which are created or connected by us.
If we want anyone can telnet our router without password then on the line vty type
command No Login.
TCP/IP MODEL
TCP/IP is the most popular protocol stack, which consist of large no of protocol.
According to the OSI model TCP/IP consist of only four layers. TCP/IP model is
modified form of DOD (Department of Defense) model.
A
Http Smtp Dns Ftp Tftp Telnet Ntp Snmp Ssl Rdp & many more
80
25 53 20 69
23 123
443 3389 pop3 imap
Application
S
T
TCP | UDP
Transport
(Host to Host)
Internet Protocol
N
Ph
ARP| RARP | ICMP | IGMP | RIP | OSPF | BGP
Internet
All common Lan/Wan Technologies
Network
Access
DL
Application Layer
This layer contains a large no. of protocols. Each protocol is designed to act as server &
client. Some of protocol will need connection oriented. TCP and others may need
connection less UDP for data transfer.
Application layer use port no.s to identity each application at Transport layer.
This layer performs most of functions, which are specified by the Application,
Presentation, and Session layer of OSI model.
Transport Layer
Two protocols are available on Transport layer
1) Transmission Control Protocol
2) User Datagram Protocol
1) Transmission Control Protocol
TCP performs connection-oriented communication. Its responsibilities are: i) Error Checking
ii) Acknowledgement
iii) Sequencing
iv) Flow Control
v) Windowing
TCP Header (24 bytes)
Bytes 4
Bytes 4
4
Source port 16 bits

( Randomly generated)
(1024)
Destination port 16 bits

( Fixed )
(80)
Sequence no. 32 bits

(100)
Acknowledgement no. 32 bits
(500)
Header length Reserved Code bits

4 bits
6 bitsData (varies)
6 bits
Checksum 16 bits
Options 0 or 32
Window
16 bits
(512 bytes onwards 1024)
Urgent 16 bits
2) User Datagram Protocol

UDP is connection less protocol, which is responsible for error checking and
identifying applications using port numbers.
UDP Header (8 bytes)
Bytes 4
4
Source port 16 bits
Destination port 16 bits
Length 16 bits
Ckecksum 16 bits
Data
Internet Layer
The main function of Internet layer is routing and providing a single network interface to
the upper layers protocols. Upper or lower protocols have not any functions relating to
routing. To prevent this, IP provides one single network interface for the upper layer
protocols. After that it is the job of IP and the various Network Access protocols to get
along and work together. The main protocols are used in Internet layer:1) Internet Protocol (IP)
2) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
3) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
4) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
5) Proxy ARP
Internet Protocol
This protocol works at internet layer. It is responsible for logical addressing, defining
type of service and fragmentation. Segment data
IP Header (20 24 bytes)
IP version (4bits)
Header length (4) Type of service (8) Total length(16)
Identification no (16)
Flag (3)
Time to live (8)
Protocol (8)
Fragmentation offset (13)

Header checksum (16)
Source IP (32)
Destination IP (32)
Options (0 or 32 bits if any)
IP Subnet
In TCP/IP by default three sizes of networks are available: (1) Class A -2 24 PC -> 16777216
(2) Class B - 216 PC-> 65536
(3) Class C 28PC -> 256
In subneting, we will divide class A,B & C network into small size sub networks. This
procedure is called subneting.
Subneting is performed with the help of subnet mask. There are two types of
subneting that we performed: (1) FLSM Fixed Length Subnet Mask
(2) VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask
Why to Sub?
(i) Default Class Network provide us large no. of PCs in comparison to the requirement
of PCs in the network.
(ii) It is practical never possible to create a class A or class B sized network.
To reduce the broadcast of network, we have to perform LAN segmentation of
routers. In each sub network, we need different network addresses.
How to Subnet?
In this formula, we will first modify our requirement according to the no. of subnet
possible then we calculate new subnet mask and create IP range.
Example 1
Class = C
No. of subnet =5
Step1
No. of subnet possible is 2,4,8,16,32
Class= C
No. of subnets= 8
Step 2
Calculate key value
2? = No. of subnets
2? = 8
23= 8
Step 3
Calculate new subnet mask
In class C
Net id
24+key
24+3
Host id
8-key
8-3
27
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
255.
255.
255.
224
We add this address to make subnet mask
Step 4
Range
No. of Pc/Subnet= Total Pc/ No. of Subnet
= 256/8 =32
In Class C
x.x.x.0 x.x.x.31
(1)(30)
x.x.x.32- x.x.x.63
6495
96127
128159
160191
192223
x.x.x.224-x.x.x.255
The first IP of each subnet will be subnet id and last IP will be sub network broadcast
address.
Example 2
Class= C
No. of subnet= 10
Step 1
No. of subnet= 16
Step 2
24= 16
Step 3
Net id
Host id
24+4
8-4
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
Subneting method 2
Class=
No. of Pc/Sub= 8
Mask= ?
Range= ?
In this case we have to calculate the key according to the no. of per subnet according to
the key value the bits of subnet mask from right hand side are set to zero then range is
calculated.
Example
Class= C
No. of Pc/Sub=5
Step 1
No. of Pc/Subnet possible 4,8,16,32,64.
New requirement
Class= C
No. of Pc/Sub= 8
Step 2
2?= No. of Pc/Sub
2?= 8
23= 8
key 3
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
255.
255.
255.
248
No. of Subnet= Total Pc/(Pc/Sub)
= 256/8
Class C
255.255.255.248
200.100.100.0 200.100.100.7
.8
.16
.24
.
.
Example 2
Class C
No. of Pc/Sub=50
Step 1
Class= C
No. of Pc/Sub= 64
Sub
32
.15
.23
.31
Pc/Sub
8
Step 2
26= 64
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
255.
255.
255.
192
No. of subnet= 256/64= 4
Class C
255.255.255.192
Sub
4
Pc/Sub
64
Method 3
No. of Pc/Sub= 50
New req.
No. of Pc/Sub= 64
No. of Subnet= 256/64= 4
Class= C
No. of Sub= 4
22= 4
24+2
8-2
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
255.
255.
255.
192
Zero Subnet
According to the rules of IP Addressing the first subnet and last subnet is not useable due
to routing problem. In new Cisco router a command is present in default configuration.
With this command, we are able to use first and last Subnet after Subneting.
Command is
Router#config ter
Router(config)#ip subnet-zero
Router(config)#exit
Example: - Check whether an address is valid IP, N/w address or Broadcast address. If
IP is valid then calculate its N/w & Broadcast address.
200.100.100.197
255.255.255.240
28 4
200.100.100.197
200.100.100.1100
0101
Valid IP
200.100.100.192
200.100.100.1100
0000
Network address
200.100.100.207
200.100.100.1100
1111
Broadcast address
Example: Class= B
No. of subnet= 64
26= 64
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000
255.
255.
255.
192
No. of Pc/Sub= 65536/64= 1024
150.20.0.0 150.20.3.255
150.20.4.0 150.20.7.255
150.20.8.0 150.20.11.255
Prefix Notation of representing IP Address

