CHAPTER 1

VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Why this chapter is so important?
Why study this topic?
Fluid problem flow in pipes
Viscous fluid
Shear stress and friction
uniform velocity profile to parabolic velocity profile
other flow properties also changed

CHAPTER 1: VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES

Introduction

Piping systems are encountered in almost every

engineering area.

Problems are related to flow in ducts or pipes with

various velocities, fluids, duct and pipe shapes and
sizes.

When real world (viscous effect) effects are

important, it is difficult to use theoretical method to
obtain the desired result.

A combination or experimental data with theoretical

considerations and dimensional analysis provide the
desired results.

Pipe Flow Characteristics

Not all conduits used to transport fluid are round in

cross section.

Heating and air conditioning ducts are often of

rectangular cross section. Why?

For heating and air conditioning, pressure difference

between inside and outside is relatively small and
basic principle involved are independent of the cross
sectional shape.

Assume involved in this chapter

- The pipe is round in cross section
- The pipe is completely filled with fluid
- Viscous fluid

- Incompressible fluid

Pipe flow vs Open channel flow

- Pipe flow pressure gradient in the driving
force (gravity may be important).
- Open channel flow - gravity is the driving force.

Steady and unsteady flow

- Steady flows occur when flow parameters such
as pressure, velocity, temperature etc. do not
vary with time.
- If flow parameters vary with time, it is called
unsteady.

Laminar and turbulent flow

- Flow is said to be laminar when adjacent fluid
layers move at same velocity and paths of
individual particles of fluid do not cross each
other. Occur at low velocities and high viscosity
(Re 2100).
- Flow is turbulent when streamlines cross each
other and mixing of fluid flow occur. Occur at
high velocities and low viscosity (Re 4000).
- 2100 Re 4000 ?

Reynolds Experiment : Dye Streaks

Fluid velocity at a point

Compressible and incompressible

- Fluid is incompressible when its density does
not depend on pressure. (Volume does not
change when pressure is applied).
- When density changes when pressure is
applied, it is called compressible.

Example : Water flows through a pipe of diameter

0.018 m.
a. Determine the minimum time taken to fill a
3.54 x 10-4 m3 glass with water if the flow
in pipe is to be laminar.
b. Determine the maximum time taken to fill
a 3.54 x 10-4 m3 glass with water if the flow
in pipe is to be turbulent.
Solution

Given, D = 0.018 m
V = 3.54 x 10-4 m3
a. Minimum time occur when Reynolds number is
maximum allowed for laminar flow (maximum
velocity)

= Re ()/D
= 2100 (1.12 x 10-3)/[1000(0.018)]
= 0.131 m/s

= vA
= 0.131[(0.018)2/4]
= 3.33 x 10-5 m3/s

= V/Q
= 3.54 x 10-4/3.33 x 10-5
= 10.63 s

b. Maximum time occur when Reynolds number is

minimum allowed for turbulent flow (minimum
velocity)
v

= Re ()/D
= 4000 (1.12 x 10-3)/[1000(0.018)]
= 0.249 m/s

= vA
= 0.249 [(0.018)2/4]
= 6.33 x 10-5 m3/s

= V/Q
= 3.54 x 10-4/6.33 x 10-5
= 5.59 s

Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow

Entrance region - the region of flow near where the

fluid enters the pipe.

The fluid enters the pipe with nearly uniform velocity

profile [section (1)].

Entrance region, developing flow and fully developed flow

As the fluid move through the pipe, viscous effects

cause it to stick to the pipe wall. Thus boundary layer
is produced along the pipe such that the initial
velocity profile changes with distance along the pipe
until the fluid reaches the end of the entrance length
[section (2)].

From section (2) to section (3), the velocity profile

does not vary with pipe length and the boundary layer
is fully developed (fully developed flow).

The shape of velocity profile and the dimensionless

entrance length, le/D depends on whether the flow is
laminar or turbulence.
- le/D = 0.06 Re for laminar flow
(1.1)
- le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6
for turbulent flow
(1.2)

Because of the character of the pipe changes from

section (3) to section (4), the flow gradually begin its
return to its fully developed character (section (5)).

