1 | Page

INTRODUCTION

2 | Page

INTRODUCTION
At the instant time there are different types of aircraft with
latest technology. Every year there is a great competition for making an aircraft of
having higher capacity of member inside the aircraft. So here in the in this report,
we intend to implant the differentiation among the aircraft having sitting capacity
of 220 member. This report gives the different aspect of specification like wing
specification, weight specification, power plant specification and performance
specification.
For any airplane to fly, it must be able to lift the weight of the
airplane, its fuel, the passenger, and the cargo. The wings generate most of the lift
to hold the plane in the air. To generate lift, the airplane must be pushed through
the air. The engines, which are usually located beneath the wing, provide the
thrust to push the airplane forward through the air.
The fuselage is the body of the airplane that holds all the pieces
of the aircraft together and many of the other large components are attached to it.
The fuselage is generally streamline as possible to reduce drag. Designs for
fuselages vary widely. The fuselage houses the cockpit where the pilot and flight
crew sit and it provide areas for passengers and cargo. It may also carry
armaments of various sorts. Some aircraft carry fuel in the fuselage, other carry
the fuel in the wings. In addition, an engine may be housed in the fuselage.
The wing provides the principal lifting force of an airplane.
Lift is obtained from the dynamic action of the wing with respect to the air. The
cross-sectional shape of the wing as the wing (the shape of the wing as viewed
from above) and placement of the wing on the fuselage (including the angle of
incidence), as well the airfoil section shape, depend upon the airplane mission and
the best compromise necessary in the overall airplane design.
The control surface include all those moving surfaces of an
airplane used for attitude, lift, and drag control . They include the tail assembly,
the structure at the rear of the airplane serve to control and maneouver the aircraft
and structure forming part of tail and attached to the wing.

3 | Page
The following values are taken from the aircraft design project-1 and are used in
the aircraft design project-2.

Wing loading
Velocity
Thrust to weight ratio
Aspect ratio
Lift coefficient
Wing span
Wing plan form area
Fuel weight
No. of engines
Engine weight
Gross weight

640 kg/m2
853.61km/hr

0.3
8.25
0.4
48m
230 m2
81955.15 kg
2
3990 kg
244110.306 Kg

ESTIMATION OF LOAD FACTOR LIMITS AND V-n

DIAGRAM
In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to
the weight of the aircraft. This implies a net force contributing
to the acceleration. This force causes stresses on the aircraft
structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to the weight at any
instant is defined as the Load Factor.
2

V C L
n=
W
S

In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load

factor, and attempt to draw the variation of load factor with
velocity, commonly known as the V-n Diagram. The V-n
diagram is drawn for Sea Level Standard conditions.
Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a
quadratic variation with velocity. However, this is true only up
to a certain velocity.
This velocity is determined by
simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically
((CL)max) as well as structurally (n max). This velocity is called the

4 | Page

Corner Velocity, and is determined using the following

formula.
V corner =

2nmaxW
SC L

max

(CL)max is a property of the airfoil selected. For the NACA 65(1)412,

C L =1.008
max

Using the above formula,

nmax

= 4.2

Vcorner

= 2300.37151.008

24.2244110.306

=154.2
In the V-n diagram, a horizontal line is drawn at this velocity.
This load factor is a limit load factor, beyond which structural
damage occurs to aircraft components if load factor is
exceeded. The plot is extended through the maximum cruise
velocity possible for the thrust and wing loadings of the aircraft,
and up to a never-exceed speed or dive speed, defined as 1.5
times the maximum possible cruise velocity. Both these speeds
are greater than the design cruise speed of the aircraft.

V maximum, cruise =

[ ] ( ) ( ) [
TA
W

max

( T A )max

W
W
+
S
S
W
C D

1
2

4 K C D

Using the above formulae,

Vmaximum,

{[

9364934.26
244110.306

](

cruise

) [

244110.306
244110.306
9364934.26
+
40.0130.003
230
230
244110.306
1.2250.03

)(

1
2

5 | Page

Vmaximum, cruise

=252.22 m/s

Vdive

= 623.1m/s

The V-n diagram is also extended for negative load factors, i.e.
when the aircraft is in dives. For this case,

-nmax

= -2.27486

Vcorner

= 96.58m/s

In order to calculate the gust load factors, the following FAR

standards are used.
Gust V-n Diagram
Gust loads are encountered anytime the aircraft encounters a rush of wind.
Gustloads are also encountered when the aircraft is flying in a
thunderstorm or in turbulence. These loads can be higher
than maneuvering loads. Gust is very unpredictable and hence the gust
V-n diagram must be given importance in order to establish a safe
flight envelop. When an aircraft experiences a gust loads, there is
generally an increase or decrease in the angle of attack. The figure
indicates the effect of upward gust of velocity U. The angle of attack is
approximately U divided by V and the change in lift is approximately
proportional to the gust velocity. The change in the aircraft load factor due to
gust is derived as follows:
=tan-1(U/V)L
=1/2V2S(CL,a)L
=1/2VSCL,a
Thus the change in load factor is
n= L/W
= UVCL,a2(W/S)
Where

6 | Page

U is the upward component of velocity due to gust loads ;