IP address can be written as IP & Mask as well as IP/Prefix.
200.100.100.18
255.255.255.248
200.100.100.18/29
170.20.6.6
255.255.255.224.0
170.20.6.6/19
200.100.2.X
This method
is representing IP address also called CIDR (Classless Inter Domain
Routing) notation.
No Subneting
200.100.8.X
200.100.1.X
200.100.7.X
200.100.4.X
200.100.6.X
200.100.5.X
200.100.3.X
200.100.9.X
FLSM
200.100.1.112-127/28
200.100.1.128-143/28
200.100.1.95-111/28
200.100.1.48-63/28
200.100.1.80-95/28
200.100.1.64-79/28
200.100.1.32-47/28
200.100.0-15/28
200.100.1.16-31/28
Remaining Subnet
144 159
160 175
176 191
192 207
208 223
224 239
240 255
Problem with FLSM
In FLSM, we have to create subnet of equal size. All N/w will be allotted constant size
subnet instead of their IP addresses requirement. Due to this a N/w may be allotted more
than required IP address and less than required IP addresses.
VLSM
/25
/26
/27
/28
/29
255.255.255.128 255.255.255.192 255.255.255.224 255.255.255.240 255.255.255.248
Sub
2
Pc/Sub
128
0 127
128 255
Sub
4
Pc/Sub
64
0 63
64 127
128 191
192 255
Sub
8
Pc/Sub
32
0 31
32 63
64 95
96 127
Sub Pc/Sub
16
16
Sub Pc/Sub
32
8
0 15
16 31
32 47
48 63
64
80 95
96 111
/30
255.255.255.252
Sub Pc/Sub
64 4
03
47
8 11
12 15
20
32-63/30
2
4-7/30
2
8-11/30
64
64-95/27
2 IP
0-3/30
128-191/26
2
12-15/30
5
16-23/29
10
96-111/28
50
07
8 15
16 23
24 - 31
Remaining
24 31
112 127
If we are using VLSM and Dynamic Routing then routing be compatible to VLSM. This
will happen only if Subnet masks are also sends in the routing updates.
Super Netting
Combining small N/w to create a large size N/w is called Super Network. Super netting is
mostly used to define route summarizations in routing tables. It is not used for the
implementation of large network.
170.10.0.0 170.00001010.00000000.00000000
170.11.0.0 170.00001011.00000000.00000000
IP Routing
When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then we
have to use IP Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing between the
networks. A router will perform following functions for routing.
(1) Path determination
(2) Packet forwarding
(1) Path determination
The process of obtaining path in routing table is called path determination. There are
three different methods to which router can learn path.
i) Automatic detection of directly connected n/w.
ii) Static & Default routing
iii) Dynamic routing
(2) Packet forwarding
It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will perform packet
forwarding only if route is available in the routing table.
Routing Process
(i) The pc has a packet in which destination address is not same as the local n/w address.
(ii) The pc will send an ARP request for default gateway. The router will reply to the
ARP address and inform its Mac address to pc.
(iii) The pc will encapsulate data, in which source IP is pc itself, destination IP is server,
source Mac is pcs LAN interface and destination Mac is routers LAN interface.
R1
10.0.0.1
PC1 10.0.0.6
S. MAC
PC1
D. IP 172.16.0.5
S. IP 10.0.0.6
172.16.0.5
D. MAC
R1
The router will receive the frame, store it into the buffer. When obtain packet from the
frame then forward data according to the destination IP of packet. The router will obtain a
route from routing table according to which next hop IP and interface is selected
(iv) According to the next hop, the packet will encapsulated with new frame and data is
send to the output queue of the interface.
Static Routing
In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify routes
for different networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork topology and
then specify the route for each n/w that is not directly connected to the router.
Steps to perform static routing
(1) Create a list of all n/w present in internetwork.
(2) Remove the n/w address from list, which is directly connected to n/w.
(3) Specify each route for each routing n/w by using IP route command.
Router(config)#ip route <destination n/w> <mask> <next hop ip>
Next hop IP it is the IP address of neighbor router that is directly connected our router.
Static Routing Example: Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.10.2
Advantages of static routing

(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.
Disadvantages of static routing

(1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.
Alternate command to specify static route

Static route can also specify in following syntax: Old
Or
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 serial 0
Backup route or loading static route

If more than one path are available from our router to destination then we can specify one
route as primary and other route as backup route.
Administrator Distance is used to specify one route as primary and other route as
backup. Router will select lower AD route to forward the traffic. By default static route
has AD value of 1. With backup path, we will specify higher AD so that this route will be
used if primary route is unavailable.
Protocols
Directly Connected
Static
BGP
EIGRP
IGRP
OSPF
RIP
AD
0
1
20
90
100
110
120
Syntax: - To set backup path

Router(config)#ip route <dest. n/w> <mask> <next hop> <AD>
Or
<exit interface>
Example: Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 25.255.0.0 160.20.1.1 8 (below 20)
Router(config)#exit
Default Routing
Default routing means a route for any n/w. these routes are specify with the help of
following syntax: Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <next hop>
Or
<exit interface>
This type of routing is used in following scenario.
Scenario 1: Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.
If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.

Scenario 2
Internet connectivity
On Internet, million of n/ws are present. So we have to specify default routing on our
router.
Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used when no other
routing protocol is available.
ISP
200.100.100.11
172.16.0.5
R1
R2
10.0.0.0

To display routing table
Router#sh ip route
To display static routes only
Router#sh ip route static
To display connected n/ws only
Router#sh ip route connected
S 192.168.10.0/28 [1/0] via 172.16.0.5
To check all the interface of a router
Router#sh interface brief
Dynamic Routing
In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will send
its routing information to the neighbor router. This protocol will send its routing
information to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the information and write
new routes to the routing table.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router
also. If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is
selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF
Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols

According to the working there are two types of Dynamic Routing Protocols.
(1) Distance Vector
(2) Link State
According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again two types of
protocol: (1) Interior Routing Protocol
(2) Exterior Routing Protocol
Autonomous system
Autonomous system is the group of contiguous routers and n/w, which will share their
routing information directly with each other. If all routers are in single domain and they
share their information directly with each other then the size of routing updates will
depend on the no. of n/w present in the Internetwork. Update for each n/w may take 150
200 bytes information.
For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be
200*1000 = 200000 bytes
The routing information is send periodically so it may consume a large amount of
Exterior Routing
bandwidth in our n/w.
Border Routing
Interior Routing
AS 200
AS 400
Domain
Protocols
Interior Routing
RIP
IGRP
EIGRP
OSPF
Exterior Routing
BGP
EXEIGRP
AS 500
Distance Vector Routing

The Routing, which is based on two parameters, that is distance and direction is called
Distance Vector Routing. The example of Distance Vector Routing is RIP & IGRP.
Operation: (1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor router. This
information is send periodically to the neighbors.
(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route according to
following conditions: (i) If update of a new n/w is received then this information is stored in routing table.
(ii) If update of a route is received which is already present in routing table then route
will be refresh that is route times is reset to zero.
(iii) If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route, which is already
present in our routing table. The router will discard old route and write the new route in
the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is already present in
routing table, in this case the new update will be discard.
(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing information on
all interfaces and entire routing table is send to the neighbor. There are three types of
timers associated with a route.
(i) Route update timer
It is the time after which the router will send periodic update to the neighbor.
(ii) Route invalid timer
It is the time after which the route is declared invalid, if there are no updates for the
route. Invalid route are not forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still used to forward the
traffic.
(iii) Route flush timer
It is the time after which route is removed from the routing table, if there are no
updates about the router.
Metric of Dynamic Routing

Metric are the measuring unit to calculate the distance of destination n/w. A protocol may
use a one or more than one at a time to calculate the distance. Different types of metric
are: (1) Hop Count
(2) Band Width
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU
Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred to send the
data.
Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load and high
throughput are used to send data.
Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.
Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.
MTU Maximum Transmission Unit
It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is set to 1500.
Problems of Distance Vector

There are two main problems of distance vector routing
(1) Bandwidth Consumption
(2) Routing Loops
Bandwidth Consumption
The problem of accessive bandwidth consumption is solved out with the help of
autonomous system. It exchanges b/w different routers. We can also perform route
summarization to reduce the traffic.
Routing Loops
It may occur b/w adjacent routers due to wrong routing information. Distance Vector
routing is also called routing by Rumor. Due to this the packet may enter in the loop
condition until their TTL is expired.
Method to solve routing loops

There are five different methods to solve or reduce the problem of routing loop.
(1) Maximum Hop Count
(2) Flash Updates/Triggered Updates
(3) Split Horizon
(4) Poison Reverse
(5) Hold Down
Maximum Hop Count
This method limits the maximum no. of hops a packet can travel. This method does not
solve loop problem. But it reduce the loop size in the n/w. Due to this method the end to
end size of a n/w is also limited.
Flash Updates/Triggered Updates