Example : Water flows through a 15m pipe with 1.3

cm diameter at 20 l/min. Determine the
length of entrance region, le?
Solution

Given, L = 15m
D = 1.3 cm = 0.013 m
Q = 20 l/min = 20/(1000 x 60)m3/s = 3.33 x
10-4 m3/s
v

=
=
=
=

Q/A
3.33 x 10-4/[(0.013)2/4]
3.33 x 10-4/1.33 x 10-4
2.50 m/s

Re = vD/
= 1000(2.5)(0.013)/1 x 10-3
= 32500 (> 4000, turbulent flow)
therefore
le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6
le
= 4.4 (Re)1/6D
le
= 4.4(32500)1/6(0.013)
= 0.32 m
Pressure and Shear Stress
Pressure different between 2 section/point forces the
fluid through the horizontal pipe and viscous effects
provide the restraining force that exactly balances
the pressure force.

In the entrance region, fluid accelerate or decelerate

as it flow, thus there is a balance between pressure,
viscous and inertia (acceleration)

The magnitude of the pressure gradient p/x is

larger in the entrance region than in the fully develop
flow, where it is a constant,
p/x = -p/l 0

Pressure distribution along the pipe

Equation for Fully Developed Laminar Flow in Pipes

Fully developed laminar flow - velocity profile is the

same at any cross section of the pipe.

From the velocity profile, we can get other

information regarding the flow such as pressure drop,
flow rate, shear stress etc.

3 method can be used to derive equations pertaining

to fully developed laminar flow in pipes.
- Applying F = ma to a fluid element.
- Dimensional analysis.
- Navier-Stokes equation of motion.

Applying F = ma to a Fluid Element

Consider fluid element at time t circular cylinder of

fluid of length l and radius r.

Even though the fluid is moving, it is not accelerating,

so ax = 0

Free body diagram of fluid element

Apply F = ma
(p1)r2 (p1 - p)r2 ()2rl = 0

p/l = 2/r

(1.3)

This equation represents the basic balance in force

needed to drive each fluid particle along the pipe with
constant velocity.
is independent to r

= Cr
where C is a constant

at r = 0, there is no shear stress ( = 0)

at r = D/2, the shear stress is maximum ( = w)
C = 2w/D
therefore

= 2wr/D
(1.4)
and

p = 4lw/D
(1.5)
These equation (1.3, 1.4, 1.5) valid for both laminar
and turbulent flow.

How shear stress related to velocity?

Two governing laws for fully developed laminar flow
- p/l = 2/r
- = -u/r
Combine this two equation

u/r = - (p/2l)r
velocity profile
u = - (p/2l)r r
u = - (p/4l)r

+ C1

at r = D/2, u = 0 and C1 = (p/16l)D

ur = (pD2/16l)1 (2r/D) 2
at r = 0, centerline velocity, Vc
Vc = (pD2/16l)
therefore
ur = Vc 1 (2r/D) 2
(1.6)
combine equation 1.5 and 1.6, and D/2 = R
ur = w D/4 1 (r/R) 2
Flowrate
Q = u dA
Q = u 2r dr
Q = 2 Vc 1 (r/R) 2r dr
Q = R2 Vc/2
knowing that average velocity, V = Q/A = Q/R2
V = ( R2 Vc/2)/ R2 = Vc/2 = pD2/32l
(1.7)
and
Q = D4p/128l

Summary

(1.8)

Flow properties for horizontal pipe

Flow
Properties
Entrance
Length, le/D
Pressure
drop per unit
length
Shear stress

le/D = 0.06 Re
le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6
p/l = 2/r

= 2wr/D

Pressure
drop

p = 4lw/D

Velocity
profile
Average
velocity

ur = Vc 1 (2r/D) 2

Flowrate

Equation

V = ( R2 Vc/2)/ R2
V= Vc/2
V = pD2/32l
Q = D4p/128l

Remarks
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow
Laminar flow
Laminar flow

Laminar flow

Adjustment to account for non horizontal pipe

gravity effect

Free body diagram of fluid element for non horizontal pipe

- angle between pipe centerline axis and horizontal
axis
Apply F = ma
(p + p)r2 (p)r2 mgsin ()2rl = 0

(p + p)r2 (p)r2 (r2)lgsin ()2rl = 0

(p lsin )/l = 2/r
(1.9)
effects of non horizontal pipe

(p lsin )

therefore
V = (p lsin )D2/32l
(1.10)
and
(1.11)