V i s t h e direction of relative wind,
is the density and
CL,a is the changed lift coefficient due to gust .
Gust reduces the acceleration of the aircraft by as much as 40%.To
account for this, a gust elevation factor K has been devised and applied to
measure gust data.
The gust velocity
Ugust is given as:
Ugust =K*U
For subsonic
K = (0.88)/(5.3+)
For supersonic
K = 1.03/(6.95+ 1.03)
The mass ratio
= 2(W/S)/cgCL,a
=2(244110.306/230)
1.225*6.13*9.81*0.115
=250.56
For subsonic
K = (0.88*250.56)/(5.3+250.56) =0.879
Where,
c is the mean aerodynamic chord. The mass ratio accounts for the fact
that a small light plane encounters the gust more rapidly than a large plane.
For most years, the standard vertical gust has been U=35ft/sec or
10.668m/s. This value is a suitable gust velocity has been used in the
following calculations. Therefore for a stall speed Vstall of 55.63m/s,
the change in load factor is calculated as
n= UVstallCL,a2(W/S)
=(1.225*59.29*0.4*10.6)/((2*244110.306)/230)
=0.145
ngust=n+n
Therefore,
for the stall speed of VStall,
The gust load factor is

7 | Page

ngust = 1+0.145=1.145
For design maneuvering speed of V
a
of 154.2m/s.
n= UVaCL,a2(W/S)
=(1.22*154.2*0.44*10.6)/((2*244110.306)/230)=0.413
ngust = 4.2+0.413=4.613
For the design cruise speed, V
c
=237.11m/s.
n= UVcCL,a2(W/S)
=(1.22*237.11*0.44*10.6)/(( 2*244110.306)/230)=0.635
ngust=4.2+0.635=4.835
For the design dive speed, Vdive
=378.3m/s.
n= UVdCL,a2(W/S)
n =(1.22*378.3*0.44*10.6)/(( 2*244110.306)/230)=1.014
ngust=4.2+1.014=5.2
Similarly for the negative angles of attack, the negative lift coeffi
cient isconsidered which in turn gives the negative load factor i.e. -1.5
and the loadfactor for gust is as follows:
For Vstall,
ngust= -1+0.145= -0.855
For Va,
ngust= -1.4+0.413= -0.987
For Vc,

8 | Page

ngust= -1.4+0.635= -0.765

For Vd,
ngust= -1.4+1.014= -0.386
Based on these values the V-n diagram for gust encounter is plotted as
shown below: Fig. Gust V-n diagram

It is assumed that the aircraft is in 1-g load factor when the

aircraft experiences gust. Notice the shift in the V-n diagram
due to gust effects. The load factor between ,dive cruise
maneuver is assumed to follow a straight line. The
gust line for stall ,cruise and maneuver can be observed
clearly in the above graph. Therefore joining the points B, C, D,
E, D, and F complete the gust V-n diagram. The maneuvering
and the gust V-n diagram are combined to determine the most
critical load factor at each speed. Since the gust loads are
greater than the limit loads, the increased limit load at all

9 | Page

velocities has been denoted by the dottedline.Fig.

Combined V-n diagram

One interesting point to note for gust V-n diagram is that the load factor due to
gust increases if the aircraft is lighter. This is counter to the natural assumption
that the aircraft is more likely to have structural failure if it is heavily loaded.In
fact the change in lift due to gust is heavily unaffected by the weight, so that the
change in wing stress is same in either case. If the aircraft is lighter the same lift
increase will cause greater vertical acceleration and hence the rest of
the aircraft experiences greater stress.Aeroelastic effect also influences
load factor due to gust.

SCHRENKS CURVE
In order to find the distribution on wing .we use the
schrenks method the plane from the wing is drawn
with semi span along the X- axis and the chord on the
Y-axis .Then a quadrant of an ellipse whose area is
equal to the area of the wing span is drawn. The semi
major axis of the ellipse is taken as the semi span .A
curve joining the mid points of the plan from and the
elliptic quadrant is drawn. This curve is known as
schrenks curve. This gives the lift distribution.
Wing span
= 48 m
Wing semi span
= 24 m
Root chord
= 8.76m
Tip chord
=2.19 m
Planform area
= 230 m2
Semi plan form area = 115 m2
Therefore the area of the elliptical quadrant is
ab/4=semi planform area
b = 6.10 m
wing planform
where a = wing semi span

10 | P a g e

Now the semi span of the wing is discretized into 10

segments in order to compute the trapezoidal lift
distribution
Now the elliptical lift distribution is found out from the
following diagram
A quadrant of an ellipse is constructed with the above
dimension on a and b and the ordinates at the
eleven grid points are found out.
2.4 m
2.4 m
2.4m
2.4m
2.4m
8.76m

8.1m 7.44m 6.78m 6.13m 5.47m 4.81m 4.16m

3.5m 2.8m
2.19m

2.4m
2.4m

2.4m

2.4m
28m

2.4m

11 | P a g e

ELLIPTICAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

Elliptic lift distribution for semi span
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

PON
T

SPANELLIPTICAL TRAPEZOID MEAN

WISE
DISTRIBUTI AL
VALUE
DISTRIBUT OM
DISTRIBUTI (m)
ION
(m)
ON
(m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

0
2.4
4.8
7.2
9.6
12
14.4
16.8
19.2
21.6
24

6.1
6.069
5.976
5.819
5.59
5.282
4.88
4.356
3.66
2.658
0

8.76
8.103
7.446
6.789
6.132
5.475
4.818
4.161
3.504
2.847
2.19

7.43
7.086
6.711
6.304
5.861
5.378
4.849
4.258
3.582
2.752
1.095

12 | P a g e

scherenk's curve
8
7
6
5

ordinate (m)

4
3
2
1
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

span wise distance (m)

ELEME
NT

ORDINATE 1
(m)