In this method a partial update is send to the all neighbors as soon as there is topology
change. The router, which receives flash updates, will also send the flash updates to the
neighbor routers.
Split Horizon
Split Horizon states a route that update receive from an interface can not be send back to
same interface.
Poison Reverse
This method is the combination of split Horizon and Flash updates. It implements the rule
that information received from the interface can not be sent back to the interface and in
case of topology change flash updates will be send to the neighbor.
Hold Down
If a route changes frequently then the route is declared in Hold Down state and no
updates are received until the Hold Down timer expires.
Routing Information Protocol

Features of RIP: * Distance Vector
* Open standard
* Broadcast Updates
(255.255.255.255)
* Metric
Hop Count
*Timers
Update 30 sec
Invalid 180 sec
Hold 180 sec
Flush 240 sec
* Loop Control
Split Horizon
Triggered Updates
Maximum Hop Count
Hold Down
* Maximum Hop Count 15
* Administrative Distance 120
* Equal Path Cost Load Balancing
* Maximum Load path 6
Default 4
* Does not support VLSM
* Does not support Autonomous system
Configuring RIP
Router#conf ter
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
--------------------------Router(config-router)#exit
172.16.0.6
10.0.0.1
172.16.0.5
175.2.1.1
R1
200.100.100.12
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0
175.2.0.0 via 172.16.0.6
Display RIP Routers
Router#sh ip route rip
R 192.168.75.0/24 [120/5] via 172.30.0.2 00:00:25 serial 1/0
RIP Dest. n/w mask AD Metric Next Hop Timer own Interface
RIP advanced configuration
Passive Interfaces
An interface, which is not able to send routing updates but able to receive routing update
only is called Passive Interface. We can declare an interface as passive with following
commands: Router#conf ter
Router(config-router)#Passive-interface <type> <no>
Router(config-router)#exit
Neighbor RIP
In RIP, by default routing updates are send to the address 255.255.255.255. In some
scenarios, it may be required to send routing updates as a unicast from router to another.
In this case, we have to configure neighbor RIP.
For example: - in a Frame Relay n/w the broadcast update is discarded by the switches,
so if we want to send RIP updates across the switches then we have to unicast updates
using Neighbor RIP.
Unicast 10.0.0.2
Frame Relay
Cloud
255.255.255.255
R1
10.0.0.1
R1
Router(config-router)#neighbor 10.0.0.2
10.0.0.2
R2
R2
Router(config-router)#neighbor 10.0.0.1
Configuring Timers
Router(config-router)#timers basic <update> <invalid> <hold down> <flush>
Example: Router(conf)#timer basic 50 200 210 300
Update 50 sec
Invalid 200 sec
Hold 210 sec
Flush 300 sec
To change Administrative Distance
Router(config-router)#distance <value>
95 or 100
To configure Load Balance
RIP is able to perform equal path cost Load Balancing. If multiple paths are available
with equal Hop Count for the destination then RIP will balance load equally on all paths.
Load Balancing is enabled by default 4 paths. We can change the no. of paths. It
can use simultaneously by following command: Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#maximum-path <1-6>
To display RIP parameters
Router#sh ip protocol
Or
Router#sh ip protocol RIP
This command display following parameters: (i) RIP Timers
(ii) RIP Version
(iii) Route filtering
(iv) Route redistribution
(v) Interfaces on which update send
(vi) And receive
(vii) Advertise n/w
(viii) Passive interface
(ix) Neighbor RIP
(x) Routing information sources
(xi) Administrative Distance
RIP version 2
RIP version 2 supports following new features: (1) Support VLSM (send mask in updates)
(2) Multicast updates using address 224.0.0.9
(3) Support authentication
Commands to enable RIP version 2
We have to change RIP version 1 to RIP version 2. Rest all communication will remain
same in RIP version 2.
Router(config)#Router RIP
Router(config-router)#version 2
To debug RIP routing
Router#debug ip rip
To disable debug routing
Router#no debug ip rip
Or
Router#no debug all
Or
Router#undebug all
Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Features: * Cisco proprietary
* Distance vector
* Timers
Update 90 sec
Invalid 270 sec
Hold time 280 sec
Flush 630 sec
* Loop control
All methods
* Max hop count
100 upto 255
* Metric (24 bit composite)
Bandwidth (default)
Delay (default)
Load
Reliability
MTU
* Broadcast updates to address 255.255.255.255
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Automatic route summarization
* Support AS
* Does not support VLSM
Configuring IGRP
Router(config)#router igrp <as no>(1 65535)
Router(config-router)#network <net address>
Router(config-router)#network <net address>
Configuring Bandwidth on Interface for IGRP
By default the router will detect maximum speed of interface and use this value as the
bandwidth metric for IGRP. But it may be possible that the interfaces and working at its
maximum speed then we have to configure bandwidth on interface, so that IGRP is able
to calculate correct method.
Router(config-if)#bandwidth <value in kbps>
Router(config-if)#bandwidth 256
Serial E1 modem
Serial E1
2048 k
2048 k
256 k
sync
Configuring Unequal path cost load balancing

To configure load balancing, we have to set two parameters
(1) Maximum path (by default 4)
(2) Variance (default 1)
Maximum Path: - it is maximum no. of paths that can be used for load balancing
simultaneously.
Variance: - it is the multiplier value to the least metric for a destination n/w up to which
the load can be balanced.
Router(config)#Router igrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#variance <value>
Configuring following options in IGRP as same as in case of RIP: (1) Neighbor
(2) Passive interface
(3) Timer
(4) Distance (AD)
(5) Maximum path
Link State Routing

This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under
(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.
(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighborship table. Hello
packets are send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.
(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state information
from one neighbor is also forwarded to other neighbor.
(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state advertisement
received from different routers.
(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table.
Neighbor
Topology
11.0.0.1
R1 11.0.0.0 dc
13.0.0.2
12.0.0.0 dc
13.0.0.0 dc
Routing
R2 11.0.0.0
10.0.0.0
R3 13.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
15.0.0.0
16.0.0.0
R4 16.0.0.0
17.0.0.0
R5 18.0.0.0
19.0.0.0
20.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
R6
20.0.0.0
21.0.0.0
R6
19.0.0.0
20.0.0.0
R5
21.0.0.0
18.0.0.0
14.0.0.0
15.0.0.0
R3 13.0.0.0
16.0.0.0
17.0.0.0
R4
R1
11.0.0.0
12.0.0.0
R2
10.0.0.0
Problems of Link State Routing

The main problems of link state routing are: (1) High bandwidth consumption.
(2) More hardware resources required that is processor and memory (RAM)
The routing protocols, which use link state routing are: (1) OSPF
(2) EIGRP
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
Features: * Cisco proprietary
* Hybrid protocol
Link State
Distance Vector
* Multicast Updates using
Address 224.0.0.10
* Support AS
* Support VLSM
* Automatic Route Summarization
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Metric (32 bit composite)
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability
MTU
* Neighbor Recovery
* Partial updates
* Triggered updates
* Backup Route
* Multi Protocol Routing
EIGRP Protocols & Modules
(1) Protocol depended module
This module is used to perform multi protocol routing that is the router will maintain 3
routing table for TCP/IP, IPX/SPX and Appletalk.
IP Routing
TCP/IP
Packet
type?
IPX/SPX
Appletalk
IPX Routing
Appletalk
Routing
Reliable Transport Protocol (Quiet Protocol)

RTP is used to exchange routing updates with neighbor routers. It will also maintain
neighbor relationship with the help of Hello packet. RTP has following features: (1) Multicast updates (224.0.0.10)
(2) Neighbor recovery
If neighbor stops responding to the Hello packets then RTP will send unicast Hello
packet for that neighbor.
(3) Partial updates
(4) No updates are send if there is no topology change.
Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
DUAL is responsible for calculating best path from the topology table. Dual has
following features: * Backup Path
* VLSM
* Route queries to neighbor for unknown n/w.
Configuring EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Advanced Configuration EIGRP