Q = D4(p lsin )/128l

Summary Flow properties for

pipe
Flow
Equation
Properties
Entrance
- le/D = 0.06 Re
Length, le/D - le/D = 4.4 (Re)1/6
Pressure
(p lsin )/l = 2/r
drop per unit
length
Shear stress = 2wr/D
Pressure
drop

p lsin = 4lw/D

Velocity
profile
Average

ur = Vc 1 (2r/D) 2
V = ( R2 Vc/2)/ R2

non horizontal
Remarks
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow
Valid for both
laminar
and
turbulent flow

velocity

V= Vc/2
V
=
(plsin
)D2/32l
Q = D4(p lsin
)/128l

Flowrate

Example : An oil with a viscosity of = 0.40 N.s/m2

and density = 900 kg/m3 flows in pipe of
diameter D = 0.020 m.
a. What pressure drop is needed to produce a
flowrate of Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s if the pipe is
horizontal and x1 = 0 m and x2 = 10 m.
b. How steep a hill, , must the pipe be on if
the oil is to flow at the same rate as in part
(a) but with p1 = p2.
c. For a condition of part (b), if p1 = 200 kPa,
what is the pressure at x3 = 5 m.
Solution

a. Given, = 0.40 N.s/m2

= 900 kg/m3
D = 0.020 m
Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s
x1 = 0 m
x2 = 10 m.
from equation Q = D4p/128l

p = Q(128l)/D4
= [128(2.0 x 10-5)(0.40)10]/[3.14(0.02)4]

= 20400 N/m2
b. Given, = 0.40 N.s/m2
= 900 kg/m3
D = 0.020 m
Q = 2.0 x 10-5 m3/s
x1 = 0 m
x2 = 10 m
p= 0
from equation Q = D4(p lsin )/128l

p lsin
sin

= Q(128l)/D4

= - 128Q/D4
= - 128(2.0 x 10-5)(0.40)/[3.14(0.02)4(900)

(9.81)]

=
sin-1[[128(2.0
4
[3.14(0.02) (900)(9.81)]]
= -13.340

10-5)(0.40)]/

c. Condition as part (b), pressure different along the

pipe, p = 0 and p1 = p2 = p3
therefore, at x3 = 5 m, p3 = 200kPa
Pressure Drop and Head Loss

Important of pressure drop it is related to power

required by pump or fan to maintain fluid flow.

Power, W = gQhL

From energy equation

p1/g + 1v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + 2v22/2g + z2 + hL

for horizontal pipe, v1 = v2 and z1 = z2, = kinetic

energy coefficient and for uniform flow 1 = 2 = 1
hL = p/g

(1.12)

from previous researcher, for laminar flow

hL = f(l/D)(v2/2g)

(1.13)

combine equation (1.12) and (1.13), and f = 64/Re

p/g = (64/Re)(l/D)(v2/2g)
p = 32lv/D2

(1.14)

combine equation (1.3)and (1.12)

hLg = 2l/r
hL = 2l/gr
hL = 4wl/gD

(1.15)

Example : Water with a viscosity of = 1.545 x 10-3

kg.s/m and density = 998 kg/m3 is flowing
through 0.003 m
diameter 9 m long
horizontal pipe steadily at an average
velocity of 0.9 m/s. Determine
a. the head loss
b. the pressure drop
c. the pumping power requirement to
overcome this pressure drop.
Solution

a. head loss?
Re = vD/
= 998(0.9)(0.003)/ 1.545 x 10-3
= 1744 ( 2100, laminar flow)
for laminar flow
f

= 64/Re
= 64/1744
= 0.0367

and
hL

= f(l/D)(v2/2g)
= (0.0367)(9/0.003)[0.92/2(9.81)]
= 4.545 m

b. pressure drop?
for laminar flow

p/g
p

= (64/Re)(l/D)(v2/2g)
= (64/Re)(l/D)( v2/2)
= 0.0367(9/0.003)[998(0.92)/2]
= 44.5 kPa

c.

power required?
P = gQhL
and

p/g = hL
therefore

= Q p
= 0.9(0.0032/4)(44500)
= 0.283 W

Concept of Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Characteristics of Turbulent Flow in Pipes
- Re > 4000.
- Random movements of eddies which mixes up
the layers of fluid.
- Particle path is irregular.
- Most common type of flow.
- Difficult mathematical analysis to describe the
flow.

Important of turbulent flow

- mixing process
- heat and mass transfer process

transition from laminar to turbulent flow in pipe

axial velocity measured at a given location

Turbulent Shear Stress
Random 3-dimensional fluid motions (eddies) produce
shear force for the turbulent flow.