TRAPESOI
DAL
MEANIS
ORDINATE
2
VALUE
(m) ELLIPCAL

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

7.43
7.086
6.711
6.304
5.861
5.378
4.849
4.258
3.582
2.752

7.086
6.711
6.304
5.861
5.378
4.849
4.258
3.582
2.752
1.095

AVERAGE
ORDINATE
(m)
7.258
6.898
6.507
6.082
5.619
5.113
4.553
3.92
3.167
1.923

ELEMENT
AREA
(m2)
17.419
16.5564
15.618
14.598
13.4868
12.373
10.9284
9.408
7.6008
4.6164

13 | P a g e

The load intensity at root is calculated from,

Total area = 122.504 m2

Load intensity at root = (W/2)*Y0

A
Where,
W = weight of the aircraft =244110.306 kg = 2394.722KN
Y0 = Height of the scherenks curve at root = 7.43 m
A = Area under the scherenks curve
= 122.504 m2
Load intensity at root = 72.621 KN/m
Load intensity at other location is calculated from,
Load intensity at location n= load intensity at root *
(Yn/Y0)

POINT

SPANWIS
E
DISTANCE
(m)

HEIGHT
LOAD
OF CURVE INTENCIT
(m)
Y (KN/m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

0
2.4
4.8
7.2
9.6
12
14.4

7.43
7.086
6.711
6.304
5.861
5.378
4.849

72.62124
69.25896
65.59369
61.61565
57.28574
52.56976
47.3944

14 | P a g e

8
9
10
11

16.8
19.2
21.6
24

4.258
3.582
2.752
1.095

41.62282
35.01067
26.90309
10.70259

Since the wings have to produce lift to carry the entire aircraft
,it is approximated that the lift produced by one wing carries
half gross weight of the aircraft .lift produced by one wing is
directly proportional to the area of the wing which is
approximated by the area under the schrenks curve
W/2 A ------------ ( 1 )
W Gross
weight(N)
A - Area of one wing (sq.m.)
Sincen the wing is discretized into 10 elements, the total lift is
produced by one wing is calculated at 11 nodal points. The lift
on this element Is directly proportional to height under the
schrenks curve .
L yn ---------------- (2)
Y n - Height under schrenks

L - Lift load intensity (KN/m)

curve (m)
Hence, load intensity = (W/2) *Yn
A

Lift distribution over the wing semispan (KN/m)

15 | P a g e

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

ELEMEN
T

10

15

LIFT
INTENSITY
(KN/M)

20

25

30

AVERAGE LIFT
OVER
ELEMENT (KN)
75.88054

Load

Total lift on one

wing =
553.6573 KN

31.61689
1
72.36736
30.15307
2
68.53759
28.55733
3
64.38101
26.82542
4
Wing
59.85677
24.94032
5
54.92913
Structural
22.88714
6
49.5215
20.63396
Load
7
43.49088
18.1212
8
36.58198
15.24249
9
For calculating
28.11052
11.71272
10
the structural
load of the wing ,the structural load is assumed to vary with
the square of the chord .This is because of the variation of the
cross sectional shape of the wing in the span wise direction.
Since the wing is tapered and each section has the same
aerofoil section without any geometric or aerodynamic twist,
the cross section remains the same in terms of shape but the
chord and the cross sectional dimension (i.e.)parameter like
thickness vary continuously, the lift intensity along the span.
Since two mutually perpendicular dimensions, chord and
thickness vary continuously along the span, the lift intensity
would have varied linearly with the chord. Had the aircraft
wing had the same cross sectional throughout, then the lift
intensity would have been constant along the span. The weight

16 | P a g e

of the structure of one wing was estimated to be 5% of the

empty weight. The wing structural load intensity at any
location is given by kcx2 , when K is a constant and Cx is the
chord at a location of X. As wing is tapered linearly from root to
tip the chord variation is assumed to be linear along the wing
and is given by,
Chord at any section, cx = A+Bx
Boundary condition are cx =8.76 m at x=0 and cx=2.19m at
x=24m
Solving we get A = 8.76 and B = -0.27.
Therefore, cx = 8.76 0.27 x
POINT

SPANWISE
LOCATION (m)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

0
2.4
4.8
7.2
9.6
12
14.4
16.8
19.2
21.6
24

CHORD
(m)
8.76
8.103
7.446
6.789
6.132
5.475
4.818
4.161
3.504
2.847
2.19

Load of the wing section WW =0b/2 kcx2dx

From ww=119 kN and cx= 8.76 0.27 x , we get k=121.03
Load intensity at each section is given by w x=kcx2
(i.e.) wx = 121.03(8.76 0.27 x)2
POINT

CHORD (m)

SPAN WISE
LOCATION
(m)

STRUCTURA
L
LOAD
INTENSITY
(KN/m)

17 | P a g e
9.287552

8.76

8.103

2.4

7.964324

7.446

4.8

6.742738

6.789

7.2

5.622794

6.132

9.6

4.604492

5.475

12

3.687833

4.818

14.4

2.872815

4.161

16.8

2.159439

3.504

19.2

1.547705

10

2.847

21.6

1.037612

11

2.19

24

0.629162

Structural load intensity:

LOAD INTENSITY (KN/m)

18 | P a g e

3.5
3
2.5
2
Load intensity (KN/m)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

10 15 20 25 30

Spanwise location (m)

ELEMENT

LOAD INTENSITY
(KN/m)

8.625938
1
7.353531
2
6.182766
3
5.113643
4
4.146162
5
3.280324
6
2.516127
7
1.853572
8
1.292658
9
0.833387
10
Total structural load on one wing = 94.87546 KN

LOAD ON ELEMENT
(KN)
LOAD
20.70225
17.64847
14.83864
12.27274
9.95079
7.872776
6.038704
4.448572
3.10238
2.00013

INTENSITY
(m)