Configuring following options are same as configuring IGRP
(1) Bandwidth on Interfaces
(2) Neighbor
(3) Load balancing
Max path
Variance
Configuring EIGRP Metric
If we want our router to use additional metric then we can use following command: Router(config)#Router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#metric weights 0 <k1> <k2> <k3> <k4> <k5>
Type of service (default) 1
Metric
Bandwidth
Load
Delay
Reliability
MTU
K
K1
K2
K3
K4
K5
Default value
1
0
1
0
0
All routers exchanging update with each other must have same AS no. and same K value.
To up the Ethernet without connect wire
Router(config)#int eth0
Router(config-if)#no keepalive
Router(config-if)#bandwidth 64
Router#clear ip route *
Hush routing table and again make it.
Router#sh ip eigrp topology
It shows topology database.
P-> passive->stable A->active->under updation
Router#sh ip eigrp neighbor
It shows neighbor table
Router#redistribute <protocol> ?
Metric also need to be modified
Debug IGRP
Router#debug ip igrp events
Its display info. On special event
Router#debug ip igrp transactions
It shows every update
Debug EIGRP
Router#debug ip eigrp
For full debug
Router#debug ip eigrp summary
For few debug
Open Shortest Path First

Features: * Link State
* Open standard
* Multicast updates
224.0.0.5
224.0.0.6
* Support VLSM
* Support Area similar to AS
* Manual Route Summarization
* Hierarchical model
* Metric
Bandwidth
* Equal path cost load balancing
* Support authentication
* Unlimited hop count
OSPF Terminology
Already known topics in this: (1) Hello packets
(2) LSA (Link State Advertisement)
(3) Neighbor
(4) Neighbor table
(5) Topology table (LSA database)
Router ID
Router ID is the highest IP address of router interfaces. This id is used as the identity of
the router. It maintaining stale databases. The first preference for selecting router ID is
given to the Logical interfaces. If logical interface is not present then highest IP of
physical interface is selected as router id.
Highest ip is router id of a router

50.0.0.6
11.0.0.2
13.0.0.1
Area
Area is the group of routers & n/ws, which can share their routing information directly
with each other.
Adjacency
A router is called adjacency when neighbor relationship is established. We can also say
adjacency relationship is formed between the routers.
OSPF Hierarchical Model

br
Area 0
br
br
abr
abr
ar
abr
ar
ar
ar
ar
ar
ar
Area 20
Area 70
Area 90
Area Router
A router, which has all interfaces member of single area, is called area router.
Backbone Area
Area 0 is called backbone area. All other areas must connect to the backbone area for
communication.
Backbone Router
A router, which has all interfaces members of area 0, is called backbone router.
Area Border Router
A router, which connects an area with area 0, is called area border router.
LSA Flooding in OSPF
If there are multiple OSPF routers on multi access n/w then there will be excessive no. of
LSA generated by the router and they can choke bandwidth of the network.
A
B
C
D
L
B
A
C
D
K
C
A
B
D
M
D
A
B
C
N
Neighbor
This problem is solved with the help of electing a router as designated router and backup
designated router.
Designated Router
A router with highest RID (router id) will be designated router for a particular interface.
This router is responsible for receiving LSA from non-DR router and forward LSA to the
all DR router.
Backup Designated Router
This router will work as backup for the designated router. In BDR mode, it will receive
all information but do not forward this information to other non-DR router.
Commands to configure OSPF

Router#conf ter
Router(config)#router ospf <process no>
Router(config-router)#network <net address> <wild mask> area <area id>
Router(config-router)#network <net address> <wild mask> area <area id>
Wild Mask Complement of subnet mask
Example 255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255
255.255.255.255
- Subnet mask
Wild mask
255.255.255.255
- 255.255.192.0
subnet mask
0.0.63.255
wild mask
Area 20
200.100.100.2/24
215.1.13/24
Router(config)#router ospf 32
Router(config-router)#network 200.100.100.0 0.0.0.255 area 20
Area 0
R1 200.100.100.33/30
200.100.100.34/30 R2
200.100.100.66/27
200.100.100.160/26
R1
R2
R1
200.100.100.5/30
R2
200.100.100.17/30
200.100.100.6/30
R3
200.100.100.18/30
200.100.100.230/27
200.100.100.38/28
200.100.100.161/28
R1
Router(config-router)#network 200.100.100.4 0.0.0.3
R2
R3
Configuring bandwidth on interface
If the actual bandwidth of interface is not equal to the maximum speed of interface then
we have to use bandwidth command to specify the actual bandwidth.
Router(config-if)#bandwidth <speed>
Configuring logical interface for OSPF
By default the highest IP address of interface will be elected as Router id. If there is a
change in status of interface then router will reelect some IP as Router id. So if we create
logical interface, it will never go down and first preference give to the logical interface
for RID.
Command: Router(config)#interface loopback <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address 200.100.100.1 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#no sh
Command to display OSPF parameter
Router#show ip protocol
Router#show ip ospf
Router#show ip ospf neighbor
Router#show ip ospf database (it shows RID of router)
Router#show ip ospf interfaces
LAN Switching
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet n/ws. Switches forward the traffic
on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a switching table in which mac
addresses and port no.s are used to perform switching decision. Working of bridge and
switch is similar to each other.
Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: -
Types of switches based on working

(1) Store & Forward
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and start forwarding
data to the destination.
(2) Cut through
This switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of the frame are
received.
(3) Fragment-free
This switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error checking and then start
forwarding data.
(4) Adaptive cut-through
It changes its mode according the condition. If it see there are errors in many frames
then it changes to Store & Forward mode from Cut through or Fragment-free.
Types of switches based on management
(1) Manageable switches
(2) Non-Manageable switches
(3) Semi-Manageable switches
Types of switches based on OSI layer
(1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)
Types of switches based on command mode (only in Cisco)
(1) IOS based
(2) CLI based
Type of switches based on hierarchical model
(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches
(3) Access layer switches
Qualities of switch
- No. of ports
- Speed of ports
- Type of media
- Switching or wire speed or throughput
Basic Switch Administration

IOS based switches are similar to the routers. We can perform following function on
switches in a similar manner as performed on router.
(1) Access switch using console
(2) Commands to enter & exit from different mode

(3) Commands to configure passwords
(4) Manage configuration
(5) Backup IOS and configuration
(6) Configuring and resolving hostnames
(7) Managing telnet
(8) Configuring CDP
(9) Configuring time clock
(10) Configuring Banners
(11) Command line shortcuts and editing shortcuts
(12) Managing history
(13) Configure logging
(14) Boot system commands
Following function and options are not similar in router and switch.
(1) Default hostname is Switch
(2) Auxiliary port is not present
(3) VTY ports are mostly 0 to 15
(4) By default interfaces are enabled
(5) IP address cannot be assign to interfaces
(6) Routing configuration mode is not present
(7) Interface no. starts from 1
(8) Web access is by default enabled
(9) Configuration registry is not present in similar manner
(10) Flash memory may contain multiple files and startup-configuration is also saved in
flash
Configuring IP and Gateway on switch

We can configure IP address on switch for web access or telnet IP address is required for
the administration of the switch. If we have to access switch from remote n/w then we
will configure default gateway in addition to IP address.
IP address is assigned to the logical interface of switch with following command:Switch(config)#interface vlan 1
Switch(config)#IP address <ip> <mask>
Switch(config)#no sh
Switch(config)#exit
Old Switches
Switch(config)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Switch(config)#exit
Configuring Gateway
Switch(config)#ip default-gateway <ip>
Switch(config)#exit
Breaking Switch Password

