المرجع فى القطوع المخروطية- 1905

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BY CHARLES SMITH,
ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA.
Revised and enlarged.
Key.
Globe 8vo.
M.A.
Eleventh Impression.
4^. 6d.
los. 6d.
For the Second Edition the whole book was thoroughly revised, and
The number of examples
the early chapters remodelled and simplified.
Chapter on Graphs has been added.
was also very greatly increased.
A TREATISE ON ALGEBRA.
Crown
8vo.
7^'.
Key.
Ninth Impression
6d.
ioj".
6d.
This book has been made more complete by the addition of a Chapter
on the Theory of Equations.
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON SOLID

GEOMETRY.
GEOMETRICAL
Crown
Svo.
Crown
Ninth Impression.
CONICS.
8vo.
9^. 6d.
Third
Impression.
6s.
Key.
6s
AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON CONIC

SECTIONS.
Key.
By
Smith, M.A., and
C.
S.
ELEMENTS
Books I.VI. and XL Globe Svo.

Books I. and II. is.
is.
I.
III.
IS.
Key.
7J.
6d,
and IV.
^s.
Books
Bryant, D.Sc.
GEOMETRY.
OF
Book
XI.
Svo.
los. 6d.
EUCLID'S
Books
Crown
Eighteenth Impression.
I.
45. 6d.
6d.
IV.
y.
Books VI. and
6d.
8.f.
6d.
MACMILLAN AND
CO. Ltd.,
LONDON.
CONIC SECTIONS,
BOSTON COLLEGE
PHYSICS DEPT.
AN
ELEMENTARY TREATISE
ON
CONIC SECTIONS
BY
CHAELES SMITH,
M.A.,
MASTEE OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
BOSTON COLLEGE
SCIENCE LIBRARY
Hontion
MACMILLAN AND
CO.,
NEW YOEK: THE MACMILLAN

1905
All righU received.
Limited
COIVIPANY
Fust Edition printed 1882. Second Edition printed 1883.

Reprinted with slight corrections 1884, with slight corrections 1885, 18S7, 1888, 1889, January and Novemhfy
1890, 1892, 1893,1894, 1896, 1898, 1899, 190I' i902'i904
1905
^05
2b'<i4a^
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

In the followiDg work
more
have investigated the
elementary properties of the Ellipse, Parabola, and
and
perbola, defined with reference to a focus
directrix,
before considering the General Equation of the

I believe that this
Desrree.
arrangement
is
Hy-
Second
the best for
beginners.
The examples
in the
body of each chapter are
for the
most part very easy applications of the book-work, and

have been carefully selected and arranged to
the principles of the subject.
each chapter are more
The examples
difficult,
illustrate
end of
at the
and include very many of
those which have been set in the recent University and
College examinations, and in the examinations for
Open
Scholarships, in Cambridge.
The answers
to the examples, together with occasional
hints and solutions, are given in an

also, in
of
some
appendix.
have
the body of the work, given complete solutions

illustrative examples,
especially useful.
which
hope
will
be found
PKEFACE,
VI
Although I have endeavoured
mentary parts of the subject
in
to
present
the
manner
as simple a
possible for the benefit of beginners, I have tried to
the work in some degree complete
included a chapter
ele-
as
make
and have therefore
on Trilinear Co-ordinates, and short
accounts of the methods of Reciprocation and Conical Pro-
For
jection.
student should consult the
the
Dr
and Dr
Ferrers,
seen that I
I
am
am
of
Dr Salmon,
whom
it will
be
largely indebted.
my
indebted to several of
friends for their kind-
proof sheets, for help in the
verification of the examples,

it is
works
C. Taylor, to all of
ness in looking over the
and
on these latter subjects
fuller information
and
for valuable suggestions
hoped that few mistakes have escaped detection.
CHARLES SMITH.
Sidney Sussex College,
April, 1882.
PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The
second edition has been carefully revised, and some
additions
have
been
Chapter.
Sidney Sussex College,
Juhj, 1883.
made,
particularly
in
the
last
CONTENTS.
[The Articles marhed with an asterisk may be omitted hy beginners until
after they have read Chapter IX.']
page
CHAPTEE
I.
CHAPTEE
II.
Co-ordinates
The Straight Line
Examples on Chapter
CHAPTEE
43
Anharmonic
Eatios
or
Involution
The Circle
IV.
12
II
Change of Axes.
III.
Cross Eatios.
CHAPTEE
47
60
Examples on Chapter IV
CHAPTEE
V.
The Parabola
Examples on Chapter
CHAPTEE
83
VI.
88
105
The Ellipse
112
Examples on Chapter VI
CHAPTEE Vn.
The Hyperbola
Examples on Chapter VII
CHAPTEE
VIII.
138
146
162
Polar Equation of A Conic, the focus being
the pole
166
Examples on Chapter VIII
CHAPTEE
IX.
176
General Equation of the Second Degree.
Every curve whose equation
is
of the second degree is a conic-
........
Co-ordinates of the centre of a conic
The Discriminant
Position and magnitude
of the axes of a central conic
179
181
182
183
CONTENTS.
Vlll
PAGE
Axis and laius rectum of a parabola
184
Tracing conies
185
Equation of the asymptotes of a conic

Condition for a rectangular hyperbola
Examples on Chapter IX
CHAPTEE
of the tangent at
any point
Condition that a given straight line
of a conic
may
touch a conic
....
.
..........
........
polar
Diameters of a conic
Condition that two given lines
may
.....
......
diameters
conjugate diameters of two conies
Segments of chords of a conic
common
and
>S
- \u- =
foci of a conic
Eccentricities of a conic
Equations giving the
195
196
196
197
197
198
foci
.......
.......
204
205
207
209
Equation of a conic referred to tangent and normal

Normals
211
211
Similar conies
Examples on Chapter
200
203
Equation of the axes
215
219
Systems of Conics.
One conic through
five
231
points
Conics through four points.
Two
195
202
Equation of the director-circle
XI.
194
199
inclined to the axes of the conic
CHAPTEE
193
chords of a circle and a conic are equally
Meaning of S - XS'= 0, S - Xuv =

Equation of a pair of tangents
Four
192
be parallel to conjugate
Equi-conjugate diameters of a conic
Pairs of
189
190
Equation of the polar of any point with respect to a conic

Conjugate points and conjugate lines
A chord of a conic is cut harmonically by a point and its
Common
188
Miscellaneous Propositions.
X.
Equation
.....
[See also 295]
parabolas through four points
Centre-locus of conics through four points.
[See also 296]
233
234
234
Diagonal-points of a quadrangle are angular points of a

triangle self-polar with respect to any circumscribing
conic.
[See also 297.]
.......
237
CONTENTS.
IX
PAGE
Diagonals of a quadrilateral are sides of a triangle self-polar

with respect to any inscribed conic
Centre-locus of conies touching four fixed lines.
137, 270,
238
[See also
and 297]
240
....
Parabola touching the axes of co-ordinates
241
Confocal conies
244
Osculating conies
Pairs of
251
.....
common
Invariants
chords of two conies
253
254
Examples on Chapter XI.
CHAPTER
Envelopes.
XII.
Envelopes,
257
how found
264
Tangential co-ordinates and equations

Foci of envelope
Meaning
267
......
269
S - \S' =
269
Director-circle of envelope
(cf.
268
203)
of the tangential equation
which touch four given straight lines

have a common radical axis. [See also 308 and 819.]
Examples
Director-circles of conies
..........
CHAPTEE Xin.
270
271
Teilikeab Co-ordixates.
Definition of Trilinear Co-ordinates
276
.....
......
Equations and intersections of straight lines
278
The
280
line at infinity
Parallel lines
280
Condition of perpendicularity
Length
from a point on a line

Co-ordinates of four points in the form /, ^,
Equation of four lines in the form Iam(3ny =
Examples
Tangent
Condition of tangency
281
of perioendicular
2S2
283
.....
.....
285
287
Co-ordinates of the centre of a conic
....
284
286
288
Condition for a parabola
288
The asymptotes
289
Condition for a rectangular hyperbola
290
The circumscribing
The circular points
circle
290
at infinity
291
Conditions for a circle
291
CONTENTS.
PAGE
.......
Foci
292
hyperbola
ellipse, parabola, or
Condition for
293
293
Equation of a circumscribing conic

Equation of an inscribed conie
Equation of the inscribed circle
Coaics through four fixed points
Conies touching four fixed lines
294
294
295
296
Conies with respect to ^vhich the triangle of reference
is
297
self-polar
298
Conies referred to two tangents and the chord of contact
The
circle
.....
....
with respect to
self-polar
The nine-point
wMch
the triangle of reference
298
299
circle
Pascal's theorem.
....
....
299
[See also 328.]
Brianchon's theorem
APiEAi CO-ORDIXATES
301
302
Tangextial Co-ordixates
Identical relation between the tangential co-ordinates of any
straight line
.....
303
304
Tangential equation of a conic
305
The equation of the pole of a

Examples on Chapter XIII.
309
GHAPTEE
XIY.
305
line
Piecipp.ocal Polaes.
......
Definition of polar reciprocal
The degree of a curve is the same

Examples of reciprocal theorems
Eecipro cation with
Projections.
as the class of its reciprocal
'.
Co-axial circles reciprocated into confocal conies
The
and polars
318
320
322
323
Definition of projection
....
projection of any curve is a curve of the
Projections of tangents, poles
315
317
resjêct to a circle
Eeciprocal of a chcle with respect to a point
Projection.
315
same degree
323
324
Straight Hues meeting in a point projected into parallel
324
straight lines
Any
.....
....
......
can he projected to infinity, and

any two angles into given angles
line
quadrilateral projected into a square
Any
conic projected into a circle
at the
same time
324
326
327
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
........
system of couics inscribed in a quadrilateral projected into

confocal conies
Cross ratios of pencils and ranges unaltered by projection
327
329
Conies through four fixed points are cut by any straight line
in pairs of points in involution
The
range formed by their poles
Anharmonic properties
of points
to a conic
nomographic ranges and pencils
Two
329
......
.....
cross ratio of a pencil of four lines equal to that of the
on a
lines at right angles together
circular points at infinity
Examples
Appendix
conic,
and
329
of tangents
330
331
with the lines to the
form a harmonic pencil
334
336
339
CHAPTER
I-
Co-ordinates.
1.
If in a plane two fixed straight lines XOX', YOY'
be taken, and through any point P in the plane the two
straight lines PM, PL be drawn parallel to XOX', YOY'
respectively; the position of the point P can be found
when the
known
PM, PL are given. For we

equal respectively to the
OX,
PL and complete the parallelogram
lengths of the lines
have only to take

lines
LOMP.
PM,
MP
OM
The lengths
and LP, or
define the position of the point
S. C, S.
OL and OM, which
P with
thus
reference to the
1
CO-ORDINATES.
OY
are called the co-ordinates of the point

OX,
The point of interreference
to the axes OX, OY.
with
When the angle
section of the axes is called the 07Hgin,
between the axes is a right angle the axes are said to be
rectangular ; when the angle between the axes is not a
right angle the axes are said to be oblique.
the orOL is generally called the abscissa, and
dinate of the point P.
The co-ordinate which is measured along the axis
is denoted by the letter cc, and that measured along the
1^ by the letter ?/.
If, in the figure, OL be a and
axis
be b then at the point P, x = a, and y b, and the
point is for shortness often called the point \a, b).
lines
LP
OX
OM
Let OM' be taken equal to OM, and OL' equal to

2.
OL, and through M', L' draw lines parallel to the axes, as
Then the co-ordinates of the three

in the figure to Art. 1.
points Q, R, S will be equal in magnitude to those of P.
Hence it is not sufficient to know the lengths of the lines
OL, LP, we must also know the directions in which they
are measured.
If lines measured in one direction be taken as positive,
lines measured in the opposite direction must be taken as
shall consider lines measured in the dinegative.
or
rections
F to be positive, those therefore in the
directions OX' or OY' must be considered negative.
are now able to distinguish between the co-ordiare
nates of the points P, Q, B, S. The co-ordinates of
OL', L'R. and these are both measured in the negative
direction so that, if the co-ordinates of
be a, b, those of
will
6.
The
co-ordinates
of
a,
i^
be
S will be a, b;
and those of Q will be

a, b.
We
OX
We
must be
whether a line is
positive or negative depends on the direction in which it is
measured, and does not depend on the position of the
It
3.
carefully noticed that
LO
origin for example, in the figure to Art. 1, the line

is
negative although the line OL is positive.
If any two points K, L be taken and the distances
;
CO-ORDINATES.
in the line KL, be a

point
must be
OL,
distance
the
and b respectively, then
or
+ OL, that is a + h, and this will be the case
wherever the point 0, from which distances are measured,
OK, OL, measured from a
K0+
KL
OK
may
be.
0A=-3, and 05 = 4; then ^5= -(- 3) +4 = 7.

- 4 then J^5= - 3 + ( - 4} = - 7.
The reader may illustrate this by means of a figure.
If
05=
4.
If
OA = S, and
To express
the distance between tiuo points in terms
of their co-ordinates.
be the point {x, y), and Q the point (x' y"),
Let
and let the axes be inclined at an angle a>.
Draw PM, QL
parallel to
OY, and
QR parallel
to
OX,
as in the figure.
Then OL = x'\ LQ = y",
By
0M = x\ MP =
y'.
trigonometry
FQ^ = QE' + RP'-2QR. RPcos QRP.

But
QR = LM=OM-OL = x-x',
RP = MP-MR = MP-LQ = y'-y",

and angle QRP = angle OMP= angle XO Y= tt
PQ' = (w' - xy + (?/ - yy + 2{x - x") {y - y") cos
or PQ= V{(^'-^'7+ (y'-yy + 2(^' - x') {y - y'O COS
tt
co,
to,
co).
If the axes be at right angles to one another
we have
PQ=^{(x'-!cy+{y'-y"fY
12
CO-ORDINATES.
The distance
of
P from the
0P=
or, if
origin can
be obtained from
= 0. The
V{(^" + y + 2^y COS
the above by putting x"
and y"
result
is
ft)},
'
the axes be rectangular,
Except in the case of straight lines parallel to one

no convention is made with regard to the
We may
direction which is to be considered positive.
therefore suppose either PQ or QP to be positive.
If
however we have three or more points P, Q, R... in the
of the axes,
same straight line, we must consider the same direction

as positive throughout, so that in all cases we must have
PQ+QB = PB.
5.
To find the co-ordinates of a poi7it ivhich divides in
a given ratio the straight line joining two given points.
Let the co-ordinates of P be x^, y^^ and the co-ordinates of Q be x^, y^, and let R {x, y) be the point
which divides PQ in the ratio k I.
:
Draw PL, RF,
QM parallel
to the axis of y,
and
parallel to the axis of x, as in the figure.
Then
or
NM
PS ST PR RQ
l.LN-h.NM=0,
x) =0
{x xj k
LN^
::
{x,^
::
::
Jc:l;
PST
CO-ORDINATES.
Similarly
?/
^j-^
PQ
The most useful case is when the line

the co-ordinates of the point of bisection are
bisected
is
H^'i + ^s)' Kyi + 2/2)If the line were cut externally in the ratio k
should have
we
LN:MN::h:l,
LN:NMv.k:-l,
or
and therefore x =
r
k-l
j-^
= -^-r^
k-l
The above results are true whatever the angle between

the co-ordinate axes may be.
But in most cases formulae
become more complicated when the axes are not at
right angles to one another.
We shall in future consider the axes to he at right angles in all cases except
when the contrary is expressly stated.
Ex.
1.
Mark
of the point
in a jQgure the position of the point x
-%,
y = 2, and
1,
them
-1', and shew that the distance between
is 5.
Ex.
2.
of points:
and(-l,
Ex.
3.
Find the lengths of the Unes joining the following pairs

(iii) (3, 4)
(ii) (a, -a) and (- &, I)
{1, - 1) and { - 1, 1)
(i)
Shew
that the three points
are the angular points of
Ex.
4.
1).
Shew
an
(1,
1),
1,
1)
and
^/3,
*^/3),
equilateral triangle.
that the four points
(0,
-1), (-2,
and
3), (6, 7)
(8, 3)
are the angular points of a rectangle.
Ex.
5.
Mark
in a figure the positions of the points
(0,
- 1),
(2, 1),
and (-2, 1), and shew that they are at the corners of a square.
Shew the same of the points (2, 1), (4, 3), (2, 5) and (0, 3).
(0, 3)
Ex.
6.
Shew
(2, 1), (5, 4), (4,
7)
and
(1,
4) are
the angular points of a parallelogram.
Ex.
and
(1,
7.
If the point [x, y)

2),
be equidistant from the two points
then will x + '^y = 5.
(3, 4)
CO-ORDINATES.
6
6.
To express
co-ordinates of its
î>
the area of a triangle in terms of the

angular points.
Let the co-ordinates of the angular points A, B,

^^^ ^3' Vz respectively.
yi'> ^2' 2/25
be
M X
Draw
the lines
AK, BL,
CM parallel
to the axis of y,
as in the figure.
Now
A ABG = KAGM - MGBL - LBAK

KAGM= A AGM+ A AKM
= J KM. MG+ 1 KM. KA
MGBL
= H-'^3- ^2) (2/3+3/2)'

= i (^2-^1) (2/2 + 2/1);
and X5îr
A ABG = i {(3/3 + (^^3 - î) + (2/3 + 2/2) (^-2 - ^3)
(^'1-^2)};
+ (2/2 +
Similarly
.-.
2/1)
2/1)
or,
omitting the terms which cancel,
A ABG = i {x^y, - x^y^
-f-
_
The above expression
x^y^
- x^y^
-f-
^1'
3/1'
^2'
2/2'
^3'
2/3^
-'^
x^y^
- x^y^]
for the area of a triangle will be
found to be
positive if the order of the angular points be such that in going round the
triangle the area is always on the left hand. Whenever on substitution
a negative result for the area is obtained, a reverse order of proceeding

round the triangle has been adopted.
CO-ORDINATES.
the area of a quadrilateral in terms
the co-ordinates of its angular points.
To express
7.
of
Let the angular points A, B, G, D, taken in order, be

K, 2/1)^ (^2^ 2/2)^ K' yd and (^4, 2/4).
Draw AK, BL, GM,
M X
DN parallel to
the axis of 3/, as in
the figure.
Then the
area
ABGD
= KABL + LBGM And, as in the preceding
MGDN - NDAK.
Article,
KABL = i(2/^ + y;}{x^-x;),

LBGM=\(y^^-y^){x^-xX
MGDN=\(y^^y,){x^-x,),
NDAK= 1 (y, +
Hence
y,) (x,
+ y,) {x^ - x^) + (y, + y,) (x^ - x^)

+ (Vs + (^4 - ^3) +
J/i) (^1 - ^4)}
ABGD = i
[(2/,
2/4)
or,
- x^).
(2/4
omitting the terms which cancel,
ABGD = i [y^x^- y^x^ + y^x^ - y^x^+ y,x^-y^x^ + y,x- y,x}.

The area
of
any polygon may be found in a similar
manner.
Ex.
(4, 3)
(5,
1.
and
Find the area of the triangle whose angular points are
(2,
1),
(2, 5).
Also find the area of the triangle whose angular points are (-4, -5),
Ans. 4, f.
-6) and (3, 1).
CO-ORDINATES.
8
Ex.
Find
2.
(1, 2), (3, 4),
(5,
tlie
3)
area of the quadrilateral whose angular points are
and
(6, 2).
Also of the quadrilateral whose angular points are (2,2), { - 2, 3),

- 3, - 3) and (1, - 2).
Ans. 1^, 20.
If a curve
8.
common
be defined geometrically by a property

it, there will be some algebraical
to all points of
which is satisfied by the co-ordinates of all points

of the curve, and by the co-ordinates of no other points.
relation
This algebraical relation is called the equation of the curve.

Conversely all points whose co-ordinates satisfy a given
algebraical equation lie on a curve which is called the locus
of that equation.
For example, if a straight line be drawn parallel to the

OF and at a distance a from it, the abscissae of points
on this line are all equal to the constant quantity a, and
the abscissa of no other point is equal to a.
Hence ^ = a is the equation of the line.
Conversely the line drawn parallel to the axis of y
and at a distance a from it is the locus of the equation
axis
x = a.
on a
co-ordinates of any point
and whose radius is
the origin
equal to c, the square of the distance OP will be equal to
o^-\-y^ [Art. 4].
But OF is equal to the radius of the
circle.
Therefore the co-ordinates x, y of any point on the
circle satisfy the relation a? -\-y'^ = &.
That is, x^ -V y^ = c^
is the equation of the circle.
Conversely the locus of the equation x^ +y^ = & is a
circle whose centre is the origin and whose radius is equal
Again,
to
if x,
y be the
whose centre
circle
is
c.
In Analytical Geometry we have to find the equation

which is satisfied by the co-ordinates of all the points on a
curve which has been defined by some geometrical property and we have also to find the position and deduce
the geometrical properties of a curve from the equation
which is satisfied by the co-ordinates of all the points on it.
An equation is said to be of the ?i^^ degree when,
after it has been so reduced that the indices of the vari;
CO-ORDINATES.
ables are the smallest jDossible integers, the term or terms

For example,
of highest dimensions is of ii dimensions.
+ hx + c = 0,
the equations axy
+ \/y =
/\/oo
Ex.
and
(5,
1.
uc^
+ = 0,
and
from the two points,
(3, 4),
0)7/
^/a
1 are all of the second degree.
A point moves
2) are
so that its distances
equal to one another
find the equation of its locus.
Ans.
x-Sy 1.
Ex. 2. A point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances
from the two fixed points {a, 0) and {-a, 0) is constant {2c^) find the
;
equation of
Ex.
3.
Ans.
its locus.
[a, 0)
and
- a,
Ans.
point moves so that the ratio of
fixed points is constant
Ex.
its
5.
its
point moves so that
distance from the axis of x
its
is
half
point moves so that
to its distance
c^.
distances from two
Ans.
6.
4ax =
distance from the origin
Ex.
its
0) is constant (c^)

4.
+ y^ = c^- a^.
point moves so that the difference of the squares of
distances from the two fixed points
Ex.
x'^
from the point
distance from the axis of x
its
(1, 1)
Sy^-x^ O.
is
equal
Ans.
x^-2x-2y + 2^0.
9.
The position of a point on a plane can be defined
by other methods besides the one described in Art. 1. A
useful method is the following.
If an origin
be taken, and a fixed line OX be drawn
^through it
the position of any point P will be known, if
the angle XOP and the distance OP be given.
;
These are called the
The length
OP
is
2:>olar
co-ordinates of the point P.
called
the radius vector, and
is
CO-OKDINATES.
10
usually denoted by
vectorial angle,
The angle
OX
and
r,
is
and the angle

denoted by 6.
XOP
is
called the
considered to be positive if measured

contrary to the direction in which the hands of
is
from
a watch revolve.
The
considered positive if measured

from
along the line bounding the vectorial angle, and
negative if measured in the opposite direction.
If
be produced to P', so that OP' is equal to
in magnitude, and if the co-ordinates of
be r, 6, those
of P' will be either r, tt + ^ or

r, 0.
radius vector
is
PO
OP
10.
To find the distance between two points whose polar
co-ordinates are given.
Let the co-ordinates of the two points P,
and
be
r^, 6^;
r^, 6^.
Then, by Trigonometry,
PQ'=0P'+0Q'-20P.0QgosP0Q.
But OP = r^, OQ==r^ and / POQ=^ XOQ-^ XOP=e^-e^;
PQ^ = r^^-\-r:-2r^r^cos{e,-e,).
The
polar equation of a circle
whose radius
is c, is c^
whose centre
= a^ + r^-2arcos(d - a);
co-ordinates of any point on
is
at the point
where
r,
[a, a)
and
are the polar
it.
To find the area of a triangle having given the

polar co-ordinates of its angular points.
11.
Let
Pbe
X
(r,,
6>J,
Q be
(r,,
5>J,
and
P be
(^3, ^3).
11
CO-ORDINATES.
Then area
PQR = A POQ + A QOR- A FOR,

AFOQ = iOP.OQ sin POQ
of triangle
and
so
AQOR = \ 7\ r^ sin {6, - OX
and
A POR= J n i\ sin {0, - d^
.-.
A PQR = \
2^0
12.
^2 sin ie,
- 0,) + r, r3 sin
change from rectangular
to
(^3
- 6,)
polar co-ordinates.
a line be drawn perpendicular to OX, and

OX,
be taken for axes of rectangular co-ordinates, we
have at once
If through
OF
0N= OP cos XOP= r cos 0,

y=NP=OP sin XOP=r sin 6.
X=
and
Ex.
What
1.
are the rectangular co-ordinates of the points
polar co-ordinates are
Ex.
What
2.
(l,^j, (2,^) an4
-4, -
Jj
whose
respectively?
are the polar co-ordinates of the points whose rect- 1), ( - 1, V^) and (3, - 4) respectively?
( - 1,
angular co-ordinates are
Ex.
are
(2,
Ex.
3.
Find the distance between the points whose polar co-ordinates

and (4, lOQO) respectively.
400)
4.
Find the area
angular points are
(1, 0),
of the triangle the polar co-ordinates of
(l,
^| and
l\/2,
j)
respectively.
whose
CHAPTER
II.
The Straight
Line.
13.
To find the equation of a straight line parallel to
one of the co-ordinate axes.
Let LP be a straight line parallel to the axis of m

and meeting the axis of y at L, and let OL = h.
N
Let
x,
y be the co-ordinates of any point
on the
line.
straight
line
Then the ordinate NP is equal to OL.

Hence y = 6 is the equation of the line.
Similarly
a)
=a
is
parallel to the axis of
the
y and
equation of a
at a distance
a from
it.
14.
To find the equation of a straight line which passes
through the origin.
Let OP be a straight line through the origin, and let

= m.
the tangent of the angle
Let X, y be the co-ordinates of any point
on the
XOP
line.
THE STRAIGHT LINE.

iVP = tan i\ÔP. ON.
Then
Hence
= mx
the required equation.
is
NX
To find
15.
Let
LMP
points L,
Let
Let
13
the equation
of any straight
line.
be the straight line meeting the axes in the
M.
OM^
c,
and
let
tan
0LM =
7n.
y be the co-ordinates of any point P on the line.

parallel to the axis of y, and OQ parallel to
Draw
X,
PN
the line
LMP,
as in the figure.
NP = NQ+QP
Then
= ONts.nNOQ + OM.
But
NP =y,
0]Sr=
X,
031= c, and
y=
tan
mx + c
WO Q = tan OLi/= m.
(i)
which is the required equation.

So long as we consider any particular straight line the
quantities m and c remain the same, and are therefore
called constants.
Of
these,
is
the tangent of the angle
THE STRAIGHT
14
LINE.
between the positive direction of the axis of x and the

part of the line above the axis of x, and c is the intercept
on the axis of y.
By giving suitable values to the constants in and c the
equation y=mx-\-c may be made to represent any straight
For example, the straight line which cuts
line whatever.
the axis of y at unit distance from the origin, and makes
an angle of 45 with the axis of x, has for equation
y = X'\-\.
We see from (i) that the equation of any straight line
is
of the
first
degree.
16.
To shew that every equation of the first
represents a straight line.
The most
degree
general form of the equation
degree
of the first
is
Ax + By + CÔ
(i)
To prove
that this equation represents a straight line,

shew that, if any three points on the
locus be joined, the area of the triangle so formed will be
it
is
sufficient to
zero.
Let (x', y), (x", y"'), and {x'\ y"^ be any three points
on the locus, then the co-ordinates of these points will
satisfy the equation
We
(i).
therefore have
Eliminating A, B,
Ax +By +0=0,
Ax" +By" +C=0,
Ax"'+By"'+G=0.
G we obtain
^'
= 0,
,y
,
THE STRAIGHT
15
LINE.
appears to inThe equation Ax + By -{- G =

17.
volve three constants, whereas the equation found in Art.
15 only involves hvo. But if the co-ordinates x, y of any
point satisfy the equation Ax + By + C = 0, they will also
satisfy the equation when we multiply or divide throughout by any constant. If we divide by B^ we can write
the equation y
A
-^
constants
equation y
18.
= -^
and
G
-^
C
~ ~r^
^^^ ^^ have only the
which correspond to
m and
c in
tiuo
the
= tyix + c.
To find
the intercepts
the equation
which
it
of a straight line in terms of
makes on
the axes.
Let A, B he the points where the straight line cuts

the axes, and let OA = a, and OB = h.
on the line be
Let the co-ordinates of any point
x,y.
Draw
Then
PN parallel to the axis of y, and join OP.

A APO + A PBO = A ABO
;
+ hx = ah.
ay
X
or
This equation
may be
written in the form

Ix
+ my =
1,
THE STRAIGHT
16
where
and
LINE.
ni are the reciprocals of the intercepts
on the
axes.
a straight line in terms of

the length of the perpendicular upon it from the origin and
the angle which that perpendicular onahes with an axis.
To find
19.
the equation of
Let OL be the perpendicular upon the straight line

AB, and let OL =p, and let the angle XOL = a.
Let the co-ordinates of any point P on the line be
Draw
dicular to
OL, and
PK
NM
perpenthe axis of y,
perpendicular to NM, as in the
PJSf parallel to
figure.
Then,
or
which
is
OL = OM + ML = OM + KP
= ON cos a + NP sin a
p = x cos cc+y sin a,
In Articles 15, 18 and 19 we have found, by

independent methods, the equation of a straight line
involving different constants.
Any one form of the
equation may however be deduced from any other.
For example, if we know the equation in terms of the
intercepts on the axes, we can find the equation in terms
of p and a from the relations a cos a =p and h sin a = p,
which we obtain at once from the figure to Art. 19. Hence
20.
THE STRAIGHT
values
substituting these
+ ^ = 1, we
get X cos
oi
17
LINE.
a and h in the equation
of
+ y sm a=p.
If the equation of a straight line be
= 0;
by JA^ -f
Ax-\-By+
then, by dividing throughout
A
V^^ +
Now
5'
\IA^
+ B'^
and
Â' + B^
we have
B^,
G
Â' + B'
are the cosine and sine
Â^ + B'^
respectively of some angle, since the sum of their squares

If we call this angle a, we have
is equal to unity.
+ sin a p = 0,
G
'\/A' + B'
X cos a
where p
put
^
is
for
1.
If
^x-^y-l = 0.
sin a
= |,
Ex.
2.
303
-4?/
This
is
-5 = 0, then
of the
equation
To
is
ordinates of
s. c. s.
by
Js^ + 4'^ we
have
form x cos a + y sin a-p = 0, where cos a = f
and p = 1.
The equation x + y + 5 = 0,
X cos
21.
Ex.
2/
Bit
-J-
dividing
is
equivalent to
5
+ w sm -p = 7.
Stt
the position of a straight line whose

given, it is only necessary to find the cofind
any two points on
it.
To do
this
we may give
2
THE STRAIGHT
18
LINE.
X any two values whatever, and find from the given

equation the two corresponding values of y. The points
where the line cuts the axes are easiest to find.
to
Ex.
If the
1.
Ex.
-
The
2.
and
\,
equation of a line be
y0, and then x = o.
axis of X,
intercepts
2.r
Where
made on
+ 5^ = 10. Where
it
cuts the axis of
the axes by the line
this cuts the

?/,
x = 0, and
ix-y + 2Q
are
2 respectively.
Ex. 3.
x^4:,y = 2.
x-2y = Q.
Here the origin
The
lines are
marked
is
(0, 0)
on the
line,
and when
in the figure.
If wê wish to find the equation of a straight line

which satisfies any two conditions, we may take for its
equation any one of the general forms.
22.
y = mx +
(i)
or
c,
(iii)
lx-{-if)iy=l^
(v)
Ax + By + G=0.
We
(ii)
(iv)
^r
cosa-f-
1,
?/
sin a
^ = 0,
have then to determine the values of the two

and c, or a and h, or I and m, or a and p,
m
B
and -^
constants
A
or
y^
which the
ditions
Ex.
point
1.
(2, 3)
Let a
from the two con-
for the line in question
line has to satisfy.
Find the equation of a straight line which passes through the

and makes equal intercepts on the axes.
+ f=1
be the equation of the
line.
Then, since the intercepts are equal to one another, a = b.

(2, 3) is on the line,
Also, since the point
.'.
a=5
= and
7;
8,
the equation required
X
is
Ex.
2.
Find the equation
the point {Js,
Let
2)
y=mx + c
?/
+ p 1.
5
of the straight line
and which makes an angle of
60*'
be the equation of the straight
which passes through

with the axis of
Line.
x.
THE STRAIGHT
19
LINE.
Then, since the hne makes an angle of 60 with the axis of

7?i
x,
= tan60 = ^3.
Also,
the point [Js, 2) be on the line, 2 = m.
if
and the required equation
is
y ij^x-
Js+c, therefore c- -1,
1.
To find the equation of a straight

through a given jjoitit in a given direction.
let
drawn
line
23.
Let X, y be the co-ordinates of the given point, and

the line make with the axis of x an angle tan~^ an.
Its equation will
then be
y
and, since {x
y)
is
on the
y
therefore,
The
= mx + c,
line,
= mx + c,
by subtraction,
y y'='m{x x')
(i).
passes through the point {x, y')

may be and by giving a suitable
whatever the value of
the equation will represent any straight line
value to
through the point {x\ y).
If then we know that a straight line passes through a
particular point (^', y') we at once write down y y
7n{x x') for its equation, and find the value of from
line given
by
(i)
the other condition that the line has to
satisfy.
24.
To find the equation of a straight line which
passes through two given points.
Take any one
of the general forms, for example,
= mx + c
(i).
Let the co-ordinates of the two points be x y and x\ y"

respectively. Then, since these points are on the line (i),
we have
,
WjX
y" = mx
y'
and
From
(i)
and
(ii),
-r c
'
H- c
(ii),
(iii)
by subtraction,
y' =m(x x')
(iv).
22
THE STRAIGHT
20
From
(iii)
and
by
(ii),
subtraction,
-y =m{x -x)
^, =
and therefore
LINE.
^,
^t
(v),
This equation could be found at once from a figure.

The equation
Ex.
?/
-3
c-2
or y
r^"3^
of the line joining the points (2, 3)
and
(3, 1) is
+ 2.T-7 = 0.
AP
Let the straight line

25.
make an angle 6 with
Let the co-ordinates of A be x', y, and
the axis of x.
be x, y, and let the distance
those of
be r.
^P
Draw AN,
PM
parallel to
the axis of
y,
and
AK
parallel to the axis of x.
Then
AK = AP coh
x x=^r
or
The equation
cos
6y
and KP
and y y
6,
of the line
AP
= APîn
d,
=r sin 6.
may be
written in the
form
X _y y _
cos 6
26.
sin 6
Let the equation of any straight
line
be
Ax + By+ G=0
(i).
Q be x, y', and let

parallel to the axis of y cut the given
Let the co-ordinates of any point

the line through Q
straight line in the point
P whose
co-ordinates are
x', y".
Then it is clear from a figure that, so long as Q

remains on the same side of the straight line, QP is drawn
in the same direction and that QP is drawn in the opposite direction, if Q be any point whatever on the other side
;
of the straight line.
THE STRAIGHT
That
is
to say,
QP
LINE.
21
positive for all points on one side
is
of the straight line, and negative for

side of the straight line.
all
points on the other
QP = y'^-y'
Now
(ii),
and Ax+By-\-G=Ax-\-By-^G-{Ax+By'+C),
[for {x y") is on the line, and therefore Ax + By" + (7= 0]
Ax'+By'+C^-B{y"-y)
(iii).
From (ii) and (iii) we see that Ax + By + G is positive
,
.-.
on one side of the straight line, and negative

for all points on the other side of the line.
If the equation of a straight line be Ax + By + (7=0,
and the co-ordinates x y of any point be substituted
in the expression Ax + By + G then if Aoc + By + (7 be
positive, the point {x\ y) is said to be on the positive side
of the line, and if Ax + By' + (7 be negative, {x\ y) is
said to be on the negative side of the line.
If the equation of the line be written
for all points
-Ax-By-GÔ,
it is
clear that the side
positive side
Ex.
on the
Ex.
3a;
1.
The
point
(3, 2) is
positive side of
2.
which we previously called the
we should now
The
points
3a;
(2,
22/
call
the negative
on the negative
- 1 = 0.
1)
and
(1, 1)
side.
side of 2a;
3?/
= 0, and
are on opposite sides of the line
+ 4y-6 = 0.
Ex.
3.
Shew
(0, 0),
are in the four different compartments
( - /^, 0) and (2,

||)
the two straight Unes
1, 1),
made by
2a;-3^ + l = 0, and3a;-52/ + 2 = 0.
27.
To find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection
straight lines.
given
two
of
Let the equations of the
lines
be
+ c =0
ax + b'y + c =
ax
and
Then the
-{-by
co-ordinates of the point which
(i),
(ii).
is
both straight lines will satisfy both equations
common
(i)
and
to
(ii).
THE STRAIGHT
22
LINE.
We
have therefore only to find the values of

which satisfy both (i) and (ii).
os
and y
These are given by

OS
he
To find
28.
b'c
ca
ca
ah'
a'h
'
the condition that three straight lines
may
meet in a poiiit.
Let the equations of the three straight lines be

ax-\-hy
+c=
ax-\-Uy -\-
0...(1),
=0...{2),
ax + h"y + c" = 0...{^).

The three straight lines will meet in a point if the
point of intersection of two of the lines is on the third.
The co-ordinates of the point of intersection of (1) and
are
given by
(2)
^
he
The
ca
h'c
da
ao
ah'
may be on
h'c
ca
- ca
ao
ao
ab
- h'c) + h" (ca -
a" (be
1
ah'
condition that this point

he
or,
ca)
(3) is
+ c" (ah' - ah) = 0.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Draw
tlie
(i)
(iii)
2.
4x-Sy + l = 0,
and
-42/ = 12,
(ii)
3a;
(iv)
2x + 5y +
= 0.
Find the equations of the straight lines joining the following pairs
(i) (2, 3) and (-4, 1), (ii) (a, b) and (6, a).
Ans. {i) x-Sy + 7 = 0, {ii) x + y a + b.
of points
3.
straight lines wliose equations are
x + y^2,
Write down the equations of the straight lines which pass through
(1, - 1), and make angles of 150** and 80" respectively with the
the point
axis oi X.
-,

THE STRAIGHT
(i)
23
LINE.
Write the following equations in the form x cos a + // sin a - /) = 0,

4.
^x + 4?/ - 15 = 0, (ii) 12.r - 5^/ + 10 = 0.
Ans. {i)|x + |y-3 = 0, (ii) -H^ + x^y -j^ =0.
Find the equation of the straight
5.
through
line
6.
joining
Find the equation of the

(2, 3) and (3, - 1).
7.
line
through
(2, 1)
8.
-...,
(i)
X
a
Ans.
line
through the point
?-
= l and-+
Ans.
Shew
x + 2y =
10.
4ic
+ ^ = 9.
which makes
(5, 6)
Ans.
a;
+ y = 11.
Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of straight

5^ + 7?/ = 99 and 3a; + 2?/ + 77 = 0, (ii) 2x- 5?/ + l = Oanda; + 2/ + 4=0,
^x y ^
y ^
(m - +
9.
parallel to
parallel to the line
equal intercepts on the axes.
lines
(4, 5)
Ans.2x-%y + l = 0.
2a;_3t/-5 = 0.
= 1,
(i)(-67,62), (ii)(~3, -1),
that the three lines 5x +
Sy-7 = 0,
(iii)
(^^^,
-^y
- 10 = 0, and
3.T-4?/
meet in a point.
Shew
that the three points
(0,
11),
(2,
8)
and
-1) are on a
(3,
straight line.
Also the three points (3a,
0), (0, 36)
and
(a, 2b).
Find the equations of the sides of the triangle the co-ordinates of

11.
whose angular points are (1, 2), (2, 3) and ( - 3, - 5).
Ans.
12.
Find the equations
8x-5y-l-0, lx-4y + l = 0, x-y + l=0.
of the straight lines each of
which passes
through one of the angular points and the middle point of the opposite
side of the triangle in
Ex. 11.
Ans.
2x-y = 0, Sx-2y = 0, ox-3y = 0.
Find the equations of the diagonals of the parallelogram the

equations of whose sides are x -a = 0, x - b = 0, y - c = and y -d = 0.
Ans. {d- c) X + {a - b) y + be - ad = and (cZ-c) x + {b- a) y + ac-bdÔ.
13.
3a;
What must be the value of a in order that the thi-ee

14.
+ 2/-2 = 0, ax + 2y-n = 0, and 2x-y'-S = may meet in a point?
lines
Ans. a = 5.
15.
In what ratio
by the Hne
joining
is
(2, 3)
the line joining the points
and
(4,
1)?
Are the points (2, 3) and (3,

of the straight line 5?/ - 6a; + 4 = ?
16.
(1, 2)
and
(4, 3)
Ans. The line

2)
divided
is bisected.
on the same or on opposite sides
THE STRAIGHT
24
Shew
17.
the line
2/
2a:
Shew
18.
sides are
that the points
(0, 0)
LINE.
and
are on opposite sides of
(3, 4)
+ 1 = 0.
that the origin
is
within the triangle the equations of whose
x-7y + 25^0, 5x + 3y + ll = 0, and Sx-2y-l = 0.
To find the
29.
two
angle between
straight
lines
whose equations are given.

If the equations of the given lines be
(i)
X cos a
2/
the required
0, and x cos o! -\-y sin a p =

angle will be a a or tt a a'.
sin a
_2J
0,
For a and a are the angles which the perpendiculars

from the origin on the two lines respectively make with
the axis of x, and the angle between any two lines is equal
or supplementary to the angle between two lines perpendicular to them.
If the equations of the lines be
(ii)
y = rax + c, and y = nix + c
;
then,
if
6,
be the
6'
axis of X, tan 6
angles the
ni and tan 6' =
tan {6
..
lines
- 6')
the required ans^le
is tan~^ (z
\1
make with the
m
m 7n
1 + mm
+ mm
j
J
The lines are perpendicular to one another when

+ m.m = 0, and parallel when m = m'.
(iii)
If the equations of the lines
ax
by
-^
these equations
+c=
0,
may be
and ax
(ii),
^,
tan
^
b'y
+c =0,
written in the forms
a
c
y=--x-^,
Therefore, by
be
and y
c
= -yx-y.
the required angle
b'
aa
is
b'a
ba
,1
-ttt
or tan"
-.
aa
}-
bo
THE STRAIGHT
The
ax +
lines
6?y
+c=
and
ax +
be at right angles to one another,

will
be parallel to one another
if
ha h'a
if
25
LINE.
The condition of perpendicularity

the
two lines whose equations are
fied by
ax + hy + cO and bx ay -\- c
condition
ax
-{
is
by
also satisfied
+c=
and
0,
80.
The
=0
h'y -\-c
aa
W=
or if
will
0,
and
=
,
is
clearly satis-
0.
by the two lines

y c=0.
+
a
b
in the equation of a given straight line, we
interchange, or invert, the coefficients of x and y, and alter
Hence
if,
the sign of one of them, we shall obtain the equation of

a perpendicular straight line and if this line has to satisfy
some other condition we must give a suitable value to the
constant term.
Ex. 1. The line through the origin perpendicular to 4?/ + 2ar = 7 is
;
22/-4rc = 0.
Ex.
is
The line through the point (4,
2.
2(a;-4)
+ 3(y-5) = 0,
for
it is
5)
perpendicular to
3a;
perpendicular to the given
- 2y + 5 =
and
line,
it
passes through the point (4, 5).

Ex. 3. The acute angle between the lines
2:r
+ 3y + 1 = 0, and x-y =
is
tan"^
5.
To find the perpendicular distance of a given

a
given
straight line.
from
Let the equation of the straight line be
31.
iccos
and
let
x\
y'
0L
+ y sin a p)=
])oint
(i),
be the co-ordinates of the given point P.
THE STKAIGHT
26
LINE.
The equation
a?
is
cos a
+ 2/sina jj' =
(ii)
the equation of a straight line parallel to
through the point
It will pass
cos
OL
+y'
sin a
(i).
[x, y') if
p =
(iii).
Now if PL be the perpendicular from on the line (i),

and ON, ON' the perpendiculars from the origin on the
lines
(i)
and
respectively, then will
(ii)
LP=NN'
= P'-P
= X cos 0L-\Hence
2?
of the perpendicular
the length
xcos a
y' sin a
+y
p =
[from
(iii)].
from any point
obtained by substiexpression
point
in
the
tuting the co-ordinates of the
on the
line
sin a
X cos
+ y sin a p.
-\-y' sin a _p
The expression x cos

p is positive and greater than
ol
as
is
(x',
is
positive so long
p, that is so long as
y') and the origin are on opposite sides of the line.
ax
If the equation of the line be
4-
Z>2/
+ c = 0,
may be
it
written
x+
(iv)
^/
/9.70t/y
/0.7O =0
^/a'+b'
â^-Vb^'
â^-\-W
which is of the same form as (i) [Art. 20]; therefore the
length of the perpendicular from {x y') on the line is
-\
a
Va.2
+ 6^
+W
ax + by' + G
V a^ + 6^
Va'^
\â^+'
,
Hence, when the equation of a starlight line is given in

ax+by -\-c= 0, the perpendicular distance of a
given 2ôint from it is obtained by substituting the co-or^dinates of the point in the expression ax + by + c, and dividing
by the square root of the sum of the squares of the coeffithe foiiii
cients
of X and
y.

THE STRAIGHT LINE.
27
If the denominator of (v) be always supposed to be
from any point

be positive, and
the length of the perpendicular from any point on the
negative side of the line will be negative.
[See Art. 26.]
positive, the length of the perpendicular
on the positive side of the
line
will
32.
To find the equations of the lines which bisect the
angles between two given straight lines.
The perpendiculars on two straight lines, drawn from

any point on either of the lines bisecting the angles between them, will clearly be equal to one another in magnitude.
Hence,
if
the equations of the lines be

ax-[-by
and
and {x,
+c=
ax + b'y -\-G
(i),
=^
(ii),
be any point on either of the bisectors,
y')
ax
-\-by'
+c
^^JWT^
ax + b'y + c
^^
^/a'^
must be equal in magnitude.

Hence the point {x\ y')
+ h'^
on one or other of the
is
straight lines
lines given
by
ax+by + c
,.
The two
a'x
+ b'y+c
,....
(m).
'^
(iii)
are therefore the required
bisectors.
We can distinguish between the two bisectors for, if we

take the denominators to be both positive, and if the
upper sign be taken in (iii), ax-\-hy + c and ax -f b'y + c'
must both be positive or both be negative.
;
TT
Hence
in
ax+
-
by
^
Ja' +
+c =
b'
ax + b'x
H
-\-
Ja'+b''
every point is on the positive side of both the lines

(ii), or on the negative side of both.
,.
(iv).
^
(i)
^'
and
If the equations are so written that the constant terms

are both positive, the origin is on the positive side of both
THE STRAIGHT
28
lines
hence
origin
lies.
Ex.
The
(iv) is
the bisector of that angle in which the
bisectors of the angles
,_
12a; + 57j + lS =
LINE.
are given by
4x-Sy + l = 0, and
+ 52/
+
^ ^~ 13
between the lines
~ =
4x-3y + l
12ic
sign gives the bisector of the angle in which the origin
33.
poiît
To Jind
the equation of
of intersection
and the upper
J.O
a straight
of two given straight
lies,
line
through the
lines.
The most obvious method
of obtaining the required

x y of the point
of intersection of the given lines, and then use the form
y y' = 'in (x x) for the equation of any straight line
through the point {x, y'). The following method is how-
equation
is to
find the co-ordinates
ever sometimes preferable.
Let the equations of the two given straight lines be
+c=
a'x + h'y +c =0
ax-\-hy
(i),
(ii)
Consider the equation
ax
-\-hy ^-c-\-\
[ax -\-b'y +c)
It is the equation of
a straight
(iii).
the
line, since it is of
degree; and if {x\ y) be the point which

to the two given lines, we shall have
first
is
common
ax +by' + c=0
and
and therefore
ax + b'y' + c' = 0,
{ax -{-by + c) +\ {ax + b'y + c) = 0.
This last equation shews that the point

on the line (iii).
{x,
y)
is
also
Hence (iii) is the equation of a straight line passing

through the point of intersection of the given lines. Also
by giving a suitable value to X the equation may be made
to satisfy any other condition, it may for example be made
The equation
to pass through any other given point.
(iii)
therefore
straight
and
(ii).
lines
represents,
for
different
values
of X, all
through the point of intersection of
(i)
THE STRAIGHT
29
LINE.
Find the equation of the line joining the origin to the point
+ 5y - 4: and Sx-2y + 2 0.
Ex.
of
intersection of 2x
Any hne through
the intersection
+ \{dx-2y + 2)=^0.
2x + 5y-4:
This will pass through
or Sx + y=:0,
or
if
\-:2
+ 2{Sx-2y + 2)^0,
If the equations of three straight lines
34.
ax
is
-4 + 2\ = 0,
(0, 0) if
2x + 5y~4:
.-.
given by
is
-{-by
+ c=0, aw + h'y + c' ==

and
respectively;
if
we can
0,
and a"x
be
h"y
find three constants \,
+ c" =
fju,
v such
that the relation
X (a^ +
%+
c)
+ /A {ax + h'y +c')+v

that
is identically true,
{a'x-\-
h"y + c") = 0..
(i)
to say is true for all values of
is
w and y, then the three straight lines will meet in a point.

For if the co-ordinates of any point satisfy any two of the
equations of the
lines,
the relation (i) shews that it will

This principle is of fre-
also satisfy the third equation.
quent
use.
Ex.
The
three straight lines joining the angular points of a triangle
to the middle points of the opposite sides
meet in a point.
Let the angular points A, B, C be [x', y'), {x", y"), {x!", y'"), respectively.
F, the middle points of BC, CA, AB respectively, will be
Then D, E,
/x" + x"'
2
y" + y'
'
The equation
2
of
),
(.^,iqi:)..a(^-:^.^)
AD will therefore be
y -y'
y" +
+ x'" -2x')-x {y" +
So the equation
of
BE
x" + x"'
"
or y {x"
x-x'
]~
y"'
y'"
and
2
2y')
GF will
+ x' {y" + y'") - y' (.x" + x'") = 0.

be respectively
=
and y {x' + x" - 2x"') -x{y' + y" - 2y"') + x'" {if + y") - y'" [x' + x") ^ 0.
y
(x'"
+ x'~ 2x") - X iy'" + y' - 2y") + x" {y'" +
?/')
- y"
{x'"
a;')
And, since the three equations when added together vanish identically,
the three lines represented by them must meet in a point.

THE STRAIGHT
30
LINE.
EXAMPLES.
Find the angles between the following pairs of straight
1.
(i)
(ii)
{iii)
lines
y 2x + 5 and^x + y = 7,
x + 2y-i = Sind2x-y + l = 0,
Ax + By +G=^0 and {A+B)x-(A- B)y:^0.
Ans.
(i)
45",
Find the equation of the straight line which

2.
2x+7y-5 = and which passes through the point (3,
is
(ii)
90^, (Hi) 45.
perpendicular to
1).
Am.
7x-2y = 19.
Write down the equations of the lines through the origin perpen3.
dicular to the lines Bx + 2y-5 = and ix + Sy-7=:0. Find the co-ordinates
of the points where these perpendiculars meet the lines, and shew that
the equation of the line joining these points is 28a; lly -35 = 0.
-|-
Find the perpendicular distances of the point

4a; + 3y_ 7^0, 5a; 4- 12?/ -20 = 0, and 3a; -1-47/ -8 = 0.
4.
(2, 3)
from the
lines
Ans.
2.
Write down the equations of the lines through (1, 1) and ( - 2, parallel to Sx+4:y + 7 0; and find the distance between these lines.
5.
Alls.
6.
(2, 3)
1)
y.
Find the equations of the two straight lines through the point
which make an angle of 45*^ with x + 2y = 0.
Ans. x-Sy + 7:^0,Sx + y = 9.
Find the equations of the two straight lines which are

x + ly + 2 = and at unit distance from the point (1, - 1),
7.
parallel to
Ans. x + 7y + Q^5j2 = 0.
joining
the origin to the point of
the
line
of
equation
the
Find
8.
=
2x-l-0.
and
lines
a;
7
4?/
+
of
the
y
intersection
ldx + lly=0.
Ans.
Find the equation of the straight line joining (1, 1)

intersection of the lines 3a; 4?/ - 2 = and a; - 2?/ -f 5 = 0.
9.
to the point of
-j-
Ans.
10.
the equation of the line
Find
1/ - 4x -
section of
= and
2x +
7a; -F 26?/
drawn through the point
5y-6 = 0,
-33 = 0.
of inter-
+ 'ix = 0.
88?/ -66a; -101=0.
perpendicular to Sy
Ans.
Find the lengths of the perpendiculars drawn from the origin on

the sides of the triangle the co-ordinates of whose angular points are (2, 1),
(3, 2) and (-1, -1).
Find the equations of the straight lines bisecting the angles
12.
between the straight lines 4:y + Sx-12-0 and 3?/ -f 4a; - 24 = ; and draw
11.
a figure representing the four straight lines.

Ans. y-x + 12 = 0,7y +
7x-BQ=O.
THE STKAIGHT
LINE.
31
Find the equations of the diagonals of the rectangle formed by

the lines a: + 3y-10 = 0, x + 3i/-20 = 0, 3x-y + 5 = 0, and 3ic-?/-5=0;
and shew that they intersect in the point (|, |).
Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines y- x = 0,
14.
Ans.
c^.
y + x 0,x-c = 0.
The area of the triangle formed by the straight lines whose
15.
equations are y -2x = 0, y -3x = 0, and y = 5x + 4i is |.
Find the area of the triangle formed by the lines ?/ = 2x + 4,
16.
^j^.
Ans.
2y + Sx = 5, sindy + x + l=^0.
13.
Shew
17.
equations are
that the area of the triangle formed by the lines whose
y^miX + c^, y^m.^x + c^, and
a;=:0 is
m^ m^
Shew
18.
that the area of the triangle formed by the straight lines
whose equations are y = m^x + c^, y^m^x + c^, and y = m.^x + c^

^
1712
Shew
19.
[Use Ex.
17.]
moves so that the sum of

upon two given straight lines is constant
that the locus of a point which
the perpendiculars let

is
J i^lZ^ + ^ iAZht,
-m^ + 7n.^-m^
vi^-m^
(f2Z_f3):
is
fall
from
it
a straight line.
homogeneous equation of the nth degree will

represent n straight lines through the origin.
35.
Let the equation be

ul/ + %"-^c + (7/-V+
Divide by x"" and we get
Let m^, m^, m^
Then
it is
m^ be the
...
+ Z'^"=
0...(i).
roots of this equation.
the same as
^(i-.)(i-^)(f--3)
(f-g=o.
and therefore is satisfied when

y
y
^
m,^ = 0, when - m^^ = 0, &c.,
X
X
and in no other cases.
Therefore all the points on the locus represented by
are on one or other of the n straight lines
y vi^x = 0, y m^x = 0,
y m^x = 0.
(i)
THE STRAIGHT
32
To find
36.
the angle between the two straight lines
represented by the equation

If the
(y
m^x)
ni^x) =
y
n\
:.
If
cident
is
+ -^
= 0.
y m^x =
+ 2Bxy -f
and
Cy^
then
0,
the same as the given equation
xy
2B
+ iy\ = -^
If 6 be the angle
tan e
Aaf
m^x = 0,
be y
lines
[y
LINE.
+ j,w =0;
,.,
(i)
oxiA ni.îi\=
between the
lines,
= V(g -^ G)
^^^^
A+G
1 + n\m^
B^ AG is positive the
if ^' - ^(7 = 0.
....
(n).
j,
j^^^
^
^^^
^
lines are real, being coin-
B^ AG is negative the lines are imaginary, but

pass through the real point (0, 0).
If
lines given by the equation Ax^ + 2Bxy + Gy^= 0,

be at right angles to one another if A + 0=0; that
if the sum of the coefficients of x^ and y^ is zero.
The
will
is,
To find
37.
the condition that the general equation
may
the second degree
The most general form

degree
of
reqwesent two st7'aight lines.

of the equation of the second
is
ax^
2hxy
4-
by^
+ 2gx +
2fy
+c=
(i).
If this is identically equivalent to

(Ix
we
+ my + 7i)
(I'x
+ m'y + n) =
have, by equating coefficients in
W = a,
mn' +
By
rtin
= 2f
mm! =
b,
nV + nl =
(i)
nn
2g,
and
(ii),
(ii),
= c,
Im + Vm =
continued multiplication of the
last three,
2h.
we have
8fgh = 2lVmmnn + IV {mV + mV)

+ mm' {n'T + nH'^) + nn' {I'^m" + Fm'^)
= 2ahc + a{4f'-2bc)
+ b (4/ - 2ca) + c {W - 2ah).
Hence
abc
THE STRAIGHT
LINE.
af^
+ 2fgli =
hg^
ch^
3S
(iii)
the required condition.
is
Unless the coefficients of x^ and if are both zero, we

can obtain the above result more simply by solving the
equation as a quadratic in x or in y.
Suppose a is not zero then if we solve the quadratic
in x^ we have
;
+ hy + g = s/{{h^ - ah) -{ 2 Qig - af) y + - ac].

Now in order that this may be capable of being reduced
the form ax + By + (7 = 0, it is necessary and sufficient
ax
to
y"^
g'^
that the quantity under the radical should be a perfect

square.
The condition for this is
Qv"
which
is
38.
to the
- ah)
{g"
equivalent to
To find
ac)
= (hg - af)\
(iii).
the equation of the lines joining the origin
common points of
ax^ + 2hxy + %^ +
+ 2fy + c =
Ix + my = 1
and
Make equation
degree by means of
aoc^
(i)
(ii),
^goc
(i),
(ii).
homogeneous and
and we get
+ ^hxy + hy"^ + 2 {gx -\-fy)
(loc
of
the second
+ m^y) -\-c(lx-{- myf =

...(iii),
which is the equation required.

For equation (iii) being
homogeneous
+ my = 1
represents
To find where
we must put
straight lines through the origin [Art. 35].

the lines (iii) are cut by the line (ii),
and we then have the relation (i)

satisfied; which shews that the lines (iii) pass through the
points common to (i) and (ii).
Ix
*39.
in
(iii),
To find the equation of the straight
lines bisecting
the angles between the two straight lines
ax^
If the given lines
+ 2hxy + hy"^ = 0.
make
angles
6^
then {y x tan 6^ {y ^ tan 6^

the given equation
and we obtain
of
a?,
and
6^
is
with the axis

the same as
s. c. s.
'
THE STEAIGHT LINE
34
tan
6^
taD
6^
r-
(i),
and
tan
tan
^^
=7
^2
(ii)-
If 6 be the angle that one of the bisectors makes with

the axis of x, then will
and in either case
W = tan
tan
2 tan 6
^^
1
If
(^, 2/)
b ^^y
poii^t
hence
6^
+ 6^,
+ tan 6^
r^^n6>~tanr6>2
on a
tan
.,
.7
--
therefore,
tan
- tan' e ~
{d^
bisector,
+ tan
6.
= tan
6',
tan 6^ tan 6^
'
making use
of
and
(i)
(ii),
we have
for the re-
quired equation
2^?/
x^
2A
a -h'
if
c^ y^ _ xy
h
a -b
or
EXAMPLES.
1.
Shew that the two
straight
Hnes y^ -2xys.ee 6 + x- =
make an
18 =
represents
angle 6 with one another.

2
Shew
two straight
3.
that the equation x^

lines,
Shew
and
+ xy- 6y- 4- Ta? + Sly -
find the angle between them.
Ans.
and find the angle between each pair:

(x-a){y-a) = 0,
(ii)
cc^- 4^/2 = 0,
straight lines,
(i)
(iii)
(v)
(vii)
45**.
that each of the following equations represents a pair of
xy = 0,
(iv)
x^-5xy + 'iy^ = 0,
(vi)
x^
+ 2xy cot 2a -y"^ 0.
xy-2x-Sy + 6 = 0,
-5xy + 4:y^+Sx-4: = 0,
x^
THE STRAIGHT LINK
35
For what value of X does the equation

12x^-10xy + 2y^ + llx-5y + \ = O
represent two straight Hues? Shew that if the equation represents
straight lines, the angle between them is tan~if.
Aiis. X = 2.
For what value of \ does the equation
5.
4.
12x^ + \xy
+ 2y^ + llx-5y + 2^0
represent two straight lines?