Loads on an aircraft wing

Shear force and bending moment diagram:
After obtaining the lift distribution over the wing and the
distribution of its structural load ,shear force diagram can be
obtained by obtaining the resultant force acting on the ten
elements of the discretized wing. The resultant load can be
taken as acting through the mid point of the element.The

19 | P a g e

bending moment diagram is also obtained by calculating the

moment of the individual loads about any particular point
LOCATION
(M)
0
1.2
2.4
3.6
3.6
4.8
6
7.2
8.4
8.4
9.6
10.8
12
13.2
13.2
14.4
15.6
16.8
18
19.2
20.4
21.6
22.8
24

LIFT LOAD
(KN)

STRUCTURA
L LOAD (KN)

FUEL LOAD
(KN)

20.70225

33.2822

72.36736
72.36736

17.64847
17.64847

31.28447
31.28447

68.53759

14.83864

30.07928

64.38101
64.38101

12.27274
12.27274

26.02029
26.02029

59.85677

9.95079

23.35319

54.92913
54.92913

7.872776
7.872776

20.70944
20.70944

49.5215

6.038704

43.49088

4.448572

36.58198

3.10238

28.11052

2.00013

75.88054

UNDER CARRAIGE
LOAD (KN)

RESULTANT LOAD (KN)

ENGINE
LOAD (KN)

39

BENDING MOMENT
(KN-m)
3534.6181

21.89609
3064.795
38.122

23.43442
23.43442
2510.2611
23.61967
2608.506
26.08798
26.08798
1493.3092
26.55279
1016.9615

20 | P a g e
26.34691
26.34691
612.936
43.4828
324.0396
39.04231
134.172
33.4796
31.3324
26.11039
0

SHEAR FORCE (KN)

262.453
240.5569
217.1225
255.2445
231.8101
208.1904
182.1025
221.1025
195.0146
168.461
142.115
98.6322
59.5899
26.1103
0

CHORD (m)
8.76
8.4315
8.103
7.7745
7.7745
7.446
7.1175
6.789
6.4605
6.4605
6.132
5.8035
5.475
5.1465
5.1465
4.818
4.4895
4.161
3.8325
3.504
3.1755
2.847
2.5185
2.19

Shear force at any section is calculated by considering the sum

of forces acting to the right of any section in the aircraft wing
Bending moment is calculated by considering the moments of
the forces about the section under considering acting at each
section of the aircraft wing

21 | P a g e

Torque at any section is calculated by considering the product

of lift force at each section and the offset distance between the
center of pressure and the shear center
SHEAR FORCE (KN)

Chart Title
300
250
200
shearforce (KN)

150
100
50
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

spanwise distance (m)

BENDING MOMENT (KN-M)

Chart Title
4000
3000
bending moment

2000
1000
0
0

10

15

20

span wise lcation

SAMPLE CALCULATION

25

30

22 | P a g e

Shear force (SF) : consider the calculation of the shear force at

the wing section which is 11.61 m from the wing root

SF=(-1)*summation of resultant loads acting at various section
to the right of the section under consideration

Bending moment (BM): consideration the calculation of

bending moment at the wing section which is 11.61 from the
wing root
BM = Moments of the resultant loads acting at
various section to the right of the section , about that section
which is under consideration

DETAILED WING DESIGN

MATERIAL SELECTION FOR THE AIRCRAFT
The aircraft industry is widely acknowledged as one the
branches of engineering which makes the most stringent
demands as far as materials are concerned. The very essence
of aircraft construction lies in constructing an efficient flying
machine with the least weight, which makes an indepth
knowledge of materials necessary. In addition, aircraft
components are subject to a vast variety of structural and
thermal loading conditions which necessitates the use of
several classes of materials, including metals, nonmetals,
plastics and composites. However, unlike most other
mechanical engineering fields like civil engineering, the factor
of safety involved in aerospace construction is very rarely more

23 | P a g e

than 2, so the limiting properties required of the components

closely match the properties of the materials commonly used.
Design Criteria:
There are criteria which govern material selection and airframe
design:
1. Strength,
2. Stiffness and
3. Fatigue resistance.
4. Toughness
5. Effects of environmental heating
6. Ease of fabrication
7. Availability and consistency of supply and
8. Cost.
Members such as wing spars are designed primarily on the
basis of strength. In the engineers viewpoint, there are 2
important factors:
It does not matter if the spar partially deforms in the process
of carrying load
There is a certain amount of stress occurring in all flight
conditions; its necessary that the material selected is capable
of withstanding all values of stress likely to be experienced by
the member without total failure.
Stiffnessbased design is customary in components which
need not necessarily fail to wreak havoc. A slight deformation
can be catastrophic as in turbine blades, whose clearance with
the casing is very minute. Even the slightest dimensional
changes brought on by either aerodynamic or centripetal loads
can cause the engine to come to a sudden halt. Fatigue is a
phenomenon which occurs due to repeated loading of a
member, which causes gradual failure. It is common in member

24 | P a g e

subjected to cyclic or vibratory motion. Fatigue failure is one of

the most unpredictable forms since inservice analysis of a
member for fatigue damage is very difficult.
Types of Loads:
Loads on aircraft members can be broadly classified as
static and dynamic. Static loads are those which are applied
gradually such that the time effects of the application of loads
are negligible. Dynamic or energy loads are those which are
applied impulsively such that the energy with which the
structure is loaded also needs to be considered. The weights of
different components in the aircraft are static loads, while gust
and landing loads on the aircraft are dynamic loads.
Material Properties:
In aircraft construction, weight is a parameter that the
engineer tries to limit to a minimum, while strength is
attempted to be maximized. Thus, a higher strength to weight
ratio is one of the most important properties preferred by
aerospace engineers. Strength is commonly determined by
tensile testing of a specimen and plotting a graph between the
stress applied and the strain developed in it.
In the stress strain curve, the initial linear part
corresponds to the elastic region, where loading and
subsequent unloading causes the material to return to its
original state. When the curve fails to be linear by a strain of
0.001, the corresponding stress marks the proportional limit.
Immediately after this, the yield stress is achieved. Loading of a
member beyond its material elastic limit will result in a certain
amount of permanent deformation.