(1) Power off switch press mode button present in front of switch then power on the
switch.
(2) Keep mode button press until Switch: prompt appears on console.
(3) In switch monitor mode, type following commands: flash_init
load_helper
rename flash:config.text flash:<anyname>
dir flash:
boot
(4) After booting switch will prompt to enter in initial configuration dialog. Enter no
here and type.
Switch>enable
Rename flash:<anyname> Flash:config.text
Configure memory
Change password and save config. Then copy run strat_config.
Cisco Hierarchal Model

When we want to create a large sized LAN network then we may face following
problems if we are going design the network in flat model.
(1) High latency
(2) Conjunction between switches between switches
(3) Large broadcast domain
Cisco hierarchal model recommends three layer design of the network
(i) Core layer
(ii) Distribution layer
(iii) Access layer
on each layer there are some rules which we have to follow
(1) Highest performance devices are connected on Core layer
(2) Resources should be placed on Core layer
(3) Polices should not be applied on core layer
(4) On distribution layer, we can implement policies
(5) Distribution and Core devices should be connected with high-speed links.
(6) Access layer devices are basic devices and may be non manageable.
Server
CORE
1 GBps
Distribution
Distribution
Distribution
100 MBps
Accesss
Accesss
Accesss
Accesss Point
(Hierarchal model)
After using hierarchal model the most of LAN problem will be solve but one problem
still remain same that is all pc s will be in single broadcast domain. We have to
implement following solution for this problem.
(1) Physical Segmentation
(2) Logical Segmentation
VLAN
Trunking
VTP
Inter VLAN
Pruning
Logical Segmentation of Network
To perform logical segmentation, we have to create VLAN in the network. With the help
of VLAN, we can logically divide the broadcast domain of the network.
VLAN (Virtual LAN)

VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices,
which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices
of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan
devices will use different n/w addresses. Vlan provides following advantages: (1) Logical Segmentation of network
(2) Enhance network security
Creating port based Vlan
In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we have to
add ports to the Vlan.
Commands to create Vlan
Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#vlan <no> [name <word>]
Switch(config)#exit
optional
Or
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no> [name <word>]
Switch(vlan)#exit
Commands to configure ports for a Vlan
By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. we can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#interface range <type> <slot/port no (space)(space) port no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switchconfig-if#exit
In 1900 & Compatible switches
Switch#config ter

Switch(config-if)#vlan-membership static <vlan no>
To Disable web access in switch
Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#no ip http server
To display mac address table
Switch#sh mac-address-table
Vlan Mac address
type
20
00-08-a16-ab-6a-7b dynamic
ports
fa0/7
To Display Vlan and port membership

Switch#sh vlan
Trunking
When there are multiple switches then we have to use trunk links to connect one switch
with other. If we are not using trunk links then we have to connect one cable from each
vlan to the corresponding vlan of the other switch.
Normal: Vlan 1
In Trunking: -
Vlan 1,3,7
7
Trunk
Trunk
Switches will perform trunking with the help of frame tagging. The trunk port will send
data frames by adding a Vlan id information to the frame, at the receiving end vlan id
information is removing from the end and according to the tag data is delivered to the
corresponding vlan. There are two protocols to perform frame tagging.
(1) Inter switch link (cisco prop)
(2) IEEE 802.1 q
Configuring Trunking
In cisco switches all switch ports may be configured in three modes
(1) Trunk desirable (default)
(2) Trunk on
(3) Trunk off
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config-if)#switchport mode <trunk|access|auto>
on
off desirable
To configure Vlans allowed on Trunk
By default all Vlans are allowed on Trunk port. We can add/remove a partucular Vlan
from trunk port with following command
Switch#config ter
Switch(config-if)#switchport trunk allowed vlan all
Remove <vlan>
Add <vlan>
Except <vlan>
To display trunk interfaces
Switch#sh interface trunk
Switch#sh interface <type> <no> trunk
Vlan Trunking Protocol (VTP)

With the help of VTP, we can simplify the process of creating Vlan. In multiple switches,
we can configure one switch as VTP server and all other switches will be configured as
VTP client. We will create Vlans on VTP server switch. The server will send periodic
updates to VTP client switches. The clients will create Vlans from the update received
from the VTP server.
VTP server
VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans. The server will
send periodic updates for VTP clients.
VTP client
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The client will receive
and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp update.
VTP Transparent
Transparent is a switch, which will receive and forward VTP update. It is able to create,
delete and modify Vlans locally. A transparent will not send its own VTP updates and
will not learn any information from received vtp update.
VTP Domain
VTP password
Vlan
1,3,5,10,20
VTP server
Vlan 1,3,5,10,20
Client
Client
Client
Client
Clinet Vlan 1,3,10,20,40,90
Client
Client
VTP Transparent
Commands
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#vtp domain <name>
Switch(config)#vtp password <word>
Switch(config)#vtp mode <server|client|transparent>
Switch(config)#exit
By default in cisco switches the VTP mode is set as VTP server with no domain and no
password.
To display VTP status
Switch#sh vtp status
VTP Pruning
Pruning is the VTP feature through which a trunk link can be automatically disable, for a
particular Vlan if neighbor switch does not contain ports in that Vlan. Vlan1 is not prun
eligible.
Command to configure VTP Pruning
We have to use only one command on VTP server for VTP Pruning.
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#vtp pruning
Switch(config)#exit
Server
Vlan 1,3,5,7
Client
Vlan 1
Client
3
1 3 5 7
Client
1
Inter Vlan Communication

After creating Vlans, each Vlan has own broadcast domain. If we want communication
from one Vlan to another Vlan then we need to perform routing. There are three methods
for inter vlan communication.
(1) Inter Vlan using multi-interface router
(2) Inter Vlan using router on a stick method
(3) Inter Vlan using layer 3 switch
1751, 2621 routers supports Vlan
(1) Inter Vlan using multi-interface router
In this case, we have to connect one interface of router in each Vlan. This interface
will act as gateway for the corresponding vlan. Each Vlan has to use different n/w
addresses. Data from one Vlan to another Vlan will travel by router.
Router
10.0.0.1
E0
E2
12.0.0.1
E1
11.0.0.1
Vlan1
T
Vlan3
T
Vlan5
T
1 3 5
1, 3, 5
1 3
N/w 10.x.x.x
Gateway 10.0.0.1
1 3 5
11.x.x.x
11.0.0.1
12.x.x.x
12.0.0.1
(2) Inter Vlan using router on a stick method

In this method a special router is used for Inter Vlan. In this router, we can create one
interface for each Vlan. The physical interface of router will be connected on trunk port
switch. This router will route traffic on the same interface by swapping vlan id
information with the help of frame tagging protocol.
Router
Fa 0/0.1 10.0.0.1 -> Vlan1

Fa 0/0.2 11.0.0.1 -> Vlan3
Fa 0/0.3 12.0.0.1 -> Vlan5
Fa 0/0
Trunk
T
T
135
N/w 10.x.x.x
Gateway 10.0.0.1
Vlan 1, 3, 5
T
135135
11.x.x.x
11.0.0.1
Configuration on Router
Router#config ter
Router(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0
Router(config-if)#no ip address
Router(config)#interface fastethernet 0/0.1
Router(config-if)#encapsulation dot1q 1
12.x.x.x
12.0.0.1
Configuration on Core switch
(1) Configure switch as VTP server
(2) Create Vlans
(3) Configure interface connected to router as Trunk
(4) Configure interfaces connected to other switches as trunk (if required)
Configuration on Distribution layer switches
(1) Configure switch as VTP client
(2) Configure required interface as Trunk (optional)
(3) Add ports to Vlan
Configuration on Pc
Configure IP and Gateway
Switch
Spanning Tree Protocol

When we connect multiple switches with each other and multiple path exist from one
switch to another switch then it may lead to the switching loop in the network. Multiple
paths are used to create redundancy in the network. STP is only required when multiple
path exist then there is possibility of loop in n/w.
Packets
Switch
Switch
Problems the occur with redundancy path