3-dimensional eddies conveys mass with average

velocity . Therefore flow momentum exists. The
result of this momentum transfer is shear force.

Shear stress in pipe is given as the summation of

laminar shear stress and turbulent shear stress
= lam + turb

structure of turbulent flow in a pipe

Laminar shear stress is dominant near the pipe wall

and the turbulent shear stress dominates the flow at
center of pipe.

The region where laminar shear force dominates is

called the viscous sublayer or the viscous wall
layer.

The region where turbulent shear force dominates is

called the outer turbulent layer or simply the outer
layer.

There is also a region where both laminar and shear

are important. This region is called the overlap
region.

The character of the each layers such as their velocity

are different, so we need different equations to
describe them

Turbulent Velocity Profile

Velocity profile for viscous sublayer

/u* = yu*/

(1.16)

where = average velocity

y =
distance measured from wall = R r
u* = friction velocity = (w /)1/2
=
kinematic viscosity
This equation is called the Law of Wall which is valid
only near a smooth wall for 0 yu*/ 5

Velocity profile for overlap region

/u* = 2.5 ln (yu*/) + 5.0

(1.17)
where 2.5 and 5.0 are constants determined by
experiments

For the outer layer, the Power Law is used from the
following expression.
/Vc = [1 (r/R)]1/n
(1.18)
The value of n which indicates the power of the
equation is a function of Re and determined
experimentally.

exponent, n, for power laws velocity profiles

The relationship between average velocity, V, volume

flowrate, Q, and centerline velocity, VC can be
obtained by integrating the power law velocity
profile.

Q = A
Q = Vc [1 (r/R)]1/n A
Q = Vc [1 (r/R)]1/n 2r r
(1.19)

Q = 2R2 Vc n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]

since Q = R2V
R2V/ R2 Vc = 2n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]
V/Vc = 2n2/[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]
V = 2n2Vc /[(n + 1)(2n + 1)]
(1.20)
Head Loss

Energy equation for steady incompressible flow in

horizontal pipes,

p1/g + 1v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + 2v22/2g + z2 + hL+ w - q

where hL = head loss
w = turbine head
q = pump head

Head loss
- major loss
- minor loss

Major Losses

Major losses is caused by friction at walls and due to

the resistance of fluid particles as they roll, rub and
slide each other.

Losses cause by doing work against friction

hL = flv2/2gD
where f
l
v
d

=
friction factor
= length
= velocity
= gravity acceleration

For laminar flow

f = 64/Re

For turbulent flow

1/f0.5 = - 1.8 log [(6.9/Re) + (/3.7D)1.1]

Surface Roughness
Equivalent Roughness,
Pipe
(ft)

(mm)

Riveted Steel

0.003 0.03

0.9 9.0

Concrete

0.001 0.01

0.3 3.0

0.0006 0.003

0.19 0.9

Wood Stave

Cast Iron
Galvanized Iron
Commercial
Steel
Drawn Tubing
Plastic, glass

0.00085

0.26

0.0005

0.15

0.00015

0.045

0.000005

0.0015

0.0 (smooth)

0.0 (smooth)

Normally for pipe analysis, we obtain the dependence

of friction factor on Re & /D through the Moody
Chart.

To construct this chart the equivalent roughness is

usually obtained for clean and new pipes because

after considerable use,

increased roughness.

most

pipes

may

have

For high Re flows, the viscous sub-layer is so thin that

the surface roughness completely dominates the
character of flow near the walls.

For smooth pipes ( = 0), we notice that friction

factor (f) is not zero because there is still head loss.
These pipes are called hydraulically smooth.

The moody chart offers the relationships between /D,

f and Re for a very wide range of pipe flows including
that for laminar flows as long as the flow is steady,
fully developed and incompressible.

The Moody chart is useful because in real

applications, a large variety of D, V, and exists but
only for small ranges win the Moody chart.

The Moody chart is valid for all steady, fully

developed, incompressible pipe flows.

Non Circular Conduits

Air Conditioner Ducting System

Hydraulic Radius
RH = Area/ Circumference

Circle cross section area

RH =
=
=
D =

Area/ Circumference
[D2/4]/D
D/4
4 RH

therefore
hf

= flv2/2gD
= flv2/8gRH

/D = /4 RH
vD/ =4v RH/
Minor Losses

Minor losses are caused by the geometry of pipes

such as the presence of valves and fittings such as
elbows, tees, bends etc.