25 | P a g e

Finally, at the ultimate tensile stress, the material fails for

good. The yield strength and ultimate strength of the material
are crucial in strengthbased designs, and the stresses
developed in the members should always be within these
limits. The slope of the linear portion of the stressstrain curve
is called the Youngs Modulus of the material. Stiffness is
defined as the ratio between the load applied and the
corresponding elongation. Stiffness is related to Youngs
modulus through volume. Hence, if it is necessary to have a
stiff member, it is necessary to select a material with a high
Youngs modulus.
Every time a material is loaded beyond its yield strength
but below its ultimate strength, it undergoes a certain amount
of plastic deformation and its properties including yield strength
itself get modified. Plasticity coupled with repeated loading
results in internal stress concentration which builds up with
each loading. After certain number of loading cycles, cracks
start propagating causing the material to eventually fail. Hence,
the plastic region characteristics are critical in members prone
to fatigue failure.
Fatigue is commonly analyzed using the stress intensity
factor k. Creep is a highly temperaturedependent
phenomenon. It is one of the most common modes of failure in
thermally highlystressed members, such as turbine blades and
combustor linings. In order to analyze creep, knowledge of the
thermal properties like thermal expansion is required, in
addition to carrying out experiments simulating simultaneous
thermal and structural loading. Titanium alloys are very well
known for their excellent creepresistant thermal properties. In
addition to resisting static loads, fatigue and creep, energy
loads must also be resisted. The area under the linear portion
of the stressstrain curve is called the resilience modulus, while

26 | P a g e

the area under the whole of the curve is called the toughness
modulus. These moduli are indicators of the energy the
material can absorb before failure, and are determined using
standard tests like the Izod and Charpy tests.
Compression failure is likely in members that are short and
thick. The compression characteristic curves are similar to the
tensile characteristics, and have corresponding proportional
and ultimate limits. Compressive limits have significance only
related to bending stresses. All other compression related
failures are due to phenomena such as buckling or crippling.
Common Aircraft Materials:
Aluminumbased
alloys
such
as
duralumin
are
conventionally preferred for the skin and most other structural
components of the aircraft. This is because of its relatively high
strength to weight ratio coupled with its extreme lightness.
Nowadays, composites have come to replace aluminum largely
due to their higher strength to weight ratio as well as other
attractive properties such as lower overall weight and easier
component tailoring. However, steel remains the standard
material for crucial components like spars owing to its high
strength and stiffness, predictable behavior under loading and
reliability. Steel is avoided for other components due to its
excessive weight. Another useful class of metallic alloys is the
titaniumbased ones, known for their superior thermal
properties. High Mach number aircraft make extensive use of
these alloys due to the high temperatures associated with
aerodynamic heating.
Steel:
Advantages
1. High tensile strength
2. High Stiffness
3. Resistance to wear

27 | P a g e

4. Used where high tensile strength is required like in wing root

attachments, fasteners etc.
Disadvantages:
1. Extremely high specific gravity
2. Difficult to manufacture into finished components
3. Since weight is the most important consideration in aircraft
structures, steel is used only when tensile strength is of prime
importance.
Titanium:
Advantages:
1. Good fatigue strength
2. Good strength to weight ratio
3. Excellent temperature resistance
4. Good resistance to corrosion
Disadvantages:
1. Relatively high density
2. High fabrication costs
Aluminum alloys:
Aluminum alloys are the most widely used in aircraft structures
owing to their high strength to weight ratios. Airframe
construction has depended for many years on the three groups
of aluminum alloys:
1. The nickel free duralumin,
2. The derivatives of Y alloy
3. The aluminum-zinc-magnesium group.
Some commonly used materials and their properties are listed
below:
MATERIAL

5Cr
MoV
STEEL

Al
2024

Al
7075

Ti6Al
4V

ULTIMATE TENSILE
STRESS
(MPa)

1654.7

530.89
6

228

900

28 | P a g e

YIELD TENSILE
STRESS (MPa)
YIELD COMPRESSIVE
STRESS
(MPa)
YOUNGS MODULUS
(GPa)
SHEAR MODULUS
(GPa)
ULTIMATE SHEAR
STRENGTH
(MPa)
DENSITY (kg/m3)

1378.9 455.05

103

830

1516.8

525.1

206.8

73.1

71.4

114

75.84

21.48

26.95

44

999.7

206.84

7790

2800

2810

4430

SPAR DESIGN:
FLANGES:
OVERVIEW:

In the case of spar design, the flanges and web are designed
separately based on the maximum bending moment and shear
force respectively. This is multiplied by the factor of safety and
maximum load factor to enable the aircraft to withstand high gmaneuvers. The bending moment carried by the front spar is
70 % of the total bending moment and the rest is carried by the
rear spar. Based on this, the effective area of the spar flanges
which carry the bending stress is calculated.
Design maximum bending moment = Factor of safety
*maximum positive load factor*Bending moment at root =
1.2*4.2* 3534.6181= 17814.4752
Ratio of bending moments carried by front and rear spars
(M 1/M2)=(h1/h2)2
Where, M1 bending moment carried by front spar (KNm)