(1) Multiple copies of the frame will be received by destination.
(2) Frequent changes in the mac address table of switch.
(3) A mac address may appear at multiple ports in a switch.
(4) Packets may enter in the endless loop.
Spanning Tree Protocol will solve this problem by blocking the redundancy interface. So
that only one path will remain active in the switches. If the primary path goes down then
disabled link will become enable and data will be transferred through that path.
Working of STP
The STP will create a topology database in which one switch will be elected as Route
switch. Path cost is calculated on the basis of bandwidth. The lowest path cost link will
be enable mode and another path will be disable.
Route Switch
1 Gb
Switch
Switch
100 Mb
Switch
1 Gb
100 Mb
100 Mb
Switch
Lowest cost
(Disable)
STP terminology
(1) Bridge id
It is the combination of bridge priority and base mac address. In Cisco switches
default priority no. is 32768.
(2) Route Bridge
The Bridge/Switch with lowest Bridge id will become the Route Bridge. Route
Bridge is used as the center point for calculating path cost in topology.
(3) BPDU Bridging Protocol Data Units
It is the STP information, which is exchange between the switches to create topology
and path selection.
(4) STP port mode
An STP is enabled a port may be in one of the following mode.
(i) Listening: - in this mode a port will send/receive BPD.
(ii) Learning: - a port will learn mac address table.
(iii) Forwarding: - the port will forward data based on mac address table.
(iv) Blocking: - the port is block to send/receive data by Spanning Tree Protocol.
(v) Disable: - the port is administratively disabled.
Path cost calculation

The links in switches will be enable or disabled on the basis of path cost. The path cost
for each link is calculated according to following table.
Speed
10 Mb
100 Mb
1 Gb
10 Gb
Old IEEE
Cost
100
10
1
1
New IEEE
Cost
100
19
4
2
To configure ports for forwarding mode directly

Switch#config ter
Switch(config-if)#switchport host
Configuring port security
In manageable switches, we can restrict the no. of mac addresses that a port can learn.
Even we can specify the mac address statically with a command. With port security, we
can also specify the action to be perform if port security violation is detected.
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security maximum <no. of mac>
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security violation <shutdown|restrict|reject>
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security mac-address sticky
Switch(config-if)#switchport port-security mac-address sticky <mac address>
Access Control List

ACL are the basic security feature that is required in any network to control the flow of
traffic. Most of time our network may have servers and clients for which traffic control is
required.
We can also use ACL to classify the traffic. ACLs are used in features like QOS
(Quality of Service), Prioritize traffic and interesting traffic for ISDN.
Classification Access Control List: Types of ACL based on Protocol: (1) IP Access Control List
(2) IPX Access Control List
(3) Appletalk Access Control List
Types of ACL based on Feature: (1) Standard ACL
(2) Extended ACL

Types of ACL based on Access mode: (1) Numbered ACL
(2) Named ACL
Types of ACL based on Order of rules: (1) Deny, permit
(2) Permit, deny
Types of ACL based on direction of implementation: (1) Inbound ACL
(2) Outbound ACL
Flow chart of Inbound ACL
A Packet is received
Is there any Access-list

applied on interface in
Inbound direction?
No
The packet
is passed to
Routing
Engine
Yes
Is there any macthing

rule in ACL from topdown order?
No
The packet
is dropped.
Yes
The packet
is passed to
RE
Yes
Is it
permit?
No
The packet
is dropped.
IP Standard ACL (Numbered)

In Standard ACL, we are only able to specify source address for the filtering of packets.
The syntax to create IP standard ACL are: Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list <no> <permit|deny> <source>
Router(config)#exit
<source>
Single pc
host 192.168.10.5
192.168.10.5
192.168.10.5 0.0.0.0
N/w
200.100.100.0 0.0.0.255
Subnet 200.100.100.32 0.0.0.15

All
any
Example: - 172.16.0.16 18 should not access Internet; rest of all other pc should access
Internet.
Internet
Router
172.16.0.1
172.16.x.x
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config)#access-list 30 permit any
Router(config)#exit
Applying ACL on interface
Router#conf ter

Router(config-if)#ip access-group <ACL no.> <in|out>
Rule for applying ACL
Only one ACL can be applied on each interface, in each direction for each protocol.
Example: - Suppose we want to allow Internet only for 192.168.10.32 70.
Internet
Router
Router(config)#access-list 25 permit 192.168.10.32 0.0..31

Router(config)#access-list 25 permit 192.168.10.64 0.0.0.3
Router(config)#access-list 25 permit 192.168.10.68
Router(config-if)#ip access-group 25 out
IP Standard ACL (Named)
In Numbered ACL editing feature is not available that is we are not able to delete single
rule from the ACL. In Named ACL editing feature is available.
Router#config ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard <name>
Router(config-std-nacl)#<deny|permit> <source>
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config-std-nacl)#permit any
To modify the ACL
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#no deny 172.16.0.17
To control Telnet access using ACL
If we want to control telnet with the help of ACL then we can create a standard ACL and
apply this ACL on vty port. The ACL that we will create for vty will be permit deny
order.
Example: - suppose we want to allow telnet to our router from 192.168.10.5 &
200.100.100.30 pc.
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list 50 deny
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#access-class 50 in
Router(config)#exit
IP Extended ACL (Numbered)

Extended ACL are advanced ACL. ACL, which can control traffic flow on the basis of
five different parameters that are: (i) Source address
(ii) Destination address
(iii) Source port
(iv) Destination port
(v) Protocol (layer 3/layer 4)
The syntax to create Extended ACL
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list <no> <deny|permit> <protocol> <source> [<s.port>]
<destination> [<d.port>]
router(config)#exit
<no>
->
100 to 199
<protocol> -> layer
IP
TCP
UDP
ICMP
IGRP
<Source port>
<Destination port>
<Source>
<Destination>
no (1 to 65535) or
telnet/www/ftp etc.
Single pc
192.168.10.4 0.0.0.0
host 192.168.10.4
N/w
200.100.100.0 0.0.0.255
Subnet
172.30.0.32 0.0.0.7
All
Any
Example rules of Extended ACL

Router(config)#access-list 140 deny ip 192.168.10.3 0.0.0.0 any
(All tcp/ip data is denied from source 192.168.10.3 to any destination)
Router(config)#access-list 120 permit ip any any
(All tcp/ip data permit from any source to any destination)
Router(config)#access-list 145 deny tcp any host 200.100.100.5
(All tcp data is denied from any source to host 200.100.100.5)
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit tcp any host 200.100.100.10 eq 80
(All tcp based data from any source is allowed to access destination 200.100.100.10 on
port no. 80 that is www(http) ) web access
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit udp any host 200.100.100.10 eq 53
(Any pc is able to access our DNS service running on port no. 53)
Router(config)#access-list 150 deny tcp any any eq 23 [or telnet]
(Telnet traffic is not allowed)
Router(config)#access-list 160 deny icmp any any
(All icmp data from any source to any destination is denied)
To display ACL
Router#show access-lists or
Router#show access-list <no>
To display ACL applied on interface
Router#show ip interface
Router#show ip interface <type> <no>
Router#show ip interface Ethernet 0

Example: - Extended ACL
Suppose we want to control inbound traffic for our network. ACL should be designed
according the following policy.
(1) Access to web server (200.100.100.3) is allowed from any source.
(2) FTP server (200.100.100.4) should be accessible only from branch office n/w
(200.100.175.0/24).
(3) ICMP & Telnet should be allowed only from remote pc 200.100.175.80
(4) Any pc can access DNS (200.100.100.8)
Router
200.100.175.x
Router
200.100.100.x
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit tcp any host 200.100.100.3 eq 80
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit tcp 200.100.175.0 0.0.0.255 200.100.100.4 0.0.0.0
Eq 21
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit icmp 200.100.175.80 0.0.0.0 any
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit tcp 200.100.175.80 0.0.0.0 any eq 23
Router(config)#access-list 130 permit udp any host 200.100.100.8 eq 53
Switch port ACL