6.
-10, or -
Ans.
^^.
For what value of X does the equation

12ic-?
+ S6xy + \y^ + 6x + Qy + S =
represent two straight lines?
For what value of

represent two straight Unes
7.
Are the
X does
lines real or imaginary?
the
equation
'Kxy
Ans. 28.
+ 5x + Sy + 2 =
Ans.
X=y.
Shew that the lines joining the origin to the points common to
Sx"^ + 5xy -3y^ + 2x + 3y=0 and 3x-2y = l are at right angles.
The lines are Bx^ + 5xy - By^ + {2x+ By) {Bx - 2y) = 0.
8.
Oblique Axes.
40.
To find
the equation of
axes inclined at an angle
Let
LMP be any
points i,
Let
X,
a straight
line referred to
ca.
straight line
meeting the axes in the
M.
on the
line.
Draw PiV parallel

the line
LMP,
to the axis of y
as in the figure.
and
OQ
parallel to
.'? 9,
'
THE STRAIGHT
36
; "
LINE.
NP = NQ + QP
Then
(i)
NQ = sin NOQ
T^
OJy
But
and
,^^^, = constant = m suppose,

^
J\U(^)
QP = OM = c suppose
becomes y = mx + c, which is the required
7
sin{(o
therefore (i)
equation.
If
be the angle which the line
of cc, then
sin
.'.
axis
sin 6
on
makes with the
(ft)
m sin
tan
-6')'
ft)
'
-\-
cos
711
CO
41.
Many of the investigations in the preceding
Articles apply equally whether the axes are rectangular
These may be easily recognised.
or oblique.
To find
*42.
whose
axes inclined at an angle w, are
the angle between two straight lines
equations, referred
to
given.
If the equations of the lines be
= onx +
y
and
tan u
= m
1
therefore
tan
sin
ft)
m cos
(6 6)=
-+-
//3
and tan
The
lines will
1
respectively with the
^'
=
I
sin
+m
(m - j^ sin
77i')
/I'N
+ m) cos
between the lines is

[m m)' sin
_,
tan
/I/
ft)
\-\-{in
or the angle
= mx + c,
make
be the angles they

then [Art. 40]
if 6, 6'
axis of X,
.,
and y
c,
ft)
co
cos
'
co
ft)
+ mm
>
(i)
(o
+ (7?^^-m') cos co + mm'

+ (m + m) cos
If the equations of the
ax+hy + c =
0,
ft)
if
+ mm =0
(ii).
two straight lines be

and ax + h'y + c = 0,
and 6 be the angle between them, then
m = --
and
'
THE STRAIGHT
m =
j-r
The
+ bb'
(a
,
aa
(ab'
To find
*43.
Let the
and
and
PN
let
sin
we
CO
+ bb' {aV + o!b)
cos
to
+ a'b)
cos
=0
if
(iii).
of any point
Ax -\-By + GO.
x and y in the points K, L

the point whose co-ordinates are
be the perpendicular from it on the line
let
P be
Then
APLK=AP0K4ÂPL0-AL0K
.-.
have,
line cut the axes of
respectively,
LK.
h-ab')
(i)
the perpendicular distance
(/, g) from the line
f g,
37
lines will
aa!
LINE.
and substituting these values in

tanl9-
PK LK=OK.gsmco+ OL ./sin
o)
(i),
- OK. OZ sin o).
(ii);
The
requires to be modified
for different positions of the point and of the line, unless
we make some convention with respect to the sign of the
area of a triangle, but the equation (ii) is universally true.
The student should convince himself of the truth of this
relation expressed in
by drawing
(i)
different figures.
0K = -~,
0L = -~A
B
Now
LK'= OK' + OL' - 20K OL cos
also
-^M" + B'-2AB
*44.
To find
+ 2hxy +
the axes being inclined at
If the lines be
will
co)-
the angle between the lines
ax'
then
cos
ni
an angle
y=mx
m =
-\-
by'
= 0,
w.
said y=m''xy
j-
co
THE STRAIGHT
38
and
,
wnence
7n
m" = r
LINE.
ab
2 Jli^
m = ^
But the angle between y = mx and y = m"x is

[m m") sin o)
_i
^
tan
\ ^
\1 î
m..) cos (D -\- r-7, ^[Art. 42];
+ [m +
^
therefore the angle required
is
2 \/[Jf
_i
The
lines
one another,
mm
a6} sin
h 2h cos
a^-^ + 2/ia7y + 6y^ =
ft)
-"
&>
'
are at right angles to
if
a+h 2hcos(o =
0.
Polar Co-ordinates.
45.
To find the polar equation of a straight line.
Let OJ^ be the perpendicular on the given line from
the origin, and let ON = 'p, and XOJS^= a.
Let P be any point on the line, and let the co-ordinates
of
Pber,
0.
Then, in the figure,
NOP is (0 a),
NOP = OK
and
OPcos
Therefore the required equation

r cos (0
This equation
for w,
and
r sin
may
for
2/
also
is
a) =p.
be obtained by writing r cos
w cos a + y sin a.=p.
in the equation
THE STKAIGHT
To find
46.
LINE.
39
polar equation of the
the
through two
line
given points.
Let P, Q be the given points and

be /, 6' and r'\ 6" respectively.
Let
let their co-ordinates
be any other point on the
co-ordinates of jR be
line,
and
let
the
[r, 6).
Then, since
A FOQ+ A QOR- A POR=^0,

we have
/ /' sin
{0"
- 6')
-H
V sin
{d
- 6") -
rr sin {6
The required equation is therefore,

rr" sin {0" - 6') + r"r sin {0 - 0") + rr'
sin {6'
6')
6*)
= 0.
= 0.
EXAMPLES.
1.
Shew
that the lines given by the equation y'^-x'^ =
angles to one another whatever the angle between the axes
are at right
may
be.
Find the equation of the straight line passing through the point
and cutting the Hne x + 2y = at right angles, the axes being
inclined at an angle of 60".
Ans. x = l.
2.
(1,
2)
3.
Find the angle the straight
line
y 5x+Q makes with the axis of

is f.
Ans. 45''.
X, the axes being inclined at an angle whose cosine

4.
If
then will
5.
y = mx + c and y=m'x +
If the lines
of X, then will
6.
c'
make equal
angles with the axis of
Shew
Ax^ + 2Bxy +
Cy'^
= make
equal angles with the axis
B = A cos w.
that the lines given by the equation

a;2
2a:;?/
cos
w + ?/- cos
2aj
are at right angles to one another, the axes being inclined at

7.
Find the polar co-ordinates
We
an angle
of the foot of the perpendicular
the pole on the line joining the two points
47.
x,
m + m' + 2mm' cos w = 0.
w.
from
(i\y 6-^), {r^, do).
shall conclude this chapter
by the solution of
some examples.
(1)
On the
sides of a triangle as diagona Is, parallelograms are described,
having their sides parallel
to
two given straight lines ; shew
diagonals of these parallelograms will meet in a point.
tJiat the
other
THE STRAIGHT
40
Take any two
axes.
and
lines parallel to the sides of tlie parallelograms for the
Let A, B, C, the angular points of the triangle, be
[x"', y'")
Then the
which
AB
is
or
iy'
y")
of
GD
and
{x", y').
x'
[x"
od")
+ x"'y"' - x"y" = 0,
will be
^ {y"'-y')
+ y (^"' - ^0
^'y'
- ^"'y'" = o-
of these three equations vanishes identically, therefore the
three straight lines meet in a point,

straight line
given straight lines OX,

lelogram
y")
HE will be
X {y" - y'") + y
and the equation
{x',
FK will be
+y{x'- x") + x"ij" - x'y' = 0.
Similarly the equation of
Any
{x", y")
extremities of the other diagonal of the parallelogram of
one diagonal will be seen to be

y -y" __x -
The sum
{x', y'),
respectively.
Therefore the equation of the diagonal
(2)
LINE.
OPRQ
is
is
[Art. 34.]
drawn through a fixed point
OT in the points
P,
respectively,
completed: find the equation of the locus
cutting two
and the paralo/E.
THE STRAIGHT
Take the two given
point
be/,
lines for the axes,
LINE.
and
let
41
the co-ordinates of the
g.
PQ in
Let the equation of the line
any one
of its possible positions
M=i
Then
the co-ordinates of the point
But, since the line
y=g
PQ
will be a
and
passes through the point
^.
(/, g),
the values 0;=/,
Therefore
(i).
i-h
Hence the co-ordinates a and
relation
of a
and
(ii).
j8,
/3
<"'
of the point
always satisfy the
Calling the co-ordinates of the point R, x
we have
be
and y instead
for the equation of its locus
Through a fixed point

(3)
given parallel straight lines in
any straight
P and Q
are draion in fixed directions, meeting in
line is
through
drawn meeting two
P and Q
R: prove that
straight lines
the locus of
is
straight line.
Take the
fixed point
parallel straight lines
for origin,
and
let
and the axis of y
parallel to the
two
the equations of these parallel lines be
x=a, x h.
Then,
therefore
if
its
the equation of
ordinate
ma
OPQ
P is a, and
and therefore its
be y = mx, the abscissa of
also the abscissa of
is b,
ordinate mb.
PR
be always parallel to y = m'x and

then the equation of PR will be
Let
QR always parallel to y=m"x,
y - 7na = m' (x-a)
and the equation
of
QR
will
(i),
be
y -mb = m" [x-b)
(ii).
At the point R the relations (i) and (ii) will both hold, and we can find,
any particular value of m, the co-ordinates of the point R by solving
the simultaneous equations (i) and (ii). This however is not what we
want. What we requke is the algebraic relation which is satisfied by the
To
co-ordinates [x, y) of the point R, whatever the value of m may be.
find this we have only to eliminate m between the equation (i) and (ii).
for

THE STRAIGHT
42
The
LINE.
result is
[h-a) y = m'b {x~

This equation
of the first degree,
is
a)
m"a [x-h).
and therefore the required locus
is
a straight line.
(4)
To find
and of
the centres of the inscribed circle
the escribed circles
of a triangle whose angular points are given.
Let {x\
y'),
The equation
[x'", y'")
{x\ y"),
oi
BG
be the angular points A, B,
respectively.
is
y{x"-x"')-x{y"-y"')-vy"x"'-x"y"' = Q
the equation of
CA
and the equation
(i),
is
ix'"
-x')-x{y"' -y') Vy"'x' -x"'y'-^0
of
AB
is
(ii),
y{x'-x")~x{y'-y") + y'x"-x!y" = Q
these lines from the centre of any one of the
The perpendiculars on
circles are equal in
The
(iii).
magnitude.
centres of the four circles are therefore [Art. 31] given by
^ y [x"
_^ y
- x'") - X
jx'"
iy"
- y'") + y"x"^ - x"y"'
J{x"-x'y+{y"-y"r
x') - X {y'" -y') + y"'x' - x!"y'
J{x"'-x'f + [y"'-yr
^ j{:d-x")-x{y'-f)îx"-x'y"
J[^-x'r + {y'-y'y
If the co-ordinates of the
substituted in the equations
angular points A, B,
(i), (ii),
bers of all three will be the same.

of the triangle are either all
(iii)
oi the triangle be
hand mem-
respectively, the left
Hence, [Art. 26] the angular points
on the positive
sides of the lines
(i), (ii), (iii),
or all on the negative sides.
The perpendiculars from the centre of the inscribed

drawn in the same direction
the angular points of the triangle. Hence in (iv) the
sides of the triangle are all
circle
on the
as those from
signs
of
all
the ambiguities are positive for the inscribed circle.
For the escribed

respectively.
circles
the signs are
-\
1- ,
and +
THE STRAIGHT
Examples on Chapter
1.
A straight
line
moves
43
LINE.
II.
sum
so that the
on two fixed intersecting

passes through a fixed point.
cals of its intercepts
shew that
2.
it
Prove that
hx'
2hxy + ay"^ =
of the recipro-
lines is constant j
two straight
represents
lines at right angles respectively to the straight lines
ax^
2hxi/
hy^
0.
Find the equation to the n straight lines through

perpendicular respectively to the Hues given by the
equation
3.
(a,
}))
+ F^" =
VST +iî2/""'^ + Z^22/""'^' +

4.
Find the angles between the straight
0-
lines represented
by the equation
^ + Zx^y - Zxy"^ -2/^ = 0.

B
OA^ OB are two fixed straight lines, A,

being fixed
5.
points; P, Q are any two points on these lines such that the
is constant; shew that the locus of the
ratio oi
to
is a straight line.
middle point of
AP
6.
culars
that
it
7.
BQ
PQ
If a straight line be such that the
upon
will
sum
of the perpendi-
from any number of fixed points

pass through a fixed point.
it
PM,
shew
PN are the perpendiculars from a point P on
fixed straight lines
which meet in
parallel to the fixed straight lines to
the locus of
is zero,
P be
MQ,
NQ
meet in Q
a straight line, the locus of
are
two
drawn
prove that,
if
will also be a
straight line.
8.
A straight line OPQ is drawn through a fixed
meeting two fixed straight
point 0,
and in the
straight line OPQ a point P is taken such that OP, OR, OQ
are in harmonic progression; shew that the locus of it is a
lines in the points P, Q,
straight line.
Find the equations of the diagonals of the parallelogram

9.
formed by the lines
a=0, a = G,
where
and
a'
=0, a'=c,
= x cos a + y sin a j^,
a ElX cos a
+y sin a
^j>'.
THE STEAIGHT
44
LINE.
ABCD
AB
Taking A as pole, and

10.
is a parallelogram.
as initial line, find the polar equations of the four sides and of
the two diagonals.
From
11.
a given point
k) perpendiculars are
(A,
drawn
and their feet are joined prove that the length of

the perpendicular from {h, k) upon this line is
to the axes
sinô)
F+2Mcos(u}'
hx ky= li? W.
^{A' +
and that
its
equation
is
The
distance of a point (ajj, y^ from each of two

which pass through the origin of co-ordinates,
prove that the two lines are given by
12.
straight lines,
is 8
Shew
13.
Euclid
I.
that the lines
FC^ KB, and
AL
in the figure to
47 meet in a point.
Find the equations of the sides of a square the

two opposite angular points of which are 3, 4
14.
co-ordinates of
and
1,
15.
triangle
1,
Find the equation of the locus of the vertex of a

which has a given base and given difference of base
angles.
Find the equation of the locus of a point at which

16.
two given portions of the same straight line subtend equal
angles.
17.
on the
The product
X cos 6 + y
is
of the perpendiculars
drawn from a point
lines
sin
6^
a,
cos
<j>
-^y sin
equal to the square of the perpendicular
same point on the

X
+2^^ + y sm e+2-
4>
cb
-^
shew that the equation of the locus
PB
=a
drawn from the
line
e
cos
<ji
=-
a cos
e-d>
-
2
'
of the point is x^
-\-y^
a^.
18.
PA,
are straight lines passing through the fixed
points A,
and intercepting a constant length on a given
straight line ; find the equation of the locus of P.
'
THE STRAIGHT
19.
%=
Shew
20.
2hxy +
ao?
4-
ax^
+ 2hxy +
that the area of the triangle formed
hy^
Shew
21.
+ my + n =
n'J(h'-ab)
am^ 2hlm + bl^
and
Ix
by the
lines
is
that the angle between one of the lines given by

= 0, and one of the lines
by^
ax^
is
45
The area of the parallelogram formed by the straight

7a^, 4:X + 2>y^ 7b^, and 4:X + 3^= 76^
+ 4?/ = 7a^, 3x +
- a^) (&, - 6,).
lines 3ic
is 7 (a^
LINE.
+ 2hxy +
by^
+X
(x"
y^)
0,
equal to the angle between the other two lines of the system.
Find the condition that one of the

ax^ + 2hxy + by^ = 0,
coincide
with
may
one of the lines
22.
a'x^
b'y^
0.
Find the condition that one of the

ax^ + 2hxy + by^ = 0,
23.
may
+ 2h'xy +
lines
lines
be perpendicular to one of the lines
aV + 2h'xy + b'y^ = 0.
Shew that the
24.
point
(1, 8) is
circle of the triangle the equations of

4:y
+ 3x = 0, 12y5x =
0,
the centre of the inscribed

whose sides are
y 15 =
0, respectively.
Shew that the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle

25.
inscribed in the triangle the co-ordinates of whose angular points
are (1, 2), (2, 3) and (3, 1) are 1(8-^^10) and 1(16-^10).
Find also the centres of the escribed circles distinguishing the
different cases.
26.
If the axes be rectangular, prove that the equation

(x^
3y")
X = 7ny inf
3x'^)
represents three straight lines through the origin

angles with one another.
27.
point
(x'j
Shew
making equal
that the product of the perpendiculars from the

lines ax? \- 21yxy + by^ = 0, is equal to
y) on the
ax'^
+ 2hx^y +
by'^
J{a-by-\-4.^'
THE STRAIGHT
46
If
28.
LINE.
p^ be the perpendiculars from

+ 2hxi/ -f hy^ = 0, j)rove that
^jj,
{x,
on the
y)
straight lines ax'
{p! + P/)
{(
-W +
4/^'}
2 ( - 6) {ax'
+ 4ch{a + h)
- bf)
xy + \h^
{x'
if).
Shew
that the locus of a point such that the product

of the perpendiculars from it upon the three straight lines
represented by
ay^ + hy^x + cyo^ + dv? =
29.
is
constant and equal to k^
+ by'x + cyx' + dx^ k^ J {a cf + (b df =

30.
Shew that the condition that two of the
presented by the equation
Ax' + SBxy + ZCxif -\-Dy'=0
ay^
is
may be
31.
at right angles
Shew
a
0.
lines re-
is
that the equation

{x"
represents two
2/')
4.bxy (of
- y') + QcxY =
straight lines at right angles, and that,

two pairs will coincide.
The necessary and sufficient condition that two of the
32.
lines represented by the equation
if 2b'
a' +
paii's of
3ac, the
ay"^
bxy'
should be at right angles

{b
+ d) {ad +
cx^y^
+ dx'y + ex^Ô
is
be)
{e
- af
{a
e)
0.
She\y that the straight lines joining the origin to the

points of intersection of the two curves
33.
+ 2hxy 4- by' + 2gx = 0,

ax' + 21}!xy + b'y' + 2gx = 0,
angles to one another, if g{a + b)=g
ax'
and
will be at right
{a'
+ b').
34.
Prove that, if the perpendiculars from the angular
points of one triangle upon the sides of a second meet in
a point, the perpendiculars from the angular points of the
second on the sides of the first will also meet in a point.
If the angular points of a triangle lie on three fixed

which meet in a point, and two of the sides pass
through fixed points, then will the thii'd side also pass through
35.
straight lines
a fixed point.
CHAPTER
Change of Axes.
III.
Anhaemonic Eatios, or Ceoss
Ratios.
Involuttox.
Change of Axes.
48.
When we know
to one set of axes,
the equation of a curve referred
we can deduce the equation
referred to
another set of axes.

49.
To change the origin of co-ordinates tuithout
changing the direction of the axes.
OF
be the original axes; 0'X\ O'Y' the new

Let OX,
axes; O'X' being parallel to OX, and O'Y' being parallel
Let h, k be the co-ordinates of 0' referred to the
to OY.
original axes.
CHANGE OF AXES.
48
Let
P be
any point whose co-ordinates referred to the

and referred to the new axes x, y'.
X'
parallel to OY, cutting OX in if and 0'
old axes are x, y,
Draw
in
Then
PM
x=OM=OK + KM= OK^ 0'iV= h+x,
y = MP=MN+NP = KO' +XF = k+y'.
Hence the old co-ordinates of any point are found in terms

of the new co-ordinates; and if these values be substituted
in the given equation, the new equation of the curve will
be obtained.
In the above the axes
may
be rectangular or oblique.
50.
To change the diiêction of the axes without
changing the origin, both systems being rectangular.
the new
Let OX,
Z be the original axes OX,
= 6,
and let the angle
Let
be any point whose co-ordinates are x, y referred to the original axes, and x', y referred to the new
;
axes
XOX
axes.
to
PN,
Then
to
Draw
OX, PN perpendicular
OX, and N'L perpendicular
PN perpendicular to
0X\ N'M perpendicular
to
as in the figure.
= OX=OM-NM=OM- LF
= ON' cos e-XP sine
= x' cos 6 y' sin 6
y = XP= XL + LP = MX' + LP
= OX'smO + NPcose
= x' sin A-y' cos 6.
CHANGE OF AXES.
49
Hence the old co-ordinates of any point are found in

terms of the new co-ordinates; and if these values be
substituted in the given equation, the new equation of the
curve will be obtained.
Ex.
What
1.
does the equation Sx^
+ 2xy + Sy"^ - 18a; - 22?/ + 50 ==
come when referred to rectangular axes through the point

axis of X making an angle of 45 ivith the old?
First change the origin, by putting x'
The new
+ 2,
y'
+S
for x,
(2, 3),
be-
the
new
y respectively.
equation will be
+ 2)^ + 2{x' + 2){y' + B) + S{2/ + S)^-18{x' + 2)-22(ij' + S) + 50 = 0;

3x'^ + 2x'y' + 3y'^ -1 = 0,
which reduces to
S{x'
or,
suppressing the accents, to

Zx'^
To turn
+ 2xy + 3y'^ = l
the axes through an angle of 45 we
(i).
must write
ij'
a;'
for X,
and
x' rT-\- y'
iox
3/'''-2/'V +
which reduces to
Ex.
2.
A.x''^
y.
Equation
2^'-^'
^'
3.
will then be
+ y\of^^' + y'
.
+ 2y"^ = l.
"What does the equation
origin is transferred to the point (-
Ex.
(i)
\/2
\J2
x'^
1,
- y"^ + 2x + A^y = Q become when the
2)?
Ans. cc^- 2/2+3 = 0.
Shew that the equation Qx"^ + bxy - Qy^ -nx + 7y + 5 = 0, when
referred to axes through a certain point parallel to the original axes will
become Qx^ + 5xy Ex.
4.
6y^ = 0.
What does
the equation
4a;2
+ 2yySxy + 2y^ -1 = become when

30*'?
Ans. 5x^ + y'^-l 0.
the axes are turned through an angle of
Ex. 5. Transform the equation x^-2xy + y^ + x -Sy =

to axes
through the point (-1, 0) parallel to the lines bisecting the angles beAns. \/2y^ x = 0.
tween the original axes.

Ex.
6.
Transform the equation x^ + cxy + y'^ a^, by turning the
rect-
or
angular axes through the angle
51.
To change from one
without changing the origin.
s. C. s.
set
of oblique axes
to another,
CHANGE OF AXES.
50
CO
I
(O
Let OX, OF be the original axes inclined at an angle

and 0X\ OY' be the new axes inclined at an anHe
and let the ang^le XOX' = 6.
be any point whose co-ordinates are x, y referred to the original axes, and x, y referred to the new
Let
axes; so that in the figure OM=x, MP=y, OM' = x,

and M'P parallel
and M'P = y', 3fP being parallel to
to OY'.
perpendicular to OX, and M' G
and M'
Draw
perpendicular to PK.
OF
PK
KP=KG + GP = HM' + OP;
Then
.'.
y sin
Similarly,
(o
= x' sin XOX' + y sin XOY'

= X sin + y sin (6 + w).
by drawing
PL
perpendicular to OY,
we
can shew that
sin
o)
= ^'
sin
X'OF - y sin FO r
=x
sin
{(o
6)
sin (w'
co).
These formulse are very rarely used. The results which

would be obtained by the change of axes are generally
found in an indirect manner, as in the following Article.
*52.
changed
If ^y w^ change of axes ax^ +

into a'x"^
^h'x'y
h'y^, then will
'^hxy
4-
hy^ he
CHANGE OF AXES.
a+b
2h cos co
-\-
sin^
ab-h'
-^-^
and
2h' cos
h'
sin^ CO
51
= a'b'-h'^
co'
co
'
sin'o)'
on and co
are the angles of inclination of the two
of axes.
If
be the origin and
be any point whose co-ordinates are x, y referred to the old axes and x, y referred to
the new, then OF'^ is equal to x^ + y^ -f- 2xy cos w, and also
equal to x'^ 4- y'^ + 2xy' cos co^
where
sets
Hence
x^ -\-y^
2xy cos
-\-
co is
changed into
+y + Zxy
cos
co
by supposition,
ax^ + 2hxy -f by^ is changed into a'x'^ + 2h'xy + b'y"^.
Therefore, if X be any constant,
ao^ + 'ihxy -{-by"^ + X (x^ + 2xy cos co 4- y^) will be changed
ax^ + 2h'xy + 6y^ -I- X (x^ + 2x'y cos o)' + y'^).
into
Therefore, if \ be so chosen that one of these expressions
Also,
is
a perfect square, the other will also be a perfect square

same value of X.
for the
The
first will
(a
be a perfect square
+ X)
and the second
(6 -h X)
{/i
if
+ X cos coy = 0,
if
+ X)
{a
{b'
X}~{Ii
+\ cos co'y = 0.
These two quadratic equations for finding X must

have the same roots. Writing them in the forms
cos co
ab h^
a + b 2h
2
^-
and
:
sin
-\
a'^b'
2h' cos
sin
^-5
-\
sm =
7-^
-\
a'b'
co' ^
- h"
-
^^
-\
CO
we
0,
co
CO
sm
= ^0,
co
see that
a-\-b
2h cos w
sin^
CO
a'+b'
2h! cos
co'
sin*'' co'
42
52
CHANGE OF AXES.
and
ah-h' ca'-K'
^^ = ,-2
sm
sm
,
&>
....
v-V-
/'
ft)
both sets of axes are at right angles these equations

take the simpler forms
If
+ = a' + 6^
^,
and ah
- h' = a - Ji'
The degree of an equation
53,
is
(iii).
not altered hy any
alteration of the axes.
For, from Articles 49, 50, and 51, we see that, however
the axes may be changed, the new equation is obtained
by substituting for x and y expressions of the form
Ix'
+ nny' + n, and
I'x
+ niy + n.
These expressions are of the first degree, and therefore if

they replace x and y in the equation the degree of the
Neither can the degree
equation will not be raised.
of the equation be loioered, for, if it were, by returning to
the original axes, and therefore to the original eouation,
the deojree would be raised.
Ex.
ax"'
1.
Prove, by actual transformation of rectangular axes, that
+ 2hxy + 11/ become
a'x'-
+ 1h'2(^y' + h'y"^, then
will
a+
if
= a' + h', and
h'^-ab^h'^-aJh'.
Ex,
2.
If
the foiTnula for transformation from one set of axes to
another with the same origin be
x=mx' + ny',
y=vi'x'
+ n'y'; shew
that
m^ + m''^- l._vim'
n^ + n'~-l
^x^
+ y^ + 2xy cos
0}
will
become x"^ + y'^ + 2x'y' cos

and y, and equate
fore the given expressions for x

y''^
to unity,
'
nnf
and then eliminate cos
o/.
Substitute there-
coefficients of x"^
and
w.]
Anharmonic or Cross Ratios.

*54.
A set of points on a straight line is called a
range ; and a set of straight lines passing through a point
is called a iêncil ; each line is called a ray of the pencil.
If P, Q, B, S be four points on a straight line, the
ANHARMONIC OR CROSS
PO
ratio j~.
Jii^
_PSi
:
^-^
Mo
or
PQ BS PS .RQ
.
53
RATIOS.
called the anhar-
is
monic ratio or cross ratio of the range P, Q, R,
S,
and
is
expressed by the notation {PQRS}.

If OP, OQ, OR, OS he a pencil of four straight lines
the ratio sin POQ sin ROS
sin. POS
is called
sin
the anharmoniG ratio or cross ratio of the pencil, and is
expressed by the notation
{PQRS}.
If the cross ratio of a pencil or of a range is equal to
1 it is said to be harmonic.
It is easy to shew that if {PQRS] = 1, then
.
ROQ
PQ:PS::PR-PQ PS - PR,
:
PQ, PR, PS are in harmonical progression.

P, Q, R, S he 3, harmonic range, then Q and
so that
If
said to be harmonically conjugate "with respect to
*55.
are
P and R.
in a point
he cut hy any straight line in the points P, Q, R, S,
the cross ratio of the range P, Q, R, S tuill he equal
to that
If four
of the
straight
^pencil
lines
intersecting
OP, OQ, OR, OS.
For^ if ^ be the length of the perpendicular from
the line
PQRS, we have
on
ANHARMONIC OR CROSS RATIOS.
54
p .PQ = OP.OQ?.\nPOQ,
.BS= OR. OS sin ROS,
p .PS=OP.OSsmPOS,
p .RQ = OQ.ORsmROQ.
2:^
PQ.RS ^
POQ
FS RQ~ sin P08
Hence
sin
sin
ROS
sin
POQ'
{PQRS} =
{PQRS}.
If the pencil be cut by any two straight lines in
the points P, Q, R, S and P', Q\ R' S' respectively, as in
the figure, the cross ratios of the ranges P, Q, R, 8 and
that
is
be equal to one another, since they are

both equal to the cross ratio of the pencil.
If we draw the transversal P" Q" R" parallel to OS,
it will meet OS at an infinitely distant point, and, representing this point by the symbol 00 we have
P', Q', R', S' will
0{PQRS} = {P'Q"E'
.
00
R"^
P QC
since ^v7
55^, = gf;
IS
unity.
''
Tofina the cross ratio of the pencil formed by the

lines whose equations are
x = 0, y mx = 0, y =
and y in'x = 0.
Draw the line x = h cutting y mx = in P, the axis
of X in N, and y m'x =
in Q.
= mh.
Then J^Q = mh, and
*56.
NP
0{YPXQ}
= "4---^f
^^ = {^Pm='^4^S
ccQ.NP = NP mh m
^
From
the above
^=
0,
we
see that the four lines
y mx =0, y =
and y
+ mx =
form a harmonic
pencil.
If the axes are at ris^ht anofles to one another the lines
m,x
mx
make equal angles with either
0, and y
axis.
Hence, if a pencil be harmonic and two alternate rays

be at right angles to one another, they will bisect the
internal and external angles between the other two.
ANHARMONIC OR CROSS
To find
*57.
four
the cross ratio
RATIOS.
55
of the pencil formed by the
lines
y = hx, y =
lx,
y = mx, y
OH
Draw any
in the points
H, and
Then
Now
let
X
JSf
OY
cutting the given lines

respectively, and the axis of x in
line parallel to
K, L, M,
nx.
OH = x.
{KLMm = f^^J ^f
KL = HL-HK=lx -kx,
.
MN = HN- HM= nx'-mx,

KN = E^"^- HK= nx- kx,
ML =HL- HM= Ix - mx.
[KLMN] = ^j^r^'^^T'^X
Hence
n){m
{k
'
I)
*58. To find the condition that the lines given hy the two
and
equations ax^ + 2hxy + hy"^ =
+ ^h'xy + h'y"^ =
may he harmonically conjugate.
aV
Let the pairs of lines be y = ax, y = olx

and
y = ^x, y = ^'x.
=
=
ax, y
$x, y = ax, and y=^'x form a harThen, if y
monic pencil, "we must have [Art. 57]
;
(a-^)(a'-^-)
(a-/3')(a'-/3)
or
2aa'
2/3/3'
(a
_
'
+ a')(/3 +
/3')-
ANHAEMONIC OR CROSS
56
But, from the given equations

,
a-\-
we have
2h
ay.
J-
/3+/3'
h'
Hence
the condition required

ab'
*59.
We can
'
RATIOS.
=j
^^
b'
is
+ o!b = 2hk\
shew in a similar manner that the pairs
by the equations
2kx +h = 0, and a'' + 2h'x
of points given
ax^
are harmonically conjugate

ab'
+ b' = 0,
if
+ ab =
2hh:.
Each of the three diagonals of a quadrilateral

divided harmonically hy the other two diagonals.
*60.
Let the straight lines
QAB, QDC,
PDA
and
PCB
is
be
57
INVOLUTION.
the sides of the quadrilateral. The line joining the point

of intersection of two of these lines with the point of
intersection of the other two is called a diagonal of the
There are therefore three diagonals, viz.
quadrilateral.
the figure.
BD
in
AG,
PQ,
We
have to prove that
{AOGR} = {BODS} = [QSPR] = -1.

Let
QO
cut
AD in K and BG in
L.
Then, from Art. 55,
{AOGR} = Q{AOCR} = {AKDP}

= 0{AKDP} = {GLBP}
And,
{A
since
= Q{GLBP} =[GOAR}.
GR} = {COAR},
AO.CRCO.AR
^^
AR.GO" GR.AO'
:.
We
coincide
{A0GR} = 1.
negative sign, for two of the rays

the anharmonic ratio of a pencil be equal to + 1.
must take the

if
This follows from Art. 55, for
if
^7, = 1, then P"
and R"
are coincident.
AG
Hence the diagonal
\^
cut harmonically.
We
can prove in a similar manner

diagonals are divided harmonically.
that the
other
Involution.
*61.
line,
line
Bef.
and P, P';
Let
(?,
be a fixed point on a given straight

R, R'', &c. pairs of points on the
Q';
such that
OP .OP'ÔQ. 0Q'=0R.0R'=
a const. =^^
these points are said to form a system in involution,

Two points
is called the centre.
of which the point
such as P, P' are said to be conjugate to one another. The
point conjugate to the centre is at an infinite distance.
Then
INVOLUTION.
58
If each point be on the same side of the centre as its

conjugate, there will be two points K^, K^, one on each side
OK^'=OP.OP'. These
of the centre, such that
points K^, K^ are called double points or foci.
It is clear that when the two foci are given the involu-
OKl=
completely determined.
involution is also completely determined when two
pairs of conjugate points are given.
For, let a, a and h, h' be the distances of these points
from any point in the straight line upon which they lie,
and let x be the distance of the centre of the involution
from that point. Then we have the relation
tion
is
An
x) (a x) = {h x) {U x),
(a + a b ) X = aa' bb'.
{a
or
Hence there is only one position of the centre.

The position of the centre can be found geometrically
circles one through each of the two pairs of
conjugate points, then [Euclid ill. 37] the common chord
of the circles will cut the line on which the points lie in
the required centre.
by drawing
If any number of points be in involution the môss

of any four points is equal to that of their four con-
*62.
ratio
jugates.
Let P, Q, R, S be any four points, and let the distances

of these points from the centre be p, q, r, s respectively and
therefore those of their conjugates -
_ Tc\
- ^9~p)\s~r)
fk
nr,.1
[P'D'-R'^'X
\s
Hence
The above
- respectively.
k\ fk
p)
\q
p-q)ir-s)
r)
[PQRS] = {F QR'S'].
gives us at ODce a means of testing whether

or not six points are in involution. For P, P' will be con-
INVOLUTION.
59
jugate points in the involution determined by A, A' and

[ABA'P] = {A'B'AF}.
B, B, if
Any huo
*63.
two foci form
conjugate points of an involution

a harmonic range.
and
the
the centre of
Let K^, K^ be the two foci, and
=
the invokition, and let KÔ
c= OK^.
Then, if P, P' be the two conjugates we have to prove
that
KP.
KP = -1.
K^F,K^P
(c + OP) {OP' - c) + (c + OP'){OP - c) = 0,
OP.OP' = c\
or
or
which we know
*64.
If
to be true.
any number of
pairs of points in involution
we obtain
be joined to any point
may be said to be in involution.
d^.
pencil of lines which
Such a pencil is cut by any other transversal in pairs of

points which are in involution. This follows from Articles
55 and 62.
EXAMPLES.
1.
If P, Q,
E, S be any four points on a straight
PQ.ES+PR
2.
Shew
line,
then
.SQ + PS .Qli = 0.
that
{PQPS} = {QPSR} = {RSPQ}

3.
Shew that
4.
Shew
that,
= {SRQP}.
hy taking four points in different orders, six and only

and that of these six three are the
six different cross ratios are obtained,
reciprocals of the other three.

5.
If
{PQRS}=-1, shew
that
{SRQP}=^ ~1,
{PRQS} = 2,
{PSQR} = h.
6.
If
{PQRS] - -
1,
and
be the middle point of PR, then
OP^=OQ.OS.
and
CHAPTER
The
65.
To find
IV.
Circle.
the equation
of a
circle referred
to
any
rectangidar axes.
any point on
Let G be the centre of the circle, and
circumference. Let d, e be the co-ordinates of C; x, y
the co-ordinates of P; and let a be the radius of the circle.
its
Draw CM,
PN parallel to
in the figure.
OY, and O/f parallel
Then
CK' + KP'=CP\
to
OX,
as
THE CIRCLE.
GK = x d,
But
(C(^- dy
and
61
KP = y e\
(i),
^{\j-ef-^(.\;

If the centre of the circle be the origin, d and
both be zero, and the equation of the Sfclewill be
is
^^2
The equation
(i)
_^
2/^
= a^
may be
(ii).
written
x^ + / - Idx - 2ey + d' +
The equation
of
any
'x'
where
g,
f and
e'
a'
circle is therefore of the
+f +
e will
2gx+2fij
+ c=0.
0.
form
(iii),
are constants.
Conversely the equation
(iii)
is
the equation of a
circle.
For
may be
it
written
this last equation shews that the distance from any

point on the locus of the equation (iii) from the point
and
(
g, f)
^g^
The
constant and equal to wg^ +/^ c.
therefore represents a circle of radius
is
equation
(iii)
+y^
c,
the centre of the circle being at the point
g +f^
= the radius of the circle is zero, and the

a point-circle.
If g^ +f^ c be negative, no real values of x and of y
will satisfy the equation, and the circle is called an imaginary circle.
If
circle is called
66.
We
have seen that the general equation of a
circle is
x^
y''
+ 2gx+2fy-\'C = 0.
This equation contains three constants. If we want to

find the equation of a circle which passes through three
given points, or which is defined in some other manner, we
assume the equation to be of the above form and determine the values of the constants g, f, c for the circle
in question from the given conditions.
THE
62
For example
CIRCLE.
To find the equation of the
passes through the three points (0, 1),

Let the equation of the circle be
^^
2/'
(1, 0)
+ ^x + 2/7/ + c =
circle
and
which
(2, 1).
0.
Then, since (0, 1) is on the circle, the equation must be

by putting ^ = and 3/ = l;
satisfied
.-.
Also, since (1, 0)
is
(2, 1) is
+2/+c = 0.
on the curve,
1
And, since
+ 2^ + c = 0.
on the curve,
+ 1 + % + 2/+ c = 0.
g =/= 1, and c = l.
4
Whence
The required
equation
is
therefore
^^+ y^ 2x 2i/
To find the equation of a

an angle co.
67.
-h
0.
circle lulien the axes are
inclined at
The square
point {d, e) will
(x
of the distance of the point
(^,
y)
from the
be equal to
df + (2/ ef +
2 (^
d)
{y
e)
cos w.
[Art. 4.]
Therefore the equation of the circle whose centre

the point (d, e), and whose radius is a, will be
at
- cZ)^ + {y -ef+2 {x - d) (y - e) cos w = a^

x^ +
^-^xy cos w 2x {d + e cos co) 2y (e + d cos co)
(ii).
+ d^ + e^ + 2de cosm a^ =
{x
or
is
(i),
2/^
Any
circle therefore referred to oblique
axes has
its
equation of the form

x^
+y^
-\-
2xy cos
co
2gx + 2fy
+c=
(iii),
g, f, c are constants so long as we consider one

particular circle, but are different for different circles.
The equation (iii) will still be true if we multiply
where
throughout by any constant
it
then takes the form
(iv).
Aa^ + 2A cos (o xy + Ay^ + 2Gx-\- 2Fy -{ G =
Hence the equation of a circle referred to oblique axes is
THE
63
CIRCLE.
second degree, the coefficients of x'^ and y^ are

equal to one another, and the ratio of the coefficients
of xy and x'^ is 2 cos co, where w is the angle between
the axes.
of the
We
can find the centre and radius of the
by the
circle represented
+ 2gx-\-2fy + c = 0. For it will be identical

with {x-df + {y - ey- + 1{x- d){y -e) COB w-cv^ Q, if d + eco^ o:~ - g,
e + d cos cj = -/, and d^ +
+ 2de cos co-a'^ = c. We therefore have d sin^ w
=/ cos oj g,e sin^ o} = g cos co -f, and a- sin- w =f^ + g^- '^fg cos w - c sin- w.
equation
x^-\-y'^-{-2xy Q,OQo3
e'^
EXAMPLES.
Find the radii and the co-ordinates of the centres of the circles
1.
whose equations are (i) x^-^y"^- x-y = 0, (ii) 4a;^ + 4?/^ + 4x - Sy + 3 = 0.
Ans.
i.
centre
(|, |),
Find the equation

and (0, b).
2.
radius-^-;
of the circle
ii.
(a, 0),
circle
Shew
4.
be
a^ 0.
and
{x'\ y")
respectively, the equation of the circle will be
+ {y-y'){y-y") = 0.
line joining
any point
the axis of x an angle tan"^
an angle tan
that, if the co-ordinates of the extremities of a diameter of a
{x', y')
{^x-x'){x-x")
[The
which passes through the points
Ans. x^ + y'^-\
circle
radius
Ans. x^ + y^-ax-by = 0.

(- a, 0) and (0, b).
3.
1),
which passes through the points
(a, 0)
(0, 0),
{-\,
centre
y - y"
j,
(.t,
y~ y'
y)
on the
circle to
the line joining
{x', y')
makes with
to {x", y")
Since these lines are at right angles,
makes
we have
X- X X - X
{x-x'){x-x") + {y-y')[y-y") = Ol
or
5.
Shew
that
if
the co-ordinates of the extremities of a diameter be
and [x", y") respectively, the equation of the circle will be

(a; - x') [x - x") + {y- y') {y - y") + {{y - y') {x - x!') + {y - y") {x - x')] cos
{x', y')
a,
= 0,
ta
being the angle between the axes.
THE CIRCLE.
64
If the equation x^
6.
+ xy-\-y^-\-1x-\-2y =
represent a circle,
shew
and
that the axes are inclined at an angle of 60", and find the centre
radius of the circle.
Ans. centre (- f - |)
,
Find the equation

and {x'", y'").
7.
radius
of the chcle through the three points
--
{x', y'),
{x", y"),
Def. Let two points P, Q be taken on any curve,

the point Q move along the curve nearer and nearer
to the point P; then the limiting position of the line PQ,
when Q moves up to and ultimately coincides with P,
is called the tangent to the curve at the point P.
The line through the point
perpendicular to the
tangent is called the normal to the curve at the point P.
68.
and
let
To find the equation of the tangent at

69.
a^.
the circle luhose equation is x^ -\-y^
any
iôint
of
Let X y and x" y" be the co-ordinates of two points

on the circle.
The equation of the secant through the points [a^ y)
and (x" y") is
,
x-x _ y-y'
X X
y y
But, since the two points are on the
x'^
+ y" =
Multiply
and
(i)
(ii),
the
f2
a',
and x"
"2
circle, wê
y''
-^ =y -y
111
corresponding
have
a'
/"N
'2
(n).
sides
of the
equations
and we have
(x-x')(x+x') = -(y-y){y+y")
(iii).
Let (x", y") move up to and ultimately coincide with
then in the limit the chord becomes the tangent
The equation of the tangent at {x\ y') is therey').
fore obtained by putting x" = x, and y" = y[ in equation
(iii)
the result is
{x y')
at (x\
y
{x
~ x) X +
(y
- y')
y'
0,
THE
or
+ yy = x^ + y'^
a)x + yy' = a^
xoo
.'.
is
65
CIRCLE.
the required equation of the tangent at the point
To find
70.
the equation
{x',
y).
of the tangent at any point of
the chxle tvhose equation is
x'
y\
{x",
+ "^.gx +
2/?/
+ c = 0.
of the secant through the
The equation
{x\
2/^
two points
y") will be
~y
Since the two points are on the
circle,
we have
^gx + ^fy' + c = 0,
x" +
x'"" + y'" + "Igx" + 2/2/" + c = 0,
(x' -x'){x +x' +^g) = -{y' -y'){y +y''+^f)...(i^).
y'^ -V
.,
Multiply the corresponding sides of the equations

and (ii), and we get for the equation of the secant
{x - x') {x' + x" + 2g) = -{y- y') {y' + y"+ 2/).
The equation
of the tangent at {x
(i)
therefore
y') will
be
{x-x){x'+g) + (y-y') (/ +/) =0,

xx + yy' + gx fy = x' + y'^ 4- gx 4- fy.
_
or
Add gx+fy+c
the
circle,
both sides then, since {x y)

the equation of the tangent becomes
XX +yy'
To find
71.
to
is
on
+ g{x + x) +f{y + y') + c = 0.
the equation
of the normal at any point of
circle.
Let the equation of the
circle
be
x' -\-y^= a^.
If {x y) be any point on the

tangent at that point will be
circle,
xod
The equation
to
(i)
is
+ yy =
the equation of the
(i).
a'^
of the line through {x\
y) perpendicular
[Art. 30]
{x-x)y -{:y-y)x! =
s.c.s.
0,
66
IHE cmcLE.
or
xyyx =
(ii).
the required equation of the normal at {x y).

from equation (ii) that the normal at any
point of the circle passes through the origin, that is through
the centre of the circle.
This
is
It is clear
To find the points of intersection of a given

and a circle.
72.
line

^'
and
let
2/'
circle
straight
be
= a'
(i),
the equation of the straight line be
= mx 4- c
(ii).
points which are common to the straight line and the

both these relations are satisfied. Points on the
straight line satisfy the equation y^ = [mx 4- c)^ and points
At
circle
on the
the
circle satisfy
common
or
points
x^ (1
the equation y^
we have
{mx + cf =
+ tn^) +
2??ic^
= d^ x^
x^,
+ c" =
hence
for
a^
(iii).
a'^
This is a quadratic equation, and every quadratic equation

has two roots, real, coincident or imaginary.
Hence there are two values of x, and the two corresponding values of y are found from (ii). So that every
straight line meets a circle in two real, coincident, or
imaginary points imaginary points being those one or
both of whose co-ordinates are imagioary.
It is impossible to represent geometrically the two
imaginary points of intersection of a straight lin-e and
a circle we shall find however that imaginary points and
and it is
lines have often an important significance
necessary to consider them in order to enunciate our
theorems in their most general forms.
The roots of the equation (iii) will be equal to one
another,
if
(1
that
is,
if
+ m^) (c' - a^) = mV,

c^ = a^ (1 + m^)
(iv).
THE
67
CIRCLE.
If the two values of x are equal to one another the two

values of y must also be equal to one another from (ii).
Therefore the two points in which the circle

the line will be coincident
Hence the
circle x"
y"^
if
is
cut by
c = a ^/ 1 + m\
line
y=mx-\-asl\-\-iiiib'
a^ for all values of m.
will
toucli
the
Since either sign may be given to the radical ^1 + m^,

it follows that there are two tangents to a circle for every
value of m, that is, there are two tangents parallel to any
given straight line.
To find
73.
jparallel chords
of a
Take the centre
of the middle jjoints of a system of
the locus
circle.
of the circle for origin, and the axis of
parallel to the chords.

^'
and
let
circle be
'
2/'
(i);
the equation of any one of the parallel chords be
y-c = o
Where
(i)
and
(ii)
meet we have
x'^
:.
(ii).
+ c^ =
x=
a^',
Jtr
G^.
Since the two values of x are equal and opposite,
it
follows that the middle point of the chord has its abscissa
zero, that is, the middle point of the chord is always on
the axis of y. This is true for all values of c. If c > a
the two values of x are both imaginary, but their sum
is still zero,
still
and therefore the middle point
on the axis of y.
The
locus of the middle points of

therefore the straight line
which is perpendicular to the chords
however be supposed to be limited to
circle is
line
of the chord is
which
74.
is
within the
parallel chords of a
through the centre
the locus need not
that portion of this
circle.
In the preceding Articles we have assumed no
geometrical properties of the circle except
tiiat
the distance
THE
68
CIRCLE.
from any point to the centre is constant. Some of our

results may be obtained more readily by assuming the
For instance, let
propositions proved in Euclid, Book iii.
{x y') be any point on the circle whose equation is
-\- y^ = c^
the equation of the line from {x y) to the
centre of the circle
= 0,
is
perpendicular line through {x,

{x
And by
x) X +
Euclid
y') is [Art.
{y y) y =0
iii.
this line
is
and the equation of a
or xx'
30]
yy'
a^
= 0.
the tangent at the point.
Tivo tangents can be dratun to a circle from any

these tiuo tangents will he real if the point he
outside the circle, coincident if the point he on the circle, and
imaginary if the point he within the circle.
75.
point
and
be
circle
+y = a
2
,
and
let h, k be the co-ordinates of any point.

Let x', y be
the co-ordinates of any point on the circle, then the
equation of the tangent at {x\ y) will be
+ yy = a^.
XX
The tangent
hx
But
{x
y)
on the
is
Equations
(i)
ky
and
-\-
(ii)
a^
(i).
therefore
y'^
d^
(ii)-
determine the values of x and of

at which pass through the
for the points the tangents
particular
we
point
Substitute
k).
(h,
for
y in
and
(ii)
get
,2
or
4-
circle,
x'^
pass through the point
at {x, y') will
h) if
{h,
x' {P
Equation
k')
/a'
- hx\
2a'hx
+ a'
(â'
- k') =
gives the abscissae, and from

the corresponding ordinates. Since equation
(iii)
(iii).
(i)
we get
(iii)
is
a-
THE CIRCLE.
69
quadratic equation, there are two points the tangents at

which pass through (h, k).
The
roots of
imaginary
are real, coincident, or
(iii)
according as
a'h:'-a'(a'-k')(h'
is
greater than, equal
That
is,
to,
k')
or less than zero.
according as
h^
+ k'-a'
greater than, equal to, or less than zero.

That is,
according as {h, k) is outside the circle, on the circle,
or within the circle.
is
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the co-ordinates
the circle x^
2.
3.
x and
Shew
8.
and
(|-,
I).
-\-a^
touches the axes of
Shew
2ax,
Two
a;"
of the circle
which touches the lines x = 0, y = 0,

Ans. 4:X^ + 4y^ - 4lCx 4c?/ + c^ = 0.
of the circle
which touches the
+ 2/- - ax + 2ay \-a- =
lines are
circle
{21)
lines
x 0,x = a,
or x^-}-y'^~ax + %ay
+ ^\a'^ = 0.
that the line y = m {x -o) + asJl

whatever the value of m may be.
+ m^
drawn through the points (a,
6 with
0),
touches the circle
(- a, 0) respectively,
one another find the locus of their intersection.

;
The
length
1)
y.
and make an angle

9.
1,
y 2x + l cuts
(1, 1).
that the circle x^ + y-- 2ax - 2ay
Ans.
7.
line
Shew that the line ^x -2y = touches the circle x^ + y^-Sx+2y = 0.

Shew that the circles x'^ + y^ = 2 and x"^ + y'^ -Qx-Qy + 10 = touch
5.
Find the equation
and x = c.
Find the equation
6.
and 3aj + 4|/ + 5a = 0.
x^ + y^
where the
Ans. (-
one another at the point

4.
of the points
+ y^ = 2.
circles x^
+ y^- a^= 2ay cot d.
touches one given straight line and cuts
from another straight
off
line perpendicular to the
a constant
former
find
x'^~ l^.
10.
A line moves so that the sum of the perpendiculars drawn to it
from the points [a, 0), (- a, 0) is constant shew that it always touches a
the equation of the locus of
Ans.
its centre.
circle.
y'^
THE CIECLE.
70
11.
Find the equations
of the
two tangents
= 3, which make
Ans. y = \/S
2).
to X' + y'^
with the axis of x.

an angle of
Find the equation of the circle inscribed in the
12.
equations of whose sides are a;=l, 2?/ = 5 and Sx-4:y = 5.
60*^
Ans.
13.
Shew that the two circles

^2 ^ y-i _ 2ax - 2hy - 2ab =
and
cut one another at right angles.
x'^
(a;
triangle the
{x-2f + {y~%f = l,
+ y" + 2bx + 2ay - 2ab =
[This requires that the square of the
distance between the centres of the circles
is
equal to the
sum
of the
squares of their radii.]

14.
Shew
that the two chcles represented by the equations

.^2
+ 2/2 + 2dr + ^2 = 0,
.T^-
+ 7/ + 2d'y-k^ =
intersect at right angles.
Tangents are drawn to a circle from any point; to

76.
find the equation of the straight line joining the points of
contact of the tangents.
Let the co-ordinates of the point from which the tanLet the co-ordinates of the two
gents are drawn be x y
points of contact be h, h and h' h' and let oc^ -\- y^ a^ =
be the equation of the circle.
The equations of the two tangents Avill be [Art. 69]
.
xh
4-
xh'
-\-
d^ ~
yk' a^ =
yk
0,
0.
both these tangents pass through the point

(x\ y'), therefore both equations are satisfied by the coordinates x\ y
/. xh \-y'h c^ = ^
(i),
Since
and
+y'k' a^=
(ii).
But the equations (i) and (ii) are the conditions that
the two points (h, k) and (h', k') may lie on the line whose
xli
equation
is
XX + yy a^ =
Hence
(iii) is
(iii).
the required equation of the straight line
through the two points of contact of the tangents which

pass through (x' y').
+ y^-\- 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, we can shew
(by assuming the result of Art. 70) that the equation
If the equation of the circle be x^
in a similar
maimer
THE CIRCLE.
of the line joining
through
tlie
71
points of contact of the tangents which pass
{x', y') is
If the point {x\ y') be outside the circle the two tangents will be real, and the co-ordinates h, k and h\ k' will
If however the point (x, y') be ivithin the
all be real.
circle the two tangents will be imaginary
bat, even
in this case, the line whose equation is (iii) is a real
line when x' and y are real.
So that there is a 7êal line
joining the imaginary points of contact of the two imaginary tangents which can be drawn from a point within the
;
circle.
The straight line through the points of contact of

Bcf.
the tangents (real or imaginary) which can be drawn from
any point to a circle is called the polar of that point
with respect to the circle.
The point of intersection of the tangents to a circle at

the (real or imaginary) points of intersection of the circle
and a straight line is called the pole of that line with respect to the circle.
Let TP, TQ be the two tangents to a circle from
any point T. Let Q move up to and ultimately coincide
with the point P, then T will also move up to and
ultimately coincide with P, and the tangents TP, TQ
will ultimately coincide with one another and with the
chord PQ. That is to say, the polar of T, when T is on
the circle, coincides with the tangent at that point.
77.
This agrees with the result of Art. 76.

For the
equation of the polar is of the same form as the equation
of the tangent, and hence the polar of a point which is on
the circle is the tangent at that point.
THE CIRCLE.
72
polar of a 2ôint P pass through Q, then

will the jôlar of Q j^ciss through P.
be the point (x, y), and Q be the point (x\ y"),
Let
and let the equation of the circle be x^ \- y"^ a^ = 0.
The equations of the polars of {x\ y') and {x" y") are
If
78.
the
+ yy a^ =
xx" + yy" a^ =
XX
and
Q be on the polar of P.
equation (i);
If
but this
is
X X
its
-\-y
(i),
(ii).
co-ordinates
must
satisfy the
=yd\
also the condition that
may be on
the line
on the polar of Q, which proves the proposition.

point on a fixed straight line, and P be
the pole of that line; then the polar of Q must pass
through P, for by supposition the polar of P passes
through Q.
Conversely, if through a fixed point P any straight line
be drawn, and Q be the pole of that line then, since P is
on the polar of Q, the point Q must always lie on a fixed
straight line, namely on the j)olar of P.
that
(ii),
If
is
Q be any
If the polars of two points P, Q meet in P, then

the pole of the line PQ.
For 11 is on the polar
of P, therefore, by Art. 78, the polar of B, goes through P;
similarly it goes through Q
and therefore it must be the
79.
is
line
PQ.
80.
To give a geometrical construction for
a p)oint with respect to a circle.
Let the equation of the circle be

X2 -{ y 2 = a 2
P be any point, and let the co-ordinates of
the
polar of
let
The equation
of the polar of
P be
x', y'.
with respect to the
circle is
xx'
The equation
the
circle, is
+ yy'
a^
of the line joining
^-^, =
(i).
to 0, the centre of
(ii).
THE CIRCLE.
73
We
see from the equations (i) and (ii) that the polar of
any point with respect to a circle is perpendicular to the
line joining the point to the centre of the circle.
If
ON be
on the
the perpendicular from
polar,
0N=
[Art. 31.]
OP = Jx'' + y'
ON. 0P = a
also
therefore
We
have therefore the following construction for the

Join OP and let it cut the circle in A take
on
the line OP such that OP
OA :: OA ON, and draw
through
a line perpendicular to OP.
polar.
Ex.
Write down the polars of the following points with respect to
1.
the circle whose equation

(i)
is x^
+ y^ = 4,
(ii)
(2,3),
(3,-1),
(1,-1).
(iii)
Ex. 2. Find the poles of the following lines with respect to the
whose equation is aj- + ?/2 = 35,
(ii) 3x~2y-5 = 0,
(iii) ax + hj-1^0.
(i) 4x + 6?/-7=0,
Ans.
Ex.
(20, 30),
3.
the circle
(i)
a;^
+ ?/- = 4
shew that they
(ii)
of the points
a^
4.
+ y'^ = a'^
intersect in the point
(iii)
14),
where the
(35a, 356).
line
x = 4c cuts
and
(1, 0),
If the polar of the point
touch the
find the equations of the tangents at those points,
Ans.
Ex.
(21,
circle
circle
{x-
a)^
x',
(4,
y'
V-1^, 4:xjî2y =
with respect to the
+ y^ = a", shew
that
y"^
+ 2ax' = a^.
4:.
circle
THE CIRCLE.
74
To find the polar equation of a circle.

be the centre of the drcle, and let
co-ordinates be p, a, and let the radius of the
81.
Let
equal to
polar
its
circle
be
a.
p.
Q^
Let the polar co-ordinates of any point

be
P on
the curve
r, 0.
Then
But
GP^ = OG' + OP' - 20C'
OP cos GOP.
GP=a,OG = p,OP=r, ^XOG=a, ^ XOP = 6

(i),
a' = p^ + r''-^rpGo^{d-a)
.-.
which
is
If the origin be on the circumference of the circle
and we have from
r
If,
p~ a,
(i)
2 cos
[6
a)
(ii)
in addition, the initial line pass through the centre, a
will
be
zero,
and the equation will be

r = 2a cos 6
(iii).
see that if r^, r^ be the two vahies

From equation
of r corresponding to any particular value of 6, then
(i)
we
r,r^,
= p'-a''
(iv),
independent of 0.
This proves that, if from a fixed point a straight line
be drawn to cut a given circle, the rectangle contained by
the segments is constant.
From (iv) we see that if the origin be within the circle,
in which case p is less than a, r^ and r^ must have different
signs, and are therefore drawn in different directions, as is
so that
?'j
r^ is
geometrically obvious.
THE
75
CIRCLE.
To find the length of

given point to a circle.
82.
drawn from a
the tangent
If T be the given point, and TP be one of the

tangents from T to the circle whose centre is G, then we
know that the angle OPT is a right angle
;
TP'=Gr-CT''
...
circle
(i).
be
(a^-aY-^{y-br-c' =
and
let
T be
x, y
- of +
{y
the co-ordinates of
GT = {x
Then
therefore from
(i)
(ii),
- 6)';
we have
TP''
{x
- af
4- iy'
-bf-c'
(iii).
TP^ is therefore found by substituting the co-ordinates

og\ y' in the left-hand member of the equation (ii).
be the equation of a
see, therefore, that if >S =
circle (where >S^ is written for shortness instead of x^-^y'^
4- 2gx + 2/i/ + c), and the co-ordinates of any point be substituted in S, the result is equal to the square of the length
or
of the tangent .drawn from that point to the circle
chords
of
rectangle
segments
to
the
of
the
III.
[Euclid
37]
drawn through the point. If the point be within the circle
the rectangle is negative, and the length of the tangent
imaginary.
If the equation of the circle be
We
Ax"
\-
Aif + 2Gx +2Fy+G=0,
to find the square of the length of the tangent from any

and then substipoint to the circle we must divide by
tute the co-ordinates of the point from which the tangent

is
drawn.
83.
If
x''-\-y''+2gx -i-2fy
-\-c
=0
(i)
be the equation of one circle,

(i
x'' + y^+ 2gx 4 2/ y + c=0
and
i)
be the equation of another circle, the equation
x' + 2/^4- 2gx -t- 2/y + c = a?
2/' + 2gx +
2fy + c... (iii)
THE
76
CIRCLE.
of any point
Equation (iii) represents
therefore some locus passing through the points common to
the two circles.
will clearly
be
satisfied
by the co-ordinates
which
(i)
and
on
on
is
But
(iii)
also
(ii).
reduces to
2((/-/)^ + 2(/-/')y + o-c'=0

which
of the first degree,
is
(iv),
and therefore represents a
straight line.
Hence
(iii),
or
through the points
(iv), is
the equation of the straight line

to the circles (i) and (ii).
common
Although the two circles (i) and (ii) may not cut one
another in real points, the straight line given by (iii) or by
(iv) is in all cases real, provided that g,f, c, g
,f', c are
real.
We have here therefore the case of a real straight
line which passes through the imaginary points of intersection of two circles.
Another geometrical meaning can however be given to

the equation (iii).
For
be the equation of a circle, in which the

and the co-ordinates of any point
be substituted in >S', the result is equal to the square of the
tangent drawn from that point to the circle ^8^= 0. [Art. 82.]
if
>Sf
coefficient of x^ is unity,
Now
if X,
y be the co-ordinates of any point on the
line (iii) the left side of that equation is equal to the

square of the tangent from {x, y) to the circle (i), and the
right side is equal to the square of the tangent from (x, y)
to the circle (ii).
Hence the tangents drawn to the two circles from any

point of the line (iii) are equal to one another.
Def. The straight line through the (real or imaginary)
points of intersection of two circles is called the radical
axis of the two circles.
From the above we see that the radical axis of two

may also be defined as the locus of the points from
circles
which the tangents drawn to the two

one another.
circles are
equal to
THE CIRCLE.
77
The
co-ordinates of the centres of the two circles are

and g,
respectively: the equation of the
line joining them, therefore is
g, f
9-9
f-f"
which
[Art. 30] is perpendicular to the line (iv).

Hence the radical axis of two circles is perpendicular
to the line joining their centres.
obvious
when
This
The three radical axes of three
84.
pairs meet in a
= 0,
is
geometrically
the circles cut in real points.

circles
taken in
"point.
be the equations of three circles

each of which the coefficient of x^ is unity), the equation of the radical axis of the first and second will be
If
iSf
>S^'
0,
>S"'
(in
S-8' = 0,
The equation
of the radical axis of the second
and third
be
will
8'
And
of the third
And
it is
and
S"
first will
0.
be
two of these equations be satisfied

by the co-ordinates of any point, the third equation will
also be satisfied by those co-ordinates.
obvious that
The point
is
if
of intersection
of the three radical axes
called the radical centre of the three circles.
*85.
To find the equation of a system of
pair of which has the same radical axis.
common
radical axis be taken for the axis of y,

a line perpendicular to it for the axis of x, then all the
If the
and
circles every
in the same two points.

a? =
Hence, if of + y"^ + ^gx + 2/y + c =
equation of the circles, when we put x =
circles cut
resulting equation
all
the circles.
Therefore/" and
y"^
'Ify
+c=
be the general
the roots of the
must be the same for
must be the same
for all the circles.
THE CIRCLE.
78
If
we take
as origin the point
points where ^
midway between the two
cuts the circles,
/ will
be
zero,
and the
equation becomes
a;'
which
the
7/'
+ %cc + c =
the required equation,
is
(i),
being the same for
all
circles.
The radical axis cuts the circles in real points

negative, and in imaginary points if c be positive.
The equation (i) can be written
if c
be
{x+gf+if=g'-c.
Hence, if g be taken equal to + Vc the circle will reduce
to one of the points (+ \Jc, 0).
These points are called the limiting points of the system
When c is positive, that is when the

themselves cut in imaginary points, the limiting
points are real, and conversely, when the circles cut in real
points the limiting points are imaginary.
of co-axial circles.
circles
TfS =
* 86.
S_ X
circles
S'
and
be the equations of tiuo circles,

represent all
different values of
S'
will, for
which jmss through the points common
S'
ô
S=
and
0.
For,
if
= Obe
a;' + 2/' + 2^^ +
/Sf-Oand
/Sf'
(i),
+c=
(ii),
cÔ
x'-Vy^-V^g'x^'lfy +
- A- = be
then will
2gx + 2/?/ 4- c - X {x' +y'' + 2gx + 2fy + c]
x'-^-y"^
(iii).
=
whatever
X
chxle^
equation
of
a
Now (iii) is clearly the
2/^
>S'
>Sf
-\-
may
be.
if the co-ordinates of any point satisfy both (i)

they will also satisfy (iii).
for any value of \, a circle
is,
Hence S \ S' =
and >S' = 0.
passing through the points common to >S =
By giving a suitable value to X the circle (iii) may
be made to pass through any other point therefore
S \S' = represents all the circles through the inter-
Also,
and
(ii),
sections of
>S'
and S'
0.
THE CIKCLE.
The geometrical meaning
From
79
of the equation
S \ S' =0
we see that any point

equation >S = X/Sf' is such that
is
the square of the tangent from it to the circle ^ =
from
it
to
tangent
\
the
square
of
the
equal to
times
We have therefore the following proposition the
S' = 0.
locus of a point which moves so that the tangents from it
to two given circles are in a constant ratio, is another circle
should be noticed.
whose co-ordinates
Art. 82
satisfy the
which passes through their common
points.
If 0, 0' be the centres of two circles whose radii

are a, a respectively, the two points which divide the
a are
line 00' internally and externally in the ratio a
87.
called the centres of similitude of the two circles.

The properties of the centres of similitude are best
treated geometrically.
of the properties are (1) Two of
tangents
the common
to two circles pass through each
centre of similitude
(2) Any straight line through a
centre of similitude of two circles is cut similarly by the
The most important

;
two
circles.
EXAMPLES.
1.
circle
Find the length of the tangent drawn from the point

x'^ + y^ - 2x -- Sy - 1 = 0.
Also the length of the tangents from

4,xi
2.
(- 1, 1)
all
3ic
1) to
(4,
Ans.
2/
the equation of the circle through the points
4.
5.
circles
3,
(3, 0), (0, 2)
V3and
find the value of the constant rectangle of the segments of
Ans.
Find the
radical axis of the circles
Find the radical axis
of the
two
-r-.
x^ + if + 'ix+îj-l^Q and
+ ^^-2a;-i/ + l = 0.
ax'^-Vcnf
to the
the circle
- - 7 = 0.
chords through the origin.