In equation form
hL = KLv2/2g
where KL is loss coefficient
KL = hL2g/v2 = 2p/v2

KL vary depending on the shapes involved

Entrance loss

Head loss when liquid enters pipe from a large

tank/reservoir

Exit Loss

Head loss produced when liquid leaves pipe and

enters a large tank/reservoir

The entire kinetic energy of exiting fluid v1 is

dissipated through viscous effects and eventually
becomes v2 = 0

Exit loss from (1) to (2) is equivalent to one velocity

head

KL = 1.0

Sudden Expansion and Contraction

Losses that occur where there is a sudden increase in

pipe diameter (expansion) or where there is a sudden
decrease in pipe diameter (contraction)

Loss coefficient is a function of are ratio A2/A1.

For sudden expansion

KL
= [1 (D1/D2)2]2

A2/A1 = 0 KL = 0.5 - extreme sharp edge entrance

A2/A1 = 1 KL = 0 - no area change

Vena Contracta

Fluid entering a sharp corner.

Fluid cannot through sharp corners. At a sharp

corner, the flow will separate and reattaches at the
pipe wall.

This separation and reattachment forms a bubble

(separation bubble) making the area of fluid flow
smaller than the actual pipe area.

This causes the velocity of fluid passing through this

small area to increase

Maximum velocity exists at section with minimum

area called the vena contracta.

Because high speed flows cannot slow down

efficiently, the kinetic energy could not be fully
converted into pressure.

Pump

Pumps are used to increase energy of the fluid

(liquid).

40% - 50% of industrial energy is used to drive pumps

and compressors.

Proper design construction and selection of pumps

are economically significant.

One of the most common pump is the centrifugal

pump.

It consist of rotating elements called impeller which

is contained within the pump housing.

The shaft transfers mechanical energy to the impeller.

A system of bearings and seals are required to

complete the design

Flow enters the machine nearly axial at some radius

through the eye of the impeller and leaves radially
outward.

Energy is added to the fluid by rotating blades and

both pressure and absolute velocity are increased as
fluid flows from eye to the periphery of the blades.

Fluid discharges into the housing which is designed

to reduce velocity.
Types of pumps
- Reciprocating pistons or plunger
- Gear pump
- Double screw pump
- Sliding vane
- Lobe pump
- Differential piston
- Flexible squeegee

In reality, pumps cause losses.

Normally pumps are driven by electric motors, IC

engines etc.

In short we can say that pump draws kinetic energy

and delivers it to the fluid.

If we include energy of pump in the energy equation,

we get:
p1/g + v12/2g + z1 + hP= p2/g + v22/2g + z2 + hL
where hP is the energy added to fluid and hL is the
head loss discussed earlier

Power Required by Pump

Power is the rate of work or the rate of which energy

is being transferred and is given by:

Power added to fluid:

Power = pghPQ
Unit: Watt, Nm/s or J/s

Example : A tank of water empties by gravity through

a horizontal pipe into another tank. There is
a sudden enlargement in the pipe. At a
certain time, the difference in level is 3 m.
Each pipe is 2 m long and has a friction
coefficient, f = 0.005. The inlet loss
coefficient is 0.3. Calculate the flowrate at
this point.
3m

20 mm

60 mm

Solution

energy equation
p1/g + v12/2g + z1 = p2/g + v22/2g + z2 + hL
p1 = p2 = 0, v1 = v2 = 0
hL

= z 1 - z2
=3m

major loss
hf

hf

= f1lv2/2gD
= 0.005(2) [Q2/2(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)(0.02)]
= 258471Q2
= f2lv2/2gD
= 0.005(2) [Q2/2(0.062/4)2]/[2(9.81)(0.06)]
= 1064Q2

minor losses
for entrance
hL1 = KL1v2/2g
= 0.3[Q2/2(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 155083Q2
for sudden enlargement
KL2 = [1 (D1/D2)2]2

= [1 (0.02/0.06)2]2
= 0.79
therefore
hL2 = KL2v2/2g
= 0.79[Q2/2(0.022/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 408384Q2
for exit
hL3 = KL3v2/2g
= 1[Q2/2(0.062/4)2]/[2(9.81)]
= 6382Q2
total head loss
hL

= 258471Q2 + 1064Q2 +155083Q2 +

408384Q2 + 6382Q2

Q2
Q

= 3/596754
= 2.242 x 10-3 m3/s