You can only apply port ACLs to layer 2 interfaces on your switches because they are
only supported on physical layer 2 interfaces. You can apply them as only inbound lists
on your interfaces, and you can use only named lists as well.
Extended IP access lists use both source and destination addresses as well as
optional protocol information and port number. There are also MAC extended access lists
that use source and destination MAC addresses and optional protocol type information.
Switches scrutinize all inbound ACLs applied to a certain interface and decide to
allow traffic through depending on whether the traffic is a good match to the ACL or not.
ACLs can also be used to control traffic on VLANs. You just need to apply a port ACL
to a trunk port.
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#mac access-list extended abc
Switch(config-ext-mac)#deny any host 000d.29bd.4b85
Switch(config-ext-mac)#permit any any
Switch(config-ext-mac)#do show access-list
Switch(config-ext-mac)#int f0/6
Switch(config-if)#mac access-group abc
Lock and Key (Dynamic ACLs)

These ACLs depends on either remote or local Telnet authentication in combination with
extended ACLs. Before you can configure a dynamic ACL, you need to apply an
extended ACL on your router to stop the flow of traffic through it.
Reflexive ACLs
These ACLs filter IP packets depending upon upper-layer session information, and they
often permit outbound traffic to pass but place limitations on inbound traffic. You can not
define reflexive ACLs with numbered or standard IP ACLs, or any other protocol ACLs.
They can be used along with other standard or static extended ACLs, but they are only
defined with extended named IP ACLs.
Time-Based ACLs
In this you can specify a certain time of day and week and then identity that particular
period by giving it a name referenced by a task. The reference function will fall under
whatever time constraints you have dictated. The time period is based upon the routers
clock, but it is highly recommended that using it in conjunction with Network Time
Protocol (NTP) synchronization.
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#time-range no-http
Router(config-time-range)#periodic <Wednesday|weekdays|weekend> 06:00 to 12:00
Router(config-time-range)#exit
Router(config)#time-range tcp-yes
Router(config-time-range)#periodic weekend 06:00 to 12:00
Router(config-time-range)#exit
Router(config)ip access-list extended time
Router(config-ext-nacl)#deny tcp any any eq www time-range no-http
Router(config-ext-nacl)#permit tcp any any time-range tcp-yes
Router(config-ext-nacl)#interface f0/0
Router(config-if)#ip access-group time in
Router(config-if)#do show time-range
Remarks
Remarks are the comments or remarks regarding the entries you have made in both your
IP Standard and Extended ACLs.
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list 110 remark <remark words>
permit rahul from admin only to sale
Router(config)#access-list 110 permit ip host 172.16.10.1 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255
Router(config)#access-list 110 deny ip 172.16.10.0 0.0.0.255 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255
Router(config)#ip access-list extended no_telnet
Router(config-ext-nacl)#remark deny all of finance from telnetting to sale
Router(config-ext-nacl)#deny tcp 172.16.30.0 0.0.0.255 172.16.20.0 0.0.0.255 eq 23
Router(config-ext-nacl)#permit ip any any
Router(config-ext-nacl)#do show run
Cisco Discovery Protocol

This protocol is by default enabled in Cisco devices. It will send periodic update after
every one minute on all interfaces. The neighbors will receive this information and store
in the CDP neighborship table. CDP is helpful in troubleshooting or to create
documentation of CDP. We can obtain following information about neighbor
automatically.
(1) Hostname
(2) Device type
(3) Model/Platform
(4) IOS version
(5) Local connected interface
(6) Remote device connected interface
(7) Entry IP address etc.
Display CDP status
Router#sh cdp
To display CDP enabled interfaces
Router#sh cdp interface
To display CDP neighbors
Router#sh cdp neighbor
Or
Router#sh cdp neighbor detail
To disable CDP from device

Router#conf ter
Router(config)#no cdp run
To disable CDP on particular interface
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#int <type> <no.>
Router(config-if)#no cdp enable
Router(cobfig-if)#exit
To change CDP timers
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#cdp timer <value> (by default 60 sec)
Router(config)#cdp holdtime <value> (by default 180 sec)
(Value in seconds)
Wide Area Network

The network that is design for long distance communication is called Wide Area
Network. A WAN network uses WAN protocols, WAN interface card to communicate
with remote network.
WAN
Point-to-Point
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Leased line
ISDN
Frame Relay
MLLN
PSTN
X.25
Radio Link
For 2 locations
Unlimited
Maximum
Factors to be considered while selecting a WAN technology
(1) No. of locations
(2) Hours of connectivity
(3) Speed
(4) Cost (Bandwidth + Distance)
(5) Reliability
Cell Switching
ATM
Maximum
FCS Flag
WAN Encapsulation
WAN encapsulation is used to convert a packet into frame and transfer data to WAN
links, Different type of encapsulation are designed for different WAN technologies. The
general format of WAN encapsulation is: Flag
Address Control Data
FH
Packet
FT
Common WAN Encapsulation

Point-to-Point
High level data link control
Point-to-Point, Point-to-Point Protocol
Circuit Switch
Frame Relay
Frame Relay Cisco
Frame Relay
Frame Relay IETF
X.25
Link Access Procedure Based
ISDN
Link Access Procedure Based for D channel
ATM
ATM Adaptation layer 5
HDLC
PPP
LAPB
LAPD
AAL5
Point-to-Point WAN technologies

These WAN technologies are used to connect two locations with each other. It is the 24hour high speed and reliable connectivity. We can setup this WAN technology in three
steps: Step 1: - Connect the devices according to topology.
Step 2: - Configure Modems.
Step 3: - Configure Router.
Step 1
Point-to-Point WAN Topology
(a) Campus n/w or Drop wire n/w
Modem
V.35
RS 232
EIA/TIA 530
Line
Line
2 wire TP
Or
4 wire TP
DB-60
Smart Serial
Serial
Router
eth
Router
RJ-45
* Distance depends on modems & mostly
up to 10-15 kms.
(b) Leased line via Service Provided

G703
G704
Mux
Exchange
Modem
Mux
Modem
Line
Local Loop
Local Loop
Line
Modem
V.35
RS 232, EIA/TIA 530
R
Modem
SS, DB-60
(c) Managed Leased Line n/w (MLLN)
MLLN
MUX
Exchange
MLLN
MUX
MLLN
Modem
MLLN
Modem
Router
Router
(d) Radio Link
V.35
RS 232
EIA 530
Antenna
Radio
Modem
Radio
Modem
DB-60
Smart Serial
Router
Router
(e) Radio Link using IDU & ODU

Radio
Modem
ODU
Radio
Modem
ODU
UTP or
Coaxial
Router
Radio
Modem
IDU
Radio
Modem
IDU
Router
ODU Out Door Unit

IDU In Door Unit
Line
4 Wire
1 ------2 ------- Loop 1
3
4 ------- Loop2
5 ------ 6
7
8
2 Wire
1
2
3
4 ------- Signal
5 ------6
7
8
Step 2 Configurations of Modems