3.
ic-
Find
and
+ iy-^ -
(2, 5)
circles
+ a^x + hhj = 0.
x'^
y^
Am. x + y-2^Q.
+ bx + hy - c = Q and
^^^^^
=
ax~by+^
a-b
Fiud the radical axis and the length of the common chord
and x^^y^ + bx + ay + c Q.
x- + y' + ax+by + c =
Ans.
x-y = 0,
{h{a +
0.
of the
bf-
4c}i
THE CIRCLE.
80
Shew
6.
that the three circles
+ 'dx + 6y + 12 = 0, x"^ + if + 2x + 8y + 16 = 0, and

have a common radical axis.
x^ + i/
Find the radical centre
7.
x^
+ y^ + 4:X+7 = 0,
x^
+ i/ + 12y + 24 = 0,
of the three circles
+ 9 = 0, and
2x^ + 2y^ + Sx + 5y
x'^
+ y" + y = 0.
Am.
8.
circles
(-2, -1).
Find the equations of the straight hnes which touch hoth the
Find also the co-ordinates of the
x" + y'^ = 4: and {x-4:f + y'^=l.
centres of similitude.
^J7y-8 = 0, and
Ans. 3x +
9.
from
If the length of the tangent
twice the length of the tangent from
then will f- + g^ + 4/+

10.
x'^
y'^
If
'lg
11.
(8, 0), (f, 0).
+ y- = 6 be
+ y^ + iix + 3y =
(/, g) to the circle x"
to the circle x"

( /, g)
the
tangent from any point to the
circle
be three times the length of the tangent from the same
point to the chcle x^ + y^

circle 4^2
vl5i/-8 = 0;
+ 2 = 0.
the length of
+ 2x =
.t
+ A:y^ -
a;
4: = 0, shew
that the point
must be on the
- 18 = 0.
tion of the circles
.c"^
through the point
(1, 2).
y'^
circle
+ 2x + 3y-l =
through the points of intersec-
and x^ + y^ + 3x-2y -1~ 0, and

Ans. x^ + y'^ + 4lX - ly + o=0.
Find the equation of a circle through the points of intersection of

^2 _ 4 _ and x"^ + y'^ - 2x - Ay + 4l = and touching the line x + 2y = 0.
12.
a;2
_[.
Ans.
*88.
of
We
x'^
+ y^ -x-2y = 0.
by the
solution
some examples.
(1)
To find
the equation of the circle
which
cuts three given circles at
right angles.
Let the equations of the given chcles be
+ y'^ + 2gx + 2fy + c =

'if + 2g'x + 2f'y + c' =
x^ + tf + 2g"x + 2f"y + c" =
x^
x^ +
(i),
(ii),
(iii).
whose equation is
(iv)
x^ +y^ + 2Gx + 2Fy + C =
cut (i) at right angles, the square of the distance between their centres
equal to the sum of the squares of their radii. Hence we have
{G-gY + {F-f)^=G'' + F'--C+g'+P-c,
If the circle
2Gg + 2Ff-C-c =
or
We also have,
(v).
since the other circles are cut at right angles,
2Ff'-C-c'=0
2Ff"-C-c" =
2Gg' +
2Gg" +
(vi),
(vii).
is
THE
Eliminating G, F, C, from the equations
have
for the required
equation
2+/,
81
CIECLE.
(iv), (v),
(vi),
and
(vii),
we
THE
82
CIRCLE.
Hence the equation of AA' is

{xx" + yy" - a=) {x"'x' + y"'y' - a?) - {xx'"
The other equations can now be

They will be
{xx'"
+ yy'" - a?){x'x" + y'y" -a^) = 0,

written down from symmetry.
. .
(v).
+ yy'" - aF)[x'x" + y'y" - a^) - {xx' + yy' - a')[x"x"' + y''^' -ar)^0... (vi),
and
+ yy' - a-) (x"x" + y"y'" - a^) -
(â;'
Since the three equations
[xx"
+ yy" - a^){x'"x' + y'"y' - a^) = 0.
in a point.
is
(4)
through
line
(vii).
.
.
together vanish
equations
[Art. 34.]
one of the points of intersection of tivo given circles, and any

Find
cuts the circles again in the points P, Q respectively.
the locus of the middle point of
PQ.
be taken for origin, and
Let
when added
CC represented by those
identically, the three lines AA', BB',
must meet
(vii)
(vi),
(v),
let
the equations of the circles be
[Art. 81]
= 2fl.cos
(^
a), and = 2&cos

?'
[6
- ^).
Then, for any particular value of 6,

OP = 2acos{e-a),
OQ = 2bcos{d-p).
and
If
be the middle point of PQ,

.-.
The
locus of
is
OR = ^{OP + OQ);
OR = acos{e-a) + bcos{d-^).
therefore given by
r=a cos
(^- a) +
6 cos [6
= {a cos a + b cos
The
locus
therefore the circle
are given
=A
cos 6
(3)
+ [a sin a + b sin 0)
whose equation
cos [9 -B),
is
where A and
/3)
sin 6.
is
by the equations
A cos B = a cos a + b cos ^8, and A sin B = a sin a + b sin /3.
on the circle circumscribing a triangle ABC,
If from any point
(5)
perpendiculars be drawn on the sides of the triangle, the feet of these perlie
on a straight
Take the point
for origin,
pendiculars will
line,
line.
and the diameter through
then the equation of the circle will be r = 2a,cos
it
for initial
6.
Let the angular co-ordinates of the points A, B, C be
a,
/3,
respec-
tively.
The
line
BC
is
the line joining (2a cos
find the polar equation ot
BC
^S,
/3)
and
To
(2a cos 7, y).
take the general form
2^
= rcos
(6
<p)
and substitute the co-ordinates of B and of C. We thus obtain

two equations to determine p and 0. The equations will be
p = 2a cos /3 cos (/3 - <p), and j> =: 2a cos 7 cos (7 - <p).
[Art. 45]
THE CIRCLE.
83
= /3 + 7, and ^ = 2a cos /5 cos 7. The equation of 5 C is

2a cos /Scos 7 = cos (^ - j8- 7)
Similarlj, the equations of CA and of ^B will he respectively
2a cos 7 cos a = r cos [6 -y- a)
2a cos a cos/3 = r cos [0 -a- ^)
and
Hence
therefore
(i).
7-
(ii),
(iii).
The
co-ordinates of the feet of the perpendiculars on the lines (i), (ii),

from the point 0, are 2a cos /3 cos 7, ^+y; 2a cos 7 cos a, y + a;
and 2a cos a cos |S, a + (3. These three points are all on the straight line
whose equation is
(iv).
2a cos acos/3 cos 7 = cos (^ - a- ^-y)
(iii),
?'
The line through the feet of the perpendiculars is called the pedal line
with respect to the triangle.
of the pomt
Let D be another point on the circle, and let the angular co-ordinate
of D be 8.
The four points A, B, G, D can be taken in threes in four
ways, and we shall have four pedal lines of
corresponding to the four
We have found the
triangles.
equation
(iv).
metry they
;
The equations
equation of one of these pedal lines,

of the others can be written
will be
2a cos jS cos 7 cos 5=:r cos {0- j3-y-
(v),
d)
2a cos 7 cos 5 cos a = r cos (^-7-5- a)

2a cos 5 cos a cos /3 = 7' cos {0- d -a- ^)
and
The
(iv), (v),
co-ordinates of the feet of the perpendiculars from

(vi)
expressions.
viz.
down by sym-
(vi),
(vii).
O on
the lines
and (vii) will be 2a cos a cos j8 cos 7, a + ^ + y, and similar

These four points are all on the line whose equation is
2a cos a cos j8 cos 7 cos 5 = 7* cos [d-a- ^-yd).
This proposition can clearly be extended.
Examples on Chapter TV.
1.
point moves so that the square of its distance from
a fixed point varies as its perpendicular distance from a fixed
straight line ; shew that it describes a circle.
2.
point moves so that the sum of the squares of its
distances from the four sides of a square is constant ; shew
that the locus of the jDoint is a circle.
3.
The locus of a point, the sum of the squares of
distances from n fixed points is constant, is a circle.
whose
62
THE CIRCLE.
84
B
PB
are two fixed points, and

shew that the locus of P is a
A,
4.
PA =
'?^
moves
that
so
Shew also
have a common
circle.
that, for different values of n, all the circles
radical axis.
Find the locus of a point which moves so that the

5.
square of its distance from the base of an isosceles triangle
is equal to the rectangle under its distances from the other
sides.
Prove that the equation of the circle circumscribing

6.
the triangle formed by the lines a; 4- ?/ = 6, 2.'k + ?/ = 4, and
X+
2^/
=5
is
rc'
+ 2/'-17a3-19y/ + 50 = 0.
7.
common
x^
circle
whose diameter
y^
+ ?)y+\ =
'2x
and
0,
re"
+ 3/" +
4a;
Find the equation of the straight
8.
circle x^
if
2x - 2y = 0, and shew
3?/
the
0.
lines joining the
origin to the points of intersection of the line
and the
is
chord of the circles
cc
2?/
3=
0,
that the lines are
at right angles to one another.
Any straight
drawn from a fixed point meeting

a fixed straight line in P, and a point Q is taken on the line
such that the rectangle OQ OP is constant; shew that the
9.
line is
locus of
10.
is
Any
circle.
straight
line
is
drawn from a
fixed point
is taken on the line
meeting a fixed circle in P, and a point Q

such that the rectangle OQ OP is constant
locus of ^ is a circle.
.
Shew that the

common tangents.
11.
four
radical axis of
two
shew that the
circles bisects their
be one of the limiting points of a system of

shew that a common tangent to any two circles
will
subtend a right angle at 0.
of the system
12.
If
co-axial circles,
Prove that the equation of two given circles can

be
put in the form
always
13.
x^
and that one
y^
+ ax +
= 0,
x^
y'
+ ax + 6 =
0,
of the circles will be within the other if aa'
b are both positive.
and
THE CIRCLE.
The
14.
distances of
85
two points from the centre of a

each from the polar
circle are proportional to the distances of
of the other.
If a circle be described on the line joining the centres
15.
of similitude of two given circles as diameter, prove that the
tangents drawn from any point on it to the two circles are in
the ratio of the corresponding radii.
Find the locus of a point which is such that tangents from it to two concentric circles are inversely as their
16.
radii.
If two points A,
are harmonic
17.
respect to two others C, D, the circles on
meters cut orthogonally.
conjugates with
AB
18.
either
and
CD
as dia-
If two circles cut orthogonally, every diameter of

which meets the other is cut harmonically.
point moves so that the sum of the squares of its

19.
distances from the sides of a regular polygon is oonstant ; shew
that its locus is a circle.
through a fixed point

and cuts two
through 0, which are at right angles to one
another, in points P, Q, such that the line PQ always passes
through a fixed point ; find the equation of the locus of the
20.
circle passes
centre of the circle.
The polar equation of the
21.
diameter
r^
on
circle
(, a),
{h, jS)
as
is
-r{a cos
(0
a)
h cos (0
- /5)} + ab
cos (a
- ^) =
0.
22.
Find the equation for determining the values of r at
the points of intersection of the circle and the straight line
whose equations are
r=
2c&
cos
6,
and r cos
Deduce the value of p when thp
(6
f3)= p.
straight
line
becomes a
tangent.
23.
of the centre of the inscribed
circle of the triangle the equations of
3x-'iu =
0,
7x-2ii/ =
0,
whose
sides are
and 5a;- 12^ - 36 =
0.
THE CIRCLE.
86
Find the locus of a point the polars of which with

two given circles make a given angle with one
24.
respect to
another.
25.
From any point on the
tangents are drawn, and the lines
to the centres of the circles are
equation of the locus of the point
If the four points in
26.
x^
y^
-k-
radical axis of two circles

joining the points of contact
j^roduced to meet; find the
of intersection.
which the two
ax+hy + c^ 0,
x^
y^
circles
+ ax +
b'y
+c =
are intersected by the straight lines
Ax + By+ C=0,
respectively, lie
on another
aa
A'x + B'y +
circle,
b',
C'^0
then will
c
c
j
A,
B,
A\
B',
A system of circles
27.
is
= 0.
drawn through two
fixed points,
tangents are drawn to these circles parallel to a given straight

line ; find the equation of the locus of the points of contact.
28.
t
t^
Ji A, B, G hQ the centres of three co-axial circles, and

hQ the tangents to them from any point, prove the
relation
BCt^'+CAt;- + ABt^'=0.
be the lengths of the tangents from any
whose centres are not in the same
straight line, shew that any circle or any straight line can be
represented by an equation of the form
29.
If
^1, t^,
t^
point to three given
circles,
At^'
What
relation will hold
If a circle cut
right angles, it will cut
30.
+ Bt^' + Ct;^D.
between A, B,
for straight lines
two of a system of co-axial

them all at right angles.
circles at
Shew that every circle which passes through two

31.
given points is cut orthogonally by each of a system of circles
having a common radical axis.
32.
Prove that all circles touching two fixed circles are
orthogonal to one of two other fixed circles.
THE CIKCLE.
two
87
prove that au indepairs

of
found
of
points can be
on their common
diameter such that either point has the same polar with respect
33.
finite
If
circles cut orthogonally,
number
to one circle that the other has with respect to the other. Also
shew that the distance between such pairs of points subtends
a right angle at one of the points of intersection of the two

circles.
34.
S=0,
S'
If the equations of two circles whose radii are a, a be

= 0, then the circles
S'
will intersect at right angles.

35.
Find the locus of the point of intersection of two
straight lines at right angles to one another, each of which
touches one of the two circles

{x
ccf ^-i/
If,
(x + cif
+ 2/^ =
c^,
and prove that the bisectors of the angles between the straight
lines always touch one or other of two other fixed circles.
36.
Shew that the diameter of the circle which cuts at
is
right angles the three escribed circles of the triangle
ABC
sin
(1
+cos^ cos^ +
cos
^ cos (7 + cos Ccos^)'^
Find the locus of the point of contact of two equal

c, each of which passes through one
of two fixed points at a distance 2a apart and shew that, if
a G, the locus splits up into a circle of radius a and a curve
whose equation may be put into the form (oif + y^f a" {pf 2>if).
37.
circles of constant radius
CHAPTER
V.
The Parabola.
89.
Definitions.
of a point
A Conic Section, or Conic, is the locus
which moves so that
its distance from a fixed

in a constant ratio to its distance from a fixed
straight line.
The fixed point is called a focus, the fixed
straight line is called a directrix, and the constant ratio is
called the eccentricity.
point
is
shewn hereafter [Art. 812] that if a right

by any plane, the section will be in all
cases a conic as defined above. It was as sections of a cone
It will be
circular cone be cut
that the properties of these curves were first investigated.

proceed to find the equation and discuss some of
the properties of the simplest of these curves, namely that
in which the eccentricity is equal to imity.
This curve is
called a iârabola.
We
To find
90.
the equation
of a parabola.
>S^ be the focus, and let YY' be the directrix.

Draw
perpendicular to YY\ and let OS = â. Take OS for
the axis of x, and
for the axis of y.
Let
be any point on the curve, and let the coordinates of
be X, y.
Draw PX, PM, perjDendicular to the axes, as in the
Let
SO
OF
figure,
and join SP.
THE PARABOLA.
Then, by
-\-
is,
or
This
SP^ PM
Pj\P = SP' = PN' + SN'

{x 2a)
x^ = y^
C^y^ = 4<a(x d)7.
therefore
that
definition,
89
is
the requirecl' equation of the curve.
(i).
THE PARABOLA.
90
and therefore the curve

the axis of
lies
wholly on the positive side of
y.
For any particular value of ^ there are clearly two

values of y equal in magnitude, one being positive and the
other negative. Hence all chords of the curve perpendicular to the axis of x are bisected by it, and the portions
of the curve on the positive and on the negative sides of
the axis of x are in all respects equal.
As X increases y also increases, and there is no limit
to this increase of x and y, so that there is no limit to
the curve on the positive side of the axis of y.
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called tlie axis of the parabola.
The chord through the focus perpendicular to the axis
the latus-iêctum.
called
is
= 08 = 2a. ThereIn the figure to Art. 90, 8L =
fore the whole length of the latus-rectum is 4a.
LK
92.
We
have found that
t/^
4a^ =
on the parabola.
For all points within the curve
y^
for all points
^tax
is
negative.
For, if Q be such a point, and through Q a line be

drawn perpendicular to the axis meeting the curve in P
and the axis in N, then Q is nearer to the axis than P
and therefore NQ^ is less than A^Pl But, P being on the
=^ 0, and therefore NQ" - â.AN is
curve, iYP^ - 4a
.
AN
negative.
Similarly we may prove that for all points outside the

curve y^ 4a^ is positive.
Hence, if the equation of a parabola be t/^ 4a^ = 0,
and we substitute the co-ordinates of any point in the lefthand member of the equation, the result will be positive
if the point be outside the curve, negative if the point
be within the curve, and zero if the point be upon the
curve.
93.
straight
The
line,
co-ordinates of the points
whose equation
i^
common
onx
c,
to the
and the
THE PARABOLA.
parabola, whose equation
equations.
common
Hence, at a
y^
is
point,
cf
[mtix -h
(i),
mV
Since
(ii)
is
= âx, must
we have the
(2mc
4a)
common
a?
relation,
points are given

in the form
+ c^ =
(ii).
we
a quadratic equation,
see that every
straight line meets a parabola in two points,
be
both
(i).
which may be written

-:-
satisfy
= 4aa;
Therefore the abscissae of the
by the equation
91
which may
imaginary.
very small, one root of the equation (ii) is
very great when
is equal to zero, one root is infinitely
great.
Hence every straight line parallel to the axis of
a parabola meets the curve in one point at a finite distance,
and in another at an infinite distance from the vertex.
real, coincident, or
When m
is
To find the condition that the line y

94.
touch the 'parabola y^ âx = 0.
As
= inx-^
may
in the preceding Article, the abscissae of the points

to the straight line and the parabola are given
common
by the equation
that
is
(mx + cY = 4fax^
m"x^ + (2mc 4a) x +
c"^
0.
If the line be a tangent, that is if it cut the parabola

in two coincident points, the roots of the equation must
be equal to one another. The condition for this is
4m^c^
which reduces to mc =
a,
(2mc -
or c
4a)'^,
ni
Hence, whatever
m may
be, the line
y = mx
will
touch the parabola y^

95.
thrôiogh
a
H
4iax = 0.
To find
the equation of the straight line passing

ttvo given ]joints on a parabola, and to find the
equation of the tangent at any 'point
THE PARABOLA.
92
Let the equation of the parabola be

if"
and let x\
on it.
y',
and
The equation
But
cc'\
= 4âx,
y" be the co-ordinates
oi"
two points
of the line through these points
y-y ^ ^-^
X X
y y
is
.-,
since the points are on the jDarabola, we have

y'^ = 4iax , and y"^ âx"\
.'.
By
tions
y'"^
y'^ = 4a (x" x)
(ii).
multiplying the corresponding sides of the equa-
and
(i)
(ii),
we have
- y) {y" + y) = (j^ - ^') ^^^^

âx = 0,
y iy + y") - 4^^ - y'y' = o
(y
or,
since
which
is
y'"^
(iii).
the equation of the chord joining the two given
points.
In order to find the equation of the tangent at (x, y)

x' = x in equation (iii), and we
we must put y" = y and

obtain
4a^ y"^ =
^yy
or,
since
y"^
0,
= 4a^',
yy
2a
{x-j-
x)
(iv).
The tangent at (0, 0) is x =

Co7\
that
tangent at the vertex is perpendicular to the axis.
;
is,
the
We have found by independent methods [Articles 94 and 95] two

96.
forms of the equation of a tangent to a parabola. Either of these could
however have been found from the other.
the equation of the tangent at
Thus, sujppose we know that
{x', y') is
ijl)'-^2a{x
+ x'),
2a
2ax'
then
ij = ~x-]
ry
y
If this be the same line as that given by
y=mx + c
we must have
2a
7)1
y
therefore
mc a,
-, and c =
as in Ai-ticle 94.
2ax'
;-:
'
THE PARABOLA.
93
In the solution of questions we should take whichever form of

the equation of a tangent appears the
more
suitable for the particular
case.
Ex.
The ordinate of
1.
parabola
is
the arithmetic
the point of intersection of two tangents to
mean
betiveen the ordinates of the points of
contact of the tangents.
The equations
of the tangents at the points {x\
y')
and
{x'\ y") are
yy =1a{x-{-x'),
yy" = 2a{x-{-x").
and
By
subtraction,
we have
common
for their
point,
y{y'-y") = 2ax'~2ax"
= l{y"'-y"^):
'
y=h{y'+y")-
Ex. 2. To find the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents

a parabola which are at right angles to one another.
to
Let the equations of the two tangents be
y = mx + -
(i),
y = m'x H
,
(u).
-.
Then, since they are at right angles, mm' = -1.
Hence the second
equation can be wi'itten,
y
To
(iii)
find the abscissa of their
from
(i),
,....
x-am.
common
(ni).
point
we have only
to subtract
and we get
= x{in-{
\
mj
+ a{m-\
\
and therefore we have x+a 0.

The equation of the required locus
is
711
therefore x
+ a 0, and
this
[Art. 90] is the equation of the directrix.
To find the equation of the normal at any point of

97.
a parabola.
The equation
2/^
- Aax = 0,
is
of the tangent at {x,
y) to the parabola
[Art. 95]
yy=2a(x + w')
The normal
(i).
the perpendicular line through {x, y).

Therefore [Art. 30] its equation is
is
{y-y')'la-^y'
{x-x)=^
(ii).
THE PARABOLA.
94
The above equation may be written

y
If
therefore
(iii).
we put
Qu
= -^
y"
'
then y
2a7n,
^k
and y
= am^
becomes
(iii)
7/
= mx 2ain am^
(iv).
This form of the equation of a normal
is
sometimes
useful.
98.
We
will
now prove some
geometrical properties
of a parabola.
Let the tangent at the point P meet the directrix in R

and the axis in T. Let PI^,
be the perpendiculars
from P on the axis and on the directrix.
Let PG, the normal at P, meet the axis in G.
Then, if x, y be the co-ordinates of P, the equation of
PM
the tangent at
P will be
yy=2a{x + x)
Where
this
have from
meets the
axis,
x-{-x
(i),
.-.
.-.
(i)
[Art. 95].
at that point, we
y = 0, and
= 0.
TA =
AN
TS=A8+AN=^SP
(a);
(,8);
THE PAKABOLA.
TS = SP,
the angle STP is equal to the angle

bisects the angle
so that
(7).
and
are
see also that the triangles
and since
SPT;
95
8PM
RSP
PT
We
equal in
RMP
all res23ects.
Hence the angle RSP = the angle i?x'l/P= a
right angle
(S).
(a,
is the point (
Again, since
0), the equation of the line
a,
y), and
H is
the point
SM is
x+a
^=-9y
La
y y
'
This
at
,..^
M-
clearly perpendicular [Art. 30] to the tangent
is
which
is
given by the equation
(i),
SM is perpendicular to PT
Since PT is perpendicular to 8M and bisects the angle
(e).
.'.
SPM,
it
will bisect
section of >SfJf
fore
AZis
SM.
and PT,
>S'^
then
If
OM, and
parallel to
Z be
the point of inter-
= ZM. But>Sf^=^0.
There-
therefore the tangent at

so that the line through
is
the vertex of the parabola

the focus of a parabola perpendicular to any tangent
on the tangent at the vertex
meets
(f).
We may prove the last proposition as follows.
Let the equation of any tangent to the parabola be
;
PT
PT
"^
The equation
dicular to
ma
.....
= tnx-\
(ill).
of the line through the focus
{a, 0)
perpen-
(iii) is
y
or
3/
m {x-a).
JO
mm
(Jj
(iv).
The lines (iii) and (iv) clearly meet where x = 0.

The equation of the normal at P {pd y) is [Art. 97]
,
ta {y
At the
point
y) + y'
{x
we have y =
2ay' -\-y'
[x
x) =
0,
0.
and therefore
x') =
0,
THE PARABOLA.
96
2a=cc-x=AG ~AN=NG.
or
NG = 2a
.',
(77).
EXAMPLES.
Find tHe equations
1.
normals to the parabola
t/^
the tangents and the equations of the
of
-4aa; =
at the
ends of
Ans.
Find the points where the
2.
2/2_4aa;
Ans.
that the tangent to the parabola y"
U"
Shew
Shew that the

that
5.
its
line
+ 20?/2 = a^
is
yx^â = Q.
the parabola
(-, -\
(a, 2a),
-4ax =
at the point
jj^
Shew
that the line 7x
Shew
?/2
- 4aa; =
in coincident points.
coincident points.
+ y^ = â^
Qxidiy"
= Qax\ shew
that
j/= (a;4-2a).
y^
7.
cuts
rectum.
y = 2x + - cuts
also cuts 20x^
it
y'
straight line touches both x^
equation
6.
+ a = 0,
perpendicular to the tangent at the point
{x!, y') is
4.
its latus
y=?>x-a
line
= 0.
Shew
3.
a;=F^
+ 6?/ 13
is
a tangent to the curve
-Ix- 8v +14-0.
that the equation
a;-
+ 4aa; + 2(7?/ =
represents a parabola,
whose vertex is at the point - 2a, 2a), whose latus rectum is 2a, and
whose axis is parallel to the axis of y.
Shew that all parabolas whose axes are parallel to the axis of
8.
equations of the form
their
have
y
(
Find the co-ordinates of the vertex and the length of the

9.
rectum of each of the following parabolas
lativs.
(i)
(iii)
Ans.
10.
2/^
= 5a;-t-10,
(ii)
(?/-2)2 = 5(a; + 4),
and
(iv)
a-^
- 4: + 2?/ = 0,
^x^
'
+ 12x-Qy^0.
{i)(-2,0),5. (ii)(2,2),2. (iii) (-4, 2), 5. (iv) ( -2, -|), f.

Find the co-ordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix of each of the parabolas in question 9.
Ans.
(iii)
11.
origin
(i)
(-V,
(-1,
0), 4cc-t-13
= 0.
2), 4.r
+ 21 = 0,
(IV)
Write down the equation of
and
directrix the straight
2y=4:X-l touches the
parabola.
Hne
(ii)
(2, f),
2?/-5 = 0.
(-2, -|], 67/+13=.0.

the parabola whose focus is the
2x-y-l = 0.
Shew
tbat the line
i^
THE PARABOLA.
If
12.
on the axis
97
of a
parabola any chord
POP' he drawn, shew that the rectangle of the ordinates of P and P'
Shew also that the product of the abscissae will
will be constant.
be constant.
Find the co-ordinates of the point of intersection
13.
V
^ mx + ~, y = m'x+,.
Shew
that the locus of their intersection
is
m'
-^
hne whenever mm'
straight
of the tangents
is
constant; and that,
when mm' + 10,
this
= m[x + a)+
\fi\\
line is the directrix.
Shew
14.
that, for all values
touch the parabola y^ = 4a
of m,
the line y
+ a).
(x
and one of them

and the other y^=^4:a' [x + a') shew that the point
of intersection of the hnes will be on the line x + a + a' = 0.
Two
15.
touches
y'^
lines are at right angles to one another,
= 4:a {x + a),
16.
If perpendiculars be let faU on any tangent to a parabola from
two given points on the axis equidistant from the focus, the difference of
their squares will be constant.
Two
17.
a parabola at right angles to

that the line
18.
If
PQ
AQ
drawn through the vertex of

one another, meeting the curve in P, Q; shew
AP,
straight lines
are
cuts the axis in a fixed point.
the circle x^ + y^ + Ax + By
in four points, the algebraic
sum
+ C=
cut the parabola y^ - Aax =
of the ordinates of those points will
be
zero.
- 4.ax meet the axis in T and

and the rectangle TA YQ be completed
If the tangent to the parabola y^
19.
the tangent at the vertex
shew that the locus

If P,
20.
<9,
of
Q, is
in Y,
the parabola
y'^
+ ax = 0.
be three points on a parabola whose ordinates are in
geometrical progression, shew that the tangents at P,
will
meet on the
ordinate of Q.
Shew
21.
2/2-4aa: =
is
that the area of the triangle inscribed in the parabola
[y.-y^)
(1/1-2/0)
in -yd, where
y^,
y..,
7/3
are
the
ordinates of the angular points.
99,
any
Two
point,
tangents can he
tuMch
luill
cording as the point

S. C. S.
drawn
to
a pa7âbola from
he real, coincident, or imaginary, ac-
is outside,
upon, or within the curve.
THE PARABOLA.
98
The
line
whose equation
touch the parabola y^
may be
The
= mx H
'^
will
is
[Art. 94].
line (i) will
...
(i)
4fax,
pass through the particular
7n
point
{x, y), if
'^
that
mV my' + a=0
is if
Equation
= mx
,.. ..(ii).
a quadratic equation which gives the

directions of those tangents to the parabola which pass
through the point {x\ y'). Since a quadratic equation has
two roots, two tangents will pass through any point {x y').
The roots of (ii) are real, coincident, or imaginary, according as y'^ âx is positive, zero, or negative. That
is [Art. 92] according as {x
y) is outside the parabola,
upon the parabola, or within it.
(ii) is
100.
To find the equation of the line through the
points of contact of the two tangents which can he drawn to
a parabola from any
point.
Let X, y be the co-ordinates of the point from which

the tangents are drawn.
Let the co-ordinates of the points of contact of the tangents be /i, h and h! k' respectively.
The equations of the tangents at (/i, h) and {h' h') are
,
yk = 2a [x + h)
yk' = 2a(x
N).
and
-\-
We
know
that (x
.-.
and
y)
y'k
is
on both these
= 2a{x
y'k!=2a{x'
lines
-\-h)
(i)
-\-li)
(ii).
But the equations (i) and (ii) are the conditions that
the points {h, k) and Qi k') may lie on the straight line
v^hose equation is
(iii).
y'y 2a{x^x)
,
THE PARABOLA.
Hence
99
the required equation of the line through

the points of contact of the tangents from [x, y).
The line joining the points of contact of the two
tangents from any point
to a parabola is called the polar
with respect to the parabola. [See Art. 76.]
of
(iii) is
with respect to a
101.
If the polar of the point
parabola pass through the point Q, then will the polar of Q
pass through P.
Let the co-ordinates of

of Q be x'\ y".
The equation
parabola
y''
P be
of the polar of
4fax =
and the co-ordinates

with respect to the
= 2a {x + x).
If this line pass through
The symmetry
is
yy'
{x\
y"),
we must have
of this result shews that
condition that the polar of

It
x,
it is
also the
should pass through P.
can be shewn, exactly as in Art. 79, that if the

is the pole of
Q meet in P, then
polars of two points P,
the line PQ.

The equation of the polar of the focus (a, 0) is a? -}- a = 0.
So that the polar of the focus is the directrix.
If Q be any point on the directrix, Q is on the polar of
the focus S, therefore the polar of Q will pass through >S,
so that if tangents be drawn to a parabola from any point
on the directrix the line joining the points of contact will
pass through the focus.
102.
The locus of the middle 'points of a system of
parallel chords of a parabola is a straight line parallel to
the axis of the parabola.
The equation
points
{x' ,
[Art. 95,
y), {x'
if
line joining
y") on the parabola
3/^
the two
4aa? =
is
(iii)]
y{y'
Now,
of the straight
the line
+ y")-^cL^-y'y" = ^
(i)
make an angle
6 with the axis of the
7-2
THE PARABOLA.
100
parabola,
tan ^
But,
chord be
if
-7
J.
(ii).
the co-ordinates of the middle point of the
{x, y),
then will
2x = x
Hence, from
{ x'\
and 2y
tan
(ii),
= y' + y'\
,
(iii),
2a cot 6
constant so long as 6 is constant.
Hence the locns of the middle points of a system
of parallel chords of a parabola is a straight line parallel to
the axis of the parabola.
The locus of the middle points of a system of
Def.
parallel chords of a conic is called a diameter, and the
chords it bisects are called the ordinates of that diameter.
have seen in Art. 93 that a diameter of a parabola
only meets the curve in one point at a finite distance from
The point where a diameter cuts the curve is
the vertex.
called the extremity of that diameter.
or
so that
is
We
The tangent at the extiêmity of a diameter is

103.
parallel to the chords which are bisected by that diameter.
All the middle points of a system of parallel chords of
a parabola are on a diameter. Hence, by considering the
parallel tangent, that is the parallel chord which cuts the
curve in coincident points, we see that the diameter of a
system of parallel chords passes through the point of contact of the tangent which is parallel to the chords.
To find the equation of a 'parabola when the axes

104.
are any diameter and the tangent at the extremity of that
diameter.
Let P be the extremity of the diameter, and
with the axis.
tangent at P make an angle
Then
NP= 2a cot 6 [Art. 102 (iii)],
FN""
4a
let
the
THE PARABOLA.
101
new
axes be
perpendicular to the axis
Wy
in K.
of the parabola, cutting the diameter

y respectively, and draw
Then
referred to the
QM
PY
MQ = NP+ KQ = 2a cot + sin e

AM==AN+NM=ÂN' + PV+VK
7/
= a cot^ + x-\- y cos 6

QIP = 4â AM;
But
(i),
(ii).
therefore,
from
(2a cot
(i)
and
(ii),
+y sin 6y = 4a (a cot^ O + ^c+y cos 6),

sin^ 6 = 4fax
(iii).
y"^
or
But
AN = a cot' 6;
therefore
SP
Therefore, putting a for
the curve
105.
8P=a + AN = -^
or
the equation of
y'^=4<ax
is
,..(iv).
If the equation of a parabola, referred to any

at the extremity of that diameter
diameter and the tangent

as axes, be y^
tangent
âx
for all values of
the line y
= mx
will
be a
the equation of the tangent
THE PAEABOLA.
102
2a {x +cc') =
the
equation of the polar of {x, y) with respect to the
and the locus of the
parabola will be yy' 2a{x + x) =
middle points of chords parallel to the line y = mx will
at
any point
{x
y')
will
be yy
2a
be y
These propositions require no fresh investigations for

Articles 94, 95, 100 and 102 hold good equally whether
;
the axes are at right angles or not.
The equation of the normal at any point {x\y')

106.
is
of the parabola y^ âx =
y-2/'
If the line
+ |^(*-'')=o
pass through the point
(i)
{h,
^-^'+('^-)=<^
.
Jc)
we have
('^)-
The equation (ii) gives the ordinates of the points the

normals at which pass through the particular point (h, k).
The equation is a cubic equation, and therefore through
any point tJwee normals can be drawn to a parabola.
Since there is no term containing y^, ^Ye have, if y^, y^,
the three roots of the equation (ii),
be
y^
2/1
3/2
+ 2/3=0
(iii).
a system of parallel chords of a parabola, the sum

of the two ordinates at the ends of any chord is constant
[Art. 102]. Therefore the normals at these points meet on
the normal at a fixed point the ordinate of which added to
the sum of their ordinates is zero.
Hence the locus of the intersection of the normals at
the ends of a system of parallel chords of a parabola is a
straicfht line which is a normal to the curve.
Kow,
for
107.
of
We
shall conclude this
Chapter by the solution
some examples.
(1)
To find
jparabola lohich
the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to a
make a given angle with one
another.
THE PARABOLA.
line
a
y = mx +
the value of
m may be,
The
a tangent to
is
103
parabola y^ - AaxÔ, whatever
tlae
[Art. 94.]
known, the equation
If [x, y) be supposed
will give the directions of
the tangents which pass through that point.
The equation giving the
7)1^
And,
if
wiU be
directions
my + a = 0.
the roots of this quadratic equation be m^ and
then
nio,
will
m-,
But,
if
a
- and^ m.mo= ~
+ 7n = y
make an angle a with one
the two tangents
tana = -
+ jw^mg
i/^
.-.
tan2a = ^^
[a
- 4:ax
+ xy
of the required locus is
y'^
-Aax-
[x
+ aYidSL- a = 0.
To find the locus of the foot of

to any tangent to a parabola.
(2)
another,
'^
So that the equation
the perpendicular draivn
from
a fixed point
Let the equation of the parabola be ?/2-4ax = 0, and
let
/t,
it
be the
co-ordinates of the fixed point 0.
The equation
of
any tangent
to the parabola is
ij
The equation
= mx +
of a line through
(/i,
h)
y-k^-To
find the locus
we have
(i).
'
perpendicular to
{x-h)
to eliminate
(i) is
(ii).
m between
the equations
(i)
and
(ii).
From
therefore,
(ii)
m=
we have
by substituting in
(i),
we
=-
y-k
get
x-h
y-k ^
TX a''-=0,
y+
^
y-k + x-h
y(y-k){x-h)+x{x-h)^ + a{y-k)- =
or
The
(iii).
locus is therefore a curve of the third degree.
From
(iii)
we
see that the point
itself is
always on the locus.
If
THE PARABOLA.
104
be outside
the point
parabola
tlie
tliis
presents no difficulty, for two real
tangents can in that case be drawn through 0, and the feet of the perpenitself.
on these will be
When the point is within the
diculars from
parabola the tangents from
are imaginary,
and the perpendiculars
to
are also imaginary, but they all pass through the real point
them from
is a point on the locus.
0, and therefore
is the focus of the parabola, (iii)
When h=a, Jc = 0, that is when
reduces to x {y'^ + {x-a)^]=0; so that the cubic reduces to the point
circle y^+{x- a)^ = 0, and the straight line x = 0.
[See Art. 98 f].
(3)
The
a parabola
of the triangle formed by three tangents

on the directrix.
ortJiocentre
is
to
Let the equations of the sides of the triangle be

y = m'x + ,, y = m"x + --,,. and
The point
of intersection of the second
The
line
?/
= w'" x +
and third
tt. .
sides is
through this point perpendicular to the
first side
has for
equation
^
Now
this
m"
m"'
m'
hne cuts the
point whose ordinate
is
directrix,
111m
To find
is
x=
-a, in the
"T
77
m'
"
77/
1
"^
mmm
I
II
III
of this result shews that the other perpendiculars cut
the directrix in the

(4)
m"m"'
whose equation
equal to
\7/i
The symmetry
/
\
same
the
point,
locus
which proves the theorem.
of the point of intersection of two normals
ivhich are at right angles to one another.
The
line
whose equation
is
(i)
y mx - 2am - am^
is a normal to the parabola y^ - iax O, whatever the value of m may be.
If the point {x, y) be supposed known, the equation (i) gives the
directions of the normals which pass through that point.
If the roots of the equation (i) be m^, m^, Wg, we have
Wj + ??22 + w^3 =
(ii),
2a -X
.....
m-^m.2
+ mîn^ + m^m-^
m^m^^m^^-^-
(iii),
(iv).
105
THE PARABOLA.
two of the normals, given by
one another, we have
If
m-^, nio
miVfi^
The elimination
of
%,
m^,
suppose, be perpendicular to
(v)-
m^ from the equations
(ii), (iii), (iv)
and
(v)
will give the locus required.
The
y- = a{x-Sa).
result is
Examples on Chapter Y.
1.
The perpendicular from a point
on
its
polar with respect
and cuts the axis

to a parabola meets the polar in the point
in Gf the polar cuts the axis in T, and the ordinate through
cuts the curve in P, F'; shew that the points T, P, M, G, P'
are
all
on a
circle
whose centre
is S.
Prove that the two parabolas

2.
cut one another at an angle
y^
ax,
x^
hy will
tan'
2(at +
63)
If PSQ be a focal chord of a parabola, and PA meet

3.
will be parallel to the axis
the directrix in My shew that
parabola.
of the
MQ
Shew that the locus of the point of intersection of two

4.
tangents to a parabola at points on the curve whose ordinates
are in a constant ratio is a parabola.
5.
The two tangents from a point P to the parabola
yîax=-0 make angles 6^, 0^ with the axis of x find the
locus of P (i) when tan 6^ + tan 6^ is constant, and (ii) when
tan^î + tan^^, is constant.
;
6.
Find the equation of the locus of the point of intertwo tangents to a parabola which make an angle
section of
of
45**
with one another.
Shew
that if two tangents to a parabola intercept a

fixed length on the tangent at the vertex, the locus of their
intersection is another equal parabola.
7.
THE PARABOLA.
106
Shew that two tangents to a parabola which, make equal

8.
angles respectively with the axis and directrix but are not at
right angles, intersect on the latus rectum.
point on the latus rectum of a parabola
drawn to the tangents at its extremities ;
are
perpendiculars
joining the feet of these perpendiculars
line
shew that the
parabola.
touches the
From any
9.
that if tangents be drawn to the parabola

from a point on the line cc + 4a = 0, their chord of
contact will subtend a right angle at the vertex.
Shew
10.
iax =
'if
from any point T on its polar

the axis in 3f; shew that if
meets
with respect to a parabola
1^ is a parabola; shew also
of
locus
is constant the
TjV.
The perpendicular
11.
TM
that
if
the ratio
:Zî\^
TN TM is
:
constant the locus
is
a parabola.
equal parabolas have their axes parallel and

at their vertices: straight lines are drawn
tangent
a common
of either axis; shew that the locus of
direction
the
parallel to
parts of the lines intercepted between
the
of
points
the middle
parabola.
equal
an
the curves is
12.
Two
parabolas touch one another and have their axes

that, if the tangents at two points of these
parabolas intersect in any point on their common tangent, the
line joining their points of contact will be parallel to the
13.
parallel;
Two
shew
axis.
parabolas have the same axis; tangents are drawn

from points on the first to the second prove that the middle
points of the chords of contact with the second lie on a fixed
11.
Two
parabola.
Shew that the locus of the middle point of a chord of

15.
which passes through a fixed point is a parabola.
parabola
a
The middle point of a chord PP' is on a fixed straight
16.
line perpendicular to the axis of a parabola; shew that the
locus of the pole of the chord is another parabola.
If TP, TQ be tangents to a parabola whose vertex is
A, and if the lines AP, AT, AQ, produced if necessary, cut the
directrix in^, t, and q respectively; shew that pt = tq.
17.
THE PAKABOLA.
107
18.
If the diameter through any point
of a parabola
meet any chord in P, and the tangents at the ends of .that
chord meet the diameter in Q, Q' ; shew that OP^ = OQ OQ'.
.
The vertex of a triangle is fixed, the base is of

19.
constant length and moves along a fixed straight line; shew
that the locus of the centre of its circumscribing circle is a
parabola.
20.
Shew
that the polar of any point on the circle

X"
+ ij^ lax Zo?
0,
"with respect to the circle
a?
-\-y" \-
2ax 3a^ =
0,
will touch the parabola

y^
+ iax
0.
21.
PSP' is a focal chord of a j)arabola ; V is the middle
point of PP', and VO is perpendicular to PP' and cuts the axis
in 0; prove that SO, VO are the arithmetic and geometric
means between SP' and SP.

PSp, QSq, RSr are three focal choi-ds of a parabola
meets the diameter through ^ in ^, RP meets the diameter
through q in B, and PQ meets the diameter through r in G ]
shew that the three points A, B,
are on a straight line
through S.
22.
QR
23.
PP'
parabola,
is constant;
any one of a system of parallel chords of a

a point on PP^ such that the rectangle PO OP'
shew that the locus of
is a ]Darabola.
is
is
24.
On the diameter through a point
of a parabola two
points P, P' are taken so that
OP' is constant; prove that
the four points of intersection of the tangents drawn from P, P'
OP
on two fixed straight

and equidistant from it.
to the parabola will lie
the tangent at
lines parallel to
If a quadrilateral circumscribe a parabola the line

25.
through the middle points of its diagonals will be parallel
to the axis of the parabola.
26.
If from any point on a focal chord of a parabola two
tangents be drawn, these two tangents are equally inclined
to the tangents at the extremities of the focal chord.
THE PARABOLA.
108
two tangents to a parabola make equal angles with,

a fixed straiglit line, shew that the chord of contact must
pass through a fixed point.
If
27.
Two parabolas have a common focus and their axes in

28.
opposite directions; prove that the locus of the middle points of
chords of either which touch the other is another parabola.
Find the locus of the middle point of a chord
29.
a parabola which subtends a right angle at the vertex.
locus of the middle points of normal chords of
The
30.
of
the parabola y^
Aax =
is
+ y = x-2a.
a chord of a parabola normal at P, JQ is

a line is drawn
drawn from the vertex A, and through
is
that
Shew
parallel to AQ meeting the axis in E.
double the focal distance of F.
FQ
31.
is
AE
Parallel chords are drawn to a parabola; shew that the

32.
locus of the intersection of tangents at the ends of the chords
is a straight line, also the locus of the intersection of the
normals is a straight line, and the locus of the intersection of
these two lines is a parabola.
of b, parabola
If the normals at the points P, Q,
will
go through
that
the
circle
meet in a point; shew
the vertex of the parabola,
33.
FQR
If the normals at two points of a parabola be inclined

34.
to the axis at angles 0, <^ such that tan 6 tan <^ = 2, shew that
they intersect on the parabola.
The locus of a point from which two normals can be

35.
drawn making complementary angles with the axis is a
parabola.
36.
Two
make equal
the locus of
of the normals drawn to a parabola from a point

Prove that
angles with a given straight line.
is a parabola.
The normal
of a parabola meets the axis

that
GH^\FG', prove that the
is produced to H, so
in G,
which pass through H, are
parabola,
other two normals to the
other.
at right angles to each
37.
FG
at a point
THE PARABOLA.
109
The normals at three points P, Q, Ji of Sb parabola

38.
meet in the point 0. Prove that SP + SQ + SB+SA = 20 M,
on the
where S is the focus and
OM
tangent at the vertex.

39.
Any
three tangents to a parabola, the
tangents
of
whose inclinations to the axis are in any given harmonical

progression, will form a triangle of constant area.
40.
Shew
that the area of the triangle formed by three
normals to a parabola will be
41.
If
tangent to a parabola cut two given parallel
straight lines in P, Q, the locus of the point of intersection

of the other tangents from P, Q to the curve will be a parabola.
If an
circumscribe a parabola,
will pass
through the point of contact of the opposite side.
42.
shew that the
equilateral
lines
triangle
from any vertex to the focus
From any
point on y^=a(x + c) tangents are drawn to

shew that the normals to this parabola at the points
of contact intersect on a fixed straight line.
43.
y^
4:ax;
If the normals at two points on a parabola intersect

44.
on the curve, the line joining the points will pass through
a fixed point on the axis.
45.
If through a fixed point any chord of a parabola be
drawn, and normals be drawn at the ends of the chord, shew
that the locus of the point of intersection of the normals is
another parabola.
46.
If three normals from a point to the parabola y^ = iax
cut the axis in points whose distances from the vertex are in
arithmetical progression, shew that the point lies on the curve
27af = 2{x-2ay.
47.
If three of the sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in a
parabola be parallel to given straight lines ; shew that the
fourth side will also be parallel to a fixed straight line.
48.
Circles are described on any two focal chords of a
parabola as diameters.
Prove that their common chord passes
through the vertex of the parabola.
THE PARABOLA.
110
Two tangents to a given parabola make angles with

axis such that the product of the tangents of their halves
is constant; prove that the locus of the point of intersection
of the tangents is a confocal parabola.
49.
tlie-
If the circle described on the chord PQ of a parabola

50.
diameter
cut the parabola again in the points R, S, then
as
will FQ and RS intercept a constant length on the axis of the
parabola.
If the normals at P, Q,
meet in a point 0^ and
51.
making with the axis
PP', QQ', PR' be lines through P, Q,
angles equal to those made by PO, QO, RO respectively, then
wîll PP\ QQ\ PR' pass through another point 0', and the line
00' will be perpendicular to the polar of 0'.
The normals to a parabola at P, Q, R meet in 0;

52.
shew that OP OQ 0R = a OL OM, where OL and OM are
tangents from
to the parabola, and 4a is the length of the
,
latus rectum.
53.
If from any point in a straight line perpendicular to
the axis of a parabola normals be drawn to the curve, prove
that the sum of the squares of the sides of the triangle formed
by joining the feet of these normals is constant.
ABC
54.
triangle
is formed by three tangents to a
parabola, another triangle
is formed by joining the points
in which the chords through two points of contact meet the
DEF
diameter through the third.

point of the sides of
Shew
that A, B,
are the middle
DEF.
ABC
If
be a triangle inscribed in a parabola, and
a triangle formed by three tangents parallel to the
sides of the triangle ABC, shew that the sides of
will be
four times the corresponding sides of A'B'C.
55.
A'B'C be
ABC
If four straight lines touch a parabola, shew that the

56.
product of the squares of the abscissse of the point of intersection of two of these tangents and of the point of intersection
of the other two is equal to the continued product of the
abscissae of the four points of contact.
THE PAEABOLA.
Ill
TP^ TQ are tangents to a parabola, and p^, p^, p^

57.
are the lengths of the perpendiculars from P, T, Q respectively
on any other tangent to the curve ; shew that p^p^ p,^.
OA,
OB
are tangents to a parabola, and
AP,
BP
are
lies on a fixed line
the corresponding normals j shew that, if
describes a parabola j and find
perpendicular to the axis,
lies on a fi.xed diameter.
the locus of 0, if
58.
59.
PG is the normal at P to the parabola 3/^ 4.x=0,
being on the axis ; GP is produced outwards to Q so that
PQ = GP; shew that the locus of ^ is a parabola, and that
the locus of the intersection of the tangents at P and Q is
y^ {x
+ 4a) +
1 6a'^
0.
CHAPTER
The
YI.
Ellipse.
An Ellipse
Defriition.
so that its distance
is the locus of a point which

from a fixed point, called the
focus, bears a constant ratio, which is less than unity, to its
distance from a fixed line, called the directrix.
moves
To find
108.
the equation
of an
ellipse.
KL
S be
the focus and

the directrix
perpendicular to the directrix
= given ratio = e
Divide Z8 in
so that SA
suppose.
There will be a point A' in ZS produced such that
Let
Draw
>S^^
AZ
8A'
AZ
::
1.
THE
Let
Then
113
ELLIPSE.
be the middle point of
A A',
and
let
A A' = 2a.
= e. A'Z;
SA + SA' = e{AZ+A'Z);
SA = e.
AZ, and SA'
.:
:/2AC=2e.ZC',
ZC=-
.'.
'...,
SA'-SA = e {A'Z - AZ)

AA' -2AS = e.AA'',
BG = e.AG=ae
Also
or
(i).
(ii).
.-.
Now
G be taken as origin, CA' as the axis of

perpendicular
to GA' as the axis of y.
and a line
let
be any point on the curve, and

ordinates be X, y.
Let
Then, in the
let
its
x,
co-
figure,
SN' + NP' = e'ZN\

S]S'=SG + GN'=ae-^x;
.'.
Now
ZN=ZG + GN=-e + x;
and
{ae
.-.
+ xY +
y"^
= e^ Ix
a-'
-\
y'-\-x'{l-e')=a'{l-e'),
or
.2
Putting x =
^,2
+ -^Tr
^
^=1
a^
a (1 e)
we get y=a V(l
or
0,
us the intercepts on the axis of

called
h,
e")
which gives
If these lengths be
we have
lf
and the equation
= a\l-e^)
jiakes
(iii)
/
s. c. s.
y.
("^)-
(iv),
the form
2
+ 1=1
^
a
(^)-
THE ELLIPSE.
114
The
latus
rectum
is
x=
ae
in equation
Then
y'
the
To
parallel to the directrix.
chord
through the focus

we must put
find its length
(v).
= b' (1
-e')
= ^,,
frbm
(iv),
of the semi-latus
so that the leno^th
rectum
is
b^
In equation (v) [Art. 108] the value of y cannot

109.
be greater than 6, for otherwise x^ would be negative and
Hence an ellipse is
similarly x cannot be greater than a.
a curve which is limited in all directions.
If 0) be numerically less than a, y^ will be positive;
and for any particular value of w there will be two equal
and opposite values of y. The axis of cc therefore divides
the curve into two similar and equal parts.
So also, if y be numerically less than b, x^ will be
positive, and for any particular value of y there will be two
The axis
values of x which will be equal and opposite.
of y therefore divides the curve into two similar and equal
From this it follows that if on the axis of x the
parts.
points S\ Z' be taken such that G8' =SG, and GZ' = ZG,
the point B' will also be a focus of the curve, and the line
through Z' perpendicular to GZ' will be the corresponding
;
directrix.
If
(a?', 3/')
be any point on the curve, the co-ordinates
and it is
+ "^^ 1 =
clear that in that case the co-ordinates x y will also
satisfy the equation, so that the point ( x y) will also
be on the curve. But the points (x, y) and ( ^', 2/') are
x y
,
will satisfy the equation -^
on a straight line through the origin and are equidistant

from the origin. Hence the origin bisects every chord
which passes through it, and is therefore called the centre
of the curve.
The chord through the foci is called the major axis,

and the chord through the centre perpendicular to this
the minor axis.
THE
To find
110.
115
ELLIPSE.
the focal distances
of any
])oint
on an
ellipse.
In the figure to Art. 108, since
SP = ePM, we
have
SP = eZN=e{ZG+CN) = e{^^+^ = aêx',
-GN) = a-ex;
SP+8'P = 2a.
B'P-=e.NZ' = e{GZ'
also
.'.
An
sometimes defined as the locus of a point which moves so

from two fixed points is constant.
To find the equation of the curve from this definition.
Let the constant sum be 2a, and the distance between the two fixed
ellipse is
that the
sum
of its distances
points be 2ae.
Take the middle point of the line joining the fixed points for origin,
and this line and a line perpendicular to it for axes, then we have from
the given condition
J{x - ae)2 + 7/2 + J{x + aef + y^ = 2a

which,
when
becomes
rationalized,
y^
which
is
+ x^l-e^) = a'^{l-e^),
the equation previously obtained.
111.
The polar equation of the ellipse referred to the
centre as pole will be found by writing r cos
for x, and
r sinO for y in the equation
The equation
will therefore
r^
r^ sin^^
cosÔ
"^
a'
-2=
or
The equation
(i)
be
~^^~ _^
cos^^
sin^^
2-
+-T2-
'
r\
W-
can be written in the form
(")
7=h[i-$}^''''
Since
7^
^ is positive,
we
see from
(ii)
that the least
82
THE
116
11
value of -^
r
IT
to
is -^
and that
ELLIPSE.
1
increases as 6 increases from
1.1
a'
the greatest value of ^ being y^
Hence the
radius vector diminishes from a to 6 as ^ increases from
Oto|.
112.
We
have found that

2
for all points
on the
ellipse
We
can shew in a manner similar to that adopted in

Art. 92 that, if x, y be the co-ordinates of any point within
the curve, -^
+ 'f;
0"
be positive if
outside the curve.
will
be negative, and that
1 will
^ + fo 1
ci
x,
To find the 2ôints of intersection of a given

113.
straight line and an ellipse, and to find the condition that
a given straight line may touch the ellipse.
Ji
We
Note.
shall henceforth always take -^
the equation of the
ellipse, unless it is
Let the equation of the straight
.2
+ '^ = 1
as
otherwise expressed.
line
be
y = moo + c
(i).
At points which are common to the straight line and

Hence at
the ellipse both these relations are satisfied.
the common points we have
x^
^^
or
aj'
(If
(mx
-f c)^
_
^
'
+ aW) + 2mca'x + a\c'-) =
(ii).
This is a quadratic equation, and every quadratic

equation has two roots, real, coincident, or imaginary.
Hence there are two values of x, and the two corresponding values oi y are given by equation (i).
.^
THE ELLIPSE.
The
roots of tlie equation
another,
that
117
be equal to one
will
(ii)
if
is, if
c^
aV + 6^
If the two values of cc are equal to one another the two

values of ?/ must also be equal to one another from (i)
Therefore the two points in which the ellipse is cut by
the line will be coincident if c = \/{a^m^ + If).
Hence the line whose equation is
y = mx +
sjic^n-^
Îf)
(iii)
will touch the ellipse for all values of m.
Since either sign may be given to the radical in (iii),

follows that there are two tangents to the ellipse for
every value of m, that is, there are two tangents parallel
it
any given straight line. These two parallel tangents

are equidistant from the centre of the ellipse.
to
To find
114.
points on the
at
equation of the chord joining two

and to find the equation of the tangent
the
ellipse,
any point.
Let X
on the
y'
and x" y" be the co-ordinates of two points

,
ellipse.
The equation
and
of the secant through the points [x
xx
XX
Ti
_
>
y y
Ti
...
(!/
^
But, since the two points are on the
-^
_,
+ TT
^, =
.
.,
1,
XX
ff2
and -^
^^^
^^,
+
,
"-2
'2
V
'
ellipse,
^=
^,
we have
'1
..^
(ll).
and
y)
{x'\ y") is
(ii),
and we have
{x
- x) {x" + x) _
{y- y)
jij"
+ y')
(i)
THE ELLIPSE.
118
x{x \-x)
y[y -Vy") ^ x {x + x")
a
a
'^
X
y
since, -o + '^^ = 1,
a
xx
x{x -\-x)
y{y-Vy) _.
6
a
a
y(y'+y")
'2
_,
or,
wliich
is
yy
b
the equation of the chord joining the two given
points.
In order to find the equation of the tangent at {x y)

we must put x" = x' and y" = y in equation (iii), and we
,
obtain
^^
-2-
>
+ 7T =
IV'
Cor. 1. The co-ordinates of the extremities of the

and a,
respectively, and, from (iv),
major axis are a,
the tangents at these points are x = a and x a.
Hence the tangents at the extremities of the major
axis are parallel to the minor axis.
Similarly the tangents at the extremities of the minor
axis are parallel to the major axis.
Cor. 2. The tangent at the point {x\ y) is parallel
to the tangent at the point ( ic', y')> ^^^ these two
points are on a straight line through the centre of the
curve.
Hence the tangents

through the centre of an
any chord
one another.
at the extremities of
ellipse are parallel to
115.
To find the condition that the line Ix + my ti =
may touch the ellipse.
The equation of the lines joining the origin to the
points where the ellipse
oc^
y-
^+F =1
is
cut
by the
straight line
+ niy = n
+ yl-(^^tpy)^0
lx
i[Art.38]
'
^^
(ii),
(iii).
THE ELLIPSE.
119
cut the ellipse in coincident points, the

equation (iii) will represent coincident straight lines.
Therefore the left-hand member of (iii) must be a perfect
square the condition for this is
If the line
(ii)
Z^ /I
m^
I'm""
nV
n'
n'l
â'
= n^
xcos,a + y ^m.ap=0
whence
aH^
The
CoE.
'
line
Ifm^
(iv).
will
touch the
ellipse, if
To find
116.
of an
of the normal at any point
the equation
ellipse.
The equation
of the ellipse
tangent at any point
of the
{x
y)
is
XX
2
a
The normal
is
yy
7 2
'
the line through {x, y) perpendicular
to the tangent ; its equation
is
__y
x_
therefore [Art. 30]
y
y
.2
^2
a'
EXAMPLES.
1.
Find
and the co-ordinates
tlie eccentricities,
of the foci of the
following ellipses
(i)
2a;2+3y2-l = 0,
Aiu.
2.
(i)
(ii)
^,
Find the lengths of the
Q{x-lf + &{y + lf-l = 0.
(^-ig,0^;
(ii)
(1,
latera recta of the elhpses in question 1.
|V2 and^Ve.
2x^ + 3?/2 = 1.
Ans.
3.
Shew
that the line
-lixW^).
y^x + \J%
touches the eUipse
THE
120
ELLIPSE.
4.
Shew tliat the line Sij=x B cuts the curve ix^-Sy^-2x =
two points equidistant from the axis of y.
5.
Is the point (2, 1) within or
6.
Find the equations
without the ellipse 2x^ + Sy^ - 12 = 0?
of the tangents to -^
angle of C0 with the axis of
in
tt: 1
which make an
x.
Find (i) the equations of the tangents and (ii) the equations of the
normals at the ends of the latera recta of 2x'^ + Sy^ = 6.
7.
The
four points are (1, |\/3).
Find the equations
8.
equal intercepts on the axes.
eccentricity is j^
minor
Ans.
Shew that the equation
9.
+ rs = l
0^
a''
the tangents to
of
A.x^-\-2y^
and shew that the
= ^x
which make
x^y^J a^-lr = 0.
represents an ellipse whose
origin
is
an extremity of the
at
axis.
10.
focus, the line
Ax-Sy =
which has the point ( - 1,

and whose eccentricity is f.
ellipse
for dh'ectrix,
Ans. 20x2 + 24:xy + 27y^
1) for
+ 72 {x-y + l) = 0.
11.
If the normal at the end of a latus rectum of an ellipse pass
through one extremity of the minor axis, shew that the eccentricity of the
curve
is
given by the equation
e^
+ e^-l = 0.
any ordinate 3IP be produced to meet the tangent at the end

rectum through the focus S in Q, shew that the ordinate of
equal to the distance SP.
12.
If
of the latus
is
13.
straight line
OA,
any point C on the

and CB respectively.
of
of given length
line is
point, which will
according as the point
The
an
line
has
its
ellipse
he real,
is outside,
whose equation
extremities on two
shew that the locus

whose semi-axes are equal to CA
are at right angles
Tivo tangents can he
117.
any
AB
OB which
drawn
to
an
ellipse
upon, or tuithin the curve.
is
y = mx + \J{a^m^ + h^)
will
touch the
[Art. 113].
ellipse,
from
coincident, or imaginary,
(i)
may
be
THE
The
line
(i)
121
ELLIPSE.
through the particular point
will pass
{x, y'), if
y
that
= mx + \l{c^m^ + 6^),
is, if
mx'Y a^m^ -h^ = 0,

m^ (x'^ a^) 2mx'y -^y^ b^ =
{y
or
Equation
(ii).
a quadratic equation which gives the

to the ellipse which pass
through the point {x', y)
Since a quadratic equation has
two roots, two tangents will pass through any point (x\ y').
The roots of (ii) are real, coincident, or imaginary,
according as
(ii)
is
directions of those tangents

.
('=-a=)(2/'=-i')-V
'2
is
negative, zero, or positive
y)
is
'2
+t^~^
is
That is, [Art. 112] according as

upon the ellipse, or within it.
positive, zero, or negative.

{x',
or according as -y
outside the ellipse,
118.
To find the equation of the line through the points
of contact of the two tangents which can he drawn to
an ellipse from, any point.
Let x y be the co-ordinates of the point from which

the tangents are drawn.
Let the co-ordinates of the points of contact of the tangents be }i, k and A', k' respectively.
The equations of the tangents at (h, k) and {Ji , k') are
,
yk
xh
_^
'a^'^~
xh'
and
-2
a
We know
ykf
=
+ "ts
h
that {x, y)
'
is
1-
on both these
xh
yk
xh'
y'k'
lines
THE
122
ELLIPSE.
But (i) and (ii) shew that the points {h, h) and
are both on the straight line whose equation is
?+f=^
Hence
(//, k')
(-)
the required equation of the line through

the points of contact of the tangents from {x, y).
The line joining the points of contact of the two
tangents from any point
to an ellipse is called the polar
of
with respect to the ellipse.
[See Art. 76.]
(iii) is
119. If the polar of a point P with respect to an ellipse

pass through the point Q, then will the polar of Q pass
through P.
This
120.
tangents
another.
The
may be proved
exactly as in Art. 78.
To find the locus of the point of intersection of two

to an ellipse which are at right angles to one
line
whose equation
y
is
= mx + Ja^m^ -\-}f
(i)
touch the ellipse, whatever the value of m may be.

we suppose x and y to be known, the equation gives
us the directions of the tangents which pass through the
wîll
If
point
{x, y).
The
equation,
m^
when
{x^
becomes
rationalized,
a^) "Imxy \-y'^ -=0
Let m^ and m^ be the roots of (ii)

be at right angles, m^m^ = 1
then,
if
(ii).
the tangents
-1,
a =
x^ + y^ = a^ +
X
or
'i
(iii).
The required
locus
This circle
called the director circle of the ellipse.
is
is
therefore a circle.
THE
123
ELLIPSE.
The circle described on the major axis of

121.
auxiliary circle.
ellipse as diameter is called the
If the equation of the ellipse
an
be
(i).
a
will be
the equation of the auxiliary circle
-
=1
+^
a
.(ii).
the ellipse be produced

If therefore any ordinate iVP of
inp, we have from (i) and (ii)
to meet the auxiliary circle
Hence the ordinates
NP
Np
of the ellipse
and of the
circle are
in a constant ratio to one another.

^ .i^
t
eccentric angle ot the
the
called
is
A'Cp
angle
The
said
The point j^ on the auxiliary cnxle is
P.
^
point
to correspond to the point
on the
ellipse.
THE ELLIPSE.
124
If the angle
a sin
(j),
cos
A'Cp be
the co-ordinates of
cj),
and those of
will
be a cos (j>, h sin
will
be
<^.
the equation of the line joining two points

eccentric angles are given.
To find
122.
whose
(^' be the eccentric angles of the two points

Let
and a cos <^',
are a cos </>, h sin
co-ordinates
then the
</),
(j),
Z>
sin
respectively.
(/)'
Hence the equation

xa
cos
cos
â
/.
cos
+ 00 +
CL
which
is
6 sin
(/)'
-sini(0 +
- cosj (*
(^
cos
or
of the line joining
f-
</>
^ sin
them
<^
6 sin <^'
sin
is
'
<f>
'
cos-H</> +</>')
(/)')
7 sini
((^-f
=cosi (0- <^0.-W^
To find the tangent at the point

^'= in equation (i), and we obtain
</>,
we have
to
put
(j>
'It*
-cos(f)+7
sin(f)
=l
(ii).
From equation (i) of the preceding article we see

the sum of the eccentric angles of two points on an
123.
that
if
ellipse is constant
points
is
and equal to
2a,
the chord joining those
always parallel to the line

cc
- COS a
II
+ r sin a = 1
that is, the chord is always parallel to the tangent at the

point whose eccentric angle is a.
Conversely, if we have a system of parallel chords
of an ellipse the sum of the eccentric angles of the
extremities of any chord is constant.
THE
To find
ELLIPSE.
125
of the normal at any point

of the point.
be the eccentric angle of a point P on the
Let
ellipse
the equation of the tangent at P is [Art. 122]
124.
of an
the equation
ellipse in terms
of the eccentric angle
(f)
- cos d>+ T sin 6 = 1.

^
^
a
The equation of the line through (a cos
perpendicular to the tangent is [Art. 30]
{x
a cos
(^)
^^^
cos
or
cos
125.
We
will
(p
(^
{y
^'^
H^,
sm (^
~^ si^ ^)
^^
=
a^
: ^
sin
(/>,
b sin
</>)
= 0,
(^
- If.
now prove some geometrical
properties
of an ellipse.
Let the tangent at P meet the axes of x and y in

respectively, and let the normal meet the axes in G, g.
Draw SZ, B'Z' OK perpendicular to the tangent at P;
draw also CE parallel to the tangent at P, meeting
the normal in F, and the focal distance SP in E.
T,
Then if x y be the co-ordinates of the point P,

will be
,
.(i).
THE
126
Where
this cuts the axis oi x,
we have from
= 0, and
at that point
(i),
'
9Kl^=1, ovGN.GT=GA''
{-j).
NP. Ct=^GB'
^).
Similarly
The
ELLIPSE.
equation of the
normal at
x-x
r is
,(ii).
X
a'
Where the normal

therefore from
(ii),
x-x
cuts the axis of x,
we have y=0, and

,2
=--^cc\
or
x = x[l--^)=e^x;
\
.'.
GG = e\GN
(7)-
Also, since
gQ^QG-h GG = ae + e^x,
we have
and GS'
= ae- eV,
8G _ae + ix _ a-\-ex _ _^
"
^
S'P
GW' ae-eV a-ex
therefore
FG bisects the angle
SFS'
'
(S).
THE ELLIPSE.
Again, since
we have
PG' = GN' + NF' = (CN~ GGf + NP\

PG' = if + x" (1 - e^f,
PG^
or
= ?>V(Ti" + -'^
ah'
Kiid.PF=KG=r-T.
A
line
will touch the ellipse
^4
'
whose equation
y=
[Art. 31];
PF.PG=b^
.-.
The
127
mx +
(e).
is
'\/{a^m^
+ lf)
(iii)
m may
be.
Hence, if 8Z, S'Z' be the perpendiculars from the

on the line (iii), then [Art. 31]
mae + V {a%i^ + )
,.
s^.
s'^'
^, ^,
mae + \l{(^'\ii^ +
= ?!^!+Zjz^' =
1 +^
Again, the equation of the line through

to
foci
V^)
(f).
perpendicular
(iii) is
my -^ x-V
To
ae
(iv).
the point of intersection of (iii)

from the two equations.
eliminate
and (iv), we must
The equations may be written in the form
find the locus of
mx = isj(a\i^ + 6^),
and
my + x
ae.
Square both sides of these equations and add, we thus

obtain
therefore
equation
the locus of
is
the auxiliary circle
whose
is
We
+ 2/^ =
a^
(77).
should have arrived at the same result if we had

supposed the perpendicular to have been drawn from S'.
THE
128
ELLIPSE.
Let P be any point, and let QQ' be the polar of

Let QQ' meet the axes in T, t Draw 8Z, S'Z\ GK
126.
P.
PO
meet the axes

PO perpendicular to QQ' and let
Then, if x, y be the co-ordinates of P, the
G, g.
equation of QQ^ will be [Art. 118]
and
',
in
,(i).
The equation
PO 6^ will therefore
X X _y y
of
From
(i)
and
(ii)
be [Art. 30]
i"\
we can
prove, exactly as
in
the
preceding Article,
{p)
GN.GT=GA\
(y)
GG = e'GN,^nd
N-p.Ct = GB\
(P)
(8)KG.PG = h\
EXAMPLES.
1.
Shew
that the focus of an ellipse
is
the pole of the corresponding
directrix.
2.
Shew
that the equation of the locus of the foot of the perpen-
dicular from the centre of
an
ellipse
on a tangent
is r^
= a^cos^d + h^ sin^^*
THE
sum
Sliew that the
3.
129
ELLIPSE.
of the reciprocals of the squares of
any two
diameters of an eUipse which are at right angles to one another

constant.
an equilateral triangle be inscribed in an
If
4.
is
[See Art. 111.]
sum
ellipse the
of the
squares of the reciprocals of the diameters parallel to the sides will
be constant.
An
5.
between two straight lines at right angles to one
ellipse slides
another; shew that the locus of
sum
Shew
7.
|-
= sin
is
The polar
the
circle
ax
.,,
rCompare
^
P cuts
S'
by a constant is an
{x', y')
then
ellipse.
x'
= cos
sec a,
and the perpenand the minor

0, g will pass through
the minor axis in
with
through the points
cos 6
then eliminate
lx
the tangent at
t,
t,
CS'.]
+ my + n =
hy
a normal to
is
- -r^ =a^-h^; we have
sm 6
ah
cos 6
w sin
(9
d.'\
The perpendicular from
10.
differ
(p- a meet at
tC.Cg = SC
Prove that the line
G on
shew that
and H' on any
& focus;
is
from
for the locus.]
of a point
[Prove that
the centre and
to its polar cuts the polar in the point
shew that the
is
is
+ a and
axis in g;
foci.
[See Art. 120.]
circle.
constant.
Eliminate
sec a.
dicular from
9.
is
that the locus of the point of intersection of tangents to an
the tangents at
8.
centre
two points whose eccentric angles
ellipse at
[If
its
be taken on the minor axis of an ellipse such
of the squares of the perpendiculars
tangent to the ellipse
v'
H'
S'C=CE' = CS, where C
that
the
S\
If the points
6.
the focus of an ellipse whose centre
any point
will
meet the line
CP on
the
directrix.
11.
point
If
P on
be the point on the auxiliary
Q
an
ellipse,
shew that the normals
circle
at
corresponding to the
and Q meet on a
fixed
circle.
If
12.
on an
be the point on the auxiliary circle corresponding to the point

shew that the perpendicular distances of the foci S,
from the tangent
Shew
13.
where
o,
ellipse,
/3,
at
are equal to
SP and
HP respectively.
that the area of a triangle inscribed in an ellipse
I ab {sin (/3 - 7) + sin (7 - a) + sin (a - /3) },

7 are the eccentric angles of the angular points.
S. C. S.
is
THE
130
To find
127.
ELLIPSE.
middle points of a system
the locus of the
of parallel chords of an ellipse.

The equation of the line through the two points {x, y)
and {x", y") on the ellipse is [Ail. 114]
^x)
x{x
{y
+ y") _
xx"
-,
y'y"
..
<r
If the line
(i)
is
parallel to the line
m=
y +y
X
a
= mx,
/' '\
"I
^-r-,
then
W-
/,
Now, if X, y be the co-ordinates of the middle point of

the chord joining {x, y) and {x\y"), then ^x = x ^x",
and
2i/
= y +/';
therefore, from
(ii),
we have
}?x
m=
Hence the
.....
(ill).
K-
a^y
locus of the middle points
which are parallel

whose equation is
to the line
2/
^
= mx
2am
is
'
of all chords
the straight line
iv).
that all diameters of an elhpse [Art.

the centre.
through
pass
102, Def^
form
Writing (iv) in the
y = 7nx, we see that
From
(iv) wê see
mm =
lel
(v).
from the symmetry of the relation (v) that

chords parallel to y = m'x are bisected by y = mx.
Hence, if one diameter of an ellipse bisect chords paralto a second, the second diameter will bisect all chords
It
all
is
clear
parallel to the first.
Bef.
Two
diameters are said to be conjugate
when each
bisects chords parallel to the other.
128.
The tangent at an extremity of any diameter
parallel to the chords bisected by that diameter.
is
THE
ELLIPSE.
131
All the middle points of a system of parallel chords of

ellipse are on a diameter.
Hence, by considering the
parallel tangents, that is the parallel chords which cut the
curve in coincident points, we see that the diameter of
a system of parallel chords passes through the points
of contact of the tangents Avhich are parallel to the
an
chords.
Let P,
be extremities of a pair of conjugate

let the co-ordinates of P be x\ y, and the
co-ordinates of
be x\ y"
The equations of CF and
129.
diameters;
CD
are
y
hence from
(v)
^^"^ ^
ând
Art 127 we have
^-r~7}
lAJ
JU
a'
yy ^
,(i).
be the eccentric angles ofP and Z> respectively,

=a cos cj), y =h sin
x' = a cos (/>', y' = h sin ^\
Substituting these values in (i) we have
If
(j)'
(f),
then X
(/>,
cos
or
(f)
cos
(^' H-
sin
<^
sin 0'
= 0,
i'~f=l
92
THE
132
ELLIPSE.
Hence the
points which
of
an
difference of the eccentric angles of two

are at extremities of two conjugate diameters
ellipse is
a right angle.
pGp\ dCd' be the diameters
of the auxiliary circle

corresponding to the diameters PCP\
CD' of the ellipse,
will
then pCp\ dCdf
be at right angles to one another.
Hence the co-ordinates of
and of D' can be at once
expressed in terms of those of
or of P'.
If
To shew that
30.
jugate semi-diameters
Let P,
the
D be
the
sum of
extremities of two conjugate diameters of
ellipse.
D will be
angle of
The
(^
D will
be a cos
OP'
.-.
CD' = a'
and
cos^
.-.
ellipse at the
be
then the eccentric
<^,
[Art. 129].
P
[
<^
be a cos ^,
will
+-
h sin
(*
f) +
^' în^
CP'+CD':=a' +
<^
h sin ^,
(^ |)
and
'
h\
the parallelogram which touches
ends of conjugate diameters
PGP\ DCD'
Let
= a^ cos' ^ + b'sm^(l>,
The area of
131.
area
co-ordinates of
those of
an
is constant.
be the conjugate diameters. The

which touches the ellipse at
of the parallelogram
P\ D,D'k4<CP.CD
Now
angle of
if
sin
PCD, ot4<CD. CFwhere CFis
C on
the tangent at P.
the eccentric angle of
D will be
\ CD" =
or
of two con-
is constant.
Let the eccentric angle of
P,
the squares
CD'
+ a' cos^
be
(j),
the eccentric
(^ I)
+ ^' ^^^' ("^ - f)
â"" sin' (t>+h^ cos'
(j)
'
(i).
THE ELLIPSE.
The equation
of the tangent at
- cos
11
(b
GF'=
/.
+7" sin
,^^
(b
133
P
=
,.
will
1.
[Art. 31],
-
sin^(^'
cos'(/)
be [Art. 122]
a^
.2^2
a^
From
gram
is
(i)
and
equal to
sm^
we
(ii)
</)
cos'
</>
see that the area of the parallelo-
4<ab.
be the lengths of a pair of conjugate

semi-diameters, and
be the angle between them, then
132.
is
If
r,
r/ sin 6 = ah [Art. 131].

Hence sin d is least when rr is greatest.
Now the sum of the squares of two conjugate diameters
constant hence the product will be greatest when the
;
diameters are equal to one another.
Hence the acute angle between two conjugate diameters

of an ellipse is least
to one another.
when
the conjugate diameters are equal
Let the eccentric angles of the extremities P,
133.
of two conjugate diameters be
IT
c^,
respectively; then
OP*'=a'cos>-h6'sin'0,
GU" = a^ sin^ ^ + 5^ cos^
and
</>
...
CP'
Hence
- CD' = (a' -) cos 2cl).
^4
CP = CD when 6
The equations
is
t or -r
of the equal conjugate diameters are
therefore
X
a
= 7-
Hence the equi-conjugate diameters
of
an
ellipse are
THE ELLIPSE.
134
coincident in direction v/ith the diagonals of the rectangle

formed by the tangents at the ends of its axes.
De/!
134.
The two
straight lines
drawn from any
point on an ellipse to the extremities of any diameter are

called sup'pleinental chords.
to
Any tioo supplemental chords of an

a p)air of conjugate diameters.
ellipse are
parallel
Let the chords be formed by joining the point Q to the

Let V be the
extremities P, P' of the diameter PCP\
the middle point of QP'.
middle point of QP, and
Then CV' and CV are conjugate, for each bisects a chord
parallel to the other
tively to
and
QP and QP\
QP and QP'
Hence
CV\
CV
are parallel respec-
are parallel to a pair of conjugate
diameters.
135.
We can fmd the position of a pair of conjugate
diameters which make a given angle with one another.
For, draw any diameter PGP' and on PP' describe a
segment of a circle containmg the given angle. If this
circle cut the ellipse in a point Q, the angle PQP' is equal
to the given angle, and QP, QP' are parallel to conjugate
diameters [Art. 134].
The circle and ellipse will not however intersect in any
real points besides the points P, P' if the given angle
be less than that between the equi-conjugate diameters of
the ellipse [Art. 132].
the equation of an ellipse referred
as axes.
diameters
p>air of conjugate
136.
To find

and minor axes be
ellipse referred to its
i4='
to
any
major
Since the origin is unaltered we substitute for x, y expressions of the form Ix + my, I'x + m'y in order to obtain
the transformed equation [Art. 51].
THE ELLIPSE.
The equation
of the elHpse will therefore be of the
Aaf + 2Rwi/
form
135
+ Bf = 1
(ii).
By supposition the axis of x bisects all chords parallel

to the axis of y.
Therefore for ani/ particular value of o)
the two values of y found from (ii) must be equal and of
Hence 11=0 the equation will therefore
opposite sign.
;
+ Bif = 1
Ax^
be of the form
(iii).
To
obtain the lengths (a, ) of the intercepts on the

and ^ = in (iii) we
axes of 0), y, we must put y =
;
Aa'^=l=Bh'\
thus obtain
Hence the equation of an ellipse referred to conjugate
diameters is
where a,
h'
are the lengths of the semi-diameters.
By
the preceding Article we see that when an

any pair of conjugate diameters as
ellipse
axes of co-ordinates, its equation is of the same form
as when its major and minor axes are the axes of co137.
referred to
is
ordinates.
be seen that Articles 113, 114, 115, 118 and 127,
It will
hold good when the axes of co-ordinates are any pair of

conjugate diameters.
We
138.
by the solution
of
some examples.
(1)
To find ivhen
the area of a triangle inscriled in
an
ellipse is
greatest.
Let the eccentric angles

be
01, 025
03
l6t p, q, r
of P, Q,
R, the angular points of the triangle,
be the three corresponding points on the auxiliary
circle.
The areas
of the triangles
a cos
01, h sin 0^,
PQR, and 2)qr

1
0^,
00,
a sin
0o,
03,
a sin
03,
1|
a cos
I
[Ai-t. 6]
a cos
a cos 02, b sin 0o, 1

a cos 03, 6 sin 03, 1
A PQR
are
and J a cos
Apqr
::
a.
a sin 0^, 1
THE
136
Hence the
ratio b
Now
triangles
Therefore
a.
ELLIPSE.
PQR and j^qr are to one another in the

PQR is greatest when pqr is greatest.
A2?2r is greatest
when
an
it is
equilateral triangle;
constant
and in that
27r
0;^~0o~0o~03=03~0i=
case
Hence when a
-g-
an
triangle inscribed in
ellipse
eccentric angles of its angular points are a, a +
is
27r
maximum,
the
47r
If any pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse cut the tangent at

P in T, T'; shew that TP PT' = CD^, where CD is the diameter
(2)
a point
conjugate
CP.
to
Take CP,
CD
and
for axes of x
y,
then the equation of the ellipse will
0^
a^
The equation
K y=mx,
of the tangent at
y^m'x
P (a,
0) will
be a;=a.
be the equations of any pair of conjugate diameters,
then
mm'= --JAxt.
The
(i).
.'.
PT via, and PT' = m'a

PT .PT' = mm'a'^
.-.
TP. PT' = 62, from
But
(3)
1271
(ii)
(i).
joining the extremities of any tico diameters of an

another icill always touch a fixed
line
ellipse ivhich are at right angles to one

circle.
Let CP,
and
let
CQ
be two diameters which are at right angles to one another,
PQ
be
X cos a + y sin a=p.
The equation
of the lines
x^
CQ
CP,
y^
/cr
will be [Art. 38]
cos a + 7/ sin a
But, since the lines CP,
sum
of the coefficients of x^
CQ
and
are at right angles to one another, the

y^ in
(i)
is
1 A-1
'
a^
b^
p^
zero [Art. 36]
'
which shews that the perpendicular distance of the

centre
is
constant.
Hence the
line
PQ
always touches a fixed
circle.
line
PQ
from the
'
THE ELLIPSE.
(4)
To find
137
normal chords of an
the locus of the poles of
of the normal at any point 9
The equation
- -
cos d
The equation
ellipse.
is
^r^ = a^-h-
(i
of the polar of
any point
{x\ y') is
+ ^=1...
xx'
The equations
and
(i)
(ii)
sin 6
vv'
,..,
n.
will represent the
same
straight line, if
(a2_62)l^_^ and(a2-&2)||^__A
a^
cosd'
'b^
sm ^
^
or
(a^
therefore,
'
&2)'
cos 6 = -t, and

X
(a^
^
by squaring and adding the two
Hence the equation
b^)
sin 6 =
,:
y'
we have
last equations,
of the locus is
xhf{a^-b'^f = aHf + x^.

If a quadrilateral circumscribe an ellipse, the line through the
middle points of its diagonals tvill pass through the centre of the ellipse.
(5)
Let the eccentric angles of the four points of contact of the tangents
be
a,
/3,
y,
8.
The equations
of the tangents at the points a,
- cos a
+ ~ sin a^l, and a
cos 8
j3
are
+ 4- sin 8 = 1.
b
These meet in the point
The tangents
at
/^^
cos 1 (a
4-/3)
cos I (a
-^)'
y and
/
5 will
+ /3)
cos J (a -/3)/'
meet in the point
cosJJt+S)
COS J (7-5)'
The
^ sin J (a
jSinJ^7 + 5)
COS 1(7-5),
co-ordinates of the middle point of the line joining these points of
intersection are given
_acos|(a + |8)
^~2
b sin i (a -f /3)
y=:2
by
^(7- S) + cos^ (7-f-5)

- 3) cos i{a-^)
cos i (7 - 5) + sin ^ (7 -h 5)
cos ^(7 - 5) cos ^{a- ^)
cos
cos J fa-/3)
'
cos i (7
cos ^ (a
- p)
'
'
THE ELLIPSE.
138
Therefore
line joining
tlie
makes with the major
axis
tlie
centre of the ellipse to this point
an angle the tangent of which
is
+ jg) cos^ (7- 5) + sin | (7+6) cos j (a - jQ)

I
acosi(a + i3) cos|(7- ) + cosi (7 + 0) cos^ (a-/3)
h sin
which
is
(q
equal to
a cos (s
6 sin
where
2s
(s
+ sin (g - /3) + sin (s - 7) + sin (s - 5)

o) + cos (s - /3) + cos (s - 7) + cos (s - 5)
g)
= a + j8 + 7+S.
The symmetry
of the ahove result shews that the line joinirg the
centre of the ellipse to one of the middle points of the diagonals of
the quadrilateral will pass through the other two middle points.
Examples on Chapter YI.

If SPj S'P be the focal distances of a point P on an
whose centre is C, and CD be the semi-diameter conjugate to CP shew that .ST S'P = CD'.
1.
ellipse
of an ellipse meets the

a point
axis
A', ia the point Y;
of
the
tangent at A, one extremity
being
the centre of the
parallel
to
A'P,
C
is
shew that
2.
The tangent
at
AG
CF
curve.
3.
point moves so that the
sum
of the squares of its
from two intersecting straight lines is constant.

Prove that its locus is an ellipse, and find the eccentricity in
terms of the angle between the lines.
distances
any other
P, Q are fixed points on an ellipse and
4.
are the middle points of PR, QR,
point on the curve; V,
Q' are perpendicular to PR, QR respectively and
and VG,
Shew that GG' is constant.
meet the axis in G, G'
series of ellipses are described with a given focus and

5.
corresponding directrix; shew that the locus of the extremities
of their minor axes is a parabola.
PNP' is a double ordinate of an ellipse, and Q is any

6.
point on the curve; shew that, if QP, QP' meet the major axis
in M, M' respectively, CM. CM'=-CA\
THE ELLIPSE.
139
Lines are drawn through the foci of an ellipse perpen7.

dicular respectively to a pair of conjugate diameters and
intersect in Q; shew that the locus of ^ is a concentric ellipse.
any point P of an ellipse cuts the

equi-conjugate diameters in T, T'; shew that the triangles TCF^
TCP are in the ratio of CT' CT'\
The tangent
8.
at
If
9.
GQ
be conjugate to the normal at P, then will
CP
be conjugate to the normal at Q.

10.
ellipse,
ellipse
If P, D be extremities of conjugate diameters of an

and PP\ DD' be chords parallel to an axis of the
shew that PD' and P'D are parallel to the equi-
conjugates.
D
P
11.
Jl P,
are extremities of conjugate diameters, and
the ta.ngent at
cut the major axis in T, and the tangent at
cut the minor axis in T'; shew that TT^ will be parallel to
one of the equi-conjugates.
QQ' is any chord of an ellipse parallel to one of the

12.
equi-conjugates, and the tangents at Q, Q' meet in T-, shew
that the circle QTQ' passes through the centre.
In the ellipse prove that the normal at any point is a
13.
fourth proportional to the perpendiculars on the tangent from
the centre and from the two foci.
Two conjugate diameters of an ellipse are drawn, and

14.
their four extremities are joined to any point on a given circle
whose centre
is
at the centre of the ellipse
shew that the sum
of the squares of the lengths of these four lines
PNP'
15.
is
of
If the
16.
shew
constant.
a double ordinate of an ellipse whose centre

at
meets CP' in 0; shew that the locus
and the normal

is an ellipse.
is (7,'
is
normal at any point
P cut
the major axis in G,
that, for different positions of P, the locus of the
point of
PG
will be
an
middle
ellipse.
A, A' are the vertices of an ellipse, and P any point

that, if
be perpendicular to
and
being on the axis AA\ then
perpendicular to A'P, M,
be equal to the latus rectum of the ellipse.
will
17.
on the curve; shew
PM
MN
PN
^P
THE
140
Find the equation

18.
two tangents can be drawn
ELLIPSE.
of the locus of a point
to
an
with the axis-major such that

(2) cot 0^
cot 0^
is
constant,
ellipse
(1)
and
(3)
from which
making angles
6^, 0^,
tan ^^-t- tan ^^ i^ constant,

tan 0^ tan 6^ is constant.
The line joining two extremities of any two diameters

19.
of an ellipse is either parallel or conjugate to the line joining
two extremities of their conjugate diameters.
If
20.
an
ellipse,
ellipse -^
FD
P and D are extremities of conjugate diameters of

shew that the tangents at P and D meet on the
^2
= 2,
and that the locus of the middle point of
"^
is-!+lC=i
2
^2
'2'
A line
drawn parallel to the axis-minor of an ellipse

a focus and the corresponding directrix; prove
that the product of the perpendiculars on it from the extremities of any chord passing through that focus is constant.
21.
is
midway between
22.
are
a,
If the chord joining
^ cut the major axis
centre,
of
two points whose eccentric angles

an ellipse at a distance d from the
shew that tan - tan ^ =
where 2a
the length
is
of the major axis.

If any two chords be drawn through two points on the
23.
axis-major of an ellipse equidistant from the centre, shew that
tan - tan ~ tan ^ tan -k=^, where
a, ^, y, 8
are the eccentric
z
Ji
Zi
Z
angles of the extremities of the chords.
24.
If S, E. be the foci of an ellipse and any point ^ be
taken on the curve and the chords ASB, BHC, CSD,
be
drawn and the eccentric angles of A, B,C, Dj-.-he 0^, 6^,6^,0^..,,
DHE
prove that tan
~ tan -^ cot -^
cot -^
= tan -^ tan -^ =
. .
Shew that the area of the triangle formed by the

25.
tangents at the points whose eccentric angles are a, fS, y respectively is ab tan |- (/S y) tan |^ (y a) tan |- (a /S).
26.
Prove
that, if tangents
be drawn to an
ellipse at
THE
141
ELLIPSE.
points whose eccentric angles are cf)^, <fi^, ^3, the radius of the
circle circumscribing the triangle so formed is
p, q, r being the length of the diameters of the ellipse parallel

to the sides of the triangle, and a, h the semi-axes of the ellipse.
From any point P on an ellipse straight lines are

27.
drawn through the foci S,
cutting the corresponding directrices in Q, R respectively; shew that the locus of the point of
intersection of
QH and BS is
an
ellipse.
be corresponding points on an ellipse and its

auxiliary circle, centre (7, and if CP be produced to meet the
auxiliary circle in q; prove that the tangent at the point Q on
the ellipse corresponding to q is perpendicular to Cp, and that
it cuts off from Cp a length equal to CP.
28.
If P,
If P, Q be the points of contact of perpendicular tan29.

gents to an ellipse, and p, q be the corresponding points on the
auxiliary circle; shew that Cp, Cq are conjugate diameters of
the ellipse.
centre C of two concentric circles two

radii CQ, Cq are drawn equally inclined to a fixed straight line,
the first to the outer circle, the second to the inner prove that
is
the locus of the middle point
of Qq is an ellipse, that
the normal at
to this ellipse, and that Qq is equal to the
diameter conjugate to CP.
30.
From
the
PQ
If (0 is the difierence of the eccentric angles of two

31.
points on the ellipse the tangents at which are at right angles,
prove that ah sin(o = A./i., where X, /x are the semi -diameters
parallel to the tangents at the points, and a, h are the semi-axes
of the ellipse.
Two
equal circles touch one another, find the locus of

a point which moves so that the sum of the tangents from it
to the two circles is constant.
32.
Prove that the sum of the products of the perpenfrom the two extremities of each of two conjugate
diameters on any tangent to an ellipse is equal to the square of
the perpendicular from the centre on that tangent.
33c
diculars
THE ELLIPSE.
142
34.
^ is a point on the normal at any point of an ellipse
wliose centre is C such that the lines CP, CQ make equal
angles with the axis of the ellipse; shew that PQ is proportional
to the diameter cod jugate to CP.
If a pair of tangents to a conic be at right angles to

the product of the perpendiculars from the centre
another,
one
of the tangents on the chord of contact is
intersection
and the
35.
constant.
Find the locus of the middle points of chords of an

which all pass through a fixed point.
If P be any point on an ellipse and any chord PQ cut
37.
36.
ellipse
CP
in P, then will
the diameter conjugate to
on the diameter parallel to
to half the square

38.
an
PQ PR
.
be equal
PQ.
Find the locus of the middle points of

which are of constant length.
all
chords of
ellipse
Tangents at right angles are drawn to an ellipse; find

39.
the locus of the middle point of the chord of contact,
If three of the sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in an
three given straight lines,
shew that the fourth side will also be parallel to a fixed straight
40.
ellipse are ])arallel respectively to
line.
of the parallelogram formed by the tangents

at the ends of any pair of diameters of an ellipse varies inversely
as the area of the parallelogram formed by joining the points of
contact.
41.
The area
any two diameters

Qq be drawn cutting
each other in T and the diameters produced in p, and q, then
the areas of the triangles TQp, TPq will be equal.
From the point two tangents OP, OQ are drawn to
43.
42.
OP,
CQ
If at
of
the ellipse
is
an
-^
the
extremities
ellipse,
f2
of
P/j,
shew that the area
of the triangle
CPQ
equal to
h'K'
and the area
P,
two tangents
+ a'F
of the quadrilateral
being the centre of the
ellipse,
OPCQ
and
h,
is
equal to
k the co-ordinates of 0.

THE ELLIPSE.
143
TP, TQ are tangents to an ellipse whose centre is (7,

44.
shew that the area of the quadrilateral CPTQ is ah tan \{<^ 4>)',
c^' are the
where a, h are the semi-axes of the ellipse, and
eccentric angles of P and Q.
</>,
PGP' is a diameter of an ellipse and QCQ' is the

45.
corresponding diameter of the auxiliarj circle; shew that the
area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at P, P', Q, Q'
is
(a
r;
b)
jTT
sm 2(p
-.
where
<i is
the eccentric an^le of P.
parallelogram circumscribes a circle, and two of the

46.
angular points are on fixed straight lines parallel to one another and equidistant from the centre; shew that the other two
are on an ellipse of which the circle
is
the minor auxiliary
circle.
Two
met in
two
lines
which
pass
OP, OQ
the points P, Q respectively by
any
pair
of
and are parallel to
other
conjugate diameters; shew that the locus of the middle point
47.
of
PQ
is
fixed conjugate diameters of an ellipse are
a straight line.
If from any point

in the plane of an ellipse the per48.
pendiculars OM,
be drawn on the equal conjugate diameters,
the direction OP of the diagonal of the parallelogram
will be perpendicular to the polar of 0.
ON
49.
Three points A, P,
MONP
are taken on an ellipse
whose
Parallels to the tangents at A and B drawn

centre is C.
through P meet GB and GA respectively in the points Q and R.
Prove that QR is parallel to the tangent at P.
at
Find the locus of the point of intersection of normals

50.
two points on an ellipse which are extremities of conjugate
diameters.
Normals to an ellipse are drawn at the extremities

51.
of a chord parallel to one of the equi- conjugate diameters;
prove that they intersect on a diameter perpendicular to the
other equi-conjugate.
52.
If normals be drawn at the extremities of any focal
chord of an ellipse, a line through their intersection parallel to
the axis-major will bisect the chord.
THE ELLIPSE.
144
PQ be taken in the normal at any point P

whose centre is C, equal in length to the semidiameter which is conjugate to GP, shew that Q lies on one or
other of two circles.
If a length
53.
of
an
ellipse
Shew
54.
the ellipse
that, if
2 +
CL
will tan
(^
[x"
TP,
55.
"~
f2
3/"
TQ
^ be
= ^ drawn from
- a' - )
are
.=
{x,
at
+ |j -
y'),
then
1.
y) to the ellif)se
^'''''^^'
2a6
the jDoint (x,
the tangents drawn from an external
X
point
the angle between the tangents to
IJ
^^
SPVSQ" a''^
shew
that, if
/S'
be a
h''
If two tangents to an ellipse from a point T intersect

56.
an angle 0, shew that ST
cos <^ = CT" a' h^, where
the foci.
is the centre of the ellipse and S,
.
HT
If the perpendicular from the centre G of an ellipse

57.
on the tangent at any point P meet the focal distance SP,
produced if necessary, in R; the locus of R will be a circle.
lie
If two concentric
58.
on the other, and if e,
their axes are inclined at
be such that the foci of one

be their eccentricities, shew that
ellipses
e'
an an^le
cos~^
-,
ee
Shew that the angle which a diameter of an ellipse

59.
subtends at either end of the axis-major is supplementary to
that which the conjugate diameter subtends at the end of the
axis-minor.
If B, 0' be the angles subtended by the axis major of

60.
an ellipse at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters,
shew that cot^ + cot^ ^' is constant.
If the distance between the foci of an ellipse subtend
61.
angles 2^, 20' at the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters, shew
that tan^^ + tan^^' is constant.
THE ELLIPSE.
145
ters
If X, X' be the angles which any two conjugate diamesubtend at any fixed point on an ellipse, prove that
cotÂ.
+ cotÂ'
62.
is
constant.
63.
Shew that pairs of conjugate diameters of an ellipse
are cut in involution by any straight line.
sides touch an ellipse and enclose

that each side of the triangle touches
at its middle point, and that the triangle formed by joining the
points of contact is a maximum.
64.
it, is
triangle
whose
minimum; shew
65.
A, B, G, D are four fixed points on an ellipse, and F
any other point on the curve shew that the product of the
perpendiculars from F on AB and CD bears a constant ratio to
the product of the perpendiculars from F on FG and FA.
;

ellipse which are perpendicular to one another.
66.
normals to an
Find the equation of the locus of the point of inter67.

section of the tangent at one end of a focal chord of an ellipse
with the normal at the other end.
Two
68.
straight lines are
of an ellipse at a distance
drawn
parallel to the axis-major
Cl/O
from
it;
prove that the part
of any tangent intercepted between them is divided by the

point of contact into two parts which subtend equal angles at
the centre.
FG is
axis, GF
G being in the
outwards
so
that
FQ GF;
to Q
is produced
major
whose
eccentricity
is
shew that the locus of Q is an ellipse
a^ -If
-^
of the locus of the intersection of
and find the equation
ô
^
69.
the normal to an ellipse at P,
a- -\-
the tangents at
S. C.
S.
and
Q.
10
CHAPTER YIL
The Hypeebola.
The Hyperbola
Definition,
which moves
the locus of a point
is
from a fixed point, called

the focus, bears a constant ratio, which is greater than
unity, to its distance from a fixed straight line, called the
so that its distance
directrix.
To find
189.
Let
the equation of
ZM
be the focus and
>S^
Draw SZ perpendicular
Divide
Z8
in
Then
suppose.
There
will also
Then
C be
to the directrix.
AZ=
given ratio
SA
a point on the curve.
:
be a point A' in
SA'
Let
the directrix.
so that
J. is
an hyperbola.
AZ
::
/S!^
:
.-.
1.
let
= e.A'Z;
8A+8A' = e{AZ+A'Z);
280=2e.AC;
08 = ae
A'
8 -SA=e {A'Z- AZ)
AA' = e(AA'-2AZ);
A A' = 2a.
and SA'
.'.
.-.
Also
or
produced such that
the middle point of AA', and
SA = e.AZ,
=e
(i).
THE HYPEEBOLA.
.
147
AG=e.ZO,
GZ=-
or
(ii).
Now
let
be taken as
origin,
GA
as the axis of x,
and a line perpendicular to GA as the axis of y.

Let P be any point on the curve, and let
its
co-
ordinates be x^ y.
Then, in the figure
Now
BN=GN-GB = x-ae,
and
ZN' =
{x
or
or
y'
GN--GZ = X
aef
-\-
y"
e^
Ix
+ x'(l-e')â''{l-e'),
x^
y^
(iii).
102
THE HYPEEBOLA.
148
Since
if
we put
is
greater than unity a^(l e^) is negative;

for o^ (1 ^z.!)^he-eciuation takes the form
(iv).
The
latiis
rectum
To
to the directrix.
is
find its
in equation (iv).
if
'\
/'
'
Then
through the focus parallel

length we must put x = ae
thB~choTrd
= If {e' -1) = ^,',
since
= a' (e' - 1)
so that the length of the semi-latus
rectum
is
a
In equation (iv) [Art. 189] x^ cannot be less than
otherwise
would be negative.
Hence no part of the curve lies between
140.
a^, for
x=
and x
a.
If a; be greater than a, y^ will be positive and for any

particular value of x there will be two equal and opposite
values of y.
Therefore the axis of x divides the curve
into two similar and equal parts.
For any value of y, of is positive; and for any particular
value of y there will be two equal and opposite values of w.
Therefore the axis of y divides the curve into two similar
;
and equal
From
on the axis
of o) the points S', Z' be taken such that CS' = SC, and
GZ' = ZC, the point S' will also be a focus of the curve,
and the line through Z' perpendicular to CZ' will be the
parts.
this it follows that if
corresponding directrix.
If [x, y) be any point on the curve, it is clear that the
point {X, y) will also be on the curve. But the points
{x y') and ( x y') are on a straight line through the
origin and are equidistant from the origin.
Hence the
origin bisects every chord which passes through it, and is
therefore called the centre of the curve.
From equation (iv) [Art. 139] it is clear that if x^ be
greater than a^, y^ will be positive, and will get larger and
larger as
becomes larger and larger, and there is no
,
THE HYPERBOLA.
149
x and y. The curve is therefore

shaped somewhat as in the figure to Art. 139, and consists
of two infinite branches.
A A' is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola.
The line through G perpendicular to A A' does not meet
the curve in real points but, if B, B' be the points on this
line such that BG = GB' = h, the line BB' is called the
limit to this increase of
conjugate axis.
141.
To find the focal distances of any point on
hyperbola.
In the figure to Art. 139, since
SPePM, we
an
have
SP = eZN= e (GN- GZ)=e(x - -) = ex a:

8'P = e.PAr = e{GN+Z'G)=eix+'^=ex + a',
also
..-.
8T-SP = 2a.
The polar equation of the hyperbola referred to

142.
the centre as pole will be found by writing r cos 6 for x,
and r sin^ for y in the equation
The
a'
If
equation will therefore
be
1.
a'
or
-2
The equation
(i)
= cos^^
^
sin^^
,.,
T^
(i).
can be written in the form
?=a;^-{i'+)'^'''^
We
least,
IS
see from
when
zero
is
(ii)
that -2
zero.
when sin^^=^
is
As 6
T9
greatest,
increases,
;
^")-
and therefore r
^
is
diminishes, and
so that for this value of 6,
THE HYPERBOLA.
150
Jf
-^ will be
be greater than ^ =-
a +b
r
negative, so that a radius vector which makes with the
If sin^
is infinite.
axis
an angle greater than
sin~^
the curve in real points.
+ pr
'^^^
'
does not meet
143.
Most of the results obtained in the preceding
chapter hold good for the hyperbola, and in the proofs
there given it is only necessary to change the sign of h'\
We shall therefore only enumerate them.
Let the equation of the hyperbola be

2
d'
b'
^ _ -^ =
The
(i)
values of
line
y = onx +
The equation
a tangent for
is
The equation
[Art.
l.
all
is
114]
of the polar of {x
f-f =
(iv)
If)
of the tangent at (x\ y')
^-f- =
(iii)
^{pJ^m^
[Art. 113].
The equation
(ii)
y') is
[Art. 118.]
1.
of the normal at [x,
^^^y^^
X
y)
is
[Art. 116.]
-'
The
(v)
line Ix
aT-6W = 72^[Art.
The
(vi)
curve, if
(vii)
bola
b,
line
= a^
will
touch the curve,
if
115].
x cos
cosâ
The equation
= a'-
is x''-\-y'
The
than
p^
+ my = n
b''^
o. -\-
y sin
a=p
will
touch
the
sinâ [Art. 115],
of the director-circle of the hyper[Art. 120].
director-circle is clearly
imaginary when a
and reduces to a point when a=b.
is less
THE HYPERBOLA.
151
(viii)
The geometrical propositions proved in Art. 125
are also true for the hyperbola.
(ix)
The locus of the middle points of all chords of
the hyperbola which are parallel to y = mx is the straight
line
= mx,
52
where min
The
144.
lines
= -^
mx,
[Art. 127].
y
,
TYim^
= mx
are conjugate
if
V
= 5.
a
These two diameters meet the curve in points whose

by the equations
abscissae are given
The
than a
first
and the second

gives real values
-.
equation gives real values of x
than -
mm' = -^,
,
But, since
nor both be
and
if
if
be
be
less
cannot both be
less
than
less
s^reater.
Therefore, of two conjugate diameters of an hyperbola

one meets the curve in real points, and the other in
imaginary points.
The two conjugate diameters are
coincident
if
Let P,
w=+
-.
be extremities of a pair of conjugate

the co-ordinates of
be x, y' and the
know from Art. 144 that
be x" y"
co-ordinates of
if one of these two points be real the other will be
imaginary.
The equations of OP and GD are
145.
diameters
let
Hence, from
(ix)
We
Art. 143,
V
y
X
X
we have
THE HYPERBOLA.
152
^=0
a3 =
whence
or,
since
(^', y')
,,
and (x\ y") are both on the curve,
'"_
or
2/"
'
a
.-.
and
.*.
from
From
and
^"=f2/V-l
(ii),
= ~ ^ J 1
(iii).
y'
(i)
(ii)
(i),
(iii)
we have
CP' + CJ)'=aj" + y"-j2 y" '2
b'
~2
^"
/2
'2\
,'2
So that, as in the case of the elhpse, the S'mn of the

squares of two conjugate diameters is constant.
146.
An asymptote is a straight line which
Definition.
meets a curve in two points at
infinity,
but which
is
not
altogether at infinity.
of an hyperbola.
To find the abscissae of the points where the straight
line y trx + c cuts the hyperbola, we have the equation
To find
the asymptotes
x^
a'
m\
n^""i^y
2
Both
/I
(mx-{-cy
~ '"If
2mc
^
c"
'
"F*-5"^-^ =
roots of the equation
(i)
will
...
W-
be infinite
if
the
THE HYPEEBOLA.
coefficients of x"
153
and of x are both zero

-R
Hence we must have
The hyperbola
= 0,
r9
01?
-2
and
that
is, if
= 0.
and mc
= 0,
iii
= +~ -
if"
T2 =
has therefore two real asymptotes whose equations are
,= ^.;o.
expressed il one equation,
(Jj
i4-'
<">
Draw
lines through B, B' parallel to the transverse

and through A, A' parallel to the conjugate axis
then we see from (ii) that the asymptotes are the diagonals
axis,
of the rectangle so formed.

The ellipse has no real points at infinity,
the asymptotes of an ellipse are imaginary.
147.
Any
straight line parallel to
meet the curve in one point
and therefore
an asymptote
will
at infinity.
For, one root of the equation (i) Art. 146 will be inThis will be the case
finite, if the coefficient of x^ is zero.
if
m = + a-
So that the
line
y
^
-\-
-x
a
-\-g
meets the
may
curve in one point at infinity whatever the value of c
its
be.
The equation of the hyperbola which has BB' for

148.
A' for its conjugate axis is
transverse axis and
-? + F = l
This hyperbola and
equation is
the
original
J-F = lare said to be conjugate to one another.
hyperbola,
whose
(")'
THE HYPERBOLA.
154
We
append some
j)i'operties of
a pair of conjugate
hyperbolas.
The two hyperbolas have the same asymptotes.
(1)
If two diameters be conjugate wdth respect to one

(2)
of the hyperbolas, they will be conjugate with respect
to the other.
This follows from the condition in (ix) Article 143.
The equations
of the hyperbolas
written
in
the forms
[Art. 142] be
(3)
J.
cos^ 6
(ii)
and
(i)
can
sin^
a'-
It
is
clear that
curve
if,
for
cos''e
sm ê
a
any value of
6, r^ is
positive for one
negative for the other.

Hence every diameter meets one curve in real points
and the other in imaginary points moreover the lengths
of semi-diameters of the two curves are, for all values of 0,
connected by the relation r^ = r^.
it is
two conjugate diameters cut the curves (ii) and

in P and d respectively, then GF'^ Cd? = c^ If.
Let x\ y be the co-ordinates of P, and x' y" the
(4)
(i)
If
co-ordinates of d.

THE HYPEEBOLA.
Then the equations
=
--4
X
y
The
OP
of
0,
155
and Cd are
and
-4;=0.
condition for conjugate diameters,

I
viz,
Tnm
^~^^^
gives
^^
'2
or
And, since
{x,
'2
= ^
a
//
y)
^y
//2
is
/^,"2
on
\
'2 ,//2
6'^^
2/
and
(ii),
^//Z
{x" , y")
on
(i),
we
'2
x^^y^
~
d'
or
('''^'
'
^
_
= -
(iv)=
and,
.'.
from
X
(iii),
CP^ - Cd"
Hence
11
=t-
= x" +
(v).
//2
y" - x"^
-2/
y
72
.2
'2
1^
''/2
'
/a
'2
/z
=(^-^=)(S-i;>,
(5)
P, P^,
The parallelogram formed by the tangents

cZ, c?'
at
of constant area.
is
The parallelogram is equal to 4(7P CdînPCd, or

equal to 4^Gd GF, where CF is the perpendicular from C
on the tangent at P.
.
* CP and CiZ must not be looked upon as conjugate semi-diameters,

and d are not on the same hyperbola. The line dCd'
since the points
cuts the original hyperbola in two imaginary points and if these points
be D, D', we see from (3) that (71)2= _ (j^p^
THE HYPEKBOLA.
156
Now
P is
&=
^' _
CF'
OT =^ /H
And
(6)
The asymptotes
If ^,
3/
'2
'2
Cd
Hence
-. x''
'^
a'b'
^ + |jb^J
\a^
OF = ab.
bisect
Pd and Pd\
be the co-ordinates of the middle point of Pd,
then
2x
= x + x\
X
and ^y =^y
_x +x _
therefore the middle points of

or other of the lines
\-
y"
"^
~ a
Pd
and
of
Pd
are on one
GK
GPKd
bisects Pd
is a parallelogram
Also, since
asymptotes,
that the
the
so
is
of
one
or Pd', and therefore
meet those at d, d' on the asymptotes.
tangents at D,
(7)
The equations
to the hyperbolas
(ii)
XX
yy
7 9
of the polars of [x y) with respect

and (i) respectively are
,
XX
yy _
^
7-7- 1.
6'
a
b^
a
Hence the polars of any point with respect to the two
curves are parallel to one another and equidistant from the
t, anci
centre.
If {x y')
,
respect to
be any point
on
(ii),
then
its
(i) is
_xc[
a'
vy
"^
6^
_.
X {-x)
"~
'
a'
_ y (- y) ^
polar with
THE HYPERBOLA.
157
But the last equation is the tangent to (ii) at the point

( X y'), which is the other extremity of the diameter
through P.
Hence, if from any point on an hyperbola the tangents
PQ, PQ he drawn to the conjugate hyperbola, the line
QQ' will touch the original hyperbola at the other end of
the diameter through P.
,
149.
To find the equation of an hyperbola referred
any pair of conjugate diameters as
The equation
to
axes.
of the hyperbola referred to its transverse
and conjugate axes
is
y _-i
Since the origin is unaltered we substitute for x, y expressions of the form Ix + my, I'x + m'y in order to obtain
the transformed equation [iVrt. 51].
The equation of the hyperbola will therefore be of the
form
(i).
Ax'-\-^Hxy-\-Bf = l
By supposition the axis of x bisects the chords parallel
Therefore for any particular value of x
to the axis of y.
the two values of y found from (i) must be equal and
Hence
opposite.
the equation will therefore be
H=
of the form
J.^-
+ %''^ =
Of the two semi-conjugate diameters one
(ii).
is
real
and
the other imaginary.

If their lengths be a! and
lb'
since these are the intercepts on the axes of x and y respectively, we obtain from (ii)
Aa'^
-,
= 1 = - Bb'\
Hence the required equation
is
2
yX
V2-I^2
a''
b
.....
(m).
150. Since the equation of the curve is of the same form

as before, all investigations in which it was not assumed
THE HYPEEBOLA.
158
that the axes were at right angles to one another still hold
good. For example (i), (ii), (iii), (v) and (ix) of Art. 143
require no change. Art, 146 will also apply without change,
so that the equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
whose equation is (ii) is
a
151.
To find
/2
^*
7/2
an hyperbola when referred

axes of co-ordinates.
the equation of
to its asymjjtotes as
Let the asymptotes be the

figure,
and
let the
angle
lines
A CK' = a,
GK, CK'
so that tan a
the
in
=-
Let P be any point {x, y) of the curve, and let x y

be the co-ordinates of P when referred to GK, GK' Draw
parallel to
to meet GK in M, and draw
,
PM
GK
perpendicular to the transverse
Then
Now
or
Also
or
(7ilf
PN
axis.
= x, MP = y, GK = x, KP = y.
CN = Oif cos a + MP cos a,
x = {x + y) cos a
KP= JfPsin a - Oif sin a,
y = {y x) sin a
(i).
(ii).
THE HYPERBOLA.
159
Hence, by substituting in tbe equation

2
we
obtain
cos^ a
-r,
j^
tan a
i5ut
+ y'y
{pc
= -^
,1
,
sin^ a
(^z'
x)^
sinâ
r^
(iii).
cos'â
thereiore
Hence, suppressing the accents, we have from

^^xy
which
(iii)
= a^ + 6^

equation of the conjugate hyperbola,
to the asymptotes, will be
is
The
^xy
(a^
when
referred
y^).
152. The equations of an hyperbola, of the asymptotes,

and of the conjugate hyperbola are
^'_^-0 and--^'--l
^_^-l
a'
a'
W~
a'
'
If
b'
'
respectively.
be changed in any manner,

should, in order to obtain the new equations, have
to make the same substitutions in all three cases.
Hence, for all positions of the axes of co-ordinates, the
equations of an hyperbola and of the conjugate hyperbola
will only differ from the equation of the asymptotes by
constants, and the two constants will be equal and opposite
If the axes of co-ordinates
we
for the
two hyperbolas.
To find
153.
of
the hyperbola
The equation
{x",
f)
of the tangent at any
the equation
whose equation
is
^xy
poiiit
= a^ + b'.
of the line joining the
two points
(x\ y'),
is
ff
ff
Y'l
THE HYPERBOLA.
160
But, since the points {x
and
y')
ix"
y") are on the
curve,
xy =
^ =
'f
tj
-^
or
From
and
(i)
(ii)
xx
X
yy
xx
-,
+ ^=2
we
,...
(ll).
JT-
of the tangent at {x\
or
(iii)
''
'
11
From
we have
y
The equation
y
-y =~^~y'
7-^= X X
//
i7)
y)
is
therefore
(iii).
see that the intercepts on the axes are
2x and ^y.
Hence the portion

asymptotes
is
The area
of the tangent intercepted by the

bisected at the point of contact.
of the triangle cut off from the asymptotes

is from (iii) equal to 2xy sin w ; or, since
by any tangent
^xy =
is
a^
+ 6^
and
sin
co
= .
t^
the area of the triano;le
equal to ab.
When
154.
hyperbola
is
the angle between the asymptotes of an

a right angle it is called a rectangular hyper-
bola.
7
The angle between the asymptotes is equal

and therefore when the angle
h
= a.
On
is
this account the curve
equilateral hyperbola.
to 2 tan~^-
we have
sometimes called an
a right angle
is
THE HYPERBOLA.
161
The asymptotes and any pair of conjugate diaTuean

hyperbola
form a harmonic pencil.
of
155.
ters
The tangent
at the extremity of any diameter of an

hyperbola is parallel to the conjugate diameter
also
[Art. 153], the portion of the tangent intercepted by the
asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact. Hence
;
[Art. 55] the pencil
formed by the asymptotes and a pair
of conjugate diameters
harmonic.
is
We
may, as in the case of the ellipse, express the

156.
co-ordinates of any point on the hyperbola in terms of a
single parameter.
may put x = a sec 0, and y = b tan 0,
since for all values of 6, secÔ tan^^ =1.
If PN^ be the ordinate of any point
on the curve, and
We
NQ
be the tangent from
(7iV^=
a sec ACQ.
Hence
The equation
iV"
to the auxiliaiy circle
ACQ
is
the angle
then
6.
an ellipse or hyperbola referred

found by writing o) ~ a for ^ in
the equation referred to the centre as origin. The equation
will therefore be
157.
of
to a vertex as origin is
(x-af
a^
00
y^
ZiCG
1/
<?|-i^ =
'
...
w-
'^
Now, if the
distance from the vertex to the nearer focus

{d suppose), and the eccentricity become
unity, the curve will become a parabola of latus rectum 4c?.
The equation of the parabola can be deduced from (i).
For, since a {1 e) = d, a must be infinite when e = 1.
remain fixed
Also a{l-e'^)=^dil+e)
Hence, from
= 2d
2d.
la
is infinite,
y^
s. c. s.
-=
a
since a
therefore
(i)
2
or,
4dx.
11
THE HYPERBOLA.
162
The parabola
therefore is a limiting form of an ellipse

an hyperbola, the latus rectum of which is finite, but
The centre and
the major and minor axes are infinite.
or of
the second focus are at infinity.

It
is
a very instructive exercise for
the
student to
deduce the properties of a parabola from those of an
ellipse
or hyperbola.
158.
Let the focus of a conic be on the
Take the
and
directrix.
the directrix be the

axis oi y\ then the equation of the conic will be
focus as origin,
= e^x^,
=
(1 - e^) +
x'^
or
x""
let
-{'if
3/'
0.
This equation represents two straight lines which are

real if e be greater than unity, coincident if e be equal to
unity, and imaginary if e be less than unity.
Hence we must not only consider as conies an ellipse,

a parabola, and an hyperbola, but also two real or imaginary
straight lines.
It should
be noticed that the directrix of a circle is at

also that the foci and directrices of
an infinite distance
two parallel straight
lines are all at infinity.
Examples ox Chapter YII.
AOB, COD are two straight lines which bisect one

1.
another at right angles; shew that the locus of a point which
is a rectangular hyperbola.
moves so that PA PB = PC
.
2.
PD
an hyperbola in Q, Q' and its

R\ shew that the middle point of QQ will
If a straight line cut
asymptotes in i?,
be the middle point of PR'
3.
lines
A straight line has its extremities on two fixed straight

and passes through a fixed point ;
middle point of the
line.
find the locus of the
THE HYPERBOLA.
A straight line lias its extremities on two
4.
and cuts
163
fixed straight
from tlieni a triangle of constant area

the locus of the middle point of the line.
lines
off
F if
find
OA, OB are fixed straight lines,

any point, and FM,
the perpendiculars from P on OA, OB ; find the locus of
the quadrilateral 03IFJV be of constant area.
5.
FR
6.
The distance of any point from the centre of a rectangular hyperbola varies inversely as the perpendicular distance
of its polar from the centre.
FG
FJV is the ordinate of a point

7.
on an hyperbola,
the normal meeting the axis in Q ; if IfF be produced to
meet the asymptote in Q, prove that QG is at right angles to
the asymptote.
is
8.
If
e,
be the eccentricities of an hyperbola and of
conjugate hyperbola, then will e
4-
-^
e'
tlie
1.
The two straight lines joining the points in which any

9.
two tangents to an hyperbola meet the asymptotes are parallel
to the chord of contact of the tangents and are equidistant
from it.
10.
Prove that the part of the tangent at any point of an
hyperbola intercepted between the point of contact and the
transverse axis is a harmonic mean between the lengths of the
perpendiculars drawn from the foci on the normal at the same
point.
11.
to
a line OFQ be drawn parallel

an hyperbola cutting the curve in F and
shew that F is the middle point of OQ.
If through any point
an asymptote
the polar of
of
in Q,
parallelogram is constructed with its sides parallel

12.
to the asymptotes of an hyperbola, and one of its diagonals
is a chord of the hyperbola ; shew that the direction of the
other will pass through the centre.
A, A' are the vertices of a rectangular hyperbola, and

shew that the internal and external
bisectors of the angle A FA' are parallel to the asymptotes.
13.
F is any point on the curve;
112
THE HYPERBOLA.
164
14.
Ay
A' are the extremities of a fixed diameter of a
and F, P' are the extremities of any chord perpendicular

shew that the locus of the point of intersecto this diameter
tion of ^P and A'F' is a rectangular hyperbola.
circle
Shew
that the co-ordinates of the point of intersection

of two tangents to an hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as
axes are harmonic means between the co-ordinates of the points
of contact.
15.
point of one hyperbola tangents are drawn

to another which has the same asymptotes; shew that the chord
of contact cuts ofi* a constant area from the asymptotes.
16.
From any
17.
The
straight lines
drawn from any point of an equiany diameter are equally
lateral hyperbola to the extremities of
inclined to the asymptotes.
The locus of the middle points of normal chords of

18.
the rectangular hyperbola x' -y" -a^ is (3/" - x^Y = ia?x^y^.
1 9.
Shew
that
hyperbola 2x?/ + Zx' +
What
20.
is
the line
4a;
a:
is
an asymptote of the
= 9.
the equation of the other asymptote
Find the asymptotes of xy Zx^y=
What
is
0.
the equation of the conjugate hyperbola
Shew
that in an hyperbola the ratio of the tangents

of half the angles which the radii vectores from the foci to a
point on the curve make with the axis, is constant.
21.
A circle
an hyperbola in four points ; prove

the
distances
of the four points of interthat the product of
asymptote
is
equal
to the product of their
section from one
distances from the other.
22.
intersects
Shew that if a rectangular hyperbola cut a circle in

23.
four points the centre of mean position of the four points is
midway between the centres of the two curves.
If four points be taken on a rectangular hyperbola
24.
such that the chord joining any two is perpendicular to the
cliord joining the other two, and if a, ^, y, 8 be the inclinations
THE HYPERBOLA.
165
to either asymptote of the straight lines joining these points

respectively to the centre ; prove that tan a tan /5 tan y tan 8 = 1.
25.
of
series
of
chords of the hyperbola -g
y^
t2=1
^^
tangents to the circle described on the straight line joining

the foci of the hyperbola as diameter; shew that the locus of
2
their poles with respect to the hyperbola
is
+ ^ = 2
^
If two straight lines pass through fixed points, and

26.
the bisector of the angle between them is always parallel to a
fixed line, prove that the locus of the point of intersection of
the lines is a rectangular hyperbola.
27.
Shew
that pairs of conjugate diameters of an hyperbola
are cut in involution
by any
straight line.
28.
The locus of the intersection of two equal circles,
which are described on two sides AB^ AC of a triangle as
chords, is a rectangular hyperbola, whose centre is the middle
point of BG, and which passes through A^ B^ C.
CHAPTER
YIII.
Polar Equation of a Conic, the Focus being the

Pole.
To find
159.
the
polar equation of a
conic, the
focus
being the pole.
Let
and
let
Draw SZ perpendicular
taken
ZM the
S be the focus and

the eccentricity be e.
dhêctrix of the conic,
and
to the directrix,
let
SZ be
for initial line.
Let LSL' be the latus rectum, then

suppose.
SZ = SL =
POLAR EQUATION OF A CONIC.
167
Let the co-ordinates of any point P on the curve be

be perpendicular respectively to the
Let PM,
directrix and to SZ.
Then we have
i\
PN
6.
SP=e.PM=e.NZ=e.N8-ê.8Z,
r
or
= e .r cos
:
6) +
[tt
= 1 + e cos
1',
t/.
r
If the axis of the conic make an angle a with the
initial line the equation of the curve will be
= 1 + e cos
case 8P makes
-
For in
160.
this
If
directrix,
r,
{6
a).
SZ an
with
angle 6
a.,
6 be the co-ordinates of any point on the
then
r cos 6
= SZ =
therefore the equation of the directrix

-
= e cos
is
a.
The equation
of the directrix of -
-=
r
e cos (^
= 1 + e cos ^ a
is
a).
'
161.
To shew that in any conic the semi-latus rectum is
a harmonic mean between the segments of any focal chord.
If PSP' be the focal chord, and the vectorial angle of
be (9, that of P' will be ^ + tt.
Hence, if 8P = r, and SP' = r, we have
Hence
e cos 6,
and
= 1 4- e cos
112
-+=-.
r
(^
+ tt)
168
162.
(1)
To
trace the conic -
= 1 + ecos ^ from its equation.
Let e=l, then the curve
a parabola, and the
is
equation becomes
-
At the
= 1 + cos e.
point A, where the curve cuts the axis,
and r = ^
As
the angle 6 increases,
decreases,
(1
+ cos 6)
and therefore r increases
decreases, that
:
is
and r increases
without limit until
when r
ir,
is infinite.
As 6
in-
creases beyond tt, 1 + cos 6 increases continuously, and

'îr it
therefore r decreases continuously until when
again becomes equal to -
The curve
therefore
is
as in
the figure going to an infinite distance in the direction
^>S^.

Let
(2)
be
less
169
than unity, then the curve
is
an
ellipse.
At the ^
point A,
As 6
and r
0,
increases cos 6 decreases,
and therefore
- decreases,
r
that
this value of r
The curve
is
_,
6 passes from
when
1 to 1
1-e
[Since e<l,
tt
some point
increases continuously
to 27r, cos
hence - increases continuously, and r de-
creases continuously from
Since, for
positive.]
from
tt,
therefore cuts the axis again at
A' such that SA'
As
r increases, until
is
any value of
to
cos 6
= cos ('Zir 6),
the curve
symmetrical about the axis.
Therefore when e is less than unity, the equation represents a closed curve, symmetrical about the initial line.
6,
is
(3)
Let
be greater than unity, then the curve
h}êrbola.
At the point
A,
^
and
/-
1+e
is
an
POLAK EQUATION OF A CONIC.
170
As 6
-f
e cos
0.
For
ASK
call
and therefore r increases

which we will
in the figure), the value of r will be
decreases,
increasewS cos
^=
a (the angle
until 1
this value of 6,
infinitely great.
As 6
increases be3ônd the value
negative, and
{1
when 6 = 7r,
a, (1
+e
cos 6)
= 8A'
becomes
in the figure.
is equal to
+ e cos 6) will remain negative until
a), the angle ASK' in the figure. When 6 is equal
is somewhat less than
(27r a), r is again infinite.
If
(27r
to
very great and is negative, and if 6 is somewhat

greater, r is very great and is positive.
The values of r
will remain positive while
changes from (27r a) to 27r.
The curve is therefore described in the following order.
First the part ABC, then C'PA' and A'DE, and
this,
lastly
is
KQA,
The curve
radius vector
two separate branches, and the

negative for the whole of the branch
consists of
is
G'PA'DE.
If, as in the figure, a line SQP be drawn cutting the
which are on different
curve in the two points Q and
Q and
branches, the two points

to have the
same
vectorial angle.
171
must not be considered

The radius vector SP
drawn in the direction.
that is to say SP is
opposite to that which bounds its vectorial angle, the
vectorial angle must therefore be A Spy p being on PS
produced.
So that, if the vectorial angle of Q be 6,
will be ^^ - TT.
that of
is
negative^
To find the polar equation of the straight line

163.
through two given points on a conic, and to find the equation
of the tangent at any point.
{a
Let the vectorial angles of the two points P, Q be

and (a + /9) respectively.
/3)
Let the equation of the conic be

-
The
straight line
-
= 1 + e cos 6
(i).
whose equation
= ^ cos + P cos
l9
(l9
is
- a)
(ii),
will pass through any two points, since its equation contains the two independent constants
and P.
It will pass through the two points P, Q ii r has
the same values in
(ii)
as in
This will be the case,

1
and
(i)
when 6 =
ol
p, and
when
if
+ e cos (a i8) = -4 cos {a ^) + B cos /8,

+ e cos (a + /3) = ^ cos (a + /5) + P cos y8;
A = e, and P cos /3 = 1.
.'.
Substituting these values of

and
the required equation of the chord, viz.
~
To
e cos ^ + sec /9 cos
(0
P in
(ii)
a)
we have
(iii).
find the equation of the tangent at the point
vectorial angle is a,
we must put
/3
in
(iii),
whose
and we
obtain
-
= e cos ^ + cos(^ a)
(iv).
172
Coil.
If the equation of the conic be

7
= 1 + e cos (^ 7),
the chord joining the points

equation
-
164.
/3)
and
e cos (^ 7) + sec fi cos {0
and the tangent at a has
respect to
(a
1,
= e cos
To find
a conic.
(^
+ /3)
(a
has for
a),
for equation
7) + cos (6 a).
the equation
of the polar of a point with
-=
-f
ecos 6
(i),
and
let the co-ordinates of the point be r^, 6^.

Let a /3 be the vectorial angles of the points the tangents at which pass through (r^, 6^.
The equation of the line through these points will be
= e cos 6 + sec ^ cos
The equations
~
a)
(ii).
of the tangents will be
e cos
+ cos
(0
a.-\- 8),
-ê cos 6 + cos (6
and
(^
B).
Since these pass through
e cos 6^
-f-
(r^, 6^),
cos {6^
we have
a+ fi)
~ ^)
and
T ~
whence
6^
^ ^^^ ^1 "^ ^'^^
=a
and cos S
{î~
'^
=-
e cos 6^.

Substitute for a and
(
which
We
will
The equation
(1)
/3
in
and we have
(ii),
ecos^J
cos {6
^J...(iii),
is
165.
are a,
ecos ^j
/3
173
now
some examples.
solve
of the tangents at
two points whose vectorial angles
respectively are
I
= e cos d + cos {6 - a),
- = ecos^ + cos
and
(^-/3).
Where
these meet
cos [d-a) = cos (^ - /3)
^^Hence, if
he the point of intersection of
the tangents at the two
If however
of a conic, ST will bisect the angle PSQ.
the conic be an hyperbola, and the points be on different branches of the
points P,
curve,
ST
PSQ for, as we have seen,

on the further branch) is not the angle
makes with SZ, but the angle PS produced makes with SZ.
will bisect the exterior angle
the vectorial angle of
which
SP
(if
If the tangent at any point

KSP is a right angle.
(2)
P be
of a conic meet the' directrix in K,
then the angle

If
the vectorial angle of
be
a,
will be
I
- = ecos^ + cos
This will meet the

cos
directrix,
(d
-a).
'
whose equation
is
= er cos
d,
where
(^-a) = 0.
Hence, at the point K, 6Therefore the angle
(3)
KSP
7r
a= ^^
is
a right angle.
If chords of a conic subtend a constant angle at a focus, the
ends of the chord

chord will touch another fixed conic.
tangents at the
loill
meet on a fixed conic, and the
Let 2^ be the angle the chord subtends at the focus.
a+^ be
Let
the vectorial angles of the extremities of the chord.
a- ^ and
174
The equatiou
of the chord
be
^vill
- = e cos
+ sec /3 cos
(6'
a),
T
I
__
cos 3
or
But
angle
(i)
is
is a, to
= gcos^.
cos
^+cos
[9
-a)
(i).
the equatiou of the tangeut, at the poiut whose vectorial
the conic whose equation is
IcosB
^ = ,l + ecosj8.
is e
cos 6
(u).
Hence the chord always touches a fixed conic, whose eccentricity

cos ^, and semi-latus rectum Z cos /3.
The equations of the tangents at the ends of the chord will be
I
and
- e cos ^
+ cos
(^-a+/3),
-=gcos
+ cos
(^
a-^).
Both these lines meet the conic

Z
- = g cos 6 + cos
iS
m the same point,
viz.
where
=a
and - = e cos a + cos/3.

-,
Hence, the locus of the intersection of the tangents at the ends of the
chord
is
the conic
Z
sec Q
= l-re sec B
cos 6
(iii).
Both the conies
(ii)
and
(iii)
have the same focus and directrix as the
given conic.
(4) To find the equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle formed
by three tangents to a parabola.
Let the vectorial angles
the three points A, B,
of
he
respectivelyo
Let the equation of the parabola be
-=l + cos
0.
The equations
of the tangents at A, B,
- = cos
respectively will be
+ cos (^-
a),
I
= cos6 + cos{d-
B),
r
I
- = COS O + QOS {6-y).
a,
/3,

The tangents
at
and C meet where
= ^(^ + y),
The tangents
and
By
.-.
- = 2cos|cos^
= 1(7 + a), and- = 2 COS y^cos-.

CL
And
A and B meet where
the tangents at
By
circle
r=
substitution
I (a
we
whose equation
+ /3), and - = 2
;^
cos
(y
see that the three points of intersection are
I
-
2 cos
circle
cos
on the
is
-
The
(9
C and A meet where
at
^
175
- cos j3
^ cos ^
cos f
V
j3
'-^
always passes through the focus of the parabola.
To find the polar equation of the

(5)
the focus being the pole.
normal at any point of a conic,

-=l
r
The equation
of the tangent at
r
The equation
of
any
+e
cos
6.
any point a
is
= ecos ^ + cos (^- al.
line perpendicular to the tangent is
=ecos
+ ^ j+cosf e + ^-aj
(J
or
- = -esin ^-sin (^-
a).
This will be the required equation of the normal provided
a] may be on the
chosen that the point
( ^
^
\l + ecosa
J
must have
^l + ecosa =
-e sm a,
C
,
C=
or
Hence the equation
of the
normal
Zesina
+ e cos a
sin a
is
1
...
-=e sm ^ + sin [6 - a).
.
le
+ e cos
line.
is
so
Hence we
176
Examples on Chapter YIII.

exterior angle between any two tangents to a
equal to half the difference of the vectorial angles
of their points of contact.
1.
The
parabola
is
locus of the point of intersection of two tangents

which cut one another at a constant angle is a
hyperbola having the same focus and directrix as the original
2.
The
to a parabola
parabola.
3.
If
PSP' and
^'S'^'
be any two focal chords of a conic
at right angles to one another, sliew that

is
^^-^
^-^^
y^^j^,
constant.
\i A, B, G be any three points on a parabola, and the

4.
tangents at these points form a triangle A'B'C, shew that
SA.^B.SC^SA'.SB'.SC, S being the focus of the parabola.
5.
between the tangents at

'ê
tan'
6.
ellipse
make an
If a focal chord of an ellipse
axis, the angle
By means
angle a with the

extremities is
its
sin a
1-e'
of the equation -
cos
0,
shew that the
might be generated by the motion of a point moving so

sum of its distances from two fixed points is constant.
that the
Find the locus of the pole of a chord which subtends

7.
a constant angle (2a) at a focus of a conic, distinguishing the
cases for which cos a > = < e.
PQ
is a chord of a conic which subtends a right angle

8.
and the
Shew that the locus of the pole of
at a focus.
are each conies whose latera recta are
locus enveloped by
1 and 1
2 respectively.
to that of the original conic as ^2
FQ
PQ
Given the focus and directrix of a conic, shew that the

9.
polar of a given point with respect to it passes through a fixed
point.
If two conies have a common focus, shew that two of

chords Avill pass through the point of intersection
10.
their
177
common
of their directrices.
11.
Two conies have a common focus and any chord is
drawn through the focus meeting the conies in P, P' and ^, Q'
Shew that the tangents at P or P' meet those at
respectively.
Q, Q' in points lying on two straight lines through the inter-
section of the directrices, these lines being at right angles if
the conies have the same eccentricity.
Through the focus of a parabola any two chords LSL\

meets those at M, M' in
are drawn; the tangent at
the points N, N' and the tangent at L' meets them in K\ K.
Shew that the lines KN, K'N' are at right angles.
12.
MSM'
Two
13.
turned
conies have a
shew that two
of
common focus about which one is

their common chords will touch
conies having the jSxed focus for focus.

14.
Shew
that the equation of the locus of the point of
intersection of
two tangents to -
right angles to one another,

15.
foci S,
If
PSQ,
H, then
is r^ (e^
PHR be two
PS
will -^r
bQ
1)
cos
9,
which are at
lie r cos
21^
0.
chords of an ellipse through the
PH be
-y^^
independent of the position
-tiii
of P.
16.
Two conies are described having the same focus, and
the distance of this focus from the corresponding directrix
of each is the same ; if the conies touch one another, prove that
twice the sine of half the angle between the transverse axes is
equal to the difference of the reciprocals of the eccentricities.
17.
circle of given radius passing through the focus of
a given conic intersects it in J., P, C, D; shew that
SA .SB.SC.SD
is
constant.
S. C. S.
12
178
18.
rectum
A circle passing tlirough the focus of a conic whose latus

'21
is
meets the conic in four points whose distances
from the focus are
?',,
?'
r.
?;
prove that
+
i
=-^.
given circle whose centre is on the axis of a

19.
parabola passes through the focus S, and is cut in four points
by any conic of given latus rectum having ^S'
A, B, C,
for focus and a tangent to the parabola for directrix ; shew
that the sum of the distances SA, SB, SC, SD is constant.
Two points P, Q are taken one on each of two conies,

20.
which have a common focus and their axes in the same
direction, such that FS and QS are at right angles, S being the
common focus. Shew that the tangents at F and Q meet on a
conic the square of whose eccentricity is equal to the sum of
the squares of the eccentricities of the original conies.
series of conies are described with a common latus

21.
rectum; prove that the locus of points upon them, at which
the perpendicular from the focus on the tangent is equal to
the semi-latus rectum, is given by the equation I = r cos 20.
22.
If FOF' be a chord of a conic through a fixed point 0,

^P'SO ta,n ^FSO be constant, /S being a focus of
then will tan

the conic.
23.
Conies are described with equal latera recta and
a common focus.
Also the corresponding directrices envelope a fixed confocal conic. Prove that these conies all touch
two fixed conies, the reciprocals of whose latera recta are the
sum and difierence respectively of those of the variable conic
and their fixed confocal and which have the same directrix as
the fixed confocal.
CHAPTEE,
IX.
GENERAL EQUATION OF THE SECOND DEGREE.
We
have seen in the precediijg Chapters that

166.
the equation of a conic is always of the second degree we
shall now prove that every equation of the second degree
represents a conic, and shew how to determine from any
such equation the nature and position of the conic which it
:
represents.
167.
To shew that every curve whose equation

is a conic.
is
of the
second degree
We may
suppose the axes of co-ordinates to be rectif the equation be referred to oblique axes,
and we change to rectangular axes, the degree of the equation is not altered [Art. 53].
Let then the equation of the curve be
angular; for
ax^
As
this
^hxy + hif + "Igx + 2/7/ -1- c =

(i).
is the most general form of the equation of the
second degree it will include all possible cases.

We can get rid of the term containing xy by turning
the axes through a certain angle.
For, to turn the axes through an angle ^ we have to
substitute for x and y respectively x cos 6 y sin 6, and
x?>ui6 + y cos 6 [Art. 50].
122
180 EVERY CURVE OF THE SECOND DEGREE
The equation
(i)
will
IS
CONIC.
become
y sin Qy + 2/i {x cos y sin Q) {x sin -\-y cos 6)

sin
+ 6 (a; ^+7/ cos 6f+2g (a; cos ^3/ sin 0} + 2f{xsm0+ycosd)
{ic
cos
+c=
(ii).
The
coefficient of ccy in
and
(b-a)
this will
sin
be zero,
(ii) is
9 cos 6
+ 2h {co&'O -
sm^6)
tan
2(9
-^
(iii).
Since an angle can be found whose tangent
any
all
if
real quantity whatever, the angle 6
= ^ tan
is
^
2k
=-is
in
cases real.
Equation
(ii)
may now
be written
Ax'-}-Bf + 2Gx-^2Fy-\- (7=0

If neither
in the form
or,
equal to
nor
be
zero,
we can
(iv).
write equation
(iv)
G\'
FV G' F'
/
^(.+ ^)+5(y + ^j=^+^-(7
F
G
taking the origin at the point
.
Ax' +
Bf^~ + ~-G
(v).
If the right side of (v) be zero, the equation will represent two straight lines [Art. 35].
If
however the right side of
be not
(v)
zero,
we have
the equation
2
which we know represents an ellipse if both denominators

are positive, and an hyperbola if one denominator is positive and the other negative.
If both denominators are negative, it is clear that no
real values of x and of y will satisfy the equation.
In this
case the curve is an imaginary ellipse.
CENTEE OF A CONIC.
Next
both
let
or
be zero,
be zero by Art.
[A and
suppose.
Equation
53.]
181
B cannot
can then be
(iv)
written
/
FV =-2fo-0 F^
+ -g-
(vi).
^V-^b)
If
(j
0, this
equation represents a pair of parallel
straight lines.
If
be not zero, we
Y'^BJ "
may
write the equation
BV
2BG'^2g)'
which represents a parabola, whose axis

axis of
is
parallel to the
oc.
Hence
in all cases the curve represented by the general

equation of the second degree is a conic.
168.
We
To find the co-ordinates of the centre of a conic.

have seen [Art. 109] that when the origin of co-
ordinates is the centre of a conic its equation does not

contain any terms involving the first power of the variables.
To find the centre of the conic, we must therefore change
the origin to some point {x, y), and choose x\ y, so that
the coefficients of x and y in the transformed equation may
be
zero.

ax^ + 2hxy + by'^ -\- 2gx + 2fy
+ c = 0.
The equation
point {x\
y
a{x +
y
-\-
referred to parallel axes through the

be found by substituting x + x for x, and
and will therefore be
2h {x + X) (y + y) + b(y + yj 4 2^ {x + x)
y') will
for y,
xj +
2hxy + by"^ + 'ix (ax + hi/ + g) -\-2i/ (hx + by' + /)

+ ax^ + 2hx'y + by'^ + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0.
The coefficients of x and y will both be zero in the
above, if x and y be so chosen that
ax + hy' -\- g =
(i),
hx -\-by \-f=
and
(ii).
The equation referred to {x y) as origin will then be
ax^ + 2hxy + 6/ + c' =
(iii),
or ax^
THE DISCRIMINANT.
182
where
= ax^ + 2hxy' + %'^ + 2gx' + 2fy' + c
Hence the
(iv).
co-ordinates of the centre of the conic are the
values of x' and y given by the equations

The centre is therefore the point
(i)
and
(ii).
ab h^ = 0, the co-ordinates of the centre are

infinite, and the curve is therefore a parabola [Art. 157].
If however ]ifbg=0 and ab h^ =
that is, if
When
_h _g
the equations (i) and (ii) represent the same straight line,
and any point of that line is a centre. The locus in this
case is a pair of parallel straight lines.
In the above investigation the axes may be either
rectangular or oblique.
Subsequent investigations which hold good for oblique
axes will be distinguished by the sign ().
and (ii) of the preceding

by x y respectively, and subtract the sum from
the right-hand member of (iv) then we have
d =gx' -^fy' ^0
169.
Article
Multiply equations
(i)
_ hfbg j.gh af ^
- 9 ^j^ZTh^ +J ab^Jf +
_ abo + 2/gh af^ bg^ ch^
~
(<).
ab K^
The expression abc 4- 2fg}i af^ hg^ chu'
170.
usually denoted by the symbol A, and
discrwiinant of
ax^ + ^hxy H- by^ -\- 2gw + 2fy -f
is
called
is
the
c.
= is the condition that the conic may be two

straight lines.
For, if
is zero, c is zero
and in that case equation
(iii) Art. 168 will represent two straight lines.
This is the condition we found in Art .37.
(w).
AXES OF A CONIC.
183
To find the position and magnitude of the axes of

the conic whose equation is ao^ 4- ^hxy + h'f' = 1.
If a conic be cut by any concentric circle, the diameters
through the points of intersection will be equally inclined
to the axes of the conic, and will be coincident if the
171.
radius of the circle be equal to either of the semi-axes of

the conic.
Now the lines through the origin and through the
points of intersection of the conic and the circle whose
+ ?/^ = r^, are given by the equation
equation is
{a--;^x^-\-^hxy-\-(h--^f = ^
These
lines will
be coincident^
(i).
if
-p)('6-J)-/i'^ =
and they
(ii),
then coincide with one or other of the axes
will
of the conic.
Hence the lengths

-4-(^^
Multiply
(i)
whence
(iii)
+ ^)^+^-^^' =
by (a -J; then,
ia
of the semi-axes of the conic are the

that is of the equation
(ii),
-A x^
(ii),
is
either of the
we get
^'lh{a A xy
ia
if ^
(iii)-
-A
-\-
hy
+ /ly =
(iv).
Hence if we substitute in (iv) either root of the equation

we get the equation of the corresponding axis.
In the above we have supposed the axes to be rectangular.

If however they are inclined at an angle (o the
investigation must be slightly modified, for the equation of
the circle of radius r will be x^ -\- 2xy cos o) + ^/^ = r^.
AXIS OF A PARABOLA.
184
To find
172.
the axis
and
latus rectum of a parabola.
If the equation
ax""
+ 2hxy -\-hf + 2gx + 2/z/ + c =
represent a parabola, the terms of the second degree

form a perfect square. [This follows from the fact that the
equation of any parabola can be expressed in the form
y'^ 4<ax
0, and therefore with any axes the equation
will be of the form
(Lx
+ my + n)^ 4a'
Hence the equation

where
From
and
a,
(i)
+ my +n)
=0.]
equivalent to
is
{ax-\-l3yy
o? =
{Vx
/S^ =
+ 2gx-^r2fy + G =
(i),
h.
we
see that the square of the perpendicular

varies as the perpendicular on the
These lines may not be at right
may write the equation (i) in the form
+ ^y =
2c/x + 2fy + c = 0.
on the line ax
line
we
+ fiy+\y = 2x (\a-g) + 2y
angles, but
{ax
{\,3
-/) +\^-c,
and the two straight lines, whose equations are

ax + ^y + X=0, and 2x (Xci- g) + 2y (X/S -f) +\^will be at right angles to one another, if
= 0,
a(Xa-r)+/3(X/3-/)=0,
X = %^J^.
or if
Now take
Oix + fy+X=0
for
and 2(ioLX- g) x + 2 (ffX-f) y +X'

new axes of x and y respectively, and we get
-c=
f = 4p^,
and
its
this we know is the equation of a parabola referred to

axis and the tangent at the vertex.
To
find the
latus-rectum,.
we write the equation
the form
ax
+ /3y + xy
/IT^'
/
,
(2(aX-g)x-\-2{/3X-f)y-\-X'-c
'I
>/{4>(aX-
gf +
4 (/9\
-ff}
in
EXAMPLES OF CONICS.
185
4^^ylM.X-g)^4(gX-/a_
hence
Hence
(i) is
a parabola whose axis

ax-\-
and whose latus-rectum
since
A.
py + \
is
the line
0,
is
a^
+ ^f
.
^,
.,
,
We
will now find the nature and position of the

173.
conies given by the following equations.
+ 6y + 23a; - 2?/ - 20 = 0.
(1)
Ix^ - 11 xy
(2)
x^-5xy + y'^ + %x-20y + l^ = 0.
+ 24x2/ + 2V -72ic + 126^ + 81 = 0.

(5.T - 12yf - 2x - 29y -1 = 0.
36a;2
(3)
(4)
(1)
'
The equations
for finding the centre are [Art. 168,
+ 23 =
-17x' + 12^-2 = 0)
14a;'- 172/'
These give
a;'
= 2,
The equation
y'
%.
(i), (ii)]
Therefore centre
is
'
the point
(2, 3).
referred to parallel axes through the centre will be [Art.
169]
OQ
7a;2
17a;i/
or
7a;^-17a;i/
The equation
in the point
is
+ 6i/2 + -^
where
(2)
a;
(2,
=-
.i;2-5a;t/
They cut the
- 20 = 0.
+ 6^/2 = 0.
axis of x, where
7a;2
+ 23.1; - 20 = 0,
+ ?/2 + 8a;-20i/ + 15 = 0.
for finding the centre are
2x'-52/'
+ 8 = 0, and .-.
a;'
5a;' + 2/- 20 = 0;
= -4, y = 0.
referred to parallel axes through the centre will be

x'^
or
and where x = -.
The equations
The equation
therefore represents two straight lines which intersect
3).
4,
+ ?/2 + 4 ( - 4) 4- 15 = 0,
x^ 5xy + y^ = l.
5a;y
that
EXAMPLES OF CONICS.
186
The semi-axes
of the conic are the roots of the equation
\-{a + b)^^ + ab-h^ =

2
[Art. 171,
25
(iii)];
or
2
The curve
is
therefore
an hyperbola whose
and whose imaginary semi-axis
is
.-
^14,
,^/- 6.
+
I
The
1
real semi-axis is -
-t
direction of the real axis is given [Art. 171, (iv)]
by the equation
x + y = 0.
or
(3)
mx^ + 2ixy+29y^--72x+126ij + 81 = 0.
The equations for finding the centre are

36.t'+12/-36 = 0, andl2:c'4-29?/' + 63 = 0;
..x' = 2,
The equation
= -S.
referred to parallel axes through the centre,

36a;2
or
y'
24x2/
x2
+ 292/2
- 72 -^ 63 ( -
29
3) + 81 = 0,
,
+ 15^^+ 180 ^" = ^-
\\i\l
be
'
EXAMPLES OF CONICS.
The semi-axes
of the conic are the roots of the equation
,~(a + h)-x + ah-
h-
0.
13
65
^
^ + ^ = 180=^36'
And
ab-h^- =
29
36
225
36 -13r2+ 7-4 = 0.
900
.-.
Hence the squares
of the semi-axes are 9
and
4.
The equation
of the
major axis
is [Art.
171, (iv)]
4x + Sy 0.
or
(4)
(5iC-127/)2-2a;-29?/-l = 0.
The equation may be written

(5a;-122/
+ X)2 = 2a;(l + 5\) + 2/(29-24X)+X2 + l.
187

ASYMPTOTES.
188
The
and
5x-12y + \ =
lines
2(l + 5X)a^+(29-24X)y + X- +
are at right angles,
is
therefore equivalent to
/5x-12y
'ox-12y + l\2
lY
(13^)
therefore 5x
- 12y + 1=0
+ 5?/ + 2 =
is
is
12a; -\-5y + = 0,
V2x+5y + 2
13
.(i);
the equation of the axis of the parabola, and
clearly be
on the positive side of the

(i) is always positive.
since the left side of equation
To find
174.
13
the equation of the tangent at the vertex.
Every point on the curve must

line
+ 288\ = 0;
X = l.
is, if
The equation
12a;
if
10 + o0X-348
that
the equation
of the asymptotes of a
conic.
We have seen [Art. 146] that the equations of a conic

and of the asymptotes only differ by a constant.
Let the equation of a conic be
ax"-]- 2hxi/ -{- b/ + 2gx + 2fy + c=
Then the equations of the asymptotes will be
ax""
(i).
(ii),
bf + 2gx + 2ff/ +c + \=^0
to \ that value which will make
2hxy
-\-
provided we give
(ii)
rejDresent a pair of straight lines.
The
condition that
(ii)
may represent
a pair of straight
lines is [Art. 170]
o6
(c
+ X) +
- (c-]-\)
\(ab-h')-{-A = 0.
2fgh
.-.
Hence the equation

ax'
2hxi/
- af -
bg'
h'
of the asymptotes of
+ bf + 2gx +
2fy
(i) is
A
+ c--^j^,=
0.
The
equations of two conjugate hyperbolas differ from

equation
of their asymptotes by constants which are
the
therefore
equal and opposite to one another [Art. 152]
the equation of the hyperbola conjugate to (i) is
;
ax"^
+ 2hxi/ + bi/' + 2gx + 2fi/ +
2A
c
.^
0.
RECTANGULAR HTPERBOLA.
Cor.
The
lines represented
ax'
+ ^hxy +
189
by the equation
hif
are parallel to the asymptotes of the conic.

Ex.
Find the asymptotes of the conic

xy 2i/- 3?/
;/;-
The asymptotes
-r-
will be x-
= 0.
- xy-'Iy- -Sij
-2\ 0,
Solving as a quadratic in
represents straight lines.
(w).
Hence [Ai-t. 37], the condition for straight lines is 9

The asymptotes are therefore x- - xy - 2//- dy 1 = 0.
this equation
if
x, v;e
(2
have
X)
= 9,
or \ = 1.
-|-
the condition that the conic represented
To find
175.
by the general equation of the second, degree

angular hyperhola.
If the equation of the conic
aof
+ 2hxy + hy'' +
the equation
oj/
may
he
rect-
be
^gx
+ '2fy + c =
+ 2/z.ry 4- %' =
0,
(i)
represents straight lines parallel to the asymptotes.
Hence,
if
lines given
by
the
(i)
The required
conic
must be
condition
a rectangular hyperbola, the
is
at right angles.
therefore [Art. 44]
is
+ 6 2/i cos &j =
axes of co-ordinates be
one another the condition is
a + h ==0
If the
(ii).
at
angles
right
to
(hi;.
required condition may also be found as follows.

If the axes of co-ordinates be changed in any manner
whatever, we have
The
+6
2A cos w
^-2
sm
But,
if
the
2h' cos '
^~2
L^rt. oij,
sm
CO
conic be
-\-b'
"'
îy-,
qj
rectangular
hyperbola and
EXAMPLES.
190
the asymptotes be taken for axes, the equation will be

+ constant =
xy
.*
Hence
=y = cos w' =: 0.
-\-h
2h cos
o)
= 0.
().
Examples on Chapter IX.

1.
Find the centres of the following curves:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
3x'-5xy+6y'+Ux-l7y+U = 0.
xy + Sax Say = 0.
Sx/'-rxy-Gy' + Sx-dy + bÔ.
Find also the equations of the curves referred to parallel

axes through their centres.
2.
"What do the following equations represent 1

xy~'2x + y -2 = 0. (ii) y^ - 2ay + 4:ax = 0.
(i)
y^
(iii)
+ ax + ay + a^ = 0. (iv) {x + yY â{x y).
(v)
3.
Draw
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
4.
4:{x+2yy+{y-2xY=5a\
(vi)
y--x'-2ax^0.
the following curves:
x' + 2xy + y' 2x l =

0.
(2)
2x'-bxy-^2y"+Sy-2^0.
x^ + ixy + 2/^-11 = 0.
{2x + SyY + 2x+2y+2 = 0.
x'-ixy-2f + 10x + iy = 0.
ilx'+ 2^xy-\-^f - \SOax - 60a?/ + 116" = 0.
xy + ax 2ay
Shew
that
if
Q.
two chords of a conic bisect each other,

must be the centre of the curve.
their point of intersection

5.
Shew
that the j^rodiict of the semi-axes of the conic
whose equation
6.
is
- 2y +
{x
Shew
1)-
(4a;
27/
- 3)^^ -
10
0, is 1.
that the product of the semi-axes of the ellipse
whose equation
ic^
is
- iry
-f-
2y - 2a; - 6?/ +
and that the equation of its axes is

a;2_^y2_2^y + 82/-8 =
is
0.
2
-
EXAMPLES.
7.
Find
for
191
what value of X the equation

+ \xy ?/" 3, + 6?/ 9 =
2a;^
will represent a pair of straight lines.

8.
Find the equation of the conic whose asymptotes are

and ^x + Zy - 8 = 0, and which passes
2a; + 3y 5 =
the lines
through the point
(1,
1).
Find the equation of the asymptotes of the conic

'Zx~ - Ixy - 5/ + 7x-9y=^0;
and find the equation of the conic which has the same asymptotes and which passes through the point (2, 2).
9.
Find the asymptotes of the hyperbola

Qx^ 7xy 3y^ '2x Sy ~ 6 ~
10.
find also the equation of the conjugate hyperbola.
Shew
11.
that, if
+ 2hxy +hy^ = 1, and a'x^ + 2Iixy + b'y^ = 1

represent the same conic, and the axes are rectangular, then
ax^
Shew
12.
that for
all
positions of the axes so long as they
remain rectangular, and the origin is unchanged, the value of

^2 _|_y2 jj^ ^jjg equation ax^ + 2hxy + hf + 2gx + 2fy + c ==
is
constant.
From any
point on a given straight line tangents are

circles: shew that the locus of the point
of intersection of the chords of contact is a hyperbola whose
asymptotes are perpendicular to the given line and to the line
joining the centres of the two circles.
13.
drawn
14.
to each of
two
A variable circle always passes through a fixed point
and cuts a conic in the points P,
Q^ H, S;
shew that
OF. OQ. OR. OS

(radius of circle)^
is
constant.
If aoif + 2hxy + by^ =1, and Ax^ + 2Hxy + By^ = 1 be

the equations of two conies, then will aA +bB + 2hR be unaltered by any change of rectangular axes.
15.
CHAPTER
X.
MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.
We
have proved [Art. 167] that the curve

represented by an equation of the second degree is always
a conic.
We shall throughout the present chapter assume that
176.
the equation of the conic

a^
unless
it is
The
4-
^hxij
is
+ hif + ^gx + 2/y + c = 0,
otherwise expressed.
left-hand side of this equation will be sometimes
denoted by
(\>
[x, y).
To find the equation of the straight line passing

177.
through two points on a conic, and to find the equation of the
tangent at any point.
Let (x,
y')
and {x' y") be two points on the

,
conic.
The equation
a{x x) {x x') ^h[{x x) {y y") + {x x") {y y')]
+ h{y-y'){y-y") = ax' + 2hxy + by' + 2gx + 2fy + c...{i)
when
simplified is of the first

represents some straight line.
degree,
and therefore
EQUATION OF A TANGENT.
we put x = x and y = y
193
the left side vanishes

identically, and the right side vanishes since {x y') is on
So
the conic. Hence the point (x y) is on the line (i).
also the point (x", y") is on the line (i).
If
in
(i)
Hence the equation
of the straight line through the

(x" y") is (i), and this reduces to
two points {x\ y) and

(^' + oc") + hx {y + y") + hy [y + y'^) + Igx
ax (x + x") +
+ Ify + c = axx' + A {x^' + yV) + hy y" ... (ii).
,
To obtain the tangent
at (x
y) we put x'
= x\
and
y in (ii), and we get

'laxx + 2/i {xy' + xy) + ^yy + 2^^ + ^fy + c = a^'^
y"
+ ^]ixy + 6?/'l
Add
+ tfy + c
to both sides
then, since [x y) is
on the conic, the right side will vanish; and we get for the
equation of the tangent
2â;'
axx + h
{y'x
It should
at
{x,
178.
may
he
+ x'y) + hyy -\-g {x + x) +f{y + ?/')+ c = 0.

be noticed that the equation of the tangent
obtained from the equation of the curve
y)
by writing x'x for x^,
2x, and y + y for 2y.
is
To find
a tangent
y'x
+ xly
for 2^y, y'y for
x + x'
for
().
the condition that

to
y'^,
a given straight
line
conic.
Let the equation of the straight line be

lx
+ my + n =
(i).
The equation of the straight lines joining the origin to

the points where the line (i) cuts the conic (j> {x, y) = 0,
are given [Art. 38] by the equation
ax"
2hxy +hy^ 2 (gx +fy)
o(^J =
(ii).
If the line (i) be a tangent it will cut the conic in

coincident points, and therefore the lines (ii) must be
The condition for this is
coincident.
s. c. s.
13
THE POLAR.
194
{an^
or
l^
- 2fmn
+ cw^)
= (A?z^ fin gmn + chnf,
{he /^) + m^ {ca
+ {ah h^) + 2m/i (^/i /a)
(iii).
+ 271? {hf- gh) + 2/m (/(/ - he) =
2gln
+ cP)
(hn^
g'^)
?i^
may be written in the form

Al^ + But" + Git" + 2Fmn + 2Ghil-\- 2Hlm = 0. .(iv),
The equation
(iii)
where the
a, b, c,
A, B,
determinant
coefficients
&c. in the
a,
G, &c.
are
the minors of
THE POLAE.
Q meet
two points P,
If the polars of
195
in
R, then
R is
the pole of the line PQ.

For, since
is on the polar of F, the polar of
will
go through P; similarly the polar of
will go through Q;
and therefore it must be the line PQ.
If any chord of a conic be drawn through a fixed point
be the pole of the chord then, since Q is on the
Q, and
polar of P, the point
will always lie on a fixed straight
line, namely on the polar of Q.
Two points are said to be conjugate with respect
Def.
to a conic when each lies on the polar of the other.
Two straight lines are said to be conjugate with
Def.
respect to a conic when each passes through the pole of the
Conjugate diameters, as defined in Art. 127, are
other.
conjugate lines through the centre.
181.
point
the
If any chord of a
it
conic he draiuii through a

cut harmonically hy the curve arid
will he
polar of 0.
Let OPQR be any chord which cuts a conic in P, R

and the polar of
with respect to the conic in Q.
Take
for origin, and the line OPQR for axis of x
and let the equation of the conic be
ao)^
Where y =
2hocy
hy-
+ 2gx + 2fy + c =
cuts the conic

acc^
The equation
we have
+c=
1 _
2g
2gx
1
''
OP'^
(i)
and
(ii)
(i).
0R~
gx +fy +
From
of the polar of
" OQ
we see
0.
c
is
.(ii).
that
1
7^ +'OR
OP
9,
OQ'
1.32
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.
196
182.
To find the locus of the Tniddle points of a system
parcdlel
chords of a conic.
of
Let
{x
y) and
The equation
a{x x) {x
be two points on the conic.
(x" , y")
+ h{{x x') (y y') + {x x") {y y')}

+ h{y-y){y-y") = ax^ + ^hxy+hy^ + ^gx + ify + G
x")
(i).
is
the equation of the straight line joining the two points.
In (i) the coefficient of is a {x+ x') + h{y + y') + ^g,

and the coefficient of y is h {x + x") + h (y + y") 4- 2/;
hence if the hne is parallel to the line y = mx, we have
a(x+x") + hiy' + i/")+2g
^''^
'''h{x'+x") + b(i/' + y") + 2f
Now, if (x, y) be the middle point of the chord joining
(x', y) and
{x' y"), then 2x = x + x", and 2y = y' + y"
therefore, from (ii), we have
ax + hy + q
hx + by+f
X (a + mh) + y {h + mh) + g + tnf= 0. .(iii),
or
which is the required equation.
If the line (iii) be written in the form y mx + k, then
we have
;
= a + ^,
k + mo
a + h('m + m) + hmm =0
condition that the lines y = m.x
inh
m.
or
This
is
the
(iv).
and y
= mx
may be
by
parallel to conjugate diameters of the conic given

the general equation of the second degree.
(co).
To find the condition that the two lines give?! hy

183.
may he conjugate diathe equation Ax^ + ^Hxy + By"^ =
meters of the conic ax^ + 2/:^3/ + hy"^ = 1.
If the lines given by the equation
be the same as y Qnx = 0, and y
^s:
m + m = z -^
AxÂ-2Hxy+By^=0
mx =
A
and mm = ^
,
then
'
CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.
197
But y i7icc=0 and ymxÔ are conjugate diameters

a + h {m + m) + hmm = 0.
if
Therefore the required condition
111
.~j^
+ 0-^ =0,
=
aB-\-hA
or
is
IhH.
(w).
[The above result follows at once from Articles 155
and
58.]
Ex.
To find
1.
the equation of the equi-conjugate diameters of the conic

ax'^
The
+ 2hxy + hy^ = 1.
and any concentric

Through the intersections of the conic and
whose equation is X {x^ + y^ + ^^y cos w) = 1, the lines
(a-X) x^ + 2{h-X cos oj) xy + {b - \) y^ pass.
straight lines through the centre of a conic
circle give
the circle
equal diameters.
These are conjugate

b {a
if
-X)
+ a {b -X) = 2h
Substituting the value of X so found,

ax^
2 (ab
+ 2hxii + biP
-X cos w).
{h
we have
W+
h^)
tft-,
''/^
the required equation
+ 2a;?/ cos
w)
= 0.
Ex. 2. To shew that any tivo concentric conies have in general one
and only one pair of common conjugate diameters.
Let the equations of the two conies be
+ 2hxy + by^ = l, and

The diameters Ax^ + 2Hxy + By^ =
ax^
both conies
a'x^
+ 2h'xy + b'y^ l.
are
conjugate with respect to
if
Ab-2Hh + Ba = 0,
Ab'-2Hh' + Ba'^0;
and
_ -2H _
A
ha'
The equation
of the
{ha'
ah'
common
ah') x^
[ab'
ab'
a'b
B
bh'
b'h
conjugate diameters
a'b)
xy + {bh' -
h'h)
is
y'^
therefore
= 0.
Since any two concentric conies have one pair of conjugate diameters
in
common,
it
can be reduced
follows that the equations of

to the
forms
any two concentric conies
SEGMENTS OF A CHOED.
198
To find the length of a straight line drawn from

a given point in a given direction to meet a conic.
Let {x, y) be the given point, and let a line be drawn
through it making an angle 6 with the axis of x. The
point which is at a distance r along the line from [x y) is
\x + r cos 0, y + r sin &), the axes being supposed to be
and, if this point be on the conic given by the
rectangTilar
general equation, we have
184.
a{x^ r cos Gf-^'lh {x + r cos Q) (/+ r sin 6) + ^(y+rsin^)'''

+ 2^ {x + r cos 6) + 2/(;?/' + r sin ^) + c - 0,
{a cos'
or
+ 2/^ sin dcosO + h sin' 0)
r''
(9
+ 2r cosO(ax'-^hy' -\-g) + 2r sin d {hx ^-hy' -\-f) +

The
</>
roots of this quadratic equation are the
{x
y')=0.
two values
of r required.
If the point {x, y') be the middle point of the
185.
chord intercepted by the conic on the line, the two values
of r, given by the quadratic equation in the preceding
Article, will be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
hence the coefficient of r must vanish thus
;
[ax
+ hy + g)
cos 6
If the chords are always
(lix
hy
+/)
sin ^
= 0.
drawn
in a fixed direction, so
that 6 is constant, the above equation gives us the relation
satisfied by the co-ordinates x, y of the middle point of
any chord.
The
locus of the middle points of chords of the conic

with the axis of x is therefore a
which make an angle
[See Art. 182.]
straight line.
The rectangle of the segments of the chord

186.
which passes through the point (x\ y) and makes an angle
6 with the axis of x, is the product of the two values of r
given by the quadratic equation in Art. 184; and is equal to
(^^ y')
a cos'^
+ 2A sin ^ cos ^ + ^
sin'^
If through the same point [x, y) another

Cor. 1.
chord be drawn making an angle & with the axis of x, the
'
SEGMENTS OF A CHORD.
199
rectangle of the segments of this chord will be

cf)
cos' 6'
2/i
{x, y')
sin
0'
cos
6' -\-h sin' 6'
Hence we see that the ratio of the rectangles of the segments of two chords of a conic drawn in given directions
through the same point is constant for all points, including
the centre of the conic, so that the ratio is equal to the
ratio of the squares of the parallel diameters of the conic.
Cor.
The
2.
from any point
ratio of the
is
two tangents drawn
to a conic
equal to the ratio of the parallel diame-
ters of the conic.
If through the point (x\ y") a chord be drawn

also making an angle Q with the axis of x, the rectangle
of the segments of this chord will be
Cor.
3.
(^'^
</>
a cos' Q
+ 2/i
y")
'
sin 6 Q,o^6-\-h sin' 6
Hence the ratio of the rectangles of the segments of

any two parallel chords drawn through two fixed points
(x y') and {x\ y") is constant and equal to the ratio of
^ (x\ y) to ^ {x\ y").
,
Got. 4.
If a circle cut a conic in four points P, Q, P, >Sf,
the line PQ joining any two of the points and the line P>S>
joining the other two make equal angles with an axis of
the conic.
PQ
R^ meet in P, the rectangles PP PQ

equal since the four points are on a circle.
Therefore by Cor. 1, the parallel diameters of the conic are
equal and hence they must be equally inclined to an axis
of the conic.
For;
and
if
and
PP T8 are
.
Ex.
1.
If
a,
section of a circle
The equations
/3,
7, 5 be the eccentric angles of the
and an
ellipse,
four points of inter-
then will a + /3 + 7 + 5=:27r.
of the lines joining a,
/3
and
y, d
are
^cosJ(a + /3)+|sini(a + j3) = cos4(a-/3),
COMMON
CONICS HAVING FOUR
200
POINTS.
-cos|(7+5)+^sinJ(7+5) = cos|(7-5).
and
These two cliords are equally inclined to tlie axis by Cor. 4 therefore
tan J (a + ^) = -tanJ (7 + 5), or ^ {a+|S)=n7r-|(7 + 5); therefore
:
Ex.
2,
+ ^ + y + d = 2mr.
focal chord of a conic varies as the square of the parallel
[See Art. 161.]
diameter.
Ex. S. If a triangle circumscribe a conic the three lines from the

angular points of the triangle to the points of contact of the opposite sides
will meet in a point.
Let the angular points be ^,
J5,
G and
opposite sides of the triangle be A', B',
the points of contact of the

also let
r^, r^, r^
BA'
BC' = r^
r^; and AC
CB'
CA' = r.2
BA' CB' AC' = BC' AB' CA\
7-3;
Hence
which shews that the three
AB' = r^
r^.
lines
be the semi-
Then
diameters of the conic parallel to the sides of the triangle.
meet in a point.
Ex. 4. If a conic cut the three sides of a triangle ABC in the points
and C" respectively, then will
A' and A", B' and B",
CA' CA" AB' AB".
AC' = BC'
BA' BA" CB' CB"
AC
BC
{CarnoVs Theorem.)
[BA'
BA"
BC
BC'-r-^^
r^^,
and so
for the others
r^, r^,
r.^
being
the seini-diameters of the conic parallel to the sides of the triangle.]

the
If a conic touch all the sides of a polygon ABCD
will
then
being
P,
B,
AB,
BC
S
;
points of contact of the sides
Q,
be equal to PB .QC .BD
AP .BQ.CB.DS
Ex,
5.
If >S' be written for shortness instead of the left187.

hand side of the equation
ao)^
and 8' be
+ 2hxy + hf + 2gx +
Avritten
instead
2fif
+ = 0,
of the left-hand side of the
equation
aV+ ^h'xy + Vif + yx + ^fy + = 0,

c'
then
SX
8'
passes through
;Sf=0,
the equation of a conic which

is
the points common to the two conies
8'=0.
is of the second degree,

For, the equation S \S' =
and therefore represents some conic. Also if any point be
CONICS HAVING DOUBLE CONTACT.
on both the given
201
conies, its co-ordinates will satisfy both

and 8'=0, and therefore also the
S=0
the equations
S' = 0.
equation S
By giving a suitable value to X, the conic 8 'kS' =
can be made to satisfy any one other condition.
really be two straight lines whose
If the conic >Sf' =
n = and I'x +
my
+ n' = 0, which
are
lo)
+
+
equations
my
for shortness
we
u = 0, and v = 0, then S -Xuv =
will call
values of X, be the equation of a conic passing

through the points where >S^ = is cut by the lines it = and
will, for all
= 0.
be supposed to move up to
v =
and ultimately coincide with the line u = 0, the equation
^ -.\u^=0 will, for all values of \, represent a conic
which cuts the conic >S^ = in two pairs of coincident points,
If
now the
where S =
^ \u^ =
where S=0
Ex.
1.
line
met by the
is
is
is
line
= 0.
That
is
to say
a conic touching /S'=0 at the two points

(&))
cut by w = 0.
All conies through the points of intersection of two rectangular
hyperbolas are rectangular hyperbolas.
5 = 0,
be the equations of two rectangular hyperbolas, all

conies through their points of intersection are included in the equation
If
/S'
S-\S' = 0.
Now
sum of
that sum is
the
will be zero, since
the coefficients of x^ and y^ in

zero in
S and
This proves the proposition.
right angles.
also in
following are particular cases of the above.
(i)
If
two rectangular hyperbolas intersect in four points, the line

any two of the points is perpendicular to the Hne joining
(For the pair of lines
the other two.

of intersection.)
If
(ii)
(For, ii A, B,
Che
it
will also pass
the angular points,
the conic in
through the orthocentre.
and the perpendicular from A on
then the pair of lines AD, 5(7
perbola, since these lines are at right angles

is also
a conic through the points
is
a rectangular hyperbola pass through the
angular points of a triangle
BC cut
the axes being at
[Art. 175.]
The
joining
>S",
S-\S' =
a rectangular hyperbola, that
is
to
is
a rectangular hy-
therefore the pair
BD, AC
say the lines are at right
angles.
Ex.
2.
If
tioo
conies
have their axes parallel a circle will pass
through their points of intersection.
EQUATION OF A PAIR OF TANGENTS.
202
Take axes
axes of the conies, their equations will
parallel to tiie
+ '2gx + '2.fy + c^0,

a'x^+yy'^ + 2g'x + 2f'y + c' = 0.
and
The conic ax"^ + hy"^ + 2gx + 2fy + c + \ [a'x^ + b'y^ + 2g'x + 2f'y + c') =
then be
ax-
'by'^
But
through their intersections.

that a
+ \a' = b + Xb', and
Ex.
T'Q' he tangents to an ellipse, a conic
T'P',
will pass through the six points T, P, Q, T',
Let the conic be
= l, and
ax'^^-hij'^
The equations of PQ and P'Q'

axx" + hyy" -1 = 0. The conic
(a/',
y").
P\
let
Q'.
be
y')
[x',
will be axx'
X (aa;2 + %2 _ i) _ (âxx' + hyy' 1) {axx!' + hyy" through the four points P, Q, P', Q'.
T if
X
or
1)
It will also
pass
X be such that
{ax'^
+ hy'^ - 1) -
if
The symmetry
through
and T' be
+ hyy' -1=^0 and
will always pass
through
so
this is clearly always possible.
TQ and
If TP,
3.
will go
we choose X
this will be a circle, if
of
{ax"
+ hy'^ - 1)
{ax'x"
+ hy'y" - 1) = 0,
X = ax'x" + hy'y" - 1.
this result shews that the conic will likewise pass
T'.
Ex. 4. If tioo chords of a conic he drawn through two points on

equidistant from the centre, any conic through the extremities
diameter
a
icill he cut hy that diameter in points equidistant from the
chords
of those
centre.
Take the diameter and

the conic will be
y-m{x-c)=Q
its
and y - m' {x +
through their extremities

ax^ +
conjugate for axes, then the equation of
ox'^ + hy'^ 1.
is
Let the equations of the chords be
c) 0.
Then
the equation of any conic

'
given by
hy^-l-\ [y-m
{x-c)] {y-m' {x-[-c)]=Q.
x cuts this in points given by ax^ - 1 - Xmm' {x"^ - c") = 0,

and these two values of x are clearly equal and opposite whatever X, m
and m' may be.
As a particular case, if PSQ and P'S'Q' be two focal chords of a conic,
the lines PP' and QQ' cut the axis in points equidistant from the centre.
The
axis of
To find the equation of

drawn from any 'point to a conic.
188.
ax'^
+ %hxy +
hy"
the jjaiV
+ '^gx + 2fy + c =
of tangents
(i).
If {cc, y') be the point from which the tangents are

drawn, the equation of the chord of contact will be
THE DIRECTOK CIRCLE.

axx
+A
{xy
-f
+ hyy + ^
yx)
(a?
203
+ x^ +f{y +
y')
+ c = 0.
The equation
ax^
= X,
[axx
+ ^hxy + &?/^ + 2^^ + 2fy + c

+ yx) + /v?/^' + ^ (a? + x) +/
(^y'
/i
(?/
3/')
+ c}^
(ii)
represents a conic touching the original conic at the two

The two
points where it is met by the chord of contact.
tangents are a conic which touches at these two points and
which also passes through the point [x, y) itself. The
equation (ii) will therefore be the equation required if X
be so chosen that {x\ y) is on (ii) that is, if
;
ax"^ + '2i]ixy + hif^ + ^gx + 2fy' + c

= X [ax^ + 2A^y +
+ 2^^' +
+ c}'.
Therefore
1 = A, {ax^
+ mx'y' + hy'^ +
2gx
in
Substituting this value of
^fy
(ii)
+c}=\^ (x,
3/')
+ "^Jfixy + 5/ + 2â^ + 2/y + c) ^
+ A (^?/' + 3/^') + Jj/2/' + ^ (^ + x^ -^-fiy +
{ax^
\axx
which
is
2/')
The above equation may be found

let
TN,
c}^
(w).
in the following
Let TQ, TQ' be the two tangents from

point on TQ, and
y).
we have
[x',
y'),
manner.
let
{x,
y)
be any
FM be the perpendiculars from T and P on the
chord of contact QQ'.
^^^^
W^TN^
But
[Art. 186, Cor. 3]
and
[Art. 31]
PM^ _
{axx' + h{xy'
~TN^~
therefore from
{x, y)
189.
cj)
(^)-
||^)
+ yxr) + lyy' + g{x + x')+f{y + y') + c}+ by'^ + 2gx' + 2fy' + c}^
{ax'-^-r2hx'y'
(i)
(x',
we have
y')=^{ax^ + h {xy' + yx')
To find
the equation
+ lyy' + g{x + x') +f [y + y') + cY\

of the director-circle of a
conic.
of the tangents drawn from {x, y) to the

the
general equation is
by
The equation
conic given
'
THE
204
FOCI.
(ax"" + 2hxy + hf + 2gx + 2fy + c)(f> (x, y')

= [axx' + h {xi/ + yx) + hyy' ^g{x-\- x) +f{y + y) + c]\
The two tangents will be at right angles to one

another if the sum of the coefficients of x^ and y"^ in the
above equation is zero. This requires that
(a
+ h) {ax^ + 2]ixy' + hy^ + 2gx + 2fy' + c)

- {ax + A/ + gy - Qix' + hy' +/)' = 0.
The point
equation
(ah
on the
{x, y') is therefore
circle
whose
is
+ f) +
h') (x'
Cx'
or
where A^ B,
+ 2y {fa - hg) -} c {a +
2x {gh -fh)
+ Cf - 2Gx - 2Fy +A
C, F, G,
+^=
h)
....... (i),
H mean the same as in Art. 178.
ah = 0, the equation reduces to

2x {hg -fh) + 2y {fa -hg) + c{a+ h) -f -/ = 0,
(ii).
2Gx-v2Fy~A-B=(d
If h^
or
The
conic in this case

equation of its directrix.
Ex.
1.
is
Trace the curve llx^ + 2ixy
that the equation of the director-circle
Ex.
2.
a parabola, and
Shew
a;2
1-
is
(ii)
is
the
- 2x+l%y + ll = 0, and sliew
4^y"
x^+y^ + 2x-2y = l.
that the equation of the directrix of the parabola
+ 2xy + 2/2-4a; + 8?/-6 =
is
3ic-3?/ + 8 = 0.
190. To shew that a central conic has four and only

four foci, two of which are real and two imaginary.
a^'+6/-l =
(i).
Let {x, y') be a focus, and let iccos a+ T/sin CLp

be the equation of the corresponding directrix then
be the eccentricity of the conic, the equation will be
;
{x
xy +
(j/
yy e^ {x cos
=
if e
+ 2/ sin pf = 0...(ii).
ci
THE
Since
(ii)
hence a
205
FOCI.
and (ii) represent the same curve, and the

xy is zero in (i), the coefficient of xy must be
(i)
coefficient of
zero in
Hence a
or -
is
directrix
parallel to one or other of the
is
axes.
= 0,
Let a
zero in
(i),
then since the coefficients of x and y are
we have
^=
by comparing the other
Also,
^p.
and x
coefficients in
and
(i)
(ii)
we have
1
V^S
x^
From
we
(v)
X whose
_ ^Y
^'2
apx
and
-1
_h ^
_ g2 -
=1
(iv),
(v).
see that there are
distances
^'
two
= we
,
on the axis of
from the centre are
From (iv) we see that a directrix

corresponding focus.
If a
foci
the polar of the
is
can shew in a similar manner that there
are two foci on the axis of y whose distances from the
1/(7-
centre are
clearly real
of a and
The
axis of
Of the two
pairs of foci one
is
and the other imaginary, whatever the values
h (supposed real)
may
be.
eccentricity of a conic referred to a focus on the
is
from
(iii)
referred to a focus
^ / 1
equal to
on the axis of y
If the curve
be an
ellipse
the eccentricity
J;
will
similarly be
a and h have the
THE ECCENTEICITY.
206
same
and one of these eccentricities is real and the

If however the curve be an hyperbola,
have different signs and both eccentricities are
sign,
other imaginary.
a and
real.
In any
have
conic, if
e^
and
e^
be the two eccentricities,
11a
-2+
-1
h
r
we
=1-
191.
To find the eGcentricity of a conic given by the
general equation of the second degree.
By changing
the axes
we can reduce
the conic to the
form
aa;^
+ /9/ + 7 =
(i).
If e be one of the eccentricities of the conic,
But
[Art. 52],
= /3(l-0
we know
that
+ /3 = a + &
a/3 = ab h^
and
Eliminating a and
we have
fi
(ii)-
(iii),
..-
(iv).
from the equations
(ii),
(iii)
and
(iv),
{2-ey ^ {a-\-bY
1-e' ~ ab-h'
^+
ab-h^
'
(.--1)^0
(V).
If the curve is an ellipse, ab h^ is positive, and one

value of e"^ is positive and the other negative. The real
value of e is the eccentricity of the ellipse with reference
to one of the real foci, and the imaginary value is the
eccentricity with reference to one of the imaginary foci.
If the curve is an hyperbola both values of e^ are
positive,
and therefore both eccentricities are real, as we

we must therefore distinguish between
found in Art. 190;
the two
The
is
eccentricities.
and /3 in (i) are different when the curve

an hyperbola; and, if the sign of a be different from
signs of a
TO FIND THE FOCI.
207
Hence
that of 7, the real foci will lie on the axis of x.
to find the eccentricity with reference to a real focus
obtain the values of a and jB from (iii) and (iv), then (ii)
will give the eccentricity required, if we take for a that
value whose sign is different from the sign of 7.
Find the eccentricity of the conic whose equation
x^ - 4:X]i - 2^2 + 10a; + 4^ = 0.
Ex.
The equation
become aoc^
= -3. The
2 = - 3 (1 - e2)
= 0,
eccentricity with reference
therefore e
To find
192.
4:xy 2y^ -1 = 0. This will

where a + j3=-l and a/3 = -6. Hence a = 2,
referred to the centre is x^
+ ^y'^- 1
j8
is
the foci
of a
Let (x, y) be one of the

ax^
a real focus
to
is
given by
= Vl-
4- "^lixij
conic.
foci of
+ 5/ +
the conic
"igx -\-2.fy
+c=^
(i).
The corresponding directrix of the conic is the polar of

{x\ y) therefore its equation is
X {ax' + hy-{-g)+y Qix' + hy +/) + gx' -\-fy' + c = 0.
;
The equation of the conic

the form
{x
x'Y -{
(y
may
therefore be written in
y'Y \{x {ax + hy' +g) +y {hx + hy'

+g='+fy+cf==Q
(i)
/)
(ii).
and (ii) represent the same curve, the coeffimust be equal to the corresponding coefficients
multiplied by some constant.
We have therefore
Since
cients in
in
-I-
(i)
(ii)
= ha,
- X {ax + hy' + gf
~-\{ax +hy' +g) {hx ^hy
l-\ {hx' + hy' +fy
x' \ {ax' + hy'
-\-f)
=kh,
= kh,
{g^'+fy' + c) =kg,
-y^-X{hx' + hy'+f) {gx'+fy' + c) = kfi
and
x" + y" - X (gx -\-fy' + cf = kc.
From the first three of the above equations we have
{ax
+ hy' + gf -
{hx
a~b
_
-\-
g)
+ hj +f')
{ax
{hx + hy' +/)

+ hy' + g) ^
. .
.^111;.
TO FIND THE FOCI.
208
Multiply the fourth and fifth equations by x\ y' respectively and add them to the sixth then, comparing with
the second, after rejecting the factor gx -\-fy + c, we get
;
od
{ax
+ hy +g) +y' (hx + by +/) + yx -\-fij + c

_ ax + liy + g) {hx + hy +/)
{
h
,
,.
(p{x,y)
or
{ax
-
+ hy^ + g)
^~{hx + by^ +/)
=^...(iv).
..
lb
The four foci are therefore from (iii) and

points of intersection of the two conies
{ax
+ hy +gy- {hx + by +ff _

ab
{ax +
hy+g)
(iv)
{hx
the four
+ by +/)
The equation of a conic referred to a focus as

193.
origin is x^ + y'^ = ^ {x cos a + y sin a 'pf.
Either of the lines x + sj 1 y
meets the conic
in
coincident points.
Hence the tangents from the focus to the conic

imaginary lines x y J 1 = 0, or as one equation
cc^
2/2
are the
= 0.
Since the equation of the tangents from a focus is independent of the position of the directrix, it follows that
if conies have one focus common they have two imaginary
tangents common, and that confocal conies have four
common
tangents.
Now if the origin and axes of co-ordinates be changed

any manner, the equation of the tangents from a focus
will be changed from
in
x''i-y^
Hence
= 0tox^ + y'-{-2gx + yy + c = 0.
the equation of the tangents to

focus satisfies the conditions for a circle.
We
a conic from a
may therefore find the foci of a conic in

following manner.
the
THE AXES.
209
of the tangents from {x
The equation
y') to
the conic
is
y) =
(x, y)
(ax^ + 2hxy + by'' + 2gx + 2fy + c)
= [ax'x + h (x'y + y'x) + hy'y +g(x + x)
{x,
(f>
</>
-Vf{y + y') + c}l

If ix ,y') be a focus of the conic, this equation satisfies
the conditions for a circle, viz. that the coefficients of x^
and y~ are equal, and that the coefficient of xy is zero.
Hence we have
aj. {x', y')
and
}i<\>
The
(ax
+ hij +gf = 6</> {x y') - {ha! + %' +/)^

y) = {ax + hy + g) (hx + by' +/)
{ax'
[x
foci are therefore
+ hy + gf
(hx
the points given by

by +/)'
a
(ax
=^
+ hy + g)
The equations giving the

\c?W
a
To find
194.
W?//
-=*
may
foci
_dx
+ bij^
+ f)
(hx
dy
(^^
2/)-
be written
the equation of the axes of
conic.
The axes of a conic bisect the angles between the

asymptotes, and the asymptotes are parallel to the lines
given by the equation ax^+ 2hyx + by^=0 [Art. 174]. Hence
[Art. 39] the axes are the straight lines through the centre
of the conic parallel to the lines given by the equation
y^
ab
x^
We may
'
also find the equation of the axes as follows.
If a point
xy
Pbe
on an axis of the
conic, the line joining
to the centre of the conic is perpendicular to the polar
of P.
Let
x',
y be the co-ordinates of P, then the equation
of the polar of
ir(a^'
is
+ %'+^)+y(/ia?'+%'+/) + (7^'+//+c = 0...(i).
s. c. s.
14
THE AXES.
210
The equation
conic
any
of
ax + hy + g
is
Since
(ii) is
through the centre of the
line
+ \{lix + hy -\-f) =
perpendicular to
(i),
(ii).
we have
{a+\h) {ax+hy-\-g) + {h+Xb) {hx+by-\-f)=0..

Since
passes through {x,
(ii)
ax +hy'+g-\-\ {hx
y'),
(iii).
we have
+ by +/) =
(iv).
Eliminate \ from (iii) and (iv), and we see that (x\ y")
must be on the conic
{ax + hy + gY- {hx + by -\-ff _ {ax + hy + g) {hx 4- by +/)
~
~
^^=^6
h
^vhich is the equation required.
The equation
may
of the axes
also
be deduced from
Aiticle 192 or 193; for one of the conies on which we have

found that the foci lie passes through the centre, and
therefore must be the axes.
Ex.
1.
Sliew that
conies througli the four foci of a conic are
all
rectangular hyperholas.
Ex.
2.
Prove that the
foci of the conic
ax^ + 2hxy
lie
whose equation
is
+ hy^ = 1,
on the curves
x^
y^xy
a-h
Ex.
3.
Ex.
4.
The
co-ordinates of the real foci of 2x^

(o,
5.
h^-ab'
Shew that the real foci of the conic

are (1, 1) and
x^ - 6xy + y^ - 2x - 2y + 5 =
are
Ex.
The focus
|)
and (-|,
of the parabola
x'^
(-
2,
-2).
- 8xy - Ay'^ - 4y + 1 =
-|
-\-2xy
+ y'^ - A.x + Qy - & = Q
is
the
point (-i, -I).
Ex.
6.
imaginary
Shew
foci of
that the product of the perpendiculars from the two
an
ellipse
on any tangent to the curve
is
equal to the
square of the semi-major axis.
Shew that the foot of the perpendicular from an imaginary

an eUipse on the tangent at any point lies on the chcle
desciihed on the minor axis as diameter.
Ex.
focus
7.
of
TANGENT AND NORMAL AS AXES.
211
Ex. 8. If a circle have double contact with an ellipse, shew that the
tangent to the circle from any point on the ellipse varies as the distance
of that point from the chord of contact.
To find
195.
The most
of a conic when the axes
equation
the
and normal
of co-ordinates are the tangent
at
any
jioint.
general form of the equation of a conic
ax^
Ihxy
+ hy^
is
+ "Igx + tfy + c = 0.
Since the origin is on the curve, the co-ordinates

the equation, and therefore c = 0.
(0, 0)
will satisfy
= meets the curve where ax^ + 'Igx = 0.

2/
the tangent at the origin, both the values of x
given by the equation ax^ + ^gx = must be zero thereThe
If
y=
line
is
fore
0.
Hence the most general form of the equation of a conic,

when referred to a tangent and the corresponding normal
as axes of
x and y
respectively,
ax""
Ex.
point
1.
is
2hxy -\-bif + 2fy
0."
All chords of a conic which subtend a right angle at a fixed

in a fixed point.
on the conic, cut the normal at
Take the tangent and normal
for axes
at
then the equation
of the conic will be

ax'^
+ 2hxij + hy^ + 2fij = 0.
Let the equation oi PQ, one of the chords, be

OQ will be [Art. 38]
lx
+ my -1 = 0.
The
equation of the lines OP,
ax^ + 2hxtj + hj^ + 2fij{Ix
But OP,
OQ
+ my)=0
(i).
are at right angles to one another, therefore the
the coefficients of x^ and y^ in
which shews that
771
is
is zero.
(i)
constant,
and m is
sum
of
Hence we have a + h + 2fm=0

the reciprocal of the intercept on
the normal.
Ex.
2.
If any two chords OP,
the tangent at 0, the line
PQ
OQ
of a conic
make equal
will cut that tangent in
angles with
a fixed point.
196.
The equation of the normal at any point (x\
of the conic whose equation is ax^ + by^ = 1 is
X _y
ax'
y'^
by'
142
y)
NOKMALS.
212
This will pass through the point

li
hy
ax'
i.
xy' (a
e. if
h) +
Qi,
k) if
ky
'
akx = 0.
hhy'
Therefore the feet of the normals which

particular point (A, M) are on the conic
xy
(a
6)
jDass
through a
+ hliy akx =
(i).
The
four real or imaginary points of intersection of the

and the original conic are the points the normals
at which pass through the point (Ji, k).
conic
(i)
The
conic
(i) is
clearly a rectangular hyperbola
whose
asymptotes are parallel to the axes of co-ordinates, that is

to the axes of the original conic.
It also passes through
the centre of that conic, and through the point {h, k) itself
If the normals at the extremities of the two
197.
1 = meet in the
chords Ix + my 1 = and Vx +
point (Ji, k), then, for some value of X, the conic
my
ax^
+ hy^-l-\{Ix + my - 1)
{I'x
+ my -
1)
= 0.
.(i),
which, for all values of \, passes through the four extremities

of the two chords, will [Art. 196] be the same as
xy (a
h) + hhy akx =
(ii).
The coefficients of x^ and y^, and the constant term are

zero in this last equation, and therefore they must be
zero in the preceding.
all
We
have therefore
a \ll'
Hence,
Ix
if
+ my 1 =
= 0,
Xmm =
0,
and
+ X = 0.
normals at the ends of the chords

and Vx + iii'y 1=0 meet in a point, we
the
have
7)im
= -1
=-^
ah
_,
.....
(ill).
198.
By the preceding Article we see that normals to
the ellipse whose axes are 2a, 2& at the extremities of the
213
NORMALS.
chords whose equations are
Ix
will
meet
+ my 1 = 0,
in a point,
and
+ my 1=0,
I'x
if
ani'
= mm=-l
(i).
If the eccentric angles of these four points be a,

7, h, the equations of the chords will be
We
- cos ^^
have therefore, by comparing with

cos
sm
and
By
and
7+S = 7
V
cos ^
^
+
f sm
z
z
Z
7+S
and
/3
a-\-P
7+^
cos
2
2
T^
?:r-
7+S
+2^ sm
2
subtraction,
7-^
cos
=
X
2
2
a-/3
h cos
(i),
h cos
7-8
a-/3
~ cos ^^ =
2
0,
0.
we have
+ /S +
7+ S=
^r-^
0,
cos
whence
a +/5
Also the
a
cos
first
+7+3=
(2?z
+ 1)
tt
(ii).
equation gives
+ yS + 7-l-S
h cos
7S
+ /3
"--^
+
a
cos
+ COS
and, using the condition
sin (a
Ex.
1.
If
ABC
normals at A, B,
The
+ ^) +
C
lie
loill
sin
(ii),
(/3
this
/9 3
+ 7'-^
= 0,
becomes
+ 7) + sin (7 -f a) = 0.
a maximum triangle inscribed in an
.(iii).
ellipse,
the
meet in a point.
eccentric angles will be a, a
+ -^
and a + -^
[Art.
138].
The
NORMALS.
214
condition that the normals meet in a point

sin 2a
which
is
Ex.
+ sin
2a +
-|^
+ sin
is [Art.
2a + -^
198
(iii)]
0,
clearly true.
The normals
2.
meet in a point, and the
a central conic at
to
circle
through P, Q,
shew that SS' is a diameter of the conic.

SS^ will be a diameter of the conic
if
the four points P, Q, R,
again in
cuts the conic
RS
and RS^ are
S';
parallel to
conjugate diameters [Art. 134].

7
Now
if
be lx+7mj-l = 0,
PQ
is
+- ^ + 1 =
will be -a;
lx-my = Q,
also RS' will be parallel to
hence SS'
RS
[Art. 197];
on a
since P, Q, R, S' are
a diameter, for [Art. 182]
lx-my = 0, and
jx-i
circle;
^=
are
(ii),
and
conjugate diameters of ax^ + by^ = l.
[The proposition
may
also
from Art. 198
be obtained
Art. 186, Ex. (1).]
Ex.
If the normals
3.
to
an
A, B, C,
ellipse at
axis of a parabola through A, B, C,
is
D meet in a
point, the
parallel to one or other of the
equi-conjugates.
where the normals meet, A, B, G,
If h, k be the point
are the four
points of intersection of the conies

y^
1\
/I
-+-=l^ndxy(^-,--y
x^
Ml _
^_n
62
a2
All conies through the intersections are included in the equation

?/2
ic2
If this
square,
/I
1\
hy
^x)
be a parabola the terms of the second degree must be a perfect
and therefore must be the square
such parabola
is
therefore of the form
of
=t
The equation
+Ax + Bp+C 0.
X
axes are therefore
Ex.
[Ai-t.
172] parallel to one or other of the lines -
The perpendicular from any point
4.
a conic passes through a fixed point

rectangular hyperbola,
Their
1/
^ =0.
P on its polar with respect to

(a) that the locus of P is a
prove
that the circle circumscribing the tnangle ichich
cuts off from the axes always passes through a fixed point O',
parabola lohose focus is 0' will touch the axes and all such
the polar of
(7) that
(j3)
of every
polars, (5) that the directrix of this parabola is
of the conic, and
(e)
that
and
CO, where
O' are interchangeable.
C is
the centre
NORMALS.
Let
tlie
215
^ + ^=
equation of the conic be
1,
and
let {h, k)
be the co-or-
dinates of the fixed point 0.
P perpendicular
any point
If the co-ordinates of
through
{x', y'),
a^x
b^y
or
-will
j-
^
^
= a^h-.
y'
through the point
we have
[h, h),
- = a--b-
(i
From
(i) we see that (x', ?/') is on a rectangular hyperbola

The equation of the circle circumscribing the triangle cut
axes by the polar of
(a;',
o?x
The
circle will pass
+ y-
h^y
from the
through the point
{\h,
- Xk)
if
r-
the relation
if {x', y') satisfies
(a).
oif
= 0.
\{h^+k^) =
Hence,
be
y') \\dU
x-'
be
y y'
x-x'
If this line pass
be
to its polar with respect to the conic
(i),
we have
W+k^'
Hence the
circles all pass
through the point 0' whose co-ordinates are
b^-a^
a"-b'^
^^^'
WTk^^'^h^:^^^
The point 0' is on the circle circumscribing the triangle formed by the
axes and any one of the polars hence the parabola whose focus is 0' and
;
which touches the axes will touch every one
The parabola touches the axes
of the polars
(7).
of the original conic, therefore the centre
Also the lines CO and

is a point on the directrix of the parabola.
CO' make equal angles with the axis of x, which is a tangent to the
parabola; therefore 0' being the focus,
Since
axis of X,
and
are
on the same
is
the directrix
Definition.
{8).
equal angles with the
and
side of the axis of y, the points
are interchangeable
199.
CO
CO'.CO = a^-b\ and CO, CO' make
Two
0'
e)
curves are said to be similar

radii vectores drawn to the
are in a constant ratio to
and similarly situated when

first from a certain point
216
SIMILAR CONICS.
parallel radii vectores
drawn
to the second
from another
point 0\
Two
when radii drawn from two

and 0' making a constant angle with one
curves are similar
fixed points
another are ^proportional.
The two
and
fixed points
0'
may be
called centres
of
similarity.
200.
If one pair of
curves, then there will he
centres of similarity exist for two

infinite number of such pairs.
an
Let 0, 0' be the given centres of similarity, and let

OP, O'P' be any pair of parallel radii. Take C any point
whatever, and draw O'C parallel to OG and in the ratio
O'P'
OP. Then, from the similar triangles GOP, and
G'O'P' we see that GP is parallel to G'P' and in a
constant ratio to it which proves that (7, G' are centres of
:
similarity.
201.
If two central conies he similar the centres of the
two curves will he centres of similarity.
Let
and 0' be two centres of similarity. Draw
any chord POQ of the one, and the corresponding chord
Q'
P'O'e' of the other. ThenbysuppositionPO. OQ.P'O'. 0'
is constant for every pair of corresponding chords.
But
since
is a fixed point PO
OQ is always in a constant
ratio to the square of the diameter of the first conic which
is parallel to it.
The same apphes to the other conic.
Therefore corresponding diameters of the two conies are
in a constant ratio to one another; this shews that the
centres of the curves are centres of similarity.
.
202.
To find the conditions that two conies may he
similar and similarly situated.
By the preceding Article, their respective centres
are centres of similarity.
Let the equations of the conies referred to those
centres and parallel axes be
ax""
and
a'x""
+ Ihxy + 6?/ + c = 0,
+ 2h'xy + h'y'' + c' =
217
SIMILAE CONICS.
or, in
polar co-ordinates,
+ lJi sin OcoÔ + h sin' ^) + c = 0,

cos' 6 + 2A' sin
cos ^ + 6' sin" 0} + c = 0.
e
r' (acos'
and
r" {a
(9
If therefore r'
we must have
r" be constant,
+ 2h sin ^ cos ^ + 6 sin'^

cos + h' sin'
a' cos'6' + 2h' sin
a cos^6
6>
the same for
all
values of
This requires that
6"
(9
6.
~= p
rt
Hence the asymptotes
of the two conies are parallel. [This result may be obtained

in the following manner
since r r is constant, when one
:
two becomes infinite, the other will also be infinite,

which shews that the asymptotes are parallel.]
Conversely, if these conditions be satisfied, and if each
fraction be equal to X, then
of the
r'^
c
^
AC
therefore the ratio of corresponding radii is constant, and

therefore the curves are similar.
If c and Xc' have not the same sign the constant ratio
is imaginary, and is zero or infinite if c or c be zero.
The conditions of similarity are satisfied by the three
curves whose equations are
xy
= c, xy =
Therefore an hyperbola,
0,
and xy
the
must be
real
c.
hyperbola, and
and similarly situated
conjugate
their asymptotes are three similar
curves the constant ratio

hyperbola, and zero for the
These curves have not
similar curves to have the
being
J 1
for the conjugate
straight lines.
however the sa7ne shape.
same shape the constant
For
ratio
and finite.
203.
To find the condition that tiuo conies may he
similar although not similarly situated.
have seen that the centres of the two curves must
We
be centres of similarity.
SIMILAR CONICS.
218
Let the equations of
the
curves referred
to
their
respective centres be
+ 2hxy -\-hy^ + G =^
ax^ + Wxy-^h'y'' + c=0
ax^
(i),
(ii),
and let the chord which makes an angle 6 with the axis of
X in the first be j)roportional, for all values of 6, to that which
makes an angle (6 + a) in the second. If the axes of the
second conic be turned through the angle a, we shall then
have radii of the two conies which make the same angle
with the respective axes in a constant
ratio.
Let the equation of the second conic become
^V+2J?'aî/+5y +
c'
= 0.
Then, by the preceding Article, we must have
-j-
therefore
"^
j^
But [Art.52] A'+E=a'-\-, and A'B'-H"'= ab'-Ii';

therefore the condition of similarity
is
ah-P _
a'b'
-h"
{a-\-hf~
[a'
-^h'f
The above shews that thQ angles between the asymptotes of similar conies are equal.
[See Art. 174.]
may also be obtained in the following

since radii vectores of the two curves which are
inclined to one another at a certain constant angle are in a
This result
manner
between the two

values for the one curve
must be equal to the corresponding angle for the other,
that is to say the angle between the asymptotes of the one
conic is equal to the angle between the asymptotes of the
constant ratio,
directions
other.
it
follows that the angle
which give
infinite
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
219
X.
Examples on Chapter X.
If ^ and. P be any two points, and G the centre of a
shew that the perpendiculars from Q and. G on the polar
of P with respect to the conic, are to one another in the same
ratio as the perpendiculars from P and G on the polar of Q.
1.
conic;
2.
Two tangents drawn to a conic from any point are in
the same ratio as the correspondiug normals.
Find the loci of the fixed points of the examples in

3.
Article 195, for different positions of
on the conic.
4.
and
POQ
is
is
one of a system of parallel chords of an ellipse,

it such that PO^ + OQ^ is constant; shew
the point on
that, for different positions of the chord, the locus of
is
concentric conic.
5.
jTjy,
Yyp2
GPP any chord cutting a

D be taken such that
be any fixed point and

this line a point
If
conic in P,
P\ and on
+
Yypiî
"tlie
locus of
D will be
a conic whose centre
is G.
If GPP'QQ' is one of a system of parallel straight lines

6.
cutting one given conic in P, P' and another in Q, Q, and G is
such that the ratio of the rectangles GP GP' and GQ GQ' is
constant; shew that the locus of
is a conic through the intersections of the original conies.
.
7.
angles
8.
PGP', QGQ' are any two chords of a conic at right

one another through a fixed point G shew that
to
If a point be taken on the axis-major of an ellipse,
p, prove that the sum
-^
of
the squares of the reciprocals of the segments of any chord

passing through that point is constant.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
220
X.
If PF' be any one of a system of parallel chords of

9.
a rectangular hyperbola, and A^ A' be the extremities of the
perpendicular diameter; PA and P' A' will meet on a fixed
Shew
circle.
circle,
also that the
words rectangular hyperbola, and
can be interchanged.
If PSP' be any focal chord of a parabola and

be perpendiculars on a fixed straight line, then will
1 0.
PM
TE'^
PM, P'M'
P'M'
PIS
be constant.
drawn through a fixed point and

on them as diameters; prove that the
polar of the point with regard to any one of these circles
11.
Chords of a
circle are
circles are described
touches a fixed parabola.
From a fixed point on a conic chords are drawn making

1 2.
equal intercepts, measured from the centre, on a fixed diameter;
find the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents
at their other extremities.
13.
If {x\ y) and {x", y") be the co-ordinates of the
extremities of any focal chord of an ellipse, and x^ y be the
co-ordinates of the middle point of the chord ; shew that y' y"
will vary as x.
What does this become for a parabola 1
14.
are two fixed points on the axis of an ellipse
S,
equidistant from the centre C ; PSQ, PHQ' are chords through
them, and the ordinate
is produced to
so that
may
be equal to the abscissa of Q' ; shew that the locus of
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
MQ
MP
15.
S, II are two fixed points on the axis of an ellipse
equidistant from the centre, and PSQ, PHQ' are two chords of
and the line QQ^ make
the ellipse; shew that the tangent at
angles with the axis whose tangents are in a constant ratio.
Two
parallel chords of an ellipse, drawn through the

the curve in points P, P' on the same side of the
major axis^ and the line through P, P' intersects the semi-axes
16.
foci, intersect
CA,CBin
AC^
BC^
C/,F respectively: prove that jtt^s'^ ttt^
i^
invariable.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTEK
X.
221
Prom an external point two tangents are di'awn to an

shew that if the four points where the tangents cut
the axes lie on a circle, the point from which the tangents are
drawn will lie on a fixed rectangular hyperbola.
17.
ellipse
Prove that the locus of the intersection of tangents to

which make equal angles with the major and minor
but which are not at right angles, is a rectrespectively,
axes
hyperbola
whose vertices are the foci of the ellipse.
angular
18.
an
ellipse
If a pair of tangents to a conic meet a fixed diameter

in two points such that the sum of their distances from the
centre is constant; shew that the locus of the point of intersecShew also that the locus of the point of intertion is a conic.
section is a conic if the product, or if the sum of the reciprocals
19.
be constant.
Through 0, the middle point of a chord AB of an

drawn any chord POQ. The tangents at P and Q
meet AB in S and T respectively. Prove that AS=BT.
20.
ellipse, is
21.
Pairs of tangents are drawn to the conic ax^ + j^y^ 1
so as to be always parallel to conjugate diameters of the conic
ax^ + 2hxy + h^f = 1 ; shew that the locus of their intersection is
ax^
hy^
+ 2hxy =
h -5
22.
PT, PT' are two tangents to an ellipse which meet the
tangent at a fixed point Q in T,
find the locus of P (i)
\
when the sum of the squares of QT and QT' is constant, and (ii)
when
the rectangle
QT
QT'
is
constant.
is a fixed point on the tangent at the vertex J. of a

and P, P', are points on that tangent equally distant
from
shew that the locus of the point of intersection of the
other tangents from P and P' is a straight line.
23.
conic,
24.
If from any point of the circle circums(5ribing a given
square tangents be drawn to the circle inscribed in the same
square, these tangents will meet the diagonals of the square
in four points lying on a rectangular hyperbola.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
222
X.

25.
tangents to a conic which intercept a constant length on a fixed
straight line.
tangents to a conic meet a fixed straight line JOT

P,
Q:
Q be such that PQ subtends a right angle
at a fixed point 0, prove that the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents will be another conic.
26.
in
jP,
Two
if
The extremities of the diameter of a circle are joined

and from that point two tangents are drawn to the
circle; shew that the intercept on the perpendicular diameter
between one line and one tangent is equal to that between the
other line and the other tangent.
27.
to
any
point,
Triangles are described about an ellipse on a given base

28.
which touches the ellipse at P ; if the base angles be equidistant
from the centre, prove that the locus of their vertices is the
normal at the other end of the diameter through P.
parabola slides between rectangular axes; find the

29.
curve traced out by any point in its axis; and hence shew that
the focTis and vertex will describe curves of which the equations
are
^Y = a' {x' + y'),
arif {x'
y'
Sa')
= a',
4a being the latus rectum of the parabola.

30.
at
If the axes of co-ordinates be inclined to one another
an angle
a,
and an
ellipse slide
between them, shew that the
equation of the locus of the centre

sinâ (x^
+ y^- p^Y - 4 cosâ
is
{pi?y^
sinâ
- q^) = 0,
q^ denote respectively the sum of the squares and

the product of the semi-axes of the ellipse.
where j9^ and
31.
If OP, OQ are two tangents to an
CP', CQ' the parallel semi-diameters, shew that
ellipse,
and
OP.OQ-\- CP' CQ' - OS. OH,

.
S,
H being the
foci.
CQD
32.
Through two fixed points P, Q straight lines APB,
are drawn at right angles to one another, to meet one given
straight line in J., (7 and another given straight line perpen-
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
223
X.
find the locus of the point of

dicular to the former in B,
;
;
and shew that, if the line joining
intersection of AD^
and Q subtend a right angle at the point of intersection of
the given lines, the locus will be a rectangular hyperbola.
BG
Prove that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular

33.
from a point on its polar with respect to an ellipse is a rectangular hyperbola, if the point lies on a fixed diameter of the
ellipse.
34.
The polars of a point P with respect to two concentric
and co-axial conies intersect in a point Q; shew that if P
moves on a fixed straight line, Q will describe a rectangular
hyperbola.
Shew that if the polars of a point with respect to two

35.
given conies are either parallel or at right angles the locus of
the point is a conic.
line joining two points A and

meets the two
in Q and P.
conic is described so that
and
OQ are the polars of A and with respect to it. Shew that
the locus of its centre is the line
where
divides
so
that
36.
lines
OQ,
The
OP
OP
OR
AR
37.
common
38.
RB
::
QR
AB
RP.
Find the locus of the foci of all conies which have

and one common point.
a,
director-circle
Shew
that the locus of the foci of conies which have a

is an hyperbola.
given centre and touch two given straight lines
In the conic ax^-\- ^hxy + hi/

39.
the focal distances of the origin is
= 2^/,
the rectangle under
ah
h^'
40.
The focus of a conic is given, and the tangent at
given
point; shew that the locus of the extremities of
a
the conjugate diameter is a parabola of which the given focus
is focus.
series of conies have their foci on two adjacent sides

41.
of a given parallelogram and touch the other two sides; shew
that their centres lie on a straight line.
EXAMPLES OX CHAPTER
224
If TP,
42.
touch a conic in
TQ
X.
be tangents drawn from any point T to

be the foci, then
Q, and if S and
P and
ST"
ET
SP.SQ ~ HP.HQ'
An ellipse is described concentric with and touching a

43.
given ellii^se and passing through its foci; shew that the locus
of the foci of the variable ellipse is a lemniscate.
Having given five points on a circle of radius a; shew
the
centres
of the five rectangular hyperbolas, each of which
that
through
four of the points, mil all lie on a circle of
passes
a
radius ^
44.
Tf a rectangular hyperbola have its asymptotes parallel

45.
to the axes of a conic, the centre of mean position of the four
points of intersection is midway between the centres of the
curves.
Three straight lines are drawn parallel respectively to

46.
the three sides of a triangle ; shew that the six points in
which they cut the sides lie on a conic.
If the
47.
normal at
points G, G', and
P to
an
be a point on
then will any chord through
ellipse
2
it
11
meet the axes in the
such that ^-^
= ^^ + -^-^^
subtend a right angle at P.
an ellipse two chords

the tangent at the other
cut these lines proextremity 0' of the diameter through
Q'
such
that
the
rectangle
O'Q O'Q' is
duced in two points Q,
(90'
will
cut
in
point.
a fixed
constant, the line PP'

OP, OP' are drawn shew that,
of
48.
if
LM
chord
is drawn parallel to the tangent at any
which bisects the angle
of a conic, and the line
ia i?; prove that the locus of i? is a hyperbola
TUQQt^
having its asymptotes parallel to the axes of the original conic.
49.
point
LM
LPM
50.
chord,
given centric conic
PR
is
touched at the ends of a
drawn through a given point in
its
transverse axis, by
another conic which passes through the centre of the former

prove that the locus of the centre of the latter conic is also a
centric conic.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
^25
X,
is a chord of an ellipse parallel to one of the equidiameters,

C being the centre of the ellipse shew
conjugate
centre of the circle QCQ' for different
of
the
locus
that the
QQ'
an
hyperbola.
is
of
positions
QQ'
51.
52.
circle is
drawn touching the
ellipse -~
~=l
at
b-'
any point and passing through the centre; shew that the locus
of the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the ellipse
on the chord of intersection of the ellipse and circle is the
ellipse a^x^
Ify^
,3x2
Find the value of
53.
2xy
may
touch the ellipse
in
order
that the
-^+^ 1 = 0,
hyperbola
and shew that
the point of contact will be at an extremity of one of the

equi-conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
Shew
54.
any point with respect

meet on that diameter.
also that the polars of
two curves
will
Shew
to the
CD, EF be parallel chords of two circles

A and B, a conic section can be drawn
points A, B, C, D, E, F and give a construc-
that, if
which
through the six
intersect in
tion for the position of the major axis.
If the intersection
of the tangents to a conic at two
points
of its intersection with a circle lie on the circle,
of the
then the intersection P' of the tangents at the other two points
wdll lie on the same circle.
In this case find the relations connecting the positions of
and P' for a central conic, and deduce
and P' when the conic is a parabola.
the relative positions of
55.
P
P
be any two points equidistant and on

opposite sides of the directrix of a parabola, and TP, TQ
be the tangents to the parabola from T^ and TQ', T'P' the
tangents from
then will T, P, Q, T\ P\ Q' all lie on a rect)
angular hyperbola.
56.
If
T,
57.
If a straight line cut two circles m. A, A' and B, B'
and if (7,
be the common points of the circles, and if
be
any point; shew that the three circles OAA', OBB' and OCC
will have a common radical axis.
S. C. s.
;i
'
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
226
X.
for centre circles are described

With a fixed point
58.
cutting a conic; shew that the locus of the middle points of the
common chords of a circle and of the conic is a rectangular
hyperbola.
With a fixed point

for centre any circle is described
59.
cutting a conic in four points real or imaginary; shew that
the locus of the centres of all conies through these four points
is a rectangular hyperbola, which is independent of the radius
of the circle.
The normals at the ends of a focal chord of a conic
and the tangents in T shew that TO produced
60.
intersect in
will pass
',
through the other
focus.
If from any point four normals be drawn to an ellipse

meeting an axis in G^, G^, G^, G^, then will
61.
1111
CG,
CG,
62.
If the
CG^
GG, + CG, + GG^
GG^
normals to an
ellipse at
find the equation of the conic
-f
GG^
(7, i) meet in 0,
and shew that the
^, ^,
ABGDO,
is a straight
locus of the centre of this conic for a fixed point
line if the ellipse be one of a set of co-axial ellipses.
four normals to an ellipse at P, Q, U, S meet at 0.

drawn from F, Q, B, S such that they make
angles
with
the axis of the ellipse as CF, CQ, CB, CS
the same
prove
that
respectively
these four lines meet in a point.
63.
The
Straight lines are
The normals at F, Q, R, S meet in a point

and lines
with
F,
making
the
axis
through
of the
are drawn
F, Q,
S
respectively:
angles
as
prove
ellipse the same
OF, OQ, OF, OS
64.
that these four lines meet in a point.

at F, Q, F, S meet in a point ; and
are the points of the auxiliary circle corresponding to F, Q, F, S respectively.
If lines be drawn through
65.
The normals
jP, Q', F',
iS'
P, Q, F, S parallel to F'G, Q'G,

that they will meet in a point.
F'G and S'G
respectively,
shew
66.
If from a vertex of a conic perpendiculars be drawn
to the four normals which meet in any point 0, these lines
will meet the conic again in four points on a circle.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Tangents are drawn IVom any point on the conic
67.
3
_ + f- = 4
a"
227
X.
to the conic
^+
7^
ct
0'
prove that the normals at
the points of contact meet on the conic a'x^+ Ifi/
ABC
be a triangle inscribed in an ellipse such that

If
68.
the tangents at the angular points are parallel to the opposite
sides, shew that the normals Sit A, , C will meet in some
Shew also that for different positions of the triangle
point 0.
will be the ellipse 4:aV + 4:b^y^ = (a^ ^f.
the locus of
If the co-ordinates of the feet of the normals to xy = a
from the point {X,Y) be x^, yj x^, y^', x^, y^\ x^, yj then
69.
i"= 2/, +2/2 +
2/3
The
70.
+ 2/4'
X=^x^+x^-^x^ + x^.
^^^^
locus of the point of intersection of the normals

which is parallel to a
to a conic at the extremities of a chord
given straight
Any
71.
X
ellipse
a conic.
tangent to the hyperbola 4:xy
= ab meets
the
1J
+p=
ellipse at
72.
line, is
F and
in points F,
Q meet on
a^y^
= a^b",
shew that the normals
a fixed diameter of the
If four normals be
ellipse b"x^
ellipse.
drawn from the point
and p^, p^,
V^-,
from the centre on the tangents to the
to the
to the
P^ be the perpendiculars
ellipse
drawn
at the feet
11111
of these normals, then if
where
c is
c^
p: V2 p^ i\
is a hyperbola.
a constant, the locus of
73.
Find the locus of a point when the sum of the
squares of the four normals from it to an ellipse is constant.
74.
The tangents
which meet
to an ellipse at the feet of the normals

in (y,^) form a quadrilateral such that if {x',y), {x\y")
be any pair of opposite vertices
If/'"
XX
It 11
^ = ^~ = ~
1>
^^^ that the
equation of the line joining the middle points of the diagonals

of the quadrilateral is /x + gy==0.
Tangents are drawn to an ellipse at four points which

are such that the normals at those points co-intersect; and four
rectangles are constructed each having two adjacent sides along
75.
152
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
228
X.
the axes of the ellipse, and one of those tangents for a diagonal.
Prove that the distant extremities of the other diagonals lie
in one straight line.
FroQi a point P normals are drawn to an ellipse
76.
meeting it in A, B, C, D. If a conic can be described passing
and a focus of the ellipse and touching the
through A, B, C,
corresponding directrix, shew that P lies on one of two fixed
straight lines.
77.
SA
will
If the normals at A, B^ G,
SO', where
SB SC SD =
.
meet in a point
S is
0, then
a focus.
point four normals are drawn to a rectangular hyperbola; prove that the sum of the squares on these
normals is equal to three times the square of the distance of
the point from the centre of the hyperbola.
78.
From auy
79.
A chord is drawn to the ellipse +
major axis in a
k/
V +
At
"(-
= 1 meeting the
whose distance from the centre
f)oiiit
the extremities of this chord normals are
is
drawn
to the ellipse; prove that the locus of their point of intersection

is
circle.
The product of the four normals drawn to a conic from

80.
any point is equal to the continued product of the two tangents
drawn from that point and of the distances of the point from
the asymptotes.
81.
lines {x
Find the equation of the conic to which the straight

+ XyY p' = 0, and (x + ixyY q'= are tangents at the
ends of conjugate diameters.

82.
TP,
TQ
From any
are
drawn
point
x'
to the ellipse
the ellipse again in

always touches the ellipse
^4
a'
y
_
li
b'
circle x^
{a'
if
^^
Shew
P'Q'.
cuts
on the
1,
't/'
and the
that
c',
tangents
circle
TPQ
the line P'Q'
-by
focal chord of a conic cuts the tangents at the

83.
ends of the major axis in ^, ^; shew that the circle on ^^ as
diameter has double contact with the conic.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
229
X.
ABCD is any rectangle circumscribing an ellipse whose
84.
foci are
S and
shew that the
H',
circle
ABS
ABH
or
is
equal
to the auxiliary circle.
Any circle is described having its centre on the

85.
tangent at the vertex of a parabola, and the four common
tangents of the circle and the parabola are drawn; shew tliat
the sum of the tangents of the angles these lines make
with the axis of the parabola is zero.
Tangents to an ellipse are drawn from any point on
86.
the auxiliary circle and intersect the directrix in four points
prove that two of these lie on a straight line passing through
the centre, and find where the line through the other two
points cuts the major axis.
If t6= 0, v =
be the equation of two central conies,
of these conies
the values of u, v at the centres C\
respectively, shew that u^ = vû is the equation of the locus of
P' where P, P' are two points,
the intersection of the lines CP,
Examine
one on each curve, such that PP' is parallel to
the case where the conies are similar and similarly situated.
87.
and
u^, v^
CC
Two
have double internal contact with an

ellipse and a third circle passes through the four points of
contact.
If t^ t', T be the tangents drawn from any point on
the ellipse to these three circles, prove that tt' = T^.
88.
circles
Find the general equation of a conic which has

89.
double contact with the two circles (xaY + 1/^ = 0^, {xhY+y^ = d^,
and prove that the equation of the locus of the extremity of
the latus rectum of a conic which has double contact with the
circles (x
of + 'if ^c^
is
'if
[x^
cc) (x^
a^
c^) == c^x^.
Shew that the lines Ix + my = 1 and I'x + 7}i'y = 1

90.
are conjugate diameters of any conic through the intersections
of the two conies whose equations are
(/"m'
P7n)x^ +
(/
V)
lamxy + (m
m')
immy^ = 2
{lii^
I'm) x,
and
(m-7'
- m'H) y' +
(m - m')
IV xy
(I
- I')
ll'x'
{^ml'
- m!l) y.
If through a fixed point chords of an ellipse be drawn,

as diameters circles be described, prove that the
other chord of intersection of these circles with the ellipse also
passes through a fixed point.
91.
and on these
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
230
X.
The angular points of a triangle are joiDecl to two

shew that the six points, in which the joining
meet the opposite sides of the triangle, lie on a conic.
92.
fixed points
lines
If three sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in a conic

93.
pass through three fixed points in the same straight line, shew
that the fourth side will also pass through a fixed point in that
straight line.
Two chords of a conic PQ, P'Q' intersect in a fixed

and PP' passes through another fixed point. Shew that
QQ' also passes through a fixed point, and that PQ', P'Q touch
94.
point,
a conic having double contact with the given conic.
line parallel to one of the equi-conjugate diameters

95.
of an ellipse cuts the tangents at the ends of the major axis
in the points P, Q, and the otlier tangents from P, Q to the
is a rectangular
ellipse meet in 0; shew that the locus of
hyperbola.
96.
L,
bola and
M,
are fixed points on a rectangular hyperis jDerpendicular to

any other point on it,
in a,
is perpendicular to LJ^ and meets
in h.
Prove
pei-jDendicular to
and meets
Pc.
iV,
LM
MP
PA
HP
and meets
PC
MN
LP
Pa^PB.Ph^PC
P is any point on a fixed diameter of a parabola.
97.
The normals from P meet the curve in A, B, C. The tangents
Shew that the
parallel to PA, PB, PC intersect in A', B', C.
PB
in c,
that PA
is
ratio of the areas of the triangles
ABC, A'B'C
is
constant.
taken on the diameter AB of a circle

as diameters circles are
described the locus of the centre of a circle which touches
these three circles is an ellipse having C for one of its foci.
98.
point
whose centre
is
C.
is
On AP, BP
The straight lines from the centre and foci S, S' of a

99.
conic to any point intersect the corresponding chord of contact
in F, G, G' ; prove that the radical axis of the circles described
on 8G, S'G' as diameters passes through V.
ABC
meet two given

100.
If the sides of a triangle
straight lines in a.^, a^; h^, h^; Cj, c^ respectively; and if round
the quadrilaterals b^b^c^c^^, c^cââ^, aâ]}!:)^ conies be de-
common chords of these conies will

each pass through an angular point of ABC, and will all meet
in a point.
scribed; the three other
CHAPTER XL
SYSTEMS OF CONICS.
204.
The most
ax'^
general equation of a conic,
^hxy +
hy'^
^gx
2fy
+c=
viz.
0,
contains the six constants a, h, h, g, f, c.

But, since we
may multiply or divide the equation by any constant
quantity without changing the relation between x and y
which it indicates, there are really only five constants
which are fixed for any particular conic, viz. the five ratios
of the six constants a, h, b, g,f, c to one another.
A conic therefore can be made to satisfy five conditions
and no more. For example a conic can be made to pass
through five given points, or to pass through four given
points and to touch a given straight line.
The five conditions which the conic has to satisfy give rise to five
equations between the constants, and five independent
equations are both necessary and sufiicient to determine
the five ratios.
The given equations may however give more than one
set of values of the ratios, and therefore more than one
conic may satisfy the given conditions but the number
of such conies will be finite if the conditions are really
;
independent.
If there are only four
(or less than four) conditions

given, an infinite number of conies will satisfy them.
The five conditions which any conic can satisfy must
among the
the condition of passing through
a given point, or that of touching a given straight line.
be such that each gives
constants;
as, for instance,
rise to one relation

THE CONIC THROUGH FIVE
232
Some
conditions give two or
POINTS.
more
relations
between
the constants, and any such condition must be reckoned

as two or more of the five.
We proceed to give some
examples.
In order that a given point may be the centre two
must be satisfied [Art. 168].

To have a focus given is equivalent
relations
to having two
tangents given [Art. 193].
To have given that a line touches a conic at a given,
point is equivalent to tiuo conditions, for we have two
consecutive points on the curve given.
To have the direction of an asymptote given is equivalent to having one point (at infinity) given.
To have the 'position of an asymptote given is equivalent
to two conditions, for two points (at infinity) are given.
To have the axes given in position is equivalent to
three conditions.
To have the
eccentricity given
to one condition, but since Ave
in general equivalent
is
have
we
[Art. 191], if
and h
205.
are given that
0,
=^ ^
ah
^^^-
we must have
/r
hoth
= 0.
Through
straight line,
no four of which are in a

one conic and only one can he draiun.
five points,
If three of the points are in a straight line, the conic
through the five given points must be a pair of straight

lines; for no straight line can meet an ellipse, parabola, or
hyperbola in three points. And the only pair of straight
lines through the five points is the line on which the three
points lie and the line joining the other two points.
If however not more than two of the points are on any
straight line, take the line joining two of the points for
the axis of w, and the line joining two others for the
axis of y.
Let the co-ordinates of the four points referred to these

h^,
and 0, k^ respectively.
h^,
0, k^
axes be
CONICS THROUGH FOUR POINTS.
The
and xy
pairs of straight lines (t-
+ t^
l)
233
(l~+^"~^ ^
)
which pass through the four points.

187] all the conies given by the equation
are conies
Hence
[Art.
through the four points.

This conic Avili go through the fifth point, whose coordinates are x, y' if A, be so chosen that
will pass
one and only one value of A- which satisfies

equation, and therefore one and only one conic
will pass through the five points.
If four points lie on a straight line, more than one
conic will go through the five given points, for the straight
line on which the four points lie and any straight line
through the fifth is such a conic.
There
is
this last
Ex.
Find the equation
1.
of the conic passing
(2, 1) (1, 0), (3,
The
pairs of lines
through the
first
[x-y-1)
equation
Ex.
points
2) is
2.
{x
+ 4:y-\-l) =
(),
five points
-2).
and y (2x + t/
+ 'iy + 1)
-\]i
(2ic
5)
= 0,
pass
+ ?/-5) = 0.
X= - 8
x~ + 19a;?/ + Ay'^ - 45y -1 = 0.
on the
is
latter conic if
therefore the required
Find the equation of the conic which passes through the five
and (4, 5).
Ans. 5x^-10xy + 4y^ + 20x-12y = 0.
(0, 0), (2, 3), (0, 3), (2, 5)
206.
four
(3,
{x
through the
(3,
four points, and therefore also the conic
[x-y -1)
The point
-1), (-1,0) and
To find
the general equation
of a conic through
fixed joints.
Take the line joining two of the points for axis of

axis of y, and
07, and the line joining the other two for
and
let the lines whose equations are ax + hy 1 =
dx + b'y 1=0 cut the axes in the four given points.

Then xy = 0, and (ax + hy 1) {dx + h'y 1) =
are
two conies through the four points, and therefore
the
all
CONICS
234
THROUGH FOUR
POINTS.
conies of the system are included in the equation
Xxy
or
+ {clog + hy V) {ax + 6'?/ 1) =

ado^ + ô! + cib' + X) xy -f hh'y^
-{a-\-d)x-(h^h')y ^^\ = ^
(i),
(ii)
The equation (ii), Art. 206, will represent a

207.
parabola, if the terms of the second degree are a perfect
square; that is, if
^tacihl)
= (hd + ah' + X)".
This equation has two roots, therefore tiuo parabolas

will pass through four given points.
These parabolas
are real if the roots of the equation are real, which
is the case when aa'bh' is positive.
It is easy to shew
that when adbb' is negative the quadrilateral is re-entrant; in that case the parabolas are imaginary, as is geometrically obvious.
When
the terms of the second degree in
(ii).
Art. 206,
form a perfect square, the square must be {Jaa'x Jbh'yY.

Hence [Art. 172], the axes of the two parabolas are parallel
to the lines whose equations are Jaa'x Jbh'y = 0, or as
one equation
adx^ bb'y^ 0.
These two straight lines are parallel to conjugate diameters of any conic through the four points [Art. 183].
Hence all conies through four given points have a pair
of conjugate diameters parallel to the axes of the two parabolas through those points.
208. To find the locus of the
pass through foil?' fixed points.
As
system
in
Art.
206, the
of the conies which
equation of any conic of the
is
\xy + {ax + h?/
The
centimes
1)
{ax +b'y
1) =0.
co-ordinates of the centre of the conic are given
by the equations
and
\y + a {a'x -f
X^ + {dx +
Z>
h'l/
l) + d
-1) + h'
{ax
+ hy
{ax -{-by
1)
^ 0,
-I) =0.
CONICS
THEOUGH FOUR
235
POINTS.
Multiply these by x and y respectively and subtract

then we have, for all values of X,
{ax
hy)
or
l)-\- {ax h'y) {ax \-hyl) =

2aax'' - 2hh\f - (a + a') x -V (b ^h') y = 0.
{ax -\-h'y
0,
locus of the centre is therefore a conic whose

asymptotes are parallel to the lines aax^ hh'y^ = 0, i.e.
parallel to the axes of the two parabolas through the four
[The two parabolas are conies of the system, and
points.
their centres are therefore the points at infinity on the
The
centre-locus.]
The
centre-locus in Art. 208 goes through the

through the point of intersection of the line
joining two of the points and of the line joining the other
two and by symmetry it must go through the intersection
[This
of the other pairs of lines through the four points.
could have been seen at once, for the pairs of lines are
conies of the system and their centres are their points of
intersection, and therefore these points of intersection are
points on the centre-locus.]
The centre-locus cuts the axis of x where x = and
209.
origin, that is
where x
=h
the point
I-
-{-
-,].
Therefore the locus passes through
midway between
and
that
is
through the middle point of the line joining two of the

fixed points, and therefore similarly through the middle
point of the line joining any other two of the four points.
If then A, B, G, D he any four points, the three points
of intersection of AB and CD, oi AC and BD, and of
and BG, together with the six middle points of AB, BC,
CA, AD, BD and CD all lie on a conic, and this conic is
the locus of the centres of the conies which pass through
the four points A, B, C, D.
^D
210,
If aa and hi/ have the same sign, we see from
Art. 208 that the centre-locus is an hyperbola, and that if
aa and
hh'
have different signs the centre-locus
is
an
ellipse.
CONICS
236
THROUGH FOUR
POINTS.
If aa = hh\ that is if the four points are on a circle, the

If aa'
hb',
centre-locus is a rectangular hyperbola.
and the axes are at right angles, all the conies of the
system are rectangular hyperbolas, and the centre-locus is

In this case the lines joining any two of the
a circle.
points is perpendicular to the line joining the other two,
so that D is the ortho-centre of the triangle
Hence a circle will pass through the feet of perpendiculars of a triangle ABG and through the middle points
oiAB, BG, GA, AD, BD, GD where D is the ortho-centre
of the triangle ABC, and this circle is the locus of the
centres of all the conies (which are all rectangular hyperThis circle is called the ninebolas) through A, B, G, B.
ABC
point
circle.
The asymptotes of any conic through the four

211.
points defined as in Art. 206, are parallel to the lines
Xxy + (ax +
aaV -\-.{\
or
And
-f-
{ax -\- h'y) = 0,

a'b) xy 4- hh'y"^ =
hy)
ah'
0.
[Art. 183] these lines are parallel to conjugate dia-
meters of the centre-locus. Hence the asymptotes of any

conic through the four points are parallel to conjugate diameters of the centre-locus as a particular case, the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola which passes through
the four points are parallel to the axes of the centre-locus.
;
Ex. 1. The polar of a fixed point with respect to a system of conies

through four given points will pass through a fixed point.
Take the
fixed point for origin,
and
let
B aa;2 + 2kxy + by^ + 2gx +2fij + c = 0,

S' = a'x^ + 2 h'xy + iY + ^9'^ + ^fV + c' = 0,
>S
and
be two of the conies; then any conic of the system
The
polar of the origin is
and
this, for all values of X, passes
is
given by
^ - \S' = 0.
gx+fy + c-\ [g'x +fy + c') = 0,
Ex.
through the intersection of

gx +fy + c = 0, and g'x +f'y + c'=0.
2.
The
locus of the poles of a given straight line with respect to
the conies which pass through four given points is a conic.

Take the fixed straight line for the axis of x, and let the equation
CONICS THROUGH FOUR POINTS.

of
any conic of the system be as in Ex.
[ax'
The polar
1.
of
237
(x',
y') is
+ hy' + g) + y{ hx' + hy' +/) + gx' +fy' + c

- \ cc (aV + hy + g') + y {h'x' + Vy' +/') + g'x' +fy' + c'}= 0.
I
same Hne as y=^0, the coefficient of x and the constant

term must be zero. Equate these to zero and eUminate X.
If this is the
Ex.
Shew
3.
that the locus of the pole of a given
straight
line
with respect to any conic which passes through the angular points of
a given square
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
[Take for axes the lines through the centre of the square parallel
to the sides
Ex.
4.
then the conies are given hy x^-
The nine-point
a"-\ [y^ - a^) = 0.]
circles of the four triangles
determined
fey
four given points meet in a point.
212.
If a =
and y8 = are the equations of one pair
of straight lines through four given points, and 7 = 0,
the equations of another pair, any conic through
B=
the four points has an equation of the form
a^ =
kyS.
a =
be the equation of a straight line and
the co-ordinates of any point be substituted in a, the
result is proportional to the perpendicular distance of the
point from the line.
Hence the geometrical meaning of
the above equation is
Now,
if
P1P2 ^ PbPv
where p^, p^, p^, p^ are the perpendiculars on the four lines
a = 0, /S = 0, 7 = 0, S =
respectively, the perpendiculars
being drawn from any point on the conic.
If P, Q, R, S, he four points on a conic, and

QP, PS meet in A, QS, PR in B, and PS, QR in G ; then
of the three points A, B, G each is the pole with respect to
213.
the conic of the line joining the other two.
Take A for
axes of X and y
origin,
and the two
lines
ASR,
APQ
for
respectively.
Let the equations of
ax
P8
QR
1 =
and
-{-hy
ax -\-Vy
be
(i),
(ii).
SELF-POLAR TRIANGLE.
238
Then the equations
PR and Q8 will
of
+ h'y
ax +
and
ax
hy
1
1
be
=
=
(iii),
(i v).
The equation of any conic through the intersection of

and {ax -{-by 1) {ax -\- h'y 1) = 0,
the conies xi/ =
be
will
Xccy
The
{ax
hy
1)
{ax
+ h'y
polar of the origin of this conic

{a
o:)x-\-{h
1)
is [Art.
+ h')y-^ =
0.
179]
0.
Writing this in the forms
1 ax + h'y 1 = 0,
ax + hy 1 + ax +h'y \ =0,
ax
and
-\-hy
-\-
we
see that the polar of the origin goes through the point
of intersection of the lines (i) and (ii), and also through the
point of intersection of the lines (iii) and (iv). The polar
with respect to the conic is therefore the line BG.

It can be shewn in a similar manner that CA is the
polar of By and
the polar of C.
of
AB
triangle Avhich is such that each of its angular points

the pole, with respect to a conic, of the opposite side, is
called a self-conjugate, or self-polar triangle.
is
214.
If a conic touch
the sides of
a quadrilateral and
ABC he the triangle formed hy the diagonals of the quadrilateral then luill ABC he a self-iôlar triangle with respect
;
to the conic.
Let P, Q, R,
Then, in the
pole of
SR;
be the points of contact.
figure,
therefore
is
LN
the pole of
Q, and A^ is the
is the polar of the point of
FQ
intersection of
and SR.
Similarly
of the point of intersection of
Hence A, the point
LN
tersection of
and
SP
and
239
KM
is
the polar
H Q.
of in-
KM,
is
the pole of the line joining

the point of intersection of PQ,
SR and the point of intersection of
8P, RQ.
But
[Art. 213] the point of
PB
intersection of
and
the pole of this last line.
Hence
So
and
is
section of
PR and SQ.
also
intersection
is
the point of
is
intersection of
SQ
the point of
is
of
SP
and RQ,
the jôint of inter-
PQ
and SB.
Hence from Art 213 the

triangle
ABC is
self-polar
215.
To find the general equatio7i of a conic tvhich
touches the axes of co-ordinates.
If the equation of the line joining the points of contact
= 0, the equation of a conic having double
+ hy
contact with the conic xy = 0, where it is met by the line
be ax
a^ -f
%-1=
0, is [Art.
[ax
216.
To find
187]
+hy ly 2\xy =
the general equation
0.
of a conic tuhich
touches four fixed straight lines.
Take two of the lines for axes, and let the equations
two be Ix + my 1 = 0, and Vx -f my 1 = 0.
of the other
The equation
of any conic touching the axes
{ax -Yhy
The
lines joining
is
- If - 2\xy =
the
origin
to
(i).
the
points
where
CONICS TOUCHING FOUR LINES.
240
Ix
+ my = 1
cuts
(i)
are given
lx myf = '2Xxy
{ax -i-hy
The
by the equation
touch the conic

for which is
condition
the
coincident,
if
line will
[a
(ii).
the lines
- If (b - mf = {{a -l){h- m) - X]'

X = 2 (a - Q {h m).
whence
Hence the general equation
(ii)
are
of a conic touching the
four straight lines

a;
= 0,
y=
0, lx-\-
my 1=0, and Vx +
(ax -{-by
is
the parameters
equations
X=
a,
2 (a
7),
-^
Vf = Tkxy
(5
being
- m) =
my 1=0,
connected by the two
2 (
T) (6
- m).
217.
To find the locus of the centres of conies luhich
touch four given straight lines.
two of the
of the other two
If
Ix
lines
be taken
for axes,
and the equations
lines be
+ my 1=0,
and
I'x
+ m'y 1 =
the equation of the conic will be

(ax + by- Vf - 2Xxy
0,
= 0,
with the conditions
\=2{a-l){b-m)
\=2(a-r){b-77i)
(i),
(ii).
is given by the equations

and
b (ax + by 1) X^ = 0;
0,
(iii).
and a{2axV) = \y
To obtain the required locus we must eliminate a,
and X from the equations (i), (ii), and (iii).
From (i) and (iii), we have
a {2ax l) = 2y (a I) {b m) = 2 (a I) (by my)
therefore, since ax = by,
The
centre of the conic
a {ax + by l) \y=
ax = bij,
.*.
a (2lx
Similarly, from
(ii)
+ 2my
1)
and
we have
(iii)
= 2lmy.
a{2rx+2niy-l)=2lmy.

Eliminating
we obtain the equation
a,
241
of tlio locus of
centres, viz.
2Ix
+ 2mi/ - 1 _ 21'a; +
Im
The required locus

equation is
\m
is
mJ
2m'y
I'm
therefore the straight line whose
im
be shewn
^ \l
This straight line can easily

to pass through
the middle points of the diagonals of the quadrilateral, as
it clearly should do, for any one of the diagonals is the
limiting form of a very thin ellipse which touches the four
lines, and the centre of this ellipse is ultimately the middle
Hence the middle points of the
point of the diagonal.
three diagonals of a quadrilateral are points on the centrelocus of the conies touching the sides of the quadrilateral.
218.
All conies touching the axes at the two points

line ax + 5y 1 =
are given
where they are cut by the

by the equation
{ax
+ hy ly = 2Xxy.
The
conic will be a parabola if \ be such that the

terms of the second degree form a perfect square the
condition for this is
:
a'b'
.'.
The value X =
lines, viz.
(ax
Hence,
\=0,
the
X= 2ah.
or
gives a pair of coincident straight
^hy ly =
for
of the curve
= {ah-\f',
0.
parabola,
2ab,
(ax -\-hy
iy=
âbxy.
The above equation can be reduced

Jax-\-Jhy
To find the equation of
parabola J ax + J by = 1.
219.
the
We may rationalize
s. c. s,
and the equation
is
to the
form
1.
the tangent at
any point of
the equation of the curve and then
16
PARABOLA TOUCHING AXES.
242
make use of the formula obtained in Art. 177. The result

may however be obtained in a simpler form as follows.
The equation
{oo'\
of the line joining two points {x, y')

y") on the curve is
^-^'
and
^ y-y
y y
f-\
+ ^hy = 1 = sjax' + s]hy"
(ii).
^ ^
with the conditions

sjax
From
we have
(ii)
^|a {^Jx
and
- Vy'O
(\/y
(iii).

(iii), and we have
/I,
V<î
\}x
since Jax'
\/y'
+ ijhy' =
(i)
i\
+ i^y'
of the tangent at {x
X
^
To
V^
\Jx'
The equation
or,
= - V&
sjx')
y') is
therefore
1,
yl~X
/y'~
'S/
any point with

we must use the rationalized form of
find the equation of the polar of
respect to the conic,

the equation of the parabola.
Ex,
To find
1.
the parabola
or
if
is
+ my -1 =
may
touch
J ax + ^ by -1=0.
The equation
which
the condition that the line lx
of the tangent at
any point
the same as the given equation,
= Jax', and -- = ijhy'-
Hence the required condition
is
&
[x', y') is
if
i=
/ and?n=
,
PARABOLA TOUCHING THE

To find
Ex.
2.
The
circle
parabola whose equation
the focus of the
J ax + J by =
which touches
also pass through the focus
on both the
is
and
Hence the focus
is
1.
passes through P will

two of the tangents being
[see Art. 165 (4),
circles
is
T and which
at
The two points P, Q
coincident].
the focus
TQ
243
AXIS.
are
and (0, ~
Therefore
whose equations are

X
x^
+ 2xyGOS,u} + y"-~ = 0,
x^
+ 2xycoaco+y--'Y=0.
given by
x^
11
+ y'^+2xy GOB (a = - = j
To find the directrix of the parabola sj ax-]- ^J by = 1.
Ex.
3.
The
directrix is the locus of the intersection of tangents
angles
now
m - I cos w = 0,
the
line
and the
Ix
+ my = 1
line will
be perpendicular
will
touch
if l
cept on the axis of x
given by I
1.
at
?/
right
if
Therefore the interto that axis is
1.
cos cjj
Hence the point
\/>
Similarly the point

^
m =
made by a tangent perpendicular
-\
to
+ acosw
(
0,
on the
is
directrix.
-^
a + bcoscoj
Hence the required equation

x{b
is
on the
directrix.
is
+ a cos u)) + y
(a
+ b cos to) cos w.
220.
Since the foci of a conic are on its axes, if two
conies are confocal they must have the same axes.
The equation
X2
values of X, represent different conies of a

confocal system.
For the distance of a focus from the
centre is
will, for different
V{(a'
+ X)-(6'' + \)}
or ^J{d'-lr\.
162
244
CONFOCAL CONICS.
The equation
221.
of a system of confocal eonics
s^
'if
a'+X
X
The
If
is
6'
positive the curve
principal axes
+X
is
an
is
= 1.
ellipse.
of the
curve will increase as A,

tend more and more to
equality as X is increased more and more; so that a circle
of infinite radius is a limiting form of one of the confocals.
increases,
If
and their
X be
increases,
ratio
will
negative, the principal axes will decrease as
and the
6^
+X
a'
+X
ratio
increases, so that the ellipse
will also decrease as
becomes
flatter
and
flatter,
equal to W, when the minor axis vanishes, and

the major axis is equal to the distance between the foci.
Hence the line-ellipse joining the foci is a limiting form
of one of the confocals.
until
is
If 6^
+X
is
negative, the curve
is
an hyperbola.
CONFOCAL CONICS.
245
If If -^\ is a small negative quantity the transverse

axis of the hyperbola is very nearly equal to the distance
between the foci and the coviple^nent of .the line joining
the foci is a limiting form of the hyperbola.
;
will
The angle between the asymptotes of the hyperbola

become greater and greater as \ becomes greater
and in the limit both branches of the curve

with
the axis of y.
coincide
If X is negative and numerically greater than a^, the
curve is imaginary.
and
Qfreater
222.
Tiuo conies of a confocal si/ stein pass through any
One of these conies is an ellij)se and the other
given point.
an hyperbola.
Let the equation of the original conic be

2
2
1-
The equation
of
=1
any confocal conic
is
x''
This will pass through the given point {x\
^"
_ 1.
+X
above put
h^+\ = \'
x'^X + y'^ (V + aê') - X (X + aV) = 0,
X' - X (x" + y" - aV) - a'eY' = 0.
a'+X
In the
then
or
6'
The
of
}f
y'), if
y''
roots of this quadratic in

are both real, and are
different signs.
Therefore there are two conies, and
+\
is
positive for one,
that one conic
is
an
ellipse
and negative for the other,

and the other an hyperbola.
223.
One conic of a confocal system
touch a given straight line.
and only one
Let the equation of the given straight

Ix
4-
my
0.
line
be
so
luill
CONFOCAL CONICS.
246
The
whose equation
line will touch the conic
is
/
7 9
if
{a?
+ X) P +
{h'
m'
X)
-^
-"-l
[Art. 115],
which gives one, and only one, value

confocal will touch the oîven
Hence one
of X.
straigflit line.
224.
Two confocal conies cut
angles at all their common points.
one another at rigid
"9
Let the equations of the conies be

2
-,
+ p- 1,
and
^3-^ + ^-^^ = 1,
and let {x, y) be a common point then the co-ordinates

X y will satisfy both the above equations.
Hence, by subtraction, we have
;
'2
/2
''
a^(aVX)
Now
(w,
'
(b'-\-X)
=0
(i;.
the equations of the tangents to the conies at
y) are
XX
yy
'xx
yy
respectively.
The condition (i) shews that the tangents are at right

angles to one another.
225. The difference of the squares of the perpendiculars
draivn from the centre on any two parallel tangents to two
given confocal conies is constant.
"t+t-l
+ - 1,
^^,
^.,
^nd
and
Let the two straight
cos a
2/
sin
^.^ 4-+ g^^^ -1

^'
^'
1.
lines
a 2J =
0,
cos
ol-\-
sin a
j^' = 0,
CONFOCAL CONICS.
touch the conies respectively
247
then [Art. 115, Cor.] we
p^ =
cos^ a + ^^ sin" a,
=
+ '^) cos^ ^ + (^^ + '^) ^"^'^^
J)""
p'-p' = \.
have
oJ^
and
(^'^
'
.-.
// a
of two confocal conies he

a tangent to the other, the locus of their
point of intersection is a circle.
226.
perpendicular
tangeiit to one
to
Let the equations of the confocal conies be
The
lines
whose equations are
= \/[a^ cos^ a-\-W sin^ a)

= \/{(a^ +A,) sin" a + + X)
X cos 0L-\- y sin a
i/cos a
xûioL
(h'^
(i),
eosâ}...(ii),
touch the conies respectively, and are at right angles

to one another.
Square both sides of the equations (i) and (ii) and add,
then we have for the equation of the required locus
= a'' + 4-
x^ -^y-
A..
we suppose
the minor axis of the second ellipse

to become indefinitely small, all tangents to it will pass
indefinitely near to a focus; so that Art. 125 {rj) is a
particular case of the above.
If
Ex.
Any two parabolas whicli have
1.
common
focus
and
their axes
m opposite directions intersect at right angles.

Ex.
same
Two
2.
parabolas, and
is
parabolas have a
straight line
TP,
shew
TQ
that, if
common
TQ
TP,
focus and their axes in the
be tangents one to each of the
be at right angles to one another, the locus of
a straight line.
Ex.
centre
3.
is
GT will
TQ, TP are tangents one to each of two confocal conies whose

shew that if the tailgents are at right angles to one another
bisect
PQ.
Let the tangents be
+^^r =
xx'
yy'
l,
and
xx"
yv"
-^ + -^ = 1,
CONFOCAL CONICS.
248
CT will
the equation of
be
This will pass through the middle point of PQ,
that
if
is, if
xx
or, since the conies are confocal, if
That
Ex.
a
the tangents are at right angles.
is, if
TP,
4.
common
TQ
focus
a line through
are tangents one to each of two parabolas which have

and their axes in the same straight line shew that, if
parallel to the axis bisect PQ, the tangents will be at
;
right angles.
on two confocal eUipses which have the same eccenshew that, if P,Q be anj
points on an eUiiDse, and ^;, q be the corresponding points on a
Ex,
tric
If points
5.
angles are called corresponding points
tAvo
confocal ellipse, then
Pq = Qp.
The locus of the
227.
of a given straight line with
jôle
respect to a series of confocal conies is
a straight
line.
Let the equation of tbe confocals be

2
^'^'
oN^x'^^Mo^"
and
let
the equation of the given straight Hne be

Ice
The equation
respect to
If
(ii)
must have
(i) is
and
+0712/
=1
(ii).
of the polar of the point (x, y) with
~
(iii)
=1
(iii).
represent the same straight
line,
=
+X
a'
,.,
II
I,
..
h'
+\
=ni',
'
~-a' = '^-h' = X.
we
249
CONFOCAL CONICS.
Hence the
equation
locus of the poles
is
the straight line
whose
is
X
Y
b
y = cr
,y
,
.
This straight line is perpendicular to the line (ii).

One confocal of the system will touch the line (ii), and the
point of contact will be the pole of the line with respect to
that confocal.
Hence the
locus of the poles is a straight line perpendicular to the given straight line and through the point
where it touches a confocal.
From any point

the tiuo tangents TP, TP' aiê
one conic, and the two tangents TQ, TQ' to a con-
228.
drawn
to
focal conic ; sJietu that the straight lines QP,

equal angles with the tangent at P.
Let
TP
and the normal
at
cut
QP will make
QQ' in
iT,
respectively.
Then
TP, with respect to the

Q'
Also, since
lie, is on the line PL.
conic on which Q,
T is the pole of QQ' with respect to that conic, the pole
Therefore the pole of
of TP is on QQ' [Art. 18u].
point
of QQ' and PL.
the
of
intersection
is at L,
[Art. 227] the pole of
TPK
Therefore [Art. 181] the range K, Q, L,

PK, PQ, PL, PQ' are harmonic.
pencil
Q',
and the
CONFOCAL CONICS.
250
Hence, since the angle
PQ' make
KPL
equal angles with.
PL
is
a right angle,
or
PK [Art.
PQ and
56].
Cor. 1. Let the conic on which Q, Q' lie degenerate

into the line-ellipse joining the foci, then the proposition
becomes
The lines joining the foci of a conic to any 'point

on the curve make equal angles tuith the tangent at P.
Let the conic on which P, P' lie degenerate

and Ave have Two tangents to a conic
subtend equal angles at a focus.
Cor.
2.
into the line-ellipse,
Cor.
Let the conic on which P, P' lie pass through

T, and we have
The two tangents drawn to a conic from
8.
any point
T make
to either
the confocal conies ivhich
220.
touches
of
equal angles tuith the tangent at

pass through T.
If QQ'
he any choi^d of a given conic which

a fixed confocal conic, then will QQ vary as the
square of the parallel diameter.

Also, if GE he drawn
through the centre parallel to the tangent at Q and
meeting QQ' in E, then will QE he of constant length.
the pole of Q Q\ and let CT cut QQ' in V, and

Also let CD be the semi-diameter paralthe curve in P.
Let
lel to
T be
QQ\
be the lengths of the perpendiculars from the

centre on QQ' and on the parallel tangent to the ellipse
QPQ then [Art. 225] we have
liQi
p,p
2f-p' = \.
CONFOCAL CONICS.
ience
^,
therefore, since
^,
p GD ~
.
^^^ -
ah,
we have
251
^r^2
^=^^^'
Also
QE
GT
VT
QV
therefore from
GV.GT
GV.GT- GV
(i)
GF'
GD'
GP'-GV QV
we have
GD'
ah
,...
'
^"^-
^^=-w=^
TF,
Ex.
shew
are tangents one to each of two fixed confocal conies
that, if the tangents are at right angles to one another, the line
If
be the
common
centre, then since the tangents are at right angles
one another the line
CT
PQ
always touch a third confocal conic.
icill
to
TQ
and
QP make
CT
bisects
PQ
[Ex.
(3)
Art. 226].
equal angles with the tangent at Q.
Therefore
If therefore
CE
be parallel to the tangent at Q, and meet QP in E, we have QE=CT.

But CT is constant [Art. 226]. Hence QE is constant, and therefore
QEP touches
a fixed confocal.
230.
When two of the points of intersection of any
two curves are coincident, that is when the two curves
touch, they are said to have contact of the first 07^de7* at the
When three points of intersection are coincident

the curves are said to have contact of the second order,
point.
and
so on.
curve which has with a given curve a contact of

the highest possible order is called an osculating curve.
circle can only be made to pass through three given
points
hence the circles which osculate a curve have
contact of the second order with it.
The circle which has contact of the second order with
a given curve at a given jôint is generally called the circle
THE CONTACT OF CONICS.
252
of
ciirvatu7'e at that point,
and the radius
of the circle is
called the radius of curvature at the point.
Two
conies
intersect
in
four
Hence two
points.
cannot have contact with one another of higher

order than the third.
If they have contact of the second
order they will have one other common point.
conies
To find
the general equation of a conic which has

contact of the second order with a given conic at a given
231.
point
Let >Sf =
be the equation of the given
T = be the equation of the tangent to /S =
point [x,
conic,
and
let
at the given
y').
The equation
of any straight line through {x\ y)
yy
is
']n{x x) = 0.
Hence the equation
S-\T {{y - y) - m {x-x')] =0
(i)
the equation of a conic passing through the points where

cut
the straight lines T = 0, and y y' ni (x x') =
is
S=0.
Hence (i) intersects = in three coincident points.
The two constant-s X and on being arbitrary, the conic
given by (i) can be made to satisfy two other conditions.
They can for instance be so chosen that the equation (i)
>S'
shall represent a circle.
If the line y y
{x x) =
coincides with the
tangent, all four points of intersection are coincident. The
therefore has contact of the third order
conic S
T^ =
=
with >S'
that is to say, is the equation of an oscidating
conic.
Ex.
1.
Pind the equation
ax^ + 2hxy + cy- + 2dx =
of
the circle which osculates the conic
at the origin.
All the conies included in the equation

ax^ + Itxy
+ cy^ + 2dx - \x
[y
mx)
have contact of the second order.
The conditions
for a circle are
Therefore the circle required
is cap
26-X = and a + \m^c.

+ cy" + 2dx=0.
THE CONTACT OF
Ex.
2.
253
CONICS.
Find the equation of the parabola which has contact of the

+ cy'^ + 2dx at the origin.
third order with the conic ax^ + 2bxy
The
conic ax^ + 2bxy
+ cy^-\-2dx -Xx^ O
cnts the given conic in four
coincident points.
The curve
a parabola
is
The equation
if
{a-\)c = bK
of the required parabola is therefore

b^x-
+ 2bcxy + d^y'^ + 2dcx = 0.
Since the line joining any two of the points of

232.
intersection of a circle and a conic, and the line joining the
other two points of intersection, make equal angles with
the axis of the conic, we see that, if the circle of curvature
at a point
of a conic cut the conic again in 0, the
P
P
tangent at
and the chord
axis of the conic.
233.
on an
If
make equal
angles with an
h be the eccentric angles of four points

a circle will pass through those four points, if
a, ft 7,
ellipse,
a+/3 + 7 + 5=
2?i7r
[Art. 184. Ex. 1].
Hence the circle of curvature at the point a will cut

the ellipse again at the point h where
3a
+ S = 2?i7r
(i).
From (i) we see that, through any particular point h

three circles of curvature will pass, viz. the circles of
curvature at the points J (27r 5), J (47r S), and J (Gtt 5).
These three points are the angular points of a maximum
Also, since
triangle inscribed in the ellipse [Art. 138 (1)].
8 + i(27r-a)+i(47r-S) + i(67r-8) = 47r, the point h
and the three points the circles of curvature at which pass
through h are on a circle.
To find the equations of the three pairs of straight
which can he dr'awn through the points of intersection
of two conies.
234.
lines

8= a.r^ 4- 2kxy + hf + 2gx + 2fi/
and
+c=0,
=
S'
ax''+2h'xg4-hy+2gx-^2fy + c=^Q,
INVARIANTS.
254
The equation
tersection
The
is
of any conic through their points of inof the form
conic
S+\S' =
S + XS' = will be
(i).
a pair of straight lines,
if
If
+ XJi, g + \g'
+ Xa,
+ Xg\f + Xf\
(ii).
+ Xc'
We have t,herefore a cubic for the determination of X.

any root of this cubic be substituted in (i) we have the
equation of one of the three pairs of straight lines.

If X be eliminated between the equations (i) and (ii)
we have an equation of the sixth degree which represents
the three pairs of straight lines.
Since one root of a cubic equation is always real, one
value of X is in all cases real.
It can be shewn that at least one pair of straight lines
[See Salmon's Conies, Art. 282.]
is in all cases real.
235.
The equation
(ii)
Art. 234
If the axes be changed in

tions of the two conies become
will become S
tion S 4 XS' =
S + X.>S" = represents a
Hence
also will X + X2' = 0.
S + XS' = represents straight
that
is
usually written
any manner, and the equaand %' = 0, the equa=

and if X be such
+ XS
X=
pair
of straight lines, so
X for which
must be independent
the values of
lines
any particular axes of co-ordinates hence the ratios of

the four quantities A, @, ', A' to one another must be
independent of the axes of co-ordinates. For this reason
of
they are called the Invariants of the system.
The student
will find interesting applications of invariants in Salmon's
Conic Sections and Wolstenholme's Problems.

236.
of
We
shall conclude this
some Examples.
Chapter by the solution
EXAMPLES.
Ex.
If two
1.
255
have each double contact with a third, their
conies
chords of contact loith that conic, and two of the
common points,
Let
S0
will meet in
be
tlie
lines
through their
a point and form a harmonic pencil.
equation of the third conic, and
Then
equations of the two chords of contact.
a = 0,
let
/3
be the
[Art. 187] the equations of
the conies are
and
Now
^-X2a2 =
(i),
(ii).
S-iJ.^p^
the two straight lines
common
go through the
W-At2/32=.0
(i) and
points of
through the point of intersection of a =

four lines a = 0, Xa
Ex.
2.
- yu^S = 0,
circle of
/3
= 0, and
(iii)
and
Xa +
The hnes
(ii).
/xj3
/3 =
and
also go
(iii)
[Art. 56] the
= form a harmonic
given radius cuts an ellipse in four points
pencil.
;
shew
that the continued product of the diameters of the ellipse parallel to the
common chords
is
constant.

circle
be [x-
common
a)^
chords
ellipse
+ {y - ^)'^ -
k'^
0.
be ~^
t = ^, and
+ j^^
the equation of the
Then the equation
is
any pair of
0.
a^^b'^
where X
of
is
one of the roots of the equation

0,
0,
= 0.
-a
(ii).
1
k^
The equation
of the diameters of the ellipse parallel to the lines
^'^y'-^$-')='
The two semi-diameters given by
(iii)
Hence the continued product
Ex.
make
them
is
equal angles with
equal to
X.
of the six semi-diameters is equal to the
product of the three values of X given by

a%H.^.
triangle
is
.(iii).
clearly
the axis, and the square of the length of one of
(i)
(ii),
which
is easily
seen to be
If a conic have any one of four given points for centre, and the
formed by the other three for a self polar triangle, its asymptotes
3.
will he parallel to the axes of the two parabolas lohich pass through the
four points.
EXAMPLES.
256
Let the four points be given by the intersections of the straight lines
xy=0 and
The
of
[Ix
+ viy - 1)
+ m'y -
[I'x
1)
= 0.
any one of the angular points

conjugate to the line joining the other two
line joining the centre of a conic to
a self polar triangle
angular points.
is
Hence, for
all
the four conies, the three pairs of lines
joining the four given points are parallel to conjugate diameters.
Let the equation of one of the conies be
+ 211X11 JrhiZ + ^gx + ^fy + c^Q

{lx + mij-1) {I'x + m'y -1) =
(i).
ax"^
The
lines
are parallel to conjugate diameters

ll'x-
therefore also the lines
+ {Im' + I'm) xy + mm'y'^
are parallel to conjugate diameters.
Hence
[Art. 183],
we have
amm'+ bW = h (Im' + I'm).

The
lines xy
are parallel to conjugate diameters; therefore h = 0,
and we have
amm' + bW ^0
The asymptotes
of
(i)
ax" + by- =
or,
from
(ii),
Il'x"^
4.
0,
the asymptotes are parallel to the lines
which proves the theorem

Ex.
(ii).
are parallel to the straight lines
- mm'y^ = 0,
[Art. 207].
The circumscribing
circle
of
any triangle
self
polar with
respect to a conic cuts the director-circle orthogonally.
Let the equation of the conic be ax'^-by'^ = l ; and

and (a/", y'") be the angular points of the triangle.
Since each of the points
is
let (x', y'), {x", y")
on the polar of another, we have
ax"x"'+by"y"'-1^0
(i),
+ by"'y' -1=0
ax'x" + by'y" -1 =
ax"'x'
and
The equation
+ 7/2,
+ 2/^
a:"2 + y"^
x"'^ + y"'\
a;-
if
X,
y,
1=0
x',
y',
x",
f,
x'",
y'",
Ax'^-Ây^ + 2Gx-\-2Fy
(iv).
the equation of a circle be
the square of the tangent to

of
(iii).
of the circle circumscribing the triangle is
a;'2
Now,
(ii),
it
+ C = Q,
from the origin
is
equal
to
the ratio
to A.
Hence the square

ratio of
of the
tangent to the chcle
(iv)
is
equal to the
'
ô7
EXAMPLES.
to-
^" + y"\
x"''- + y"'\
The
a/2 (x"y"'
first
determinant
x",
x"\
is
y\
y"
y",
y'"
y'\
equal to
- y"^") + i"3 {x"'y' - y"'x') + x'"" {x'y" - y'x")

+ y"" {x'Y' - 2/V") + 2/"^ (x"y - /V) +/"2 {x'y" -
Now from
the equations
(ii), (iii)
(i),
-y
we have
-
by'
ax'
X" -
x"'
x"'y"-y"'x'"
ax"
x'"
and
By means
y -If
^ {y'" - y")+ ^'

1'
(a;"
x'")
/I
-y'x'"'
x'y'"
x"y'
(2/'
+ ^^
1
U+6
- y"x'
becomes
(a)
- y'") +
CL
(Jb
or
x'
X - x
of these equations,
by'"
ax'"
^v"
(^'
- ^'0
y')
Cv
(o;"'
- ^') +
^',
y'x"
.(a)
EXAMPLES OK CHAPTER
258
3.
XI.
system of conies pass through the same four points

of one of the conies cuts any
and the tangent at a given point
other of the conies in P, P' ; shew that
-^r^
-^-7^, is
constant.
A circle and a rectangular hyperbola intersect in four

and one of their common chords is a diameter of the hyperbola; shew that the other chord is a diameter of the circle.
4.
points,
Of all conies which pass through four given points that

5.
which has the least eccentricity has its equi-conjugate diameters
parallel to the axes of the two parabolas through the points.
Of all conies which touch two given straight lines at
6.
given points the one of least eccentricity will be that in which
one of the equi-conjugate diameters passes through the intersection of the given lines.
7.
The locus of the middle point of the intercept of a
variable tangent to a conic on two fixed tangents OA, OB is a
conic which reduces to a straight line if the original conic is a
parabola.
OB
8.
Two tangents OA,
are drawn to a conic and are cut
and ^ by a variable tangent; prove that the locus of the
in
centre of the circle described about the triangle OPQ is an
hyperbola.
9-.
conic
is
drawn touching the
co-ordinate
axes
OY at A, B and passing through the point D where

OADB is a parallelogram; shew that if the area of the triangle
OX,
OAB
be constant, the locus of the centre of the conic will be
an hyperbola.
10.
Tangents are drawn from a fixed point to a system of
conies touching two given straight Hues at given points. Prove
that the locus of the point of contact is a conic.
Shew
that the locus of the pole of a given straight

series of conies inscribed in the same
quadrilateral is a straight line.
11.
line
with respect to a
12.
An ellipse is described touching the asymptotes of an
hyperbola and meeting the hyperbola in four points; shew
that two of the common chords are parallel to the line joining
the points of contact of the ellipse with the asymptotes, and
are.
equidistant from that line.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
259
XI.
Ill a system of conies which have a given centre

13.
and their axes in a given direction, the sum of the axes is
given shew that the locus of the pole of a given straight line
;
is
a parabola touching the axes.

14.
lines
A parabola is drawn so as to touch three given straight

shew that the chords joining the points of contact pass
each through a fixed point.
Shew
touch two given straight lines,

through a fixed
point, the locus of the focus will be a circle.
15.
and the
that, if a parabola
line joining the points of contact pass
If the axis of the parabola \l ax + Nhy - 1 pass through

16.
a fixed point, the locus of the focus will be a rectangular
hyperbola.
From
17.
a fixed point 0, a pair of secants are
meeting a given conic in four points lying on a

that the locus of the centre of this circle
on the polar of 0.
from
is
circle;
drawn
shew
the perpendicular
18.
TP^ TQ are tangents to a conic, and R any other point
on the curve; RQ, RP meet any straight line through T in the
points K, L respectively; shew that QL and
intersect on
PK
the curve.
Any point on a fixed straight line is joined to two

19.
of a conic, and the lines PA,
fixed points J.,
meet the
conic again in Q, R; shew that the locus of the point of interand J-ff is a conic.
section oi
PB
BQ
The confocal hyperbola through the point on the
20.
ellipse -^
T-2
= 1 whose
eccentric angle
cos a
is
a has for equation
sm" a
Find the locus of the points of contact of tangents to

21.
a series of confocal conies from a given point in the major axis.
/x be the parameters of the eonfoeals which pass
through two points P, () on a given ellipse; shew (i) that if
P, Q be extremities of conjugate diameters then A. + /x is constant, and (ii) that if the tangents at P and Q be at right angles
If A,
22.
11
then -
IS
constant.
jx
172
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
260
XI.
23.
Shew that the ends of the equal conjugate diameters
of a series of confocal ellipses are on a confocal rectangular
hyperbola.
Find the angle between the two tangents to an ellipse

24.
from any point in terms of the parameters of the confocals
through that point ; and shew that the equation of the two
tangents referred to the normals to the confocals as axes will be
25.
The straight lines OFF, OQQ' cut an ellipse in
P, P' and Q, Q' respectively and touch a confocal ellipse; prove
that OP OP' QQ' = OQ OQ'
PP'.
.
26.
The locus of the points of contact of the tangents
drawn from a given point to a system of confocals is a cubic
curve, which passes through the given point and through the
foci.
Shew that the locus of the points of contact of parallel

27.
tangents to a system of confocals is a rectangular hyperbola;
and the locus of the vertices of these hyperbolas for all possible
directions of the tangent is the curve whose equation is
r^
= (a^-62)cos2^.
28.
If a triangle be inscribed in an ellipse and envelope
a confocal ellipse, the points of contact will lie on the escribed
circles of the triangle.
29.
If an ellipse
confocals,
the
have double contact with each of two

at the points of contact will form
tangents
a rectangle.
30.
If from a fixed point tangents be drawn to one of
a given system of confocal conies^ and the normals at the points
of contact meet in Q, shew that the locus of ^ is a straight
line.
31.
.
triangle
circumscribes
an
ellipse
and two
of
its
angular points lie on a confocal ellipse ; prove that the third

angular point lies on another confocal ellipse.
An
32.
ellipse and hyperbola are confocal, and the asymptotes of the hyjDerbola lie along the equi conjugate diameters of
the ellipses; prove that the hyperbola will cut at right angles
conies which pass through the ends of the axes of the ellipse.
all
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Four normals are drawn
33.
prove that their product is
to
an
XT.
261
ellipse
from a point P;
\K (\ -K)
where
parameters of the confocals to the given

ellipse which pass through F and a, b the semi-axes of the given
X^ are the
X^,
ellipse.
34.
Shew tliat the feet of the perpendiculars of a triangle
are a conjugate triad with respect to any equilateral hyperbola
which circumscribes the triangle.
35.
TP, TQ are the tangents from a point 1^ to a conic,
shew that,
and the bisector of the angle FTQ meets FQ in
if FOB' be any other chord through 0, the angle RTF' will be
bisected hj OT.
;
36.
If two parabolas are drawn each passing through three
points on a circle and one of them meeting the circle again in
i>, the other meeting it again in Fj\ prove that the angle
between their axes is one-fourth of the angle subtended by
at the centre of the circle.
DE
ABC be
maximum
triangle inscribed in an ellipse

cut the ellipse again in D; shew
that the locus of the point of intersection of the axes of the two
parabolas which pass through A, B, C, i) is a conic similar to
If
37.
and the
circle
ABC
round
the original conic.

38.
If any point on a circle of radius a be given by the
co-ordinates a cos 6, a sin 0] shew that the equations of the axes
of the two parabolas through the four points a, /3, y, S are
ic
r/
-^
where
a) + cos (S - B) +
,cy\.
("cos
4:
{+ cos(S-
"^
sm >S - V cos >b =
(S -
S+y SmS =-r<

.
XCOB
cc
-7
Csin
-^
4 (+
(*S'
.
sm
/o-
(S
(S- y)
6)
a)
cos
-f-
sin (S
B)
+ sin (S -
y)]
c^x
S)
4:S=a + p + y +
S.
If the axes of the two parabolas intersect in F, shew that

the five points so obtained by selecting four out of five points on
the circle in
all
possible ways, lie
on a
circle of radius
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
262
XI.
he the sides of a quadrilateral inscribed

li A, B, C,
39.
in a conic, the ratio of the product of the perpendiculars from
of the circle on the sides A and C to the product
any point
will be constant.
and
of the perpendiculars on the sides
A, B. C, D, E, F...'hQ the sides of a polygon

inscribed in the conic, the number of sides being even, the
continued product of the perpendiculars from any point on
the conic on the sides A, C, ^, ...will be to the continued
product of the perpendiculars from the same point on the sides
B, F, F,..Aii a constant ratio.
Shew
also, that if
40.
the centre
is
ellipse -s
^
a^
Vs
=1
Q,
curvature at any point of the
are the feet of the other
two normals
If
drawn from
and
of
meet
to the ellipse
prove that,
if
the tangents at
a^
in T, the equation of the locus of ^T is -^
}f
+ -2=1.
y
Shew that a circle cannot cut a parabola in four real

41.
points if the abscissa of its centre be less than the semi-latus
rectum.
cutting a parabola in four points,

lines are drawn parallel
to the six lines joining the pairs of points of intersection; shew
that the sum of the abscissae of the points where these lines cut
the parabola is coilstant if the abscissa of the centre of the
circle
is
described
and through the vertex of the parabola
circle is constant.
Three straight lines form a self-polar triangle with

42.
The curve being supposed
respect to a rectangular hyperbola.
to vary while the lines remain fixed, find the locus of the centre.
If a circle be described concentric with an ellipse,
an infinite number of triangles can be inscribed in
that
shew
43.
and circumscribed about the

the ellipse
^
where
the
c is
the radius of the
circle,
and
circle,
a, h
if
cab
-= - + ^
the semi-axes of
ellipse.
Find the points on an ellipse such that the osculating

circle at F passes through Q, and the osculating circle at Q
passes through F.
44.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
263
XI.
Prove that tlie locus of the centres of rectangular

45.
hyperbolas which have contact of the third order with a given
parabola is an equal parabola.
46.
P,
normal at
at P, the
are
two points on
an. ellipse
prove that
if
the
normal at Q subtends
the angle the normal at P
bisects the angle that the
normal at Q will
bisect
subtends at Q.
Shew
of
that the centre of curvature at any point
tangent at
with respect to the
confocal hyperbola through P.
47.
an
ellipse is the pole of the
confocal
ABO is a triangle inscribed in an ellipse.
Prove that the confocal
touches the sides in A', B', C\
hyperbola through A meets the inner ellipse in A'.
48.
ellipse
Of two rectangular hyperbolas the asymptotes of one

and the centre of each lies
through
the centre of one cut the
circle
If any
on the other.
will
form a conjugate triad
PQP
other again in P, Q, P, then
49.
are parallel to the axes of the other
with respect to the
first.
A circle through the
centre of a rectangular hyperbola

Prove that the circle
cuts the curve in the points A, B, C, D.
circumscribing the triangle formed by the tangents Bit A, B, G
passes through the centre of the hyperbola and has its centre
50.
at the point on the hyperbola diametrically opposite to D.
CHAPTER
XII.
ENVELOPES.
In the general equation of a straight line the

237.
two constants are not in any way connected. If however
the two constants are connected by any relation, the
We
equation will no longer represent any straight line.
have seen, for example, that if the constants I and tn
the equation Ix + my 1 =
a^Z^-l-6W = l, where a and h are known, the line will always
in
'Z
touch the ellipse
^,2
+ 72 =
[Art.
115].
In every such
which the two constants in the equation of a

straight line are connected by a relation, the line will
touch some curve. This curve is called the envelo2)e of the
case,
in
inoving
Ave
line.
By means of the relation connecting the two constants

may eliminate one of them, and the equation of the
then contain only one indeterminate

constant.
If different values be given to this constant we
shall have a series of different straight lines all of which
will touch some curve.
straight line
will
238.
To find the envelope of a line whose equation
contains an indeterminate constant of the second degree.
Write the equation of the
line in the
f/P+2fiQ-}-R =
where
/x is
the constant.
form
(i).
ENVELOPES.
265
Through any
for if
particular point tiuo of the lines will pass,

the co-ordinates of that point be substituted in (i),
we shall have a quadratic equation to determine fju. Now

the two tangents through any point will be coincident, if
the point be on the curve which is touched by the moving
line.
Hence, to find the equation of the envelope, we have
down the
only to write
Ex.
To find
1.
condition that the roots of

Q' = 0.
(i)
may
PR
be equal, viz.
the envelope of the line
= mx
11
The equation may be
-\
ma
u-ritten vi-x
my +
a=^0,
and the condition
for
equal roots gives y^ = 4:ax.
Ex.
2.
intercepts
Find
the envelope of a
whose sum
If the equation of the line be
X
Therefore y
^ l,ovh^1/
-i
of the envelope
Ex.
3.
is
Find
The equation
line ichich
Acx [x-y
X
y
+ y = l, we have
{x-y + c) + xc = 0.
the
axes
= constant = c.
h +^'
Whence
the equation
ax cos
+ hy sin 6 = c.
equivalent to
ax c + 2byt - [ax + c)t- = 0, where

Hence, the envelope
tan -
is
[ax~
c)
c) + h^y^ = 0,
9 9
c~.9
+ o^y-^
[ax +
a-x-
or
The envelope of the polar of a given point

system of confocal conies is a parabola whose directrix
Ex.
from
off
+ c)^.
the envelope of the line

is
cuts
is constant.
4.
with respect
is
CO,
tchere
to
a
is
the centre of the confocals.

If
the confocals be given by the equation

y^
.T^
a^
and
be the point
[x', y'),
+ X'^
b-'
a^ + X
or by
{x'x
'
the line whose envelope
+ y'y
- cr -
is
required
yy'
xx'
X2 - X
+ X'
b^
&-)
+X
+ a-b'^ - b-x'x - ah/y = 0.
is
given by
ENVELOPES.
266
The equation
of the envelope is therefore
= [x'x + y'y -a^- V'f.
4 (a2&2 _ yiy^x - ayy)
The envelope
Two
them
is
therefore a parabola.
and the polars
confocals pass through 0,
with respect to
of
are the tangents at 0; hence, since these tangents
angles to one another, the point
is
on the
are at right
considering the limiting forms of the confocals as in Art. 221,
the axes themselves are polars of

parabola; so that the directrix
To find
239.
is
By
directrix of the parabola.
hence G
is
on the
we
see that
directrix of the
the line CO.
the envelope of the line Ix
+ tny + 1 =
0,
where
ar
+ 2hhn + hm^ +
^gl +
2/??i -f c
0.
If the line pass through a particular point {x\ y) we

my 1 = 0. Using this to make the given conhave Ix
homogeneous
+ Ihlm -^hnt'- 2
dition
al""
The two values
in
{gl
and m, we have the equation

+fm) Qx + my') + c ijx + my'f = 0.
I
of the ratio
give the directions of
the two lines which pass through the point {x\ y).
y) be a point on the curve which is touched by

line, the tangents from it must be coincident,
and therefore the above equation must be a perfect square.
If {x\
the moving
The condition
{a
Igx'
for this is
ex'' ) (6
- Ify +
cy"")
{li
- gy -fx + cx'yj,
which reduces to
x'^ (be -f) + 2xy' [fg - eh) + y' (ca - g')
+ ^x' [fh - gl) + lij {gh -fa)
The
required envelope
Ax' + 2Hxy
where A, B,
G, F, G,
The condition
that Ix +
is
+ab-
h'
0.
therefore the conic
+ B7j' + 2Gx-\-2Fy+ C=0,
H mean the
my + 1 =
Ax^ + IHxy + By^ + 2Gx + 2Fy + C =
may
is
same
as in Art. 178.
touch
aP + 2hlm + hn" + 2(jl + 2fm + c = 0.
Hence by comparing with the condition found in Art. 178, we see that
a, &, c, &c. must be proportional to the minors of ^, B, C, &c. in the
determinant
TANGENTIAL EQUATIONS.
\A
267
HG
\hB F
\g F G
This
{ca
and
- g^)
A is BC -F^, or
- {gh - af )^, that is a A
the minor of
is easily verified, for
[ah
h^)
so for the others.
Ex.
To find
1.
+1
the envelope of the line lx-\-my
where
aP + hm^ + cÔ.
The
directions of the lines through

al^
These
y) are given
by
+ my)- = 0.
lines will coincide, if
Hence the equation
Ex.
+ hvi^ +
[x,
c {lx
2.
To find
of the envelope is
x'
^2
the envelope of the line lx
U^m + h =
+ my +1 =
with the condition
0.
The
directions of the two lines through
him - [fm + gl)
They
will therefore coincide
(Ix
(.r,
y) are given
by
+ my) = 0.
if
^fg^y^{fx + gy-li)'^.
This
is
equivalent to
Jfx+ Jgy + Jh=0.

240.
If the equation of a straight line be

Ix
+ my + 1 = 0,
then the position of the line is determined if ly m are

known, and by changing the values of I and m the
equation may be made to represent any straight line
whatever.
The quantities I and m which thus define the
position of a line are called the co-ordinates of the line.
If the co-ordinates of a straight line are connected by
any relation the line will envelope a curve, and the
equation which expresses the relation is called the tan-
gential equation of the curve.

If the tangential equation of the curve
degree, then n tangents can be
any
point.
drawn
is
of the ni\\
to the curve
from
DIRECTOR- CIRCLE OF ENVELOPE.
268
curve is said to be of the n\h class

Def.
tangents can be drawn to it from a point.
when n
We
have seen [Art. 239] that every tangential equation

of the second degree represents a conic; also [Art. 178] that
the tangential equation of any conic is of the second
degree.
If the equation of a straight line be Jx + my
call I, m, n the co-ordinates of the line
may
+ w = 0, we
and if the
co-ordinates of the line satisfy any homogeneous equation,
the line will envelope a curve, of which that equation is
;
called the tangential equation.
241.
To find the director-circle
tangential equation is given.
whose
a conic
of
Let the tangential equation of the conic be
aV
2hhn +
As in Art. 239,
aP + 2hlm + bm^
6?7i'
if
the
rigfht
sum
2 {gl +fni)
[Ix
of the coefficients of
-\-
If c
cx"^
0,
0.
is
-^
in
c{lx
+ my^ =
if
^ ^-1-1
772.^
m^
= 0,
that
is,
is zero.
on the director- circle of

(i).
which coincides with the centre
the point
the equation
The curve
equation of
is
+ my)
+ h - 2fy + cy^ =
centre of the conic,
of the director-circle,
line.
+c=
P and m^
If therefore {x, y) be a point

the conic, we shall have
The
2fni
two tangents which pass

(x, y).
These tangents will
angles to one another

^
a - 2gx
-f
the equation
gives the directions of the

through the particular point
be at
2gl
(i) is
this
the equation of a straight

a parabola, and the
case
its directrix is
2gx
+ 2fy-a-h=
(ii).
In the above we have supposed the axes to be rectangular if, however, the axes of co-ordinates are inclined
;
FOCI OF ENVELOPE.
269
one another at an angle w, the condition that the

straight lines may be at right angles is
to
2gx +
The
cx^-\- h
2fy + 0^/^+2 cos w
centre of this circle
{h
'9
gy fx + cxy)=0.
is
\G
'
Hence, whether the axes are rectangular or oblique the

centre of the conic, which coincides with the centre of its
'^
director-circle, is (-,
To find
242.
equation
the foci
of a conic whose tangential
is given.
Let (^, rj) and (^', t]) be a pair of foci (both being real
The product of the perpendiculars
or both imaginary).
from these points on the line Ix + my + 1 = will be
{l^+ mr^
1) {l^' ^-
mj +1)
+ m'
I'
This product will be equal to some constant X for

values of
^'
(ff -^)
and
+ lm
if,
i^v'
+ ^f) H-^^'
M-
+ K? + r)
+ m + V) + 1 =
^)
(77
Comparing
a
Hence
c^^'
(i),
c'"^
2/
^'
cyr]' = a-~b,
^'
77'
and c^y + cr]^' = 2h.

by means of the last two equations
Ho^-^g)-vicv-2f)=b-a,
f {C7] -2f) + (cf - 2g) = - 2L
rj
Hence the
conies,
243.
two
2g
and
and we have
and
two
0.
with the tangential equation we have
2h
Eliminate
of
this
all
If
conies,
foci are
cx'^
>S'
then
the four points of intersection of the
+ 2fy + a 6 =
cxy fx gy -\-h 0.
cy^
2gx
and S'
S XS' =
0,
be the tangential equations of

be the tangential equation
will
FOCI OF ENVELOPE.
270
common
of a conic touching the four

two.
be
For, if >Sf =
ar +
and
,Sf'
2^???i
tangents of the
first
+ hn'' + 2gl + S/m + c = 0,
be
+ 2/^7m + h'm' + Ig'l + 2/m + c' = 0.

Then \S' = represents a conic, and any values of
= and S' = will, whatwhich satisfy both
I and
\8'
Therefore the conic
=0.
ever \ may be, satisfy S
S XS' = will touch the common tangents of S=0 and
a'r
>S^
>Sf
7?i
Ex.
The
1.
straight lines
.
li
is
S 0, and
locus of the centres of all conies
a straight
/S'
which touch four fixed
line.
be the tangential equations of any two conies whicii

will be the general equation of
lines, S-\S'
touch the four straight
The
the conies touching the lines.
centre of this conic
yJzK^,.
.=?^',
[Art. 241.]
C-AC
Xc
given by
is
Eliminating X we obtain the equation of the centre-locus,

x{cf'- cf)
Ex.
lines
The
2.
+y
[c'g
eg')
-f'g +fg'^0.
touch four straight
of all conies lohich
director-circles
îz.
The
direct or- circle of the conic
a + l)-2gx- 2fy + c{x"- + %/) - X
S - \S' =
{
a'
-}-
&'
is
- 2g'x - 2f'y + c'
{x"^
+ y^) = 0.
}
[Aii. 241.]
This
circle
common
always passes through the points
to the
two
circles
,..
+ ;,= _2<.-2-^y+^'- = 0.
-^
The
ti
\c
One
c'^
c'
c'
radical axis is therefore the line

tL
W+ K
-S
\c
2
c J
of the conies of the
clearly the
common
2/-
system
^
c
J
is
+ r- -0.
c
a parabola, and
radical axis of the director-circles.
its
directrix is
EXAÎPLES.
'271
Examples on Chapter XII.
FS
is the ordinate at any point

1.
vertex is A, and the rectangle A^'PM
envelope of tiie line JO".
of a pai"abolii Avhose
is
completed; find
tlie
If the difference of the intercepts ou the axes made by

line be constant, shevr that the line "will envelope
a parabola.
2.
moving
Pind the envelope of a straight line which cnts

two fixed straight lines,
3.
off
a constant area from
D3I are
the ordinates of an ellipse at the extremiconjugate diameters find the envelope of PD.
Find also the envelope of the line throncrh the middle points of
PiVj
4:.
ties of a pair of
and of
jS'F
ITI).
and A'B' are two given finite straight lines, a line

cuts these lines so that the ratio
is equal to
A'F' F'B' shew that FF" en^velopes a parabola which touches
5.
AF
FF'
FB
the criven
straiorht lines.
6.
OAF, OBQ are two fixed straight lines, A,
points and F, Q are such that rectangle
BQ
shew that FQ envelopes a conic.
AF
are fixed
is
constant,
7.
series of circles are described each touchincr two
given straight lines j shew that the polars of any given point with
respect to the circles will envelop a parabola.
Two
points are taken on an ellipse such that the sum

of the ordinates is constant
shew that the envelope of the line
joining the points is a parabola.
8.
A fixc-d tangent to
a parabola is cut by any other tanin the point T. and TQ is drawn perpendicular to
jTPj shew that TQ envelopes another parabola.
9.
gent
FT
10.
FQ
Through any point F on a given straight

drawn parallel to the polar of F with respect
line a line
to a giên
conic: prove that the envelope of these lines is a parabola.
is
11.
If a leaf of a book be folded so that one comer moves
along an opposite side, the Hne of the crease "svill envelope a
parabola.
12.
An ellipse turns about its centre, find the envelope of
the chords of intersection with the initial position.
a;
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
272
XII.
An
angle of constant magnitude moves so that one

through a fixed point and its summit moves along
a fixed straight line; shew that the other side envelopes13.
side passes
parabola.
14.
The middle point of a chord PQ of an ellipse is on a
given straight line ; shew that the chord PQ envelopes a
parabola.
15.
drawn
is
any point on a conic and OP, OQ are chords

to two fixed straight lines ; shew that PQ
parallel
envelopes a conic.
Any pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse meets

16.
a fixed circle concentric with the ellipse in P, Q shew that
PQ will envelope a similar and similarly situated ellipse.
;
17.
of the squares of the perpendiculars from

on a straight line be constant
line will envelope a conic.
If the
any number
shew that the
sum
of fixed points
The sides of a triangle, produced if necessary, are cut

respectively; shew
straight line in the points X, M,
that, if Zi/
be constant the line will envelope a parabola.
18.
by a
MN
OA, OB are two fixed straight lines, and a circle

19.
and through another ^^yqw fixed jôint
which passes through
cuts the lines in P, Q respectively ; shew that the line PQ envelopes a parabola.
The four normals to an ellipse at P, Q, P, S meet in

20.
a point; prove that if the chord PQ pass through a fixed point,
the chord PS wdll envelope a parabola.
rectangular hyperbola is cut by a circle of any

21.
radius whose centre is at a fixed point on one of the axes
shew that the lines joining the points of
of the hyperbola
intersection are either parallel to an axis of the hyperbola or
are tangents to a fixed parabola.
;
22.
Shew that the envelope of the polar of a given point
with respect to a system of ellipses whose axes are given in
magnitude and direction and whose centres are on a given
straight line is a parabola.
23.
Of two equal circles one is fixed and the other
passes through a fixed point ; shew that their radical axis envelopes a conic having the fixed point for focus.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
273
XII.
If pairs of radii vectors be drawn from the centre of

making with the major axis angles whose sum is a
right angle, the locus of the poles of the chords joining their
extremities is a concentric hyperbola, and the envelope of the
chords is a rectangular hyperbola.
24.
an
ellipse
From any point on one of the equi- conjugate dia25.

meters of a conic lines are drawn to the extremities of an axis
and these lines cut the curve again in the points P, Q ; shew
that the envelope of PQ is a rectangular hyperbola.
PNP'
is the double ordinate of an ellipse which is

from the centre C and a vertex shew that if
parabolas be drawn through P, P\ (7, the chords joining the
other intersections of the parabola and ellipse will touch
26.
equi-distant
a second ellipse equal in
all respects to
the given one.
Two given parallel straight lines are cut in the points

27.
P, ^ by a line which passes through a fixed point ; find the
envelope of the circle on PQ as diameter.
28.
The envelope
of the circles described on a system of
parallel chords of a conic as diameters is another conic.

29.
A chord of a parabola is
on the chord as diameter
such that the circle described

shew that the
;
will touch the curve
chord envelopes another parabola.
Shew that the envelope of the directrices of all

30.
parabolas which have a common vertex A, and which pass
through a fixed point P, is a parabola the length of whose latus
rectum
is
AP.
Prove that, if the bisectors of the internal and external angles between two tangents to a conic be parallel to
31.
two given diameters of the conic, the chord of contact will

envelo[)e an hyperbola whose asymptotes are the conjugates of
those diameters.
with respect to a given

lines AB, AG \ti Q, Q' ; shew
conic B
that, if AP bisect QQ', the locus of P will be a conic; shew
also that the envelope of QQ' will be another conic.
32.
The polar of a point

meets two fixed straight
S. C. S.
18
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
274
XII.
If two points be taken on a conic so that the har33.

monic mean of their distances from one focus is constant,
shew that the chord joining them will always touch a confocal
conic.
The envelope of the chord of a parabola which sub34.

tends a right angle at the focus is the ellipse
{x - 3aY + '22f = Sa^, y" - âx =
being the equation of the parabola.
chord of a conic which subtends a constant angle at

35.
a given ])oint on the curve envelopes a conic having double contact with the given conic.
Through a
fixed point a ])air of chords of a circle are

angles ; prove that each side of the quadrilateral formed by joining their extremities envelope a conic
of which the fixed point and the centre of the circle are foci.
36.
drawn
right
at
The perpendicular from a point S on its polar with

37.
respect to a parabola meets the axis of the parabola in (7;
shew that chords of the parabola which subtend a right angle
at S all touch a conic whose centre is C.
Shew that chords of a conic which subtend a right

38.
envelope another conic.
angle at a fixed point
is a focus of the envelope and
Shew also that the point
is the j)olar of
with
that the directrix corresponding to
respect to the original conic.
Sbew
that the envelopes corresponding to a system of conand similarly situated conies are confocal.
centric similar
meets one of a system of confocal

the line joining the feet of the other
two normals drawn from the point of intersection of the
Prove that the envelope of ES is a
normals at P and Q.
parabola touching the axes.
39.
straight
conies in P, Q,
and
line
RS is
If a line cut two given circles so that the portions of

40.
the line intercepted by the circles are in a constant ratio, shew
that it will envelope a conic, which will be a parabola if the
ratio be one of equality.
Chords of a rectangular hyperbola at right angles to

41.
each other, subtend right angles at a fixed point 0] shew that
they intersect in the polar of (9,
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Shew that ii AP,
42.
y^ _ 4,ax =
through the
-7-
with one another
275
XII.
AQ
be two chords of the parabola

vertex A, which make an angle
FQ
the line
will always touch the ellipse
{x-l2ay
y'
12Sa'
I6a'
^^
'
Pairs of points are taken on a conic, such that the

them to a given point are equally inclined to a
given straight line; prove that the chord joining any such pair
of points envelopes a conic whose director- circle passes through
the fixed point.
43.
lines joining
44.
Chords of a conic
fixed point envelope a conic
which subtend a right angle at a

Shew that, if S pass through
aS".
four fixed points, S' will touch four fixed straight lines.
45.
conic passes through the four fixed points A, B, C,
and the tangents to it at B and C are met by CA, BA

produced in P, Q. Shew that PQ envelopes a conic which
touches BA, CA.
46.
If a chord cut a circle in
two points A,
which are
such that the rectangle OA OB is constant,

point ; shew that the envelope of the chord is a conic of which
Shew also that if OA^ + OB" be constant, the
is a focus.
chord will envelope a parabola.
being a fixed
On a diameter of a circle two points A, A' are taken

47.
equally distant from the centre, and the lines joining any point
of the circle to these points cut the circle again in Q,
shew that QP envelopes a conic of which the given circle is the
auxiliary circle.
48.
49.
triangle is inscribed in an ellipse and two of its

through
fixed points ; shew that the envelope of the
sides pass
third side is a conic having double contact with the former.
triangle
is
in an ellipse and two of

shew that the envelope of the
inscribed
touch a coaxial ellipse

third side is a third ellipse.
its sides
Shew that the locus of the centre of a conic which is

50.
inscribed in a given triangle, and which has the sum of the
squares of its axes constant, is a circle.
182
CHAPTER
XIII.
Trilinear Co-ordinates.
Let any
three straight lines be taken which do

be the triangle formed
not meet in a point, and let
by them. Let the perpendicular distances of any point
from the sides BC, GA,
be a, /3, y respectively; then
a, /?, 7 are called the trilinear co-ordinates of the point
shall consider ol, fi, y
referred to the triangle ABC.
to be positive when drawn in the same direction as the
perpendiculars on the sides from the opposite angular
points of the triangle of reference.
Two of these perpendicular distances are sufficient to
determine the position of any point, there must therefore
be some relation connecting the three.
244.
ABC
AB
We
The
relation
is
aoL-hh/3
where
the
is
area
+ cy=
of the
2A,
triangle
ABC.
This
is
P
APB
evidently true for any point

witJmi the triangle, since
are together equal to
the triangles BPC, CPA and
and, regard being had to the signs of
the triangle
the perpendiculars, it can be easily seen to be universally
true, by drawing figures for the different cases.
ABC
245.
By means
equation can be
we have done
of the relation
a'l
made homogeneous
in
+ h^
-\-
a, /3,
cy
;
= 2A
any
and when
may
use instead of the actual -coordinates of a point, any quantities proportional to them
for if any values a, jS, y satisfy a homogeneous equation,
then ka, k^, ky will also satisfy that equation.
this Ave
277
TRILINEAK CO-ORDINATES.
any origin be taken within the triangle, the

of
the sides of the triangle referred to any
equations
rectangular axes through this point can be written in the
If
246.
form
X cos 6^y sin 0^ 4- p^ = 0,

X cos 6^ y sin 0^ + p^= 0,
X cos 6^ y sin 0^-\- p^ = 0,
where cos {6^ 6^) = cos A, oos (^3 6^) = cos B,

cos {0^ 6^) = cos G.
and
[We write the equations with the constant terms
tive because the perpendiculars on the sides
within the triangle are all positive.]
We
posi-
from a point
therefore have [Art. 31]

a =p^ xco^d^
y sinOj^,
^=p^-xcos6^-ysm0^,
7 = i^3 "~ ^ ^^s 0^ y sin 0^.
and
By means of the above we can change any equation in

trilinear co-ordinates into the corresponding equation in
common
(or Cartesian) co-ordinates.
Every equation of
247.
the first degree represents
straight line.
Let the equation be

loi
rnj3
4 ny
0.
If we substitute the values found in the preceding

Article for a, l3, <y, the equation in Cartesian co-ordinates
Therefore the
so found will clearly be of the first degree.
locus
is
a straight
line.
248.
Every straight line
equation of the first degree.
It will be sufficient to
values of
I,
can he represented by an
shew that we can always

li + ml3 4- ny
m, n such that the equation
which we know represents a straight

the co-ordinates of any two points.
If the
co-ordinates
of the
find
line, is satisfied
points
be
0!,
^\
7'
0,
by
and
'
EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE.
278
d\ ^" ^" we must have

y
+ m/3' + u'^' = 0,
+ w^" + nr^" = 0,
Vj!
l(x'
and values of
two equations.
I,
on,
n can always be found to
satisfy these
To find the eg[uatwn of a straight line which

249.
passes through tiuo given points.
Let
be the co-ordinates of the two
a", [B", 7'"
a', /S', 7^;
points.
The equation
of
any straight
li
The
points
w/9
line
+ 717 =
0.
are on the line
(a", fi" , 7"),
(a', /3', 7'),
+ ml3' + nry' =
la
is
if
0,
k"+m/3"+7Z7"=0.
Eliminatiug
have
Z,
m, n from
a
/3
To find
/S",
a^',
250.
these
three equations
we
=0.
the condition that three given points
may
he on a straight line.
Let the co-ordinates of the given points be aV/3',

and a
/3
^ 7
7
If these are on the straight line whose equation is
,
we must have
and
Eliminating
m/3
+ ^7 =
li'
+m/3'
Za^'
+ m^" +
Irk"
+ 7?^y8'" + n^'"
Z,
m,
tz
we
+717'
727''
0,
=0,
= 0,
= 0.
obtain the required condition,
viz.
0.
li
7'
INTERSECTION OF STRAIGHT LINES.

251.
To find
the point
279
of intersection of two given straight
lines.
Let the equations of the given straight lines be
+ m^ -\-ny = 0,
a + ni(3 + 7i<y = 0.
li
and
I'
At the point which
is
common
to these,
we have
_A-^=Â^=..^^^
nl Im Im
nin
^nn
(i).
^
nl'
The above equations give the
ratios of the co-ordinates.

If the actual values be required, multiply the numerators and denominators of the fractions in (i) by a, b, c
respectively, and add; then each fraction is equal to
aoL + 6/3 + C7
m'n) + b (nl' nl) + c (Ini I'm)
'-
a (mn
'
2A
QY
I,
LINE AT INFINITY.
280
C=
Ax
be the equation of a straight

If
253.
+ Bi/ +
line in Cartesian co-ordinates, the intercepts which the
hne makes on the axes are
-j
respectively.
If
therefore
and
be veiy small the line will be at a very
The equation of the line
great distance from the origin.
will in the limit, assume the form
o.^ + o.y-f a=o.

The equation of an infinitely distant straight line,
generally called the line at infinity, is therefore
0.^ +
0. y
+ (7=0.
When the line at infinity is to be combined with other

expressions involving x and y it is written G=0.
The equation of the line at infinity in trilinear co-ordinates is
ao. + hp + cy = 0.
For if ha, hp, k^y be the co-ordinates of any point, the
invariable relation gives k(aoL-\- b/B + cy) = 2 A, or
a2
If therefore
the relation
which
is
k become
ay.
-\-
satisfied
h^
+ cy =
-j^
infinitely great,
o/3 + cy = 0.
by
we have in the limit
This
finite quantities
tional to the co-ordinates of
and
2A
any
is
a linear relation
which are propor-
infinitely distant point,
not satisfied by the co-ordinates, or by quantities

proportional to the co-ordinates, of any point at a finite
distance from the triangle of reference.
it is
254.
To find
the condition that
two given lines
may
he
'parallel.
Let the equations of the lines be

lot
-f
mp
Vol 4- 7?i'/3
-}-
W7 =
0,
+ n'y = 0.
If the lines are parallel their point of intersection will
be at an
infinite distance from the origin and therefore

co-ordinates will satisfy the relation
acL }-
h^
+ cy =
0.
its

PARALLEL LINES.
281
Eliminating a, /9, 7 from the three equations,

the required condition, viz.
I
m,
711
a,
we have
= 0.
n
c
To find the equation of a straight line through a

255.
given point parallel to a given straight line.
Let the equation of the given line be
la
The required
line
meets this where

a2
The equation
is
+ m^ + ny = 0.
+ b^ + cy=
0.
therefore of the form
h + m/3 -i-ny + \
If /, g, h be the
also have
(aT.
+ h/3 + cy) = 0.
co-ordinates
of the
given point,
we must
+ nh + X {af-\- hg + ch) = 0,
aa+hB + cy
+ mS -i-ny7=
7
rtj + mg + nh
aj
bg + ch
lf+ mg
It.
whence
,7^
-\-
A useful case is to find the equation of a straight line

through an angular point of the triangle of reference
parallel to a given straight line.
A
be the angular point, its co-ordinates are /, 0,

and the equation becomes {ina lb) 13+ (na lc)y 0.
If
0,
To find the condition of perpendicularity of two

256.
given straight lines.
Let the equations of the lines be
+ ny = 0,
I'a 4- ni^ + ny = 0.
loL -\-
m/3
be expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates by

means of the equations found in Art. 246, they will be
If these
OS il
cos 6^
+ in cos 6^ + n cos ^3) -\-y(l sin 6^
-f- rrt
sin
6^+n sin 6^
-lp^-mp^-np^ = b,
LENGTH OF A PERPENDICULAK.
282
and
c(r COS 6 ^-\-
mcos0^+n'cosd^)+y{l'sm6^ + m'smd^-\-n'smd^)
I'p^ in'p^ np^ =
the lines will therefore be perpendicular [Art. 29]

(l cos 6^ + m cos
+ cos ^3)
+ (I sin dî-m sin 0^+n sin 6^)
6,^
that
is,
7i
(I'
{I'
cos 0^
m cos 6^ -f cos ^3)

m sin ^^ + sin ^3) =
sin 6^ +
if
71
?^'
if
+ mm + n7i' 4- (Im + ^W) cos (6^ - ^2)

+ (w?/ + m'n) cos (^^ ~ ^3) + (^' + ?^'0 cos {6^- 6^ = 0.
^3) = cos A, cos (^3 ^^) = cos B,
But cos
cos (^^ ^2) ~ ~ cos C
and
IV
(6^2
therefore the required condition
is
W + mm +
^ {nV + w7) cos J5
75E?i'
(ww'
m'n) cos
Qm' + Z'w)
cos (7=0.
To yi?icZ Âe perpendicular distance of a given

257.
point from a given straight line.
Let the equation of the straight
la + mP + 727 =
line
be
0.
Expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates the equation will be

it (Z
cos ^j
+ m cos 6^ + n cos ^3) +y{l sin ^^ + m sin ^^ + ?i sin 6^

-lp^-mp^-np^ =
{).
The perpendicular distance of any point from this line is

found by substituting the co-ordinates of the point in the
expression on the left of the equation and dividing by the
square root of the sum of the squares of the coefficients
of X and y.
If this be again expressed in trilinear coordinates, we shall have, for the length of the perpendicular from f g, h on the given line, the value
lf-\-
mg + nh
'
\/{(^cos^j+mcos^2+^cos^3)"^H-(/sin^j-|-msin^2+^sin^3)"''[
V- -1-
The denominator is the square root of

m"^ \- n^ + 2Zm cos {6^ - 6^) + %nn cos [6^ 6^
4-
or of
+ m^ +
n^
2nZcos(^3-^,),
2lm cos C 2mn cos A 2nl cos B.
CO-ORDINATES OF FOUR FOlNTS.
Hence the length
of the perpendicular
is
283
equal to
lf+ mg
^{P
+ m^ + n^ 2mn cos
To shew that
258.
may
+ nh
A 2nl cos B 2lm cos
the co-ordinates of ani/
he expressed in the form f,
Let P, Q, R,
8 be
'
C)
four points
g, h.
the four points.
intersection of the line joining two of the points

and the line joining the other two is called a diagonalThere are therefore three
point of the quadrangle.
The
diagonal-points, viz. the points A, B,
Take
ABC
co-ordinates of
and the
P be /, g,
of
and
let
the
h.
J.P
will
be -
=j7
AB, AS, AG, AP is harmonic [Art. 60],

equations of AB, A G are 7 = 0, /S = respectively,
pencil
and the equation
oiA8 will
be
of
AP
^ = -^
-h
of
Therefore where
- =y^: therefore the equation

h
is
[Art. 56.]
The equation
have
in the figure.
for the triangle of reference,
Then the equation

The
(7
GP is
A8
a
7.
p
=
and
GP
meet,
?=^==_Z.
-h'
i.e.
at
>S',
we
shall
EQUATIONS OF FOUR STRAIGHT LINES.
284
So that the co-ordinates
of
proportional to f, g, h.
are proportional to f,g, h.
are proportional to f,g,h.
8 are
Similarly the co-ordinates of

Similarly the co-ordinates of Q
259.
To shew that
the equations
of any four straight
may be ejcpressed in the form m/S n<y = 0.

Let DEF, DKG, EKH, FGH be the four straight
lines
It.
lines.
ABC
be the triangle formed by the diagonals

FK, EG, and Dôf the quadrilateral, and take ABC for
Let
the triangle of reference.
Let the equation of Z)î^ be

la. + m/3 + 717
= 0.
Then the equation oi AD is mjB + n^y = 0.
Since the pencil AD, AB, AH, AG is harmonic
[Art. 60], and the equations of ^D, AB, AG are m^+ny=0,
ry = 0, /3 =
respectively
therefore [Art. 56] the equation of ^îs 7?z/S ny = 0.
Since ^ is the point given by yS = 0, h + ny=0 and H
the equation
is the point given by a = 0, m/3 ny =
h-mi3+ny = 0.
of iJJ^; is
;
EXAMPLES.
We
of
DK
285
can shew in a similar manner that the equation

is
h-\- m/3 + ny = 0,
and that the equation
of
FH
is
+ m^ ny = 0.
I2
EXAMPLES.
1.
The
three bisectors of the angles of the triangle of reference have
for equations,
7-a = 0,
/3-7 = 0,
and a-/3 = 0.
The three straight lines from the angular iôints of the triangle of
reference to the middle points of the opposite sides have for equations
2.
Z>/3-C7
= 0, cy-aa = 0,
and aa-
6/3
= 0.
A'B'C be
the middle points of the sides of the triangle of

reference, the equations of B'C, G'A', A'B' will be h^ + cy ~aa = Q^
cy + aa-b^ 0, aa + b^- cy = respectively.
3.
If
The equation of the line joining the centres of the inscribed and
4.
circumscribed circles of a triangle is
a (cos
5 - cos C) +
/3
(cos
C - cos ^ + 7
)
(cos
^ - cos 5) = 0.
of the centres of the four circles which touch

the sides of the triangle of reference. Find also the co-ordinates of the
six middle points of the lines joining the four centres, and shew that the
co-ordinates of these six points all satisfy the equation
5.
a^y + by a + ca^ = 0.
It AO, BO, CO meet the sides of the triangle ABC in A', B', C;
6.
and if B'C meet BC in P, C'A' meet CA in Q, and A'B' meet AB in R-,
shew that P, Q, R are on a straight line.
Shew also that BQ, CR, AA' meet in a point P'; CR, AP, BB' meet
in a point Q'; and that AP, BQ, CC meet in a point R'.
7.
If through the middle points, A', B',
ABC lines A'P,
CR be
C of the sides of the triangle
drawn perpendicular to the sides and equal

to them; shew that AP, BQ, CR will meet in a point.
If p, q, r be the lengths of the perpendiculars from the angular
8.
points of the triangle of reference on any straight line; shew that the
B'Q,
equation of the line will be a]pa + bq^ + cry = 0.

If there be two triangles such that the straight lines joining the
9.
corresponding angles meet in a point, then will the three intersections of
corresponding sides lie on a straight line.
[Let/, g, h be the co-ordinates of the point, referred to ABC one of the

triangles.
Then the co-ordinates of the angular points of the other
triangle A'BC can be taken to be/', g, h ; /, g', h and/, g, h' respectively.
two
B'C
cuts
BC where a =
and
3
y
= 0.
+ -i
h- W
g g
^-,
sections of corresponding
sides are
^
on the
Hence the three
line -Â.
f-f
-.
9-9
inter-
-^ = 0.1
h-h'
TANGENT AND POLAR.
286
The
260.
general equation of the second degree in
trilinear co-ordinates, viz.
uJ^
v^^
+ w-f + 2z*'/37 +
2i;'7a
+ Iwa^ =
0,
the equation of a conic section for, if the equation be

expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates the equation will be of
the second degree.
is
equation contains five independent

constants, these can be so determined that the curve
represented by the equation will pass through five given
points, and therefore will coincide with any given conic.
the
Also,
since
261.
To find
any point of
conic.

(a, 13,
(f)
and
let
7)
o!,
points on
ua"
+ vjS^ -f W7' +
p",
/3',
a",
<y"
2u'l3y
+ 2v'y + 2wap = 0,
oc
be the co-ordinates of two
it.
The equation
- a') + ^(/3-/3') (yS - yS") + w (7-7) (7-7")

+ 2u' {/3 - 13') (7 - 7") -f 2v' (7 - 7O (a - a")
+ 2w'(a-a')(l3-l3") = cl>{a,^,y),
u ia-a')
{a
of the first degree in a, /3, 7, and therefore it

equation of some straight line. The equation
is satisfied by the values a= a', 13 fi\ y = y, and also by
the values a = a ', ^ = 13", 7 = 7". Therefore it is the
liquation of the line joining the two points (ol, I3\ y),
is really
is
the
Let now (a", |", 7") move up to and ulti(a", ^'\ 7").
mately coincide with (a', /3', 7'), and we have the equation
.of
the tangent at
uoLo!
(a', /3', 7'), viz.,
+ vP^' + wyy + u {j3y' + 7/3')

+ v' (7a' + ay) + w' {al3' + I3ol) = 0.
Using the notation of the Differential Calculus we may

th^ equation of the tangent at any point (a!, /3', 7')
^^write
CONDITION OF TANGENCY.
of the conic
A 7) =
c^ (a,
d(h
in either of the forms
To find
dy
d/3
doL
the equation
dcf)
d(J)
r,
or
262.
point.
287
of the jôlar of a given
may
be shewn, exactly as in Art. 76, 100, or 118,

that the equation of the polar of a point with respect to
a conic is of the same form as the equation we have
found for the tangent in Art. 261.
It
To find the condition that a given straight line

263.
touch a conic.
may
Let the equation of the given straight line be
U + w/3 + nry =
The equation
a
{u:t! -f
If
ua
(i)
w' ^'
and
-\-w
of the tangent at
(i).
[a!, /3',
7') is
+ vy') + ^ [ivo! + v/9' + ii'y)

+ 7 \vo! + u^' + wi) = 0.
(ii)
represent the same straight line,
+^7 _w
a.
(ii).
we have
+vp +uy _v a + up + wy
'
77^
Putting each of these fractions equal to
ua
w'a
v'a.
Also, since (a,
have
+ w'^' + vy -f-Xl =0,

+ v^' + uy' + \m = 0,
+ u^' + wy +Xn = 0.
7') is
/3',
la
Eliminating
X, we
a', /3',
on the line
+ m/S' + ny' =
y,
X from
obtain the required condition
{I,
m,
n),
0.
these four equations
we
THE CENTEE.
288
or
+ 2mn {v'w
ivw u"^)
+ m^
uu') +
2nl {w'u
[wu
v'^) + n^ [uv w'^)

vv) + 2/771 [u'v luw) = 0,
or
OT + Vm^ +
Wii'
+ 2 ^ m?i + 2 F?i? + 2 F7ryi =
where U, V, W, U\ V\
u v\ w' in the determinant
,
0.
(v),
are the minors of u,
0.
v,
w,
ASYMPTOTES.
289
Also since the centre of a parabola

have
The elimination of
condition
u
a, /?, 7^,
is
at infinity,
we
gives for the required
0.
290
ASYMPTOTES.
The term independent

u
of
,
is
CIRCUMSCRIBING CIRCLE.
AB
in the points L, M, ^^respectively; then it

that these three points L, M,
are in a straight
BC, CA,
is
291
known
line.
Let the triangle be taken for the triangle of reference

let a, /?, 7 be the co-ordinates of P.
The areas of the triangles MPN, NFL, and
are ^/SysinA, ^yasmB, and | a/3 sin C respectively.
Since L, M,N are on a straight line, one of these triangles
is equal to the sum of the other two.
Hence, regard being
had to sign, we have
Py sin ^ + 7a sin 5 + a^ sin C = 0,
and
LFM
or
affy
which
Ex.
sides in
is
+ bya +
C2/S
= 0,
the equation required.
The perpendiculars from

Shew that, if the
D, E, F.
the locus of
is
on the sides of a triangle meet the

area of the triangle
BEF is
constant,
a circle concentric with the circumscribing circle.
Since the terms of the second deofree are the

the equations of all circles, if S =
same
be the
equation of any one circle, the equation of any other
circle can be written in the form
270.
>S'+Xa
or, in
0,
the homogeneous form,

S-\-{la
+ mp + ny)
(a x-\-b/3
cy)
0.
From
the form of the general equation of a

it is evident that the line at infinity cuts
circles in the same two (imaginary) points.
271.
circle in Art.
all
+ /^/5 + 1/7 =
270
The two points at infinity through which all circles

pass are called the circtda?' points at infinity.
Since, in Cartesian co-ordinates, the lines x'^ + y'^ =
are parallel to the asymptotes of any circle, the imaginary
lines x^ + y'^ =
go through the circular points at infinity.
Hence, from Art. 193, the four points of intersection of
the tangents drawn to a conic from the circular points at
infinity are the four foci of the curve.
To find the conditions that the curve represented
272.
by the general equation of the second degree may be a circle.
192
CONDITIONS FOR A CIRCLE.
292
The equation
of the circle circumscribing the triangle
of reference is [Art. 269]

a/37
^7^
+ ca/3 = 0.
Therefore [Art. 270] the equation of any other circle

is
of the form
+ ^7^ + ca/3 +
a/37
If this
is
uoc"
we must
v/S""
for
+ m^ + 717)
{aoL
+ wy + 2uffy + 2vja +
have, for some value of X,

\u = la, \v = mh, \w
2\u =a-{- cm
Hence
2bcu
{la
c^v
+ 6/3 + cy) = 0.
the same curve as that represented by

2w'al3
= 0,
= nc,
+ bn, 2Xv' = h + an + cZ,and 2\w' = c-\-hl-{- am.

w = 2cav' a^w - cû =
each of these quantities
is
equal to
2abiu
Ifu a^v,
To find the condition that the conic represented hy
273.
the general equation of the second degree
may
he
an
ellipse,
parabola, or hyperbola.
The equation of the lines from the angular point G to
the points at infinity on the conic will be found by eliminating 7 from the equation of the curve and the equation
a-jL + h/B + cy = 0.
Hence the equation of the lines through
G parallel to the asymptotes of the conic will be
uc'ol' + vc^jS^ +w(aoL-^ b^f - 2ucp {aoL + bp)
- 2vcoL {aoL + b^) + 2wc\fi = 0.
The conic is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, according as these lines are imaginary, coincident, or real and
the lines are imaginary, coincident, or real according as
;
(wab
uac
v'bc
+ w'c^y {u& + wa?

{vc' -H
is
negative, zero, or positive
that
is,
2v ac)
wb^ 2ubc)
according as
Ua'+ Vb'+ Wc'+2U'bc + 2Vca + 2Wab

is
positive, zero, or negative.
274.
The equation of a pair of tangents drawn to the
conic from any point can be found by the method of
Art. 188.
293
CIRCUMSCEIBING CONIC.
The equation of the director circle of the conic can be

found by the method of Art. 189.
The equation giving the foci can be found by the
method of Art. 193.
The equations for the
4
{h'^w
+ c% -
2bcu)
c/,
foci will
(a,
be found to be
^,^)-.{h^-o g)'
^ - ^
4 [c\i
+ a\o - 2cav)
cf)
{a, Z^,
t)
The
elimination of
</>
(a, /3,
7) will give
the
acces
of the
the equation of
conic.
275.
To find the equation of a conic circumscribing the
triangle of reference.
The general equation of a conic is
_^ 2u'l3r/ + 2v 7a + 2wal3 = 0.
uo.^ + ^^2 ^
The co-ordinates of the angular points of the triangle
^y
are
^,0,0;0,?-^,0;andO,0,^.
on the curve, we must have u
at once seen by substitution.
If these points are
and
w=
0, SiH is
Hence the equation

angle of reference
= 0,v =
O,
of a conic circumscribing the tri-
is
+ v'yoL + w'oLJS = 0.
uffy
condition that a given straight line may

touch the conic may be found as in Art. 263, or as follows.
to the points
The equation of the lines joining
line
(I,
m, n), found
straight
and
the
conic
common to the
conic and
the
of
by eliminating a between the equations
276.
The
of the straight line,
is
lu^y - {vy +
or
mw'l3^
The
+ nvy"^ +
{mv
-f-
nw
lines are coincident if
condition for this
+ ny)
lu) ^87
w'l3) (m/9
(?,
m,
= 0,
= 0.
n) is a
is
4tmnv'w'
[mv
+ niu'
lu'Y,
tangent; the
INSCRIBED CONIC.
294
which
equivalent to
is
sjlu
To find
277.
of
the triangle
Jirnv
Jnvj =
the equation
0.
of a conic touching the sides
of reference.
The general equation
of a conic
is
+ wrj" + 2w'ye7 + 2v 7a + 2ioa.P = 0.

Where the conic cuts a = 0, we have
v/8'+W7'+2t'^7 = 0.
in coincident points we
Hence, if the conic cut a =
iâ' -f
v^^
have
vw = u'^,
Similarly,
Jvw.
the conic touch the other sides of the
if
we have
triangle,
Putting V, yu.^
for
or u'
Jwu,
v^
and w'
instead of u^
= Juv.
v,
respectively, Ave
have
the equation,
T ^v\yx + 2Va/3 = 0.
equation either one or three of the ambiguous
+ /^'^' + i^V T
X'd'
In this
2^z^/37
must be negative for otherwise the left side of the

equation would be a perfect square, in which case the
conic would be two coincident straig-ht lines.
signs
The equation can be written
in the form
To find the condition that the line la

touch the conic Jxa + J/x^ + Jvy = 0.
278.
may
The
+ mji +
717
condition of tangency can be found as in Art. 276,
the result
is
X
7
t
+-+
LL
^
0.
279.
To find the equations of the circles ivhich touch the
sides of the triangle of reference.
If
be the point where the inscribed
BC, we know
that
i)(7=.9-c, and
DB = s-h.
circle
touches
'
THROUGH FOUR
CONICS
Therefore the equation oi
AD will be
/3
{JZ.c)sm
Now
G^
7
{s-b) sin
^^^'
the equation of any inscribed conic
J\^+J]i'^ +
of
295
POINTS.
is
J^ =
(ii).
The equation of the line joining A to the point of contact

the conic with BG will be given by
.'.
Hence,
if (ii) is
fil3
the inscribed
vy
(iii).
circle,
we have from
(i)
and
(iii)
fl
h{s
b)
c{s
c)'
by considering the point of contact with GA,
Similarly,
we have
V
c(s
c)
Hence the equation
J a (s a) a
The equations
-}-
Jb
a{s
a)
of the inscribed circle is

(s
b) ^ + J G
(s
of the escribed circles
c) = 0.
<y
can be found in a
similar manner.
Ex.
Shew
1.
that the conic whose equation
is
Jaa+ Jb^+ sjcy = 0,

touches the sides of the triangle of reference at their middle points.
Ex. 2. If a conic be inscribed in a triangle, the lines joining the
angular points of the triangle to the points of contact with the opposite
meet in a point.
sides will
To find
through four given
280.
the
equation of a conic
which passes
points.
If the diagonal-points of the quadrangle be the angular

points of the triangle of reference, the co-ordinates of the
four points are given by f g, h [Art. 258].
If the four points are on the conic

uol'
vl3'
+ lorf + lu^y -f 2y 7a
whose equation
-1-
2w'a/3
0,
is
296
we have the equations
uf + vg" + ivV
.
lugli
"Iw'fg
Hence the equation of the conic is uoi^

with the condition uf^ + vg^ + whb' 0.
Ex.
four
1.
Find
tlie
=v = iu = 0.
'iv'hf
+ v^^ + wy^ = 0,
locus of the centres of all conies
which pass through
given, points.
Let the four points be /, g, h.
The equation
of
any conic
will be
with the condition

uf^ + vg^ + wh^ =
The
(i).
co-ordinates of the centre of the conic are given by
ua _v^ _ wy
a
h
c
and we have the equation
'
Substitute for u,
v,
in
(i),
^%^%i^0.
^
Ex.
2.
The
of the locus, viz.
[See Art. 209.]
polars of a given point with respect to
a system of
conies passing through four given points will pass through a fixed point.
To find
281.
given straight
the equation
of a conic touching four
lines.
Let the triangle formed by the diagonals of the quadrilateral be taken for the triangle of reference, then [Art 259]
the equations of the four lines will be of the form
la
The
ur/
m^
ny =
whose equation is
v^' + wy' + 2u^y + 2vyx
0.
conic
-f
will touch the line
Ul'
Vni"
{I,
m-,
n)
+ 2w'afi =
(i)
if
+ Wn' + 2 Umn + 2 V'nl + 2 W'hi = 0.
If therefore the conic touch all four of the lines,

=
= 0,
must have
U' =
that
viu'
is
uu'
m
u'v luiu
u ^v =w
w'ti
,\
= 0,
= 0,
=
= 0,
we
or else (i) is a perfect square, and
of coincident straight lines.
297
the
conic
a pair
Hence we must have ix v =w 0, and the condition

is
Vvw + ifr^wu + tûv = 0.
Hence every conic touching the four straight lines is
of tangency
included in the equation
with the condition

V'
-+
U
Ex.
1.
Find
given straight
Any
conic
m^ n^
+-=
w
^
0.
which touch four
the locus of the centres of the conies
lines.
is
given by
with the condition
P
^
V + n^
=0.
- + m^
U
w
The
co-ordinates of the centre of the conic are given by
ua
a
_v^ _ wy
b
^
^
therefore the equation of the locus of the centres is the straight line
m^B n^y
a +^
+ =
Pa
0.
This straight line goes through the middle points of the three diagonals
of the quadrilateral.
Ex.
2.
The locus
[See Art. 217.]

of the pole of a given line with respect to a system
of conies inscribed in the
Ex.
3.
Shew
that,
if
same quadrilateral
is
a straight Hne.
the conic na^+v^^ + wy^ O be a parabola,
will touch the four lines given
it
b/aa6^C7 = 0.
When the equation of

+ wy^ = 0, each angular
a conic is of the form

point
of the triangle of
+ v/3'^
This is at once
reference is the pole of the opposite side.
seen if the co-ordinates of an angular point of the triangle
be substituted in the equation of the polar of {a, fi', 7'),
282.
u(^
viz.
U2a
4- v/S'/S
+ wyy =
0.
Conversely, if the triangle of reference be self-polar, the

equation of the conic will be of the form uu^ + v/3^ -\- wf = 0.
For, the equation of the polar of
J.
0,
with respect
298
NINE-POINT CIRCLE.
to the conic given
by the general equation,
Hence,
BG
if
be the polar of A, we have

be the polar of B, we have
Similarly,
if
CA
Hence u,
v,
If
two conies intersect in four
283.
we take the
is
+ w' ^ + v'fy = 0.
iiy.
lu
lu'
=v =0.
= it =0.
are all zero.
and
diagonal-points of the quadrangle formed by
real points,
the four points for the triangle of reference, the equations

of the two conies will [Art. 2 80] be of the form
u^ -f v/3' +
w^^
= 0,
and
loa^
+ v/3' + wy' = 0.
So that, as we have seen in Art. 213, any two conies

which intersect in four real points have a common self-polar
triangle.
When
two of the points of intersection of two conies

are real and the other two imaginary, two angular points
of the common self-polar triangle are imaginary.
When
all four points of intersection of two conies are imaginary,
they
will
have a real
Trilinears, or Salmon's
self-polar triangle.
[See Ferrers'
Conic Sections, Art. 282.]
If two tangents and their chord of contact be

284.
the sides of the triangle of reference, the equation of the
conic will be of the form
a'
for
(i)
fiy
= 0,
(i),
a conic which has double contact with the conic

the chord of contact being a = 0.
[See Art. 187.]
is
285.
which
= 2K^y
To find
the equation
the triangle
of reference
of the
circle luith respect to
is self-polar.
The equations of all conies with respect to which the

triangle of reference is self-polar are of the form
ir/ + vyS- + wy" = 0.
The equation
a/3y
-}-
67a
of any circle can be written in the form
+ CV./3 -f (Xt. + fi/S + vy)
If these equations represent the

11
a-f- fjLC-\-vh
0,
(aa
+ 6/3 -H
cy)
0.
same curve, we have
= \a, V =
w = vc,
h + va 4- A.c = 0, and c + Xb-\- fia = 0.
fjih,
pascal's theorem.
Whence X cos A,
/jb
= cos B,
and
299
v
= cos
The required equation is therefore

acosA.a^ + bcosB.^^ + c cos G
y'
To find
the equation of tJie nine-point

equation
of the circle be
Let the
286.
a/87
This
+ c:(/3 (Xa + ft/? + z/7) (aa +

where bff = cy;
circle cuts a =
abc 2 (/zc +
6c = 0,
^7^
:'.
or
Similarly
i^Z>)
A^
h^
0.
0.
circle.
C7)
0.
'
PASCALS THEOREM.
300
Let the equation of the codIc be
V
^
-+g+-=0
The equations
^
-^ = -V
of
IJL
BD
and
AE
.(i).
will
therefore at their intersection, a
1,-77,
The
a
'
^
13"
1,
three points will
lie
a'
= 0,
'
P^
7_
a"'
a'"
ay
y8"
on a straight line
1
or if
7
=
be
if
and

brianchon's theorem.
301
one of these hexagons, there are sixty Pascal lines corresponding to six points on a conic.
288.
If a
hexagon circumscribe a
conic, the points of
contact of its sides will be the angular points of a hexagon

Each angular point of the circuminscribed in the conic.
scribed hexagon will be the pole of the corresponding side
of the inscribed hexagon therefore a diagonal of the circumscribing hexagon, that is a line joining a pair of
its opposite angular points, will be the polar of the point
of intersection of a pair of opposite sides of the inscribed
hexagon. But the three points of intersection of pairs of
opposite sides of the inscribed hexagon lie on a straight
hence their three polars, that is
line by Pascal's Theorem
the three diagonals of the circumscribing hexagon, will
meet in a point. This proves Brianchon's Theorem
if
a hexagon he described about a conic, the three diagonals will
meet in a point.
;
If we are given five tangents to a conic we can

289.
points of contact by Brianchon's Theorem. For,
their
find
be the angular points of a pentagon
let A, B, C, D,
the point
formed by the five given tangents; then, if
are the angular points
of contact of AB, A, K, B, C, D,
of a circumscribing hexagon, two sides of which are copasses through
By Brianchon's Theorem,
incident.
and BE\ hence
is
the point of intersection oi
The other points of contact can be found in a
found.
KhQ
DK
AG
similar manner.
Similarly,
by means
of Pascal's
Theorem, we can
find
the tangents to a conic at five given points. For, let A,

be the five given points, and let i^be the point
B, G, D,
then, by Pascal's
on the conic indefinitely near to
intersection
points
of
of
three
and DE;
the
Theorem,
and EE; and of GD and EA lie on a straight line.
of
Hence, if the line joining the point of intersection of
and
meet
and jDE to the point of intersection o(
at
will
the
tangent
A.
The
be
in
other
H,
GD
tangents can be found in a similar manner.
AB
BG
AB
AH
BG
EA
ARExiL CO-ORDINATES.
302
AREAL CO-ORDINATES.
The
290.
reference
ABC be
These
ratios are
denoted by x,
y,
are called the areal co-ordinates of the
and
respectively,
PBG, PGA,
given.
P is determined if the
PAB to the triangle of
any point
position of
ratios of the triangles
point P.
The
any point are connected by
areal co-ordinates of
x+y
the relation
Since X
= ^r-r y= KT
2A
2A
,
-]-
and z
\.
= ^.
2A
-^
we
at once
nnd
the equation in areal co-ordinates wliich corresponds to any

given homogeneous equation in trilinear co-ordinates, by
or
substituting in the given equation -
z
- for a,
1/
/8,
for example the equation of the line at inx-^ y + 2 = 0. We will however find the areal
equation of the circumscribing circle independently.
respectively
finity is
To
291.
find the equation in areal co-ordinates of the

of reference.
circle luhicli circumscribes the triangle
If
angle
be any point on the
ABC, then by
circle circumscribing the triPtolemy's Theorem (Euclid vi. D.)
we have
PA.BCPB.CAPC.AB=0
But
since the angles
PB PG
fi
A
ry
oc,
BPC and BA G are equal, we have
and similarly
regard to the signs of x, y,
PA.PB.PG
.
OCX
z,
for
h c
cay
i:
is
we have from
+ - + - = 0,
X
y
or
which
y and z
PA.PB.PG
(i).
the equation required.
hence, paying
(i)
PA.PB.PG = ^
J
abz
0,
'
TANGENTIAL CO-ORDINATES.
308
If the conic represented by the general equation

292.
of the second degree in trilinear co-ordinates, viz.
wa'
+ VyS' + w^^ + lu^^ +
2?;
7a
+ 1n)a^ = 0,
be the same as that represented in areal co-ordinates by

the equation
X.x'
then, since
fif
-f-
-\-
vz"
+ 2%^ + Ifji'zx + 2vxy =
= op = cy
7^.
we have
aoL
vah
Hence we can obtain the relation between the coefficients
in the areal equation which corresponds to any given
relation between the coefficients in the trilinear equation.
\d^
X'hc
vc^
/jib'^
fji'cco
For example, the condition that irx -1- v^'^ \- w^/ =

may be a rectangular hyperbola is u-\-v-{-w = 0\ hence the
condition that
hyperbola
Xx^
fiy^
\a^
is
-{-
vz^
may be
a rectangular
+ /jb \-vc'^ = 0.
TANGENTIAL CO-ORDINATES.
m, n be the three constants in the triany straight line, the position
of the line will be determined when I,
and qi are given
and by changing the values of I, m, and n the equation
may be made to represent any straight line whatever.
293.
If
I,
linear or areal equation of
The
quantities /, m, and n which thus define the position

of a straight line are called the co-ordinates of the line.
If the equation of a straight line in areal co-ordinates
be
Ix
+ my + nz = 0,
the lengths of the perpendiculars on the line from the

angular points of the triangle of reference will be proportional to I, m, n.
This follows at once from Art. 257;
we will however give an independent proof.
Let the lengths of the perpendiculars from the angular

points A, B, C of the triangle of reference be p, g^, r
304
Let the line cut BG in the point K, and

be 0, y', z
the co-ordinates of
respectively.
Then
But, since
is
let
BK GK
::
on the
q
v.- z
+ w^' =
line, iniy
::
y.
therefore
n.
The lengths of the perpendiculars on a straight

from the angular points of the triangle of reference
may be called the co-ordinates of the line. If any two of
these perpendiculars be drawn in different directions they
must be considered to have different signs.
294.
line
From the preceding Article

a line whose co-ordinates are p,
we
q,
see that the equation of
is poo
+ qy + rz =
0.
When
the lengths of two of the perpendiculars on

a straight line are given, there are two and only two
so that, when two of the co-ordinates
positions of the line
of the line are given, the third has one of two particular
Hence there must be some identical relation
values.
connecting the three co-ordinates of a line, and that
relation must be of the second degree.
;
To find the identical relation which exists between

295.
co-ordinates
the
of any line.
Let 6 be the angle the line makes with BA^ then we
The elimihave q p~c sin 6, and q r = a sin (^ -f B).
nation of
a^ (q
gives the required relation,
viz.
-pf 2ac cos B {q p) {q r)-\- c^
{q
rf = 4A^
or
a' {p
-q){p- r) + }f{q- r)
296.
point (/,
If the line px-\g, h),
(q
- p) + c' (r -p)
(r
- g) = 4 A'.
qy-\-rz~0 pass through a fixed
then
2^/+qg+rh =
So that the co-ordinates
.(i).
of all the lines w^hich pass
through the point whose areal co-ordinates are

satisfy the relation
/, g,
(i;.
Hence the equation
of a point
is
of the
first
degree.
305
If the co-ordinates of a straight line are con297.

nected by any relation the line will envelope a curve, and
the equation which expresses that relation is called the
tangential equation of the curve.
We
have seen that the tangential equation of a conic is

of the second degree, and that every curve whose equation
is of the second degree is a conic.
If t/t [l^ m, n) =
be
the tangential equation of the conic whose areal equation
is
(x, y, z) = 0, and if the coefficients in the equation
<f>
be u, V, w, u\ V, w the corresponding coefficients in
<^ =
the equation -v/r = will be JJ, V, W, U\ V, W, the minors
of u, V, Wy
V, w respectively in the determinant
;
!(,',
11
EXAMPLES.
306
If {p\ q, r) be not a tangent to the curve, the above

equation will be the equation of the pole of {p q r).
The centre is the pole of the line at infinity Avhose
co-ordinates are 1, 1, 1 hence the equation of the centre
,
of the curve
We
299.
of
is
dp
dq
dr
by the solution
some examples.
(1)
If the sides of two triangles touch a given conic, their six angular
points will
lie
on another conic.
Take one of the
triangles for the triangle of reference.
Let the equation of the given conic he
Let the equations of the sides of the second triangle be

ijO
and
+ wijjS + 7ij7 = 0, â + WgjS + n.f/ = 0,

lâ + 77^3/3 + 7137 = 0.
Then
L (Za + WajS + n.^y) {lâ + m^^ + n.fy) + M [lâ + m^!^ + n^y)

+N
will
Zâ
+ wi^jS + n^y)
{lâ
(
Zâ
+ vi^^ + n^y)
+ m^^ + n^y) =
be the general equation of a conic circumscribing the triangle formed
by these
straight lines.
This conic will pass through the angular points of the triangle of
reference
if
the coefficients of
a^, p,^
and
y^ are all zero.
That
is, if
L U^ + Ml^l^ + Nljlci=0,
Lm^m^ + Mm^m-y + Nm^m^ = 0,
Zn2n^ + Mn.^n^ + Nn-^n^
and
0.
Eliminating L, M, N, we see that the condition to be

^2^'3
'
satisfied is
EXAMPLES.
307
If one triangle can he inscribed in one conic ivith its sides touching
(2)
another conic, then an infinite number of triangles can be so described.
Let
whose
ABC he the
triangle
touch the conic
sides
whose angular points are on
tlie
conic S, and
S.
Let any other tangent to S be drawn cutting S in the points B', C,

meet at A'. Then A'B'C
and let the other tangents to S through B',
and
ABC
two
are
whose
triangles
Therefore by the pre-
sides touch S.
But
five of the points, viz. A, B, C, B', C, are on the conic 2, and only one
conic will pass through five points, therefore C also is on S.
ceding question the six points A, B, C, B', C, A' are on a conic.
Four
(3)
each of the four triangles, formed
circles are described so that
by each three of four given straight lines, is self-polar with respect to one of
the circles; prove that these four circles and the circle circumscribing
the quadrilateral have a
formed by the diagonals of
the triangle
common
radical axis.
Take the
triangle formed
by the diagonals for the triangle of
reference,
then the equations of the four straight lines will be Zam/3W7 = 0.

All conies with respect to which the lines
la
form a
+ m/S + W7 = 0, la- m/3 + wy = 0, and
la
+ m^ -ny =
self-polar triangle are included in the equation
L{la-hmp + nyf + M{la-m + nyf + N{la + m-nyf = Q)

can be put in the form
a^y + bya + ca/3 + {\a-\- ix^+ vy){aa + b^ + cy) =
(i).
If this conic be a circle its equation
and \a + [x^ + vy =
circle.
is
Comparing
(ii),
(ii) and of the circumscribing

and 7^ in (i) and (ii) we obtain, for
the radical axis of
coefficients of a^,
/S^
the equation of the radical axis
m^
-a-f
This
is clearly
(4)
P, Q,
the same for
line cuts
P', Q' is
all
n^
/3+ 7 = 0.
^
c
four circles.
two given conies in P,
P',
and Q,
harmonic; find the envelope of the
Refer the conies to their
common
Q', so
that the range
line.
self -conjugate triangle
and
let their
equations be
ua- + v^2 + ^y2 = 0,
w'a2
+ 1;'/32 + ^v'y^ = Q.
Let the equation of the line be
Then the
or
la. + mp + ny = 0.
AP" are given by the equation
u (m^ + nyf + Pv^^- + Pwy^ = 0,
(ww2 + vV') + 2umnfiy + [un- + wP) 72=0.
lines -4P,
)32
202
EXAMPLES.
308
And
AQ, AQ' are given by

^2 [u'vi^ + vT) + 2u'mnpy + {u'n^ + iv'l^) 7^ = 0.
A {PQP'Q'} is harmonic, we must have [Art. 58]
similarly
If therefore
(mwi2
+ vP)
(wV-2
+ tc'P) +
(wn2
+ ^cl-}
{u'm^ + v'l-)
= 2im'm''n^
which reduces to
{inv'
+ wv') P + (wu' + mo') trP + [uv' + vu') 11- = 0,
This condition shews that the line always touches the conic
VIO
'
"2
g2
+ Wy'
+ UIV'
t<7it'
-,2
UV'
+ Vlt'
easy to shew that the envelope touches the eight tangents to the
It is
^;iven conies at their four points of intersection.
The
(5)
director-circles of all conies
which are inscribed in the same
quadrilateral have a common radical axis.
Let the triangle formed by the diagonals of the quadrilateral be taken

for the triangle of reference.
Then
the equations of the four lines will be
Jampny = 0.
[Art.
259.]
The equation
any one
of
of the conies will be 2ia~
+ v^'^ + wy^ 0.
[Art. 281.]
The equation
(wa2
of the two tangents from the- point
+ r^2 + ^^.^2)
The condition
u {v^^ + wy'-)
+ v^"^ + wy"^) -
{ua'a
(a'/3'7') is
+ vjS'jS + 2cy'y)- = 0.
may be perpendicular is [Art. 268]

+ vp) + 2iw ^'y' cos A
+ 2wuy'a' cos B + 2uva'^' cos (7 = 0.
the director-circle of the conic ua^ + v^'^ +ioy^ =
that these lines
+ V (?y2 + wa'2) + to
Hence the equation

will
(ya'2
of
(ua'^
be
^2 + ^2
+ 2^7 cos
7-
yl
g^
+ 27a cos B
But, since the conic touches the four

P m^ %2
+ /32+2a^c osC_
w
lines lam^ny = 0, we have
a2
-+
+-=0
U
V
(u).
'
10
Comparing
(i)
and
(ii)
we
see that
aU the
through
director-circles pass
the points given by

/32
+ 72 + 2^7 cos A ~
_
72 +
a2+27acos^ _
~
a^
+ /S^ + 2a/3 cos C
n2
[See also Art. 243, Ex.

(6)
To find
and Art. 307.]
the tangential equation of the circle with respect to
the triangle of reference is self-polar.
The
(2),
triliuear equation of the circle is
a-a cos
A+
^-b cos
B + y'^c cos C = 0.
which
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
The
line la 4 vi^
717
a cos
touch the
will
4.
b cos
be the perpendiculars on
If p, q, r
309
XIII.
circle, if
= 0.
c cos
the line
from the angular points of
the triangle
Î = i = 1n
Hence from the condition

p^ tan
which
is
[Art. 2571.
of tangency
A+
q^
tan
B + r" tan OO,
the required tangential equation.
Examples on Chapter XIII.
Shew that the minor axis of an ellipse inscribed in a

1.
given triangle cannot exceed the diameter of the inscribed
circle.
2.
Find the area of a triangle in terms of the
trilinear or
areal co-ordinates of its angular points.

If four conies have a common self-conjugate triangle,
3.
the four points of intersection of any two and the four points
of intersection of the other two lie on a conic.
Shew that the eight points of contact of two conies

common tangents lie on a conic.
Shew that the eight tangents to two conies at their
5.
common points touch a conic.
4.
with their
Any three pairs of points which divide the

6.
diagonals of a quadrilateral harmonically are on a conic.
it
three
rind the equation of the nine-point circle by considering

7.
as the circle circumscribing the triangle formed by the lines
aa
8.
a(iy
-f-
h/3
cy 0,
cy aa = 0, and
cy
aa h^ = 0.
Shew that the equation of the circle concentric with

bya + cayS ==0 and of radius r is
a/5y
where
b(3
A* is
of reference.
+ hya + ca(i
r^
- R{aa
1/3
+ cy)' =
0,
the radius of the circle cii'cumscribing the triangle
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
310
XIII.
The
equation of the circumscribing conic, whose

diameters parallel to the sides of the triangle of reference are
r^,r^,r^ is,
a
c
b
9.
1\
i\^
IS
r^
ABC is
a triangle inscribed in a conic, and the tangents

A, B, C are B'C, C'A', A'B' respectively ; shew
that AA\ BB\ and
meet in a point. Shew also that, if
be the point of intersection of BC, B'C ;
the point of intersection of CA, C'A\ and
the point of intersection of AB,
A'B'; D, E,
will be a straight line.
10.
to the conic
2it
CC
Lines are drawn from the angular jDoints A, B, G oi

throuo^h a point P to meet the opposite sides in
A', B', C.
B'C' meets BC in K, C'A' meets CA in L, and A'B'
meets AB in M.
Shew that K^ Z,
are on a straight line.
Shew also (i) that if P moves on a fixed straight line then
will touch a conic inscribed in the triangle ABC ; (ii)
that if P moves on a fixed conic circumscribing the triangle
ABC, then
^dll pass through a fixed point ; (iii) that if
P moves on a fixed conic touching two sides of the triangle
where they are met by the third,
will envelope a conic.
11.
'd,
triangle
KLM
KLM
KLM
Lines drawn through the angular points A, B, C of a.

and through a point
meet the opposite sides in
A'y B\
and those drawn through a point 0' meet the
opposite sides in A", B" C"
If P be the point of intersection
of B'C and B"C'\ Q be the point of intersection of CA', C'A",
and R be the point of intersection of A'B', A"B" shew that
AP, BQ, CR will meet in some point Z. Shew also that, if
0, 0' be any two points on a fixed conic through A, B, C, the
12.
triangle
point
Z will be fixed.
13.
The locus of the pole of a given straight line with
respect to a system of conies through four given points is a
conic which passes through the diagonal-points of the quadrangle formed by the given points.
14.
The envelope of the polar of a given point with respect
to a system of conies touching four given straight lines is a
conic which touches the diagonals of the quadrilateral formed
by the given
lines.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
311
XIII.
15.
Shew that the locus of the points of contact of
tangents, drawn parallel to a fixed line, to the conies inscribed in a given quadrilateral, is a cubic ; and notice any
remarkable points, connected with the quadrilateral, through
which the cubic
passes.
16.
An ellipse is inscribed within a triangle and has its
centre at the centre of the circumscribing circle.
Shew that
d respectively,
its major and minor axes are R + d and
being the radius of the circumscribing circle and d the distance
between the centre and the orthocentre.
17.
will be
Prove that a conic circumscribing a triangle ABC

an ellipse if the centre lie within the triangle DEF or
within the angles vertically opposite to the angles of the

DEF, where D, E,
are the middle points of the
sides of the triangle ABC.
triangle
Shew that the locus of the foci of parabolas to which

18.
the triangle of reference is self -polar is the nine-point circle.
19.
Shew that the locus of the foci of
the four lines la =i= m^ =fc 7iy =
is the cubic
7)2
Z_l
I_2
+ 7n/3 + ny
and
-P/,
20.
/*,",
la
P/
p
.
focus
la7n(i-\-ny
cos
B - 11m
If a conic be inscribed in a given triangle,

is
_A
Z^
cos
(7,
have similar values.
major axis pass through the fixed point

its
conies touching
7)i/3 ny la + m^ny
where P^ = 1^ -\-m^ + n^ Imn cos A Inl
la
all
(yj g, h)^
and
its
the locus of
the cubic
fa (^^ - /) + g^ (/ - a^) + hy {a? - ^^) ^
0.
21.
If the centre of a conic inscribed in a triangle move
along a fixed straight line, the foci will lie on a cubic circumscribing the triangle.
22.
The
locus of the centres of the rectangular hyperbolas

is self-conjugate
with respect to which the triangle of reference

is
the circumscribing
23.
inscribed
circle.
The
in
circle.
locus of the centres of all rectangular hyperbolas

the triangle of reference is the self-conjugate
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
.312
XIII.
Shew that the nine-point circle of a triangle touches

24.
the inscribed circle and each of the escribed circles.
The tangents
to the nine-point circle at the points

touches the inscribed and escribed circles form a
quadrilateral, each diagonal of which passes through an angular
point of the triangle, and the lines joining corresponding
angular points of the original triangle and of the triangle
formed by the diagonals are all pai'allel to the radical axis of
the nine-point circle and the circumscribing circle.
25.
where
it
The polars of the j)oints A, B, C with respect to a

26.
conic are B'C\ C'A', A'B' respectively; shew that A A', BB',
meet in a point.
CC
an equilateral hyperbola pass through the middle

the
sides of a triangle
points of
and cuts the sides BC^ CA,
AB again in a, ;8, y respectively, then A a, B/S, Cy meet in a
point on the circumscribed circle of the triangle ABO.
If
27.
ABC
Shew that the locus of the intersection of the polars of

28.
points in a given straight line with respect to two given
conies is a conic circumscribing their common self-conjugate
all
triangle.
Two
29.
conies have double contact
shew that the locus
of the poles with respect to one conic of the tangents to the
other
a conic which has double contact with both at their
is
common
30.
points.
Two
triangles are inscribed in a conic
shew that
their
six sides touch another conic.

31.
Two
shew that
triangles are self-polar with respect to a conic;
their six angular points are
on a second
conic,
and
that their six sides touch a third conic.

32.
If one triangle can be described self-polar to a given
conic and with its angular points on another given conic, an
infinite
number
of triangles can be so described.
33.
system of similar conies have a common self-conjugate triangle ; shew that their centres are on a curve of the 4th
degree which passes through the circular points at infinity and
of which the angular points of the triangle are double points.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XlH.

meet
BG\
C be six points
such that
AA\ BB\
in a point, then will the six straight lines
AB' AC\
If A, B, C,
34.
CC
313
A\ B\
BA', CA' and CB' touch a conic.
35.
conic is inscribed in a triangle and is such that
the normals at the points of contact meet in a point ; prove
that the point of concurrence describes a cubic curve whose
asymptotes are perpendicular to the sides of the triangle.
36.
If pj,
2^2'>
drawn from the
-?^3'
2î
^^^
lengths of the perpendiculars
vertices J, B, C, i) of a quadrilateral circum-
scribed about a conic on any other tangent to the conic,

that the ratio oip^j^s ^'^ 2^2p4 ^^^^ ^ constant.
shew
The polars with respect to any conic of the angular

37.
points A, B, G of a triangle meet the opposite sides in A', B\
shew that the circles on A A', BB\
as diameters have
;
a common radical axis.
CC
38.
A parabola
touches one side of a triangle in
its
middle
and the other two sides produced prove that the perpendiculars drawn from the angular points of the triangle
upon any tangent to the parabola are in harmonical propoint,
gression.
39.
Shew
that the
tangential equation
of the
scribing circle is a Jp + h Jq + c Ji' - 0.

Hence
tangential equation of the nine-point circle is
aJ{q+r) + hJ(r+2?) + cJ{p +

40.
triangle,
is
The
circum-
shew that the
q).
locus of the centre of a conic inscribed in a given

its axis constant,
and having the sum of the squares of
circle.
41.
The
director circles of
triangle are cut orthogonally
of reference
42.
all
same
which the triangle
conies inscribed in the
by the
circle to
is self-polar.
The
circles described
on the diagonals of a complete

by the circle round the
quadrilateral are cut orthogonally

triangle formed by the diagonals.
43.
If
three conies circumscribe the same quadrilateral,

to any two is cut harmonically
shew that a common tangent

by the third.
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
314
XIII.
If three conies are inscribed in the same quadrilateral

to two of them at a common point and the tantangents
the
gents to the third from that point form a harmonic pencil.
44.
The locus of a point the pairs of tangents from which

45.
two given conies form a harmonic pencil is a conic on which
lie the eight points in which the given conies touch their com-
to
m.on tangents.
to
The locus of a point from which the tangents drawn

46.
two equal circles form a harmonic pencil is a conic, which is
an ellipse if the circles cut at an angle less than a right angle,

and two parallel straight lines if thej cut at right angles.
triangle is circumscribed about one conic and two

47.
of its angular points are on a second conic; find the locus of the
third angular point.
48.
triangle
is
inscribed in one conic and two of its

find the envelope of the third side.
;
sides touch a second conic
The angular points of a triangle are on the sides of a

49.
given triangle, and two of its sides pass through fixed points
shew that the third side will envelope a conic.
From
the angular points of the fundamental triangle

drawn to {uvwu'vio'~^^yzf = 0, and each
Find
pair determine with the opposite sides a pair of points.
the equation to the conic on which these six points lie, and
shew that the conic
50.
pairs of tangents are
uu') + Jy (w'u' vv^) + ^z {u'v ww) =

above two conies have a common inscribed
sjx {v'w
and the
lateral.
quadri-
CHAPTER
Keciprocal Polars.
XIV.
Projections.
we have any figure consisting of any number

and straight lines in a plane, and we take the
polars of those points and the poles of the lines, with
respect to a fixed conic C, we obtain another figure which
300.
If
of points
called the polar reciprocal of the former with respect to

the auxiliary conic G.
When a point in one figure and a line in the reciprocal
figure are pole and polar with respect to the auxiliary
conic (7, we shall say that they correspond to one another.
If in one figure we have a curve
the lines which correspond to the different points of >S^ will all touch some curve
8'. Let the lines correspondiug to the two points P, Q of S
meet in T; then T is the pole of the line PQ with respect
to G, that is the line PQ corresponds to the point T. Now,
if the point Q move up to and ultimately coincide with P,
the two corresponding tangents to S' will also ultimately
coincide with one another, and their point of intersection
will ultimately be on the curve S\ So that, a tangent to
the curve 8 corresponds to a point on the curve >S^', just as
a tangent to 8' corresponds to a point on >S^. Hence we
see that 8 is generated from 8' exactly as 8' is from ^S'.
is
>Si
If any line L cut the curve 8 in any number of

301.
points P, Q, R...we shall have tangents to 8' corresponding
to the points P, Q, R..., and these tangents will all pass
through a point, viz. through the pole of L with respect to
the auxiliary conic. Hence as many tangents to 8' can be
drawn through a point as there are points on >S' lying on a
RECIPROCAL THEOREMS.
.316
straight line.
That is to say the class [Art. 240] of S' is
equal to the degree of S. Reciprocally the degree of S' is
equal to the class of B.
In particular, if >S^ be a conic it is of the second degree,
and of the second class. Hence the reciprocal curve is of
the second class, and of the second degree, and is therefore
also a conic.
To find
302.
the polar reciprocal
of one conic with
respect to another.
Let the equation of the auxiliary conic be

a^'
+ /3/ + l = 0.:
(i);
and let the equation of the conic whose reciprocal

required be
(ii).
ax" + 63/^ + c + 2/?/ + 2gx + ^hxy =
.
+ tny + = will touch (ii) if

AV + Bnt' + On- + 2Fmn + 2Gnl + 2Hhn = (iii).
And, if the pole of Ix + my + n = with respect to (i)
{Xy y'), its equation is the same as axx + ^y'y + 1=0.
= 7^-, =
Therefore
The
line Ix
?i
i)
CLx
Substitute, in
AoL^x""
Hence the
Ac^x''
(iii),
be
=-
py
and we have
+ B^y^ + (7 + 2i^/3/ +
tangents to
is
2G0.X
+ 2Hafixy' - 0.
locus of the poles with respect to

the conic whose equation is
(i)
of
(ii) is
+ B^Y + ^ + ^^Py + 2G0X-V 2Ha^xy =
0.
The method of Reciprocal Polars enables us to

803.
obtain from any given theorem concerning the positions of
points and lines, another theorem in which straight lines
take the place of points and points of straight lines. Before
proceeding to give examples of such reciprocal theorems we
will give some simple cases of correspondence.
Points in one figure correspond to straight lines in the
reciprocal figure.
The
line joining
two points in one figure corresponds
to the point of intersection of the corresponding lines in
the other.
RECIPROCAL THEOREMS.
317
The tangent to any curve in one figure corresponds to a

point on the corresponding curve in the reciprocal figure.
The point of contact of a tangent corresponds to the
tangent at the corresponding point.
If two curves touch, that is have two coincident points
common, the reciprocal curves will have two coincident
tangents common, and will therefore also touch.
The chord joining* two points corresponds to the point of
intersection of the corresponding tangents.
The chord of contact of two tangents corresponds to the
point of intersection of tangents at the corresponding
points.
Since the pole of any line through the centre of the

auxiliary conic is at infinity, we see that the points at
infinity on the reciprocal curve correspond to the tangents
to the original curve from the centre of the auxiliary conic.
Hence the reciprocal of d conic is an hyperbola, parabola,
or ellipse, according as the tangents to it from the centre
of the auxiliary conic are real, coincident, or imaginary
that is according as the centre of the auxiliary conic is
outside, upon, or within the curve.
The following are examples of reciprocal theorems.
If the
angular points of
triangles are
on a
tvvo
couic, their six
site sides of
a conic
lie
intersections of oppo-
a hexagon inscribed in
on a straight
If the three sides of a triangle
lar points lie
on a second
its
The three
lines joining opposite
angular points of a hexagon dea conic meet in a
scribed about
line.
{PascaVs Theorem).
touch a conic, and two of
the sides of two triangles
points are on another conic.
sides will touch another couic.
The three
If
touch a conic, their six angular
angu-
conic, the
locus of the third angular point
is
a conic.
{Brianchon''s Theorem).
point.
If the three
triangle lie
its sides
angular points of a
on a conic, and two of
touch a second conic, the
envelope of
third
the
side
If the sides of a triangle
touch
on a conic, the three points

and the
angle
angular point to the point of con-
of intersection of a side
point.
If the angular points of a tri-
a conic, the three lines joining an
tact of the opposite side
is
conic.
meet in a
lie
tangent at the
point
lie
on a
opposite
line.
angular
RECIPROCATION WITH RESPECT TO A CIRCLE.
.318
The
The
polars of a given point -with
respect to a system of conies through
poles of a given straight
four given points all pass through a
with respect to a system of

conies touching four given straight
fixed point.
lines all lie
The
line
locus of the pole of a given
line with
respect
to a system
conies through four fixed points
of
is
on a
fixed straight line.
The envelope
of the polar of a
given point with respect to a system
of conies touching four fixed lines
conic.
is
a conic.
304.
We now proceed to consider the results which
can be obtained by reciprocating with respect to a circle.
We know that the line joining the centre of a circle to
any point
is perpendicular to the polar of P with respect
to the circle.
Hence, if P, Q be any two points, the angle
between the polars of these points with respect to a circle
is equal to the angle that PQ subtends at the centre of
the circle.
Reciprocally the angle between any two
straight lines is equal to the angle which the line joining
their poles with respect to a circle subtends at the centre
of the circle.
We know
also that the distances, from the centre of

of any point and of its polar with respect to that
circle, are inversely proportional to one another.
If we reciprocate with respect to a circle it is clear that
a change in the radius of the auxiliary circle will make no
change in the shape of the reciprocal curve, but only in
circle,
Hence, if we are not concerned with the absolute

magnitudes of the lines in the reciprocal figure, we only
its size.
We
require to know the centre of the auxiliary circle.

may therefore speak of reciprocating with respect to a
point 0, instead of with respect to a circle having
for
centre.
305.
If any conic be reciprocated with respect to a
point 0, the points on the reciprocal curve which correspond to the tangents through
to the original curve
must be at an infinite distance.

The directions of the lines to the points
at infinity on
the reciprocal curve are perpendicular to the tangents

from
to the original curve and hence the angle between
;
RECIPROCATION WITH RESPECT TO A CIRCLE.

the asymptotes of the reciprocal curve
to the angle between the tangents from
is
319
supplementary
to the original
curve.
In particular, if the tangents from

to the original
curve be at right angles, the reciprocal conic will be a
rectangular hyperbola.
The axes of the reciprocal conic bisect the angles
between its asymptotes. The axes are therefore parallel
to the bisectors of the angles between the tangents from
to the original conic.
Corresponding to the points at infinity on the original
conic we have the tangents to the reciprocal conic which
pass through the origin.
Hence the tangents from the
origin to the reciprocal conic are perpendicular to the
directions of the lines to the points at infinity on the
original conic, so that the angle between the asymptotes of
the original conic is supplementary to the angle between
the tangents from the origin to the reciprocal conic.
In particular, if a rectangular hyperbola be reciprocated with respect to any point 0, the tangents from
to
the reciprocal conic will be at right angles to one another;
is a point on the director-circle of the
in other words
reciprocal conic.
The reciprocal of the origin is the line at infinity,

306.
and therefore the reciprocal of the polar of the origin is
the pole of the line at infinity.
That is to say, the polar
origin
reciprocates
the
into
the
centre of the reciprocal
of
conic.
Ak an example of reciprocation take the known
theorem *'If two of the conies which pass through four

307.
given points are rectangular hyperbolas, they will all be

rectang-ular hyperbolas."
If this be reciprocated with
respect to any point
we obtain the following, "If the
director-circles of two of the conies which touch four given
straight lines pass through a point 0, the director-circles
of all the conies will pass through 0." Whence we have
" The director-circles of all conies which touch four given
straight lines have a given radical axis."
EECIPROCAL OF A CIRCLE.
320
To find
308.
of one
the jôlar recij^rocal
circle luith
respect to another.
Let (7 be the centre and a be the radius of the circle

the centre and h the radius of the
be reciprocated,
auxiliary circle, and let c be the distance between the
centres of the two circles.
Let
be any tangent to the circle C, and let P' be
Let OP'
its pole with respect to the auxiliary circle.
perpenmeet the tangent in the point N, and draw
to
PN
CM
ON.
dicular to
OP\OF=J^';
Then
.-.
-^, = 0i\^=0ilf + i/iV = c
Hence the equation
of the locus of P'
a =
is
4-
'a
^
- cos^.
a
the conic
is
and -
for eccentricity.
^
the line whose equation
=G COS
C7,
or
Hence the
a.
is
the equation of a conic having
for semi-latus rectwni,
trix of
(70if+
This
cos
for focus,
The
direc-
is
directrix oF the reciprocal curve is the polar
of the centre of the original circle,
RECIPROCAL OF A CIRCLE.
321
It is clear from the value found above for the eccentricity,
the
is an ellipse if the point

an hyperbola if
be outside that
be upon the circumference of
that the reciprocal curve
be within the circle

circle, and a parabola
C,
if
circle.
Ex.
Tangents
1.
to
a conic subtend equal angles at a focus.
Reciprocate with respect to the focus
two tangents to the
conic, there are
then
corresponding to the
two points on a
circle
the point of
Hne joining
and the points of contact of the tangents
to the conic correspond to the tangents at the points on the circle. Also
the angle subtended at the focus of the conic by aii^ two points is equal
to the angle between the hnes corresponding to those two points.
Hence
the reciprocal theorem is The line joining two points on a circle makes
intersection of the tangents to the conic corresponds to the
the two points on the circle
equal angles with the tangents at those points.
Ex.
The envelope of
2.
angle at a fixed point
with respect
is
the chord of a conic
a conic having
to the original conic,
which subtends a right
for a focus, and the polar of 0,
for the corresponding directrix.
Reciprocate with respect to 0, and the proposition becomes
The
locus of the point of intersection of tangents to a conic which are at right
angles to one another
Ex.
is
a concentric
If two conies have a
3.
circle.
common focus two of

,
their
common chords
will pass through the intersection of their directrices.
Reciprocate with respect to the common focus, and the proposition

becomes Two of the points of intersection of the common tangents to
two circles are on the line joining the centres of the circles.
Ex.
4.
The orthocentre of a
triangle circumscribing a parabola is on
the directrix.
Reciprocating with respect to the orthocentre
we obtain
circumscribing a triangle and passing through the orthocentre
is
conic
a rect-
angular hyperbola.
Many
tion
is
circles are described
second
the
of the examples on Chapter VIII. are easily proved by reciproca-
for example, the reciprocal of 23 with respect to the
circle
sum and
prove that they
S. C. S.
all
touch two fixed
whose radii are

moving circle and
circles,
difference respectively of the radii of the
of the second circle,
oonunon focus
with equal radii, and with their centres on a
and which are concentric with the second
circle.
21
EECIPROCAL OF CONFOCAL CONICS.
322
If
309.
radical axis
we have a system of circles with the same

we can reciprocate them into a system of
confocal conies.
If we reciprocate with respect to any point
we
obtain a system of conies having
for one focus, and
[Art. 306] the centre of any conic is the reciprocal of the
polar of
with respect to the corresponding circle. Now
either of the two 'limiting points' of the system is such
that its polar with respect to any circle of the system is
a fixed straight line, namely a line through the other
limiting point parallel to the radical axis. If therefore the
system of circles be reciprocated with respect to a limiting
point the reciprocals will have the same centre and if
they have a common centre and one common focus they
will be confocal.
Since the radical axis is parallel to and
midway between a limiting point and its polar, the reciprocal of the radical axis (with respect to the limiting
point) is on the line through the focus and centre of the
reciprocal conies, and is twice as far from the focus as the
centre so that when we reciprocate a system of coaxial
circles with respect to a limiting point, the radical axis
reciprocates into the other focus of the system of confocal
;
conies.
The
following theorems are reciprocal
The tangents
at
common
point of two confocal conies are at
The points
mon
of contact of a corn-
tangent to two circles subtend
a right angle at one of the limit-
right angles.
ing points.
The locus
The envelope
of the point of inter-
section of two lines, each of
which
of the line joining
touches one of two confocal conies,
two points, each of which is on one

of two circles, and which subtend
and which are
a right angle at a limiting point,
one another,
is
at right angles to
circle.
is
a conic one of whose foci
is
at
the limiting point.

If
from any point two pairs of
tangents P, P' and Q, Q' he drawn

to two confocal conies the angle
;
and Q is equal
between P' and Q',
between
to that
any
If
straight
the
line
points
cut
two
P, P' and
circles
in
Q, Q'
the angles subtended at a
limiting point
equal.
by
PQ
and P'Q' are
323
PROJECTION.
From any
P, P' and
drawn
to
two
confocal conies, and the point of
contact of
is
joined to the points
of contact of Q, Q'
make
lines
shew that these
equal angles with the
tangent P.
Any
point four tau gents
Q, Q' are
line cuts
P' and Q,
two
circles in
Q' respectively
tangent at
Q, Q' in q,
P,
and the
cuts the tangents at
q';
shew that Pq, Pq'
subtend equal (or supplementary)

angles at a limiting point,
[Art. 229.]
Projection.
be joined to a fixed point V, and

If any point
be cut by any fixed plane in P\ the point P' is called
is called
on that plane. The point
the projection of
the vertex or the centre of projection^ and the cutting plane
is called the j^lane of projection.
310.
VP
311.
The projection of any straight
line is
a straight
line.
For the straight lines joining V to all the points of

any straight line are in a plane, and this is cut by the
plane of projection in a straight
line.
Any plane curve is projected into a curve of the

312.
degree.
For, if any straight line meet the original curve in
any number of points A, B, G, D..., the projection of the
line will meet the projection of the curve where VA, VB.
There will
VC, VD... meet the plane of projection.
therefore be the same number of points on a straight
This proves the
line in the one curve as in the other.
same
proposition.
is a conic.
This proposition includes the geometrical theorem that
every plane section of a right circular cone is a conic.
In particular, the projection of a conic
313.
tangent to a curve projects into a tangent
to
the projected curve.
For, if a straight line meet a curve in two points A, B,

the projection of that line will meet the projected curve
in two points a, h where VA, VB meet the plane of projection.
Now
if
and
B coincide,
so also will
a and
212
6.
PROJECTION.
324
The relation of
314.
jiole
and
-polar with respect to
conic are unaltered hy projection.
This follows from the two preceding Articles.

two conjugate points, or two conwith
respect
to a conic, project into conjugate
lines,
jugate
points, or lines, with respect to the projected conic.
It is also clear that
Draw through the vertex a plane parallel to the

315.
plane of projection, and let it cut the original plane in the
Then, since the plane VK'L' and the plane of
line K'L'.
projection are parallel, their line of intersection, which is
the projection ofjL'L', is at an iniinite distance.
Hence to project any particular straight line K'L' to
for vertex and
an infinite distance, take any point
a plane parallel to the plane VK'L' for the plane of pro-
jection.
Straight lines which meet in any point on the line

will be projected into parallel straight lines, for their
point of intersection will be projected to infinity.
K'L'
A system of parallel lines on the original plane

be projected into lines which meet in a point.
For, let VP be the line through the vertex parallel
being on the plane of projection; then,
to the system,
since VP is in the plane through V and any one of the
parallel lines, the projection of ever}^ one of the parallel
lines will pass through P.
For different systems of parallel lines the point P will
change but, since VP is always parallel to the original
plane, the point P is always on the line of intersection of
the plane of projection and a plane through the vertex
316.
will
parallel to the original plane.
Hence any system of parallel lines on the original

plane is projected into a system of lines passing through
a point, and all such points, for different systems of
parallel lines, are
on a straight
line.
317.
Let KL be the line of intersection of the original
plane and the plane of projection. Draw through the
vertex a plane parallel to the plane of projection, and let
PROJECTION.
325
cut the original plane in the line K' L'

Let the two
straight lines AOA', BOB' meet the lines KL, K' L' in
the points A,
and A' B' respectively; and let VO meet
the plane of projection in
Then AO' and BO' are the
projections of AOA' and BOB'.
it
Since the planes VA'B', AO'B are parallel, and parallel

planes are cut by the same plane in parallel lines, the lines
VA',
are parallel respectively to AO' BO'
The angle
A'
is therefore equal to the angle AO'B, that is, A'
is equal to the angle into which
is projected.
VB
VB
VB
AOB
Similarly, if the straight lines CD, ED, meet K'L' in

C, D' respectively, the angle
VD' will be equal to the
angle into which ODE is projected.
From
the above we obtain the fundamental proposition

in the theory of projections, viz.,
Any
same
straight line can he projected to infinity,

time any two angles into given angles.
and
at the
For, let the straight lines bounding the two angles meet
the line which is to be projected to infinity in the points
826
PROJECTION.
draw any plane through A'B'C'I)\ and in

and C\
that plane draw segments of circles through A\ B' and C,
D' respectively containing angles equal to the two given
A', B'
Either of
angles.
the points of
of these
intersection
segments of circles may be taken for the centre of projection, and the plane of projection must be taken parallel
to the plane we have drawn through A' B'C'D'.
If the segments do not meet, the centre of projection
imaginary.
Ex.
Let
To shew that any quadrilateral can he projected into a square.

be the quadrilateral and let P, Q [see figure to Art. 60]
1.
ABCD
be the points of intersection of a pair of opposite sides, and

nals
PQ
AC meet the
BD,
line
PQ
in the points S, B.
and
at the
infinity, the pairs of opposite sides of the projection will
the projection
is to say,
is
a parallelogram
is
a right angle
hence the projection
Ex.
2.
also
BOS
is
the diago-
if vre
project
into right
projected to
be parallel, that
one of the angles of the
a right angle, and the angle between the diagonals
parallelogram
;
let
Then,
same time the angles PDQ and

the projection must be a square. For, since PQ
to infinity
angles,
is
To shew that
is
is
a square.
formed by the diagonals of a quadany conic lohich touches the sides of
the triangle
rilateral is self-polar ivith respect to

the quadrilateral.
Project the quadrilateral into a square; then, the circle circumscribing
the square
is
the director- circle of the conic, therefore the intersection of
the diagonals of the square
Now
is
the centre of the conic.
the polar of the centre
is
the line at infinity
the point of intersection of two of the diagonals
Ex.
3.
is
hence the polar of
the third diagonal
If a conic he inscribed in a quadrilateral the
line joining
two
of the points of contact will pass through one of the angular points of the
triangle formed hy the diagonals of the quadrilateral.
Ex. 4. If ABC he a triangle circumscribing a parabola, and the

parallelograms ABA'C, BCB'A, and CAC'B he completed ; then the chords
of contact will pass respectively through A', B', C.
This
is
a particular case of Ex.
3,
one side of the quadrilateral being
the line at infinit3\
Ex. 5. If the three lines joining the angular points of two triangles
meet in a point, the three points of intersection of corresponding sides will
lie
on a straight
line.
ANY CONIC PROJECTED INTO A
CIRCLE.
82?
Project two of the points of intersection of corresponding sides to

infinity,
then two pairs of corresponding sides will be parallel, and
it is
easy to shew that the third pair will also be parallel.
Ex.
Any
6.
tioo conies
can he projected into concentric conies.
[See
Art. 283.]
Any
318.
conic can he ijrojected into a circle having
of any given point for
the projection
centre.
Let
be the point whose projection is to be the
centre of the projected curve.
Let
be any point on the polar of 0, and let OQ be
the polar of P; then OP and OQ are conjugate lines.
Take OP'
another pair of conjugate lines.
Then project the polar of
to infinity, and the angles
POQ, P'OQ' into right angles.
shall then have a
conic whose centre is the projection of 0, and since two
pairs of conjugate diameters are at right angles, the conic
is a circle.
OQ
We
319.
A system of conies inscribed in a quadrilateral
can he projected into confocal conies.
Let two of the sides of the quadrilateral intersect

in the point A, and the other two in the point B.
Draw
any conic through the points A, B, and project this conic
being projected to infinity; then,
into a circle, the line
A,
are projected into the circular points at infinity, and
since the tangents from the circular points at infinity to
AB
EXAMPLES.
328
the conies of the system are the same, the conies must
all
be confocal.
Ex.
1.
Conies through four given points can be projected into coaxial
circles.
For, project the line joining two of the points to infinity, and one of
the conies into a circle

for they all go
Ex.
2.
then
all
the conies will be projected into
through the circular points at
Conies
circles,
infinity.
have double contact with one another can be
lohich
projected into concentric circles.
Ex.
3.
The
three points of intersection of opposite sides of
inscribed in a conic
lie
on a straight
Project the conic into a
circle,
and the
line joining the points of inter-
section of two pairs of opposite sides to infinity
that
if
two
paii-s of
a liexagon
[Pascal's Theorem.]
line.
then we have to prove
opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a circle are
parallel, the third pair are also parallel.
Ex.
4.
Shew
that all conies through four fixed points can be pro-
jected into rectangular hyperbolas.
There are three pairs of lines through the four points, and
if
two of
the angles between these pairs of lines be projected into right angles, all
the conies will be projected into rectangular hyperbolas. [Art. 187, Ex.
Ex.
5.
Any
three chords of
a conic can
1.]
be projected into equal chords
of a circle.
Let AA', BB',
A'G in L.
Ex.
6.
CC
be the chords
AB', A'B meet in K, and
let
Project the conic into a circle,
KL being
AC,
projected to infinity.
If two triangles are self polar tvith respect
to
a conic, their six
angular points are on a conic, and their six sides touch a conic.
Let the triangles be ABC, A'B'C.

conic into a circle; then
is
Project
BG
to infinity,
and the
projected into the centre of the circle, and
ABC is
AB,
AC are
self
polar with respect to the circle,
at right angles, since
is
self
polar; also, since
A'B'C
is
the orthocentre of the triangle
A'B'C.
Now a rectangular hyperbola through A', B', C will pass through A,

and a rectangular hyi)erbola through B will go through C. Hence, since
a rectangular hyperbola can be drawn through any four points, the six
points A, B, C, A', B', C are on a conic.
Also a parabola can be drawn to touch the four straight lines B'C,
CA', A'B', AB. And A is on the directrix of the parabola [Art. 107 (3)]
therefore ^ C is a tangent.
Hence a conic touches the six sides of the
two triangles.

CROSS EATIOS UNALTERED BY PROJECTION.
329
Properties of a figure which are true for any pro820.

jection of that figure are called projective properties.
In
general such properties do not involve magnitudes. There
are however some projective properties in which the magnitudes of lines and angles are involved the most important of these is the following
:
The
cross ratios of pencils
and ranges are unaltered
hy projection.
A\
Let A, B, C, D be four points in a straight line, and

B', C, D' be their projections.
Then, if V be the
VAA', VBB\ VCC,
centre of projection,
and we have
lines;
Fi)i)' are straight
[Art. 55]
[ABCD] = V[ABCD} =
{A'B'G'D'}.
If we have any pencil of four straight lines meeting in

and
these be cut by any transversal in A, B, C, D then
0,
;
[ABCD] = {ABCD] = V{ABCD] =
{A'B'G'D']
= 0' {A'B'G'D'].
From the above together with Article 62 it follows that

if any number of points be in involution, their projections
will be in involution.
Ex.
1.
Any chord
of a conic through a given point
is
divided
harmonically hy the curve and the polar of 0.

Project the polar of
tion, the
chord therefore
to infinity, then
is
bisected in 0,
is
the centre of the projec-
and {POQcc
is
harmonic when
PO=OQ.
Ex.
2.
Conies through four fixed points are cut by any straight line
in pairs of points in involution.
[Desargue's Theorem].
Project two of the points into the circular points at infinity, then the
conies are projected into co-axial circles, and the proposition
321.
The
cross
is
obvious.
ratio of the pencil formed by four

equal to that of the range
intersecting straight lines is
formed by
their poles with respect to
any
conic.
Since the cross ratios of pencils and ranges are

unaltered by projection, we may project the conic into a
circle.
Now in a circle any straight line is perpendicular
to the line joining the centre of the circle to its pole wdth
ANHARMONIC PROPERTIES OF
S30
CONICS.
Hence the cross ratio of the pencil

respect to the circle.
intersecting
formed by four
straight lines is equal to that
of the pencil subtended at the centre of the circle by their
poles, and therefore equal to the cross ratio of the range
formed by their poles.
The
cross ratio of the pencil fornned hy joining

on a conic to four fixed points is constant, and
is equal to that of the range in which the tangents at those
points are cut by any tangent.
322.
any
jyoint
Since the cross ratios of pencils and ranges are unaltered by projection, we need only prove the proposition
for a circle.
Let A, B, C,
he four fixed points on a circle let F
other
point
on
the circle, and let the tangent at P
be any
meet the tangents a^t A, B, C, D in the points A\ B\ C, D'.
Then,
dicular to
if
be the centre of the
PA, OB' to PB,
OC
to
circle,
OA'
PG, and OD'
is
to
perpen-
PR
Hence
= P [ABGD].
APB, BPC, GPD are constant,
{A'B'C'I)'}=
But the angles

A, B,
G,
Therefore
[A'B'G'U]
since
are fixed points.
{A'B' G'U]
= P [ABGD] = const.
Q be any point which is not on the circle, Q {ABGP}

cannot be equal to P [ABGD]
this is seen at once if we
If
take
such that
AP
(/ is
a straight
line,
and consider the
ANHARMONIC PROPERTIES OF
BG
ranges made on
by the two pencils.
the following converse proposition.
CONICS.
331
Hence we have
If a point P move so that the ciôss ratio of the pencil

formed by joining it to four fixed points A, B, C, D, is constant ; P will describe a conic passing through A, B, C, D.
Ex.
The four extremities of two conjugate chords of a conic subtend

a harmonic pencil at any point on the curve.
1.
Let the chords be
A C, BD
point of intersection of AC,
let
BD.
be the pole of BD, and
The
let
F be
the
four points subtend, at all points
on the curve, pencils of equal cross ratio. Take a point indefinitely near
D; then the pencil is D {ABCE}. But the range A, B, G, E is
harmonic, which proves the proposition.
to
Ex.
2.
If two triangles circumscribe a conic, their six angular points
are on another conic.
Let ABC, A'B'C be the two triangles. Let B'C cut AB, AC in E', D',
and let BC cut A'B', A'C in E,I). Then the ranges made on the four
tangents AB, AC, A'B', A'C by the two tangents BG, B'C are equal.
{BGED} = {E'D'B'C}
Hence
.-.
or
A'{BCEI)} = A{E'D'B'C\,
A' {BGB'C} = A{BCB'C],
which proves the proposition.
The proposition may

circular points at infinity
which A
A'B'C
is
also
;
the focus; and
will pass
be proved by projecting
the conic
it
is
is
JB,
into the
thus projected into a parabola, of
known
that the circle circumscribing
through A.
Def. Kanges and pencils are said to be homo323.

graphic when every four constituents of the one, and the
corresponding four constituents of the other, have equal
cross ratios.
Another definition of homographic ranges or pencils is

the following
two ranges or pencils are said to be homographic which are so connected that to each point or line
of the one system corresponds one, and only one, point of
the other.
To show that this definition of homographic ranges is
equivalent to the former, let the distances, measured from
fixed points, of any two corresponding points of the two
:
HOMOGRAPHIC RANGES AND PENCILS.
832
systems
\)Q x,
then we must have an equation of the
form
_ay + h
a
The proposition follows from the
cy
-\-
ratio of every four points of the
is
not altered
we
if
fact that the cross

one system, namely
substitute
cy^
expressions for
Ex.
x^, x^
and
7
-i-
for x.
and similar
x^.
The points of intersection of corresponding
1.
two homo-
lines of
graphic pencils describe a conic.
Let P, Q, R, S be four of the points of intersection, and 0, 0' the

vertices of the pencils.
{PQBS] = 0'{PQRS]; therefore [Art. 322] 0, 0', P, Q, R, S

But five points are sufficient to determine a conic; hence
the conic through 0, 0' and any three of the intersections will pass through
Then
are on a conic.
every other intersection.
Ex.
The
2.
of two homographic
lines joining corresponding points
ranges envelope a conic.
Let
a, b, c,
dhe any
four of the points of one system, and
Then
be the corresponding points of the other system.
a', b', c
d'
aa', bb', cc', dd'
Hence a conic
But five tangents are
hence the conic which touches the fixed
are cut by the fixed lines in ranges of equal cross ratio.

will
touch the fixed
sufficient to
lines,
touch
lines,
also aa',
determine a conic
and three of the
lines joining corresponding points of the ranges, will
3.
Tivo angles
PAQ, PBQ
fixed points A, B, and the point

describes
bb', cc', dd'.
the others.
all
Ex.
and
a conic through A, B.
of constant magnitude move about
describes a straight line;
shew that
[Newton.]
Corresponding to one position of AQ, there is one, and only one,

BQ. Hence, from Ex. 1, the locus of ^ is a conic.
position of
Ex.
4.
The three
extremities of
describes
its
conic.
sides of a triangle pass through fixed points,
base lie on tioo fixed straight lines
[Maclaurin.]
shew that
and
its
the
vertex
EXAMPLES.
Let A, B,
Che
the three fixed points, and
let
Oa, Oa' be the two fixed
Suppose triangles drawn as in the
straight lines.
Then the ranges

fore the pencils
Ex.
333
figure.
ccl
and {a'b'c'd'...) are homographic.

and C {a'b'c'd'... are homographic.
There-
{abed...}
{abed...}
If all the sides of a polygon pass through fixed points^ and all
move on fixed straight lines; the remaining
5.
the angular points but one
angular point
tvill
describe
a conic.
A and A' pairs of

drawn to any confocal conic, which meet the original conic in
and C, D'; shew that the locus of the point of intersection of CD
Ex.
A, A' are fixed points on a conic, and from
6.
tangents are
C,
and CD'
is
conic.
The tangents from ^
to a confocal are equally inclined to the tangent
chord CD cuts the tangent at A in

Ex. 2]. So also CD' passes through a
fixed point 0'.
Now if we draw any line OCD through 0, one confocal,
and only one, will touch the hnes AC, AD; and the tangents from A' to
at
some
[Art. 228, Cor. 3], therefore the
fixed point
[Art. 195,
position of
OCD
there
locus of the intersection
is
is
and D', so that corresponding to any

and only one, position of O'C'D'
The
therefore a conic from Ex. 1.
this confocal will determine
one,
Ex. 7. If ADA', BOB', COC, DOD' ... be chords of a conic, andP any
point on the curve, then icill the pencils P {ABCD...} and P {A'B'C'D'...
be homographic.
Project the conic into a circle haying
for centre.
PROJECTION OF ANGLES.
334
Ex. 8. If there are two systems of points on a conic which subtend

homographic pencils at any point on the curve, the lines joining corresponding points of the tuo systems will envelope a conic having double
contact with the original conic.
Let A, B, C, D...
Project AA', BB',
and
CC into
A', B',
C, D' ... be the two systems
P, P' he any pair of corresponding points, and
then we have
{ABCP} = 0{A'B'C'P'}.
therefore the envelope of
Ex.
9.
PP'
is
any point on the
Hence PP'
Any
two lines at right angles
form a harmonic
loill be
its sides
but one
a conic.
8.
the lines through their intersection

,
circle
equal to AA', and
If a polygon he inscribed in a conic, and all
This follows from Ex. 7 and Ex.
infinity
is
5]; let
a concentric circle.
pass through fixed points, the envelope of that side
324.
of points.
equal chords of a circle [Art. 319, Ex.
and
to
one another, and
the circular f)oints at
pencil.
Let the two lines at rio^ht ano^les to one another be

xy = 0, then the lines to the circular points at infinity will
be given by x^ 4- y'^ = 0. By Art. 58 these two pairs of
lines are harmonically conjugate.
We may also shew that two lines which are inclined at

any constant angle, and the lines to the circular points at
infinity, form a pencil of constant cross ratio.
Ex.
The locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to a conic which divide a given line
harmonically
is a conic through A, B, and the envelope of the chord of
contact is a conic which touches the tangents to the original
conic from A, B.
AB
Project A, B into the circular points at infinity and

the proposition becomes the locus of the point of intersection of two tangents to a conic which are at right angles
to one another is a circle and the envelope of the chord of
contact is a confocal conic.
:
325.
The
following are additional examples of the
methods of reciprocation and projection.
EXAMPLES.
Ex.
1.
335
If the sides of a triangle touch a conic, and if two of the angular
points move on fixed confocal conies, the third angular point will describe a
confocal conic.
ABC, A'B'C be two indefinitely near positions of the triangle,

A A', BB' CC produced form the triangle PQR. The six points
Let
and
let
A, B, C, A', B',
are on a conic [Art. 322, Ex.
ultimately touch the sides of
BC will meet
pencils
PQB
2],
and
in the points A, B, C.
in a point [Art. 186, Ex. 3]
A{QCPB}, B{RAQC}, C{PBBA}
and
it is
this conic will

'H.enee
PA, QB,
easily seen that the