29 | P a g e

M2 - bending moment carried by rear spar (KNm)

h1 - height of front spar (m)
h2 - height of rear spar (m)
Bending moment carried by the front spar = 0.7*17814.4751 =
12470.132
Bending moment carried by the rear spar = 0.3* 17814.4751
= 5344.3425
Tensile yield strength of the material used
Mpa

(Al 2024)

= 455.05

Now ,using the formula =M*y/I

= M*(d/2)/(A*(d/2)2), using this relation, area A can be found
out.
Afront=Mfront/(*(d/2))
Arear = Mrear /(*(d/2)rear)

Position of front spar = 20% of root chord = 1.752m

Position of rear spar =70% 0f root chord = 6.132 m
For front spar, d = 1.0513 m(Thickness at the position of front
spar)
For front spar, d= 0.262
spar)

m(Thickness at the position of rear

For front spar, Afront = 0.8680 sq.m.

30 | P a g e

For rear spar, Arear = 0.5391 sq.m.

Areas of the top and bottom flanges of the front spar = A front/2 =
0.434
Areas of the top and bottom flanges of the rear spar = A rear/2
= 0.2695

31 | P a g e

FRONT SPAR

32 | P a g e

REAR SPAR

Estimation of Skin thickness:

33 | P a g e

The rib spacing can be calculated by considering the plate

which is bounded by the two spars and two
Adjacent ribs. The skin resists shear loads due to torque.
Hence, at the root section, the torque is considered
And the shear flow due to pure torque is calculated by bredtbatho formula.

The shaded region is assumed to be effective in resisting

torque. In order to estimate the skin thickness, the Bredt
Batho formula is used.
T =2Aq

where, T = Torque = 49096.6 Nm

A Area of the shaded region (sq. m.)
q - Shear flow in the section (N/m)

Area of the shaded region has been estimated to be 4.97 sq.m.

Hence, shear flow due to torque, q = 4939.29 N/m

Rib spacing for transport aircraft = 24 in = 60 cm

34 | P a g e

(Reference: Aircraft Design by Jan Roskam part 3, chapter 4,

page 220)
Now, to find out the skin thickness, we have to consider the
shear buckling
stress of the portion of the skin
between the ribs and the front and rear spar, based on the
shear flow in the skin. The critical elastic shear
buckling stress for flat plates with different boundary conditions
is given by
cr= 2*Ks*E *(t/b)2
. (1)
2
12*(1- v )
Where,
cr = Critical elastic shear buckling stress (N/m2)
E = Modulus of elasticity of the material (73.1*10 9 N/m2)
t = skin thickness (mm)
b= Smaller dimension of the plate (rib spacing)
v=poissons ratio = 0.3
Ks = Shear buckling coefficient which depends on the boundary
conditions

35 | P a g e

For our plate, the ratio of the larger to smaller dimension (a/b) =
(4.38/0.6) where the distance between the
spars is 4.38 m and the rib spacing is 0.6 m.

(a/b) = 4.38/0.6 = 7.3

Ks = 7.3

cr= (shear flow in the skin/skin thickness) = (49096.6 /t) .(2)

Substitute (2) in (1) and solve for skin thicknesst,
Skin thickness = 2.055 mm

LANDING GEAR
ARRANGEMENT

LANDING GEAR SELECTION

36 | P a g e

In aviation, the undercarriage or landing gear is the structure (usually wheels)

that supports an aircraft and allows it to move across the surface of the earth
when it is not in flying. So more importance is to be given as it carries the entire
load on the ground.
OVERVIEW:
The design and positioning of the landing gear are determined by the unique
characteristics associated with each aircraft, i.e., geometry, weight, and mission
requirements. Given the weight and cg range of the aircraft, suitable
configurations are identified and reviewed to determine how well they match
the airframe structure, flotation, and operational requirements.
The essential features, e.g., the number and size of tires and wheels, brakes, and
shock absorption mechanism, must be selected in accordance with industry and
federal standards discussed in the following chapters before an aircraft design
progresses past the concept formulation phase, after which it is often very
difficult and expensive to change the design.
Three examples of significant changes made after the initial design include the
DC-10-30, which added the third main gear to the fuselage, the Airbus A340,
where the main gear center bogie increased from two to four wheels in the -400
series, and the Airbus A-300, where the wheels were spread further apart on the
bogie to meet LaGuardia Airport flotation limits for US operators.
The purpose of Landing Gears is to move the aircraft on ground. After take-off
the landing gear is retracted, before landing it is extended and locked into
position.
Liebherr provides system architecture for gear actuation control, steering
control, wheel and brake integration and position and status control, as well as
system integration, series production and of course product support.
Liebherr acquired knowledge and experience based on the realization of
different landing gear programs. The integration of various technologies and use
of new material for individual landing gear concepts lead to competitive
products:

Landing Gear Systems

Nose Landing Gear Subsystem
Main Landing Gear Subsystem

37 | P a g e

Brake and Brake Control Subsystem

Research and Development Technology

TYPES OF GEAR ARRANGEMENTS

Wheeled undercarriage comes in two types: conventional or tail dragger
undercarriage, where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft
and a single, much smaller, wheel or skid at rear; tricycle undercarriage where
there are two main wheels under the wings and a third smaller wheel in the
nose. Most modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriage. Sometimes a small tail
wheel or skid is added to aircraft with tricycle undercarriage arrangements.
RETRACTABLE GEAR:
To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or
fuselage with wheels flush against or concealed behind doors, this is called
retractable gear. It was in late 1920s and 1930s that such retractable landing
gear became common. This type of gear arrangement increased the performance
of aircraft by reducing the drag.
LARGE AIRCRAFT:
As the size of aircraft grows larger, they employ more wheels to with the
increasing weight. The airbus A340-500/-600 has an additional four wheel
undercarriage bogie on the fuselage centerline. The Boeing 747 has five sets of
wheels, a nose-wheel and four sets of four wheel bogies. A set is located under
each wing, and two inner sets located in the fuselage, a little rearward of outer
bogies.
MAIN FUNCTIONS:
Carry aircraft max gross weight to take off runway

38 | P a g e

Withstand braking during aborted take off

Retract into compact landing gear bay
Damp touchdown at maximum weight.
Total LG weight typically 3% of MTOW for commercial airliners.
STEERING:
The steering mechanism used on the ground with wheeled landing gear varies
by aircraft, but there are several types of steering.
RUDDER STEERING
DIRECT STEERING

TILLER STEERING

Configuration Selection:
The nose wheel tricycle undercarriage has long been the preferred configuration
for passenger transports. It leads to a nearly level fuselage and consequently the
cabin floor when the aircraft is on the ground. The most attractive feature of this
type of undercarriages is the improved stability during braking and ground
maneuvers. Under normal landing attitude, the relative location of the main
assembly to the aircraft cg produces a nose-down pitching moment upon
touchdown.
This moment helps to reduce the angle of attack of the aircraft and thus the lift
generated by the wing. In addition, the braking forces, which act behind the
aircraft cg, have a stabilizing effect and thus enable the pilot to make full use of
the brakes. These factors all contribute to a shorter landing field length
requirement.
The primary drawback of the nose wheel tricycle configuration is the restriction
placed upon the location where the main landing gear can be attached. With the
steady increase in the aircraft takeoff weight, the number of main assembly
struts has grown from two to four to accommodate the number of tires required
to distribute the weight over a greater area.

Landing Gear Disposition:

The positioning of the landing gear is based primarily on stability
considerations during taxiing, liftoff and touchdown, i.e., the aircraft should be
in no danger of turning over on its side once it is on the ground.

39 | P a g e

Compliance with this requirement can be determined by examining the

takeoff/landing performance characteristics and the relationships between the
locations of the landing gear and the aircraft cg.

Stability at Touchdown and During Taxiing:

Static stability of an aircraft at touchdown and during taxiing can be determined
by examining the location of the applied forces and the triangle formed by
connecting the attachment locations of the nose and main assemblies.
Whenever the resultant of air and mass forces intersects the ground at a point
outside this triangle, the ground will not be able to exert a reaction force which
prevents the aircraft from falling over. As a result, the aircraft will cant over
about the side of the triangle that is closest to the resultant force/ground
intersect.

Braking and Steering Qualities:

The nose assembly is located as far forward as possible to maximize the
flotation and stability characteristics of the aircraft. However, a proper balance
in terms of load distribution between the nose and main assembly must be
maintained.
When the load on the nose wheel is less than about eight percent of the
maximum takeoff weight (MTOW),controllability on the ground will become
marginal, particularly in cross-wind 21 conditions. This value also allows for
fuselage length increase with aircraft growth. On the other hand, when the static
load on the nose wheel exceeds about 15 percent of the MTOW, braking quality
will suffer, the dynamic braking load on the nose assembly may become
excessive, and a greater effort may be required for steering.

Ground Operation Characteristics:

Besides ground stability and controllability considerations, the high costs
associated with airside infrastructure improvements, e.g., runway and taxiway
extensions and pavement reinforcements have made airfield compatibility issues
one of the primary considerations in the design of the landing gear. In particular,
the aircraft must be able to manoeuvre within a pre-defined space as it taxies
between the runway and passenger terminal. For large aircraft, this requirement
effectively places an upper limit on the dimension of the wheelbase and track.
LANDING GEAR TYPES:

40 | P a g e

During landing and take-off, the undercarriage supports the total weight of the
airplane. Undercarriage is of three types
Bicycle type
Tricycle type
Tricycle tail wheel type

From the above list of landing gear types, the tricycle type is chosen which the
most suitable configuration for the current design.

41 | P a g e

FUSELAGE DESIGN

42 | P a g e

FUSELAGE DESIGN
INTRODUCTION:
The fuselage is an aircraft's main body section that holds crew and passengers
or cargo. In single-engine aircraft it will usually contain an engine, although in
some amphibious aircraft the single engine is mounted on a pylon attached to
the fuselage which in turn is used as a floating hull. The fuselage also serves to
position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting
surfaces, required for aircraft stability and manoeuvrability.
Common practice to modularise layout:
Crew compartment, power plant system, payload configuration, fuel
volume, landing gear stowage, wing carry-through structure, empennage,
etc.
Or simply into front, centre and rear fuselage section designs.
Functions of fuselage:
Provision of volume for payload.
Provide overall structural integrity.
Possible mounting of landing gear and power plant.
Once fundamental configuration is established, fuselage layout proceeds almost
independently of other design aspects.
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS:
Most of the fuselage volume is occupied by the payload, except for:
Single and two-seat light aircraft.
Trainer and light strike aircraft.
Combat aircraft with weapons carried on outer fuselage & wing.
High performance combat aircraft.
Payload includes:
Passengers and associated baggage.
Freight.

43 | P a g e

Internal weapons (guns, free-fall bombs, bay-housed guided weapons).

Crew (significant for anti-sub and early-warning aircraft).
Avionics equipment.
Flight test instrumentation (experimental aircraft).
Fuel (often interchangeable with other payload items on a mass basis).
Pressurisation:
If required, has a major impact upon overall shape.
Overall effect depends on level of pressurisation required.
Low Differential Pressurisation:
Defined as no greater than 0.27 bar (4 psi).
Mainly applicable to fighters where crew are also equipped with pressure
suits.
Cockpit pressurisation primarily provides survivable environment in case
of suit failure at high altitude.
Also used on some general aviation aircraft to improve passenger
comfort at moderate altitude.
Pressure compartment has to avoid use of flat surfaces.
Normal (High) Differential Pressurisation:
Usual requirement is for effective altitude to be no more than 2.44 km
(8000 ft) ISA for passenger transports.
Implied pressure differentials are:
0.37 Bar (5.5 psi) for aircraft at 7.6 km (25,000 ft).
0.58 Bar (8.5 psi) for aircraft at 13.1 km (43,000 ft).
0.65 Bar (9.4 psi) for aircraft at 19.8 km (65,000 ft).
High pressure differential required across most of fuselage for passenger
transports so often over-riding fuselage structural design requirement.
Particular need to base outer shell cross-section on circular arcs to avoid
significant mass penalties.

Pure circular sections best structurally but double-bubbles sometimes

give best compromise with internal layout.

44 | P a g e

Circular Section Examples:

Fuselage Aerodynamics:
Aim is to achieve reasonably streamlined form together with minimum
surface area to meet required internal volume.
Both drag and mass heavily influenced by surface area.
Require absence of steps and minimum number of excrescences.
Fundamental differences between subsonic and supersonic applications.

Concerned with: cross-section shape, nose shape & length, tail

shape/length, overall length.

Cross-Section Shape Subsonic Aircraft:

Not too critical aerodynamically, but should:
avoid sharp corners
provide fairings for protuberances
Constant cross-section preferable for optimized volume utilization and
ease of manufacture.
Nose Shape:
Should not be unduly bluff.
Local changes in cross-section needed to accommodate windscreen
panels.
Windscreen angle involves compromise between aerodynamics, birdstrike, reflection and visibility requirements.

45 | P a g e

Windscreen panel sizes should be less than 0.5 m2 each.

Starting point for front fuselage layout is often satisfactory position for
pilots eye.
Reasonable nose length is about:
1.1 to 2.0 x fuselage diameter (subsonic).
4 x fuselage diameter (supersonic).
Tail Shape:
Smooth change in section required, from maximum section area to
ideally zero.
Minimisation of base area especially important for transonic/supersonic
aircraft.
Important parameter for determining tail upsweep angle is ground
clearance required for take-off and landing rotation.

0
0
Typically 12 to 15 .

Typical tail section lengths are:

1. 2.5 to 3.0 x diameter (subsonic)
2. 6 to 7 x diameter (supersonic)
Centre Fuselage & Overall Length - Subsonic Aircraft:
Theoretically minimum drag for streamlined body with fineness ratio
(length/diameter) of 3.
In reality, typical value is around 10, due to:
Need to utilise internal volume efficiently.
Requirement for sufficiently large moment arm for stability/control
purposes.
Suitable placement of overall CG.

46 | P a g e

Wing Location - Aerodynamics Considerations:

Mid-wing position gives lowest interference drag, especially well for
supersonic aircraft.
Top-mounted wing minimises trailing vortex drag, especially good for
low-speed aircraft.
Low wing gives improved landing gear stowage & more usable flap area.
From the above given locations of wings, the one chosen is the Low wing
configuration which gives improved landing gear storage & more usable flap
area.

Empennage Layout
Vertical Surface:
Single, central fin most common arrangement, positioned as far aft as
possible.
Horizontal Surface:
Efficiency affected by wing downwash, thus vertical location relative to
wing important.
Usually mounted higher than wing except on high wing design or with
small moment arm low tail can give ground clearance problems.
Avionics & APU:
Including navigation, communications and flight control/management
equipment.
Provision necessary for adequate volume in correct location with ease of
access.
Location of radar, aerials, etc also important
I. Sensors often have to face forward/down in aircraft nose.
II.

Long range search & early warning scanners sometimes located on

fuselage.
Auxiliary power unit (APU) commonly located at extreme rear of
fuselage on transport aircraft.

47 | P a g e

TYPICAL FLIGHT DECK LAYOUT:

SEATING ARRANGEMENTS:

48 | P a g e

Typical split of classes:

8% first, 13% business, 79% economy
BAGGAGE AND FREIGHT:

It is to be found graphically the following parameters were estimated for the

aircraft designed.
DESIGN
CHARACTERISTICS
Overall Length (m)
Fuselage Width (m)
Cabin Width (m)
Length/Width
SEATING ARRANGEMENT:

VALUES
55.0
5.26
5.0
10.456

49 | P a g e

BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Aerodynamic design:
1. Janes All the worlds aircraft
2. Aircraft design a conceptual approach Daniel P. Raymer
3. Design of aircraft Thomas Corke
4. Aircraft Performance J.D. Anderson
5. Aircraft performance, Stability and control Perkins and Hage
6. Fluid dynamic Drag - Hoerner
7. Summary of airfoil data Abbott, Doenhoff and Stivers
8. www.airliners.net
9. www.wikipedia.org
10. www.aerospaceweb.org
Structural design:
1. Analysis of Aircraft structures Bruhn
2. Aircraft Structures for engineering students T.H.G Megson
3. Aircraft structures Peery
4. Airplane design Jan Roskam
5. Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing Niu