We have to configure various parameters in the modem. There are three different
methods to configure these parameters according to Modem.
Method1) Configuration of modem using Jumper setting/ Dip switches.
2) Configuration of modem using LCD menu.
3) Configuration of Modem using Console/ Terminal.
Step 3 Configuration of Router
To configure Router for a Leased line scenario or Point-to-Point n/w, we have to
set following parameters: 1) IP addresses
2) IP routing
3) WAN encapsulation
172.16.0.1
172.16.0.2
192.168.5.1
In Point-to-Point WAN n/w any type of routing can be perform on routers.
10.0.0.1
WAN Encapsulation
Two routers interfaces in Point-to-Point WAN must required to have same WAN
encapsulation. Two types of WAN encapsulation are supported in this type of network.
(1) HDLC
(2) PPP
HDLC
PPP
Same Manufacturer
PPP
Different Manufacturer
By default, Cisco routers will use Cisco HDLC encapsulation. We can change
encapsulation by following command: Router#conf ter
Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp|hdlc
HDLC
High Level Data Link Control
HDLC is the modified form of SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control). SDLC was
developed by IBM for router to main frame communication. HDLC is modified for
router-to-router communication. Most of manufacturer has developed their proprietary
HDLC protocol. So HDLC from one manufacturer is not compatible for other.
HDLC encapsulation is designed for Point-to-Point router communication. In
HDLC no addressing is required, but still all station address is used in encapsulation.
HDLC provides only basic features and error checking for the frame.
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
PPP is an open standard WAN protocol that can be used in Point-to-Point and circuit
switching networks. PPP provides various advantages as compared to HDLC. PPP has
following special features: (1) Authentication
(2) Multi Link
(3) Compression
(4) Call Back
PPP at OSI layer
A
P
S
T
N
Lan, Wan Protocols
TCP/IP
IPX/SPX
PPP
DL
HDLC
LAPB
EE 8023 ARPA
Network
D
A NCP
T ------------------A
LCP
L
I -------------------N
K HDLC
PPP
Physical
Three Phases of PPP
(1) Link Control Protocol (LCP)
This protocol negotiates the basic feature of PPP. It exchanges the parameter and
option to be used with link. LCP supported features are: Authentication, Compression, Multi link & Call back
(2) Authentication Phase - optional
In this phase authentication is performed with peers with the help of one of the
following protocol.
(i) Password Authentication Protocol
(ii) Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol
(iii) Microsoft CHAP
(iv) Shiva PAP (clear text)
(3) Network Control Protocol Phase (NCP)
In this phase parameters for routed protocol are established. In NCP, there is one
module for each routered protocol.
IPCP for TCP/IP
IPXCP for IPX/SPX (internetwork packet exchange/sequenced packet exchange)
CDPCP for CDP etc.
Configuring Authentication in PPP
Example: Router 1
S0
Router 1
Router#config ter
Router(config)#int serial 0
Router(config-if)# encapsulation ppp
Router(config-if)# ppp authentication chap
Router(config)#hostname chd
Router(config)#username ldh password net123
Router(config)#exit
Router 2
Router#config ter
Router(config-if)#encapsulation ppp
Router(config-if)#ppp authentication chap
Router(config)#hostname ldh
Router(config)#username chd password net123
Router(config)#exit
Router 2
S1
Network Address Translation

NAT is the feature that can be enable in a Router, Firewall or a Pc. With the help of
NAT, we are able to translate network layer addresses that are IP addresses of packets.
With the help of Port Address Translation, we are also able to translate port no.s present
in transport layer header.
Advantage of NAT
There are two reasons due to which we use NAT: (1) Conserve Live IP address
On Internet, there are limited no of IP addresses. If our Pc wants to communicate on
Internet then it should have a Live IP address assigned by our ISP. So that IP address
request will depend on no. of PCs that we want to connect on Internet. Due to this, there
will be a lot of wastage in IP addresses. To reduce wastage, we can share live IP
addresses between multiple PCs with the help of NAT.
(2) NAT enhances the network security by hiding PC & devices behind NAT.
Working of NAT & PAT

10.0.0.5
Internet
10.0.0.6
10.0.0.1
Switch
10.0.0.7
10.0.0.8
10.0.0.5
200.100.100.12
1080
10.0.0.6
200.100.100.12
1085
NAT
200.100.100.12
10.0.0.7
200.100.100.12
1024
Port Translation
1100
10.0.0.8
200.100.100.12
1024
Types of NAT
Static NAT
This NAT is used for servers in which one Live IP is directly mapped to one Local IP.
This NAT will forward on the traffic for the Live IP to the Local PC in the n/w.
Static NAT
200.1.1.5 = 192.168.10.6
Internet
Router
Live 200.1.1.5
Local 192.168.10.6
Port Base Static NAT

This NAT is also used for servers. It provides port-based access to the servers with the
help of NAT.
200.1.1.5:80 -> 192.168.10.6
200.1.1.5:53 -> 192.168.10.7
Internet
Router
Web
192.168.10.6
DNS
192.168.10.7
Dynamic NAT using Pool

Dynamic NAT is used for clients, which want to access Internet. The request from
multiple client IPs are translated with the Live IP obtained from the Pool. It is also called
Pool Based Dynamic NAT.
Pool => 200.1.1.8 200.1.1.12/28
Local address => 172.16.X.X
Except => 172.16.0.5
172.16.0.6
172.16.0.7
Internet
Router
Web Server
DNS
Full access
172.16.0.5 172.16.0.6 172.16.0.7
172.16.X.X
Pool allotted => 200.1.1.0 15/28

Server
Static => 200.1.1.3 = 172.16.0.7
Port Based Static NAT
200.1.1.4:53 = 172.16.0.6
200.1.1.4:80 = 172.16.0.5
Client
Dynamic NAT
Pool => 200.1.1.8 200.1.1.12/28
Local address => 172.16.0.X
Except
172.16.0.5
172.16.0.6
172.16.0.7
Configuring NAT
Router#conf ter
Router(config-if)#ip nat outside
Router(config-if)#int eth 0
Router(config-if)#ip nat inside
Router(config)#ip nat inside source static 172.16.0.7 200.1.1.3
Router(config)#ip nat inside source static tcp 172.16.0.5 80 200.1.1.4 80
Router(config)#ip nat inside source static udp 172.16.0.6 53 200.1.1.4 53
Router(config)#access-list 30 permit any
Router(config)#ip nat pool abc 200.1.1.8 200.1.1.12 netmask 255.255.255.240
Router(config)#ip nat inside source list 30 pool abc overload
NAT + PAT
To display NAT translation
Router#sh ip nat translations
(after ping any address, it shows ping details)
To clear IP NAT Translation
Router#clear ip nat Translation *

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Network is the method to share hardware resources and software resources.

Administrator model for networking

Connection less Communication

(i) Error checking

Positive Acknowledgement and Response

(5) Network Layer

(6) Data Link Layer

(7) Physical Layer

Data => Segment => Packet => Frames => Bits

Devices at different Layers

Data Link Layer

Network Layer Device

All Layers Device

Ethernet at Media Access Control

Send data over

Back off Algorithm

Stop transmitting receiving data

Generate a random Number

Try to communicate after delay

200-meter Coaxial cable

Problems of Ethernet technology

EMI Electro Magnetic Indication

LAN Segmentation of Ethernet Network

1st collision domain

2nd collision domain

3rd collision domain

1st Broadcast Domain

2nd Broadcast Domain

3rd Broadcast Domain

Router Interfaces & Ports

AUI Attachment Unit Interface

Virtual terminal Vty

Types of routers:(1) Fixed configuration router

Other interfaces:(1) Token Ring RJ45

Router Access Modes

Interface configuration mode

To erase old configuration

Access Router using console

CISCO command line shortcuts

Command line editing shortcuts

To configure Interface description

To display interface status

Router(config-if)#IP address 192.168.10.5 255.255.255.0

Managing Command Line History

Configuring Router Clock

Router(config)#ntp server <IP address>

Status message of Interfaces

Router Booting Sources

(1) First file in flash

Functions to be perform with the help of TFTP server

Resolving Host Name

Managing Telnet connection

To telnet a device from router

ARP| RARP | ICMP | IGMP | RIP | OSPF | BGP

All common Lan/Wan Technologies

Source port 16 bits

Destination port 16 bits

Sequence no. 32 bits

Header length Reserved Code bits

2) User Datagram Protocol

Source port 16 bits

Destination port 16 bits

Header length (4) Type of service (8) Total length(16)

Time to live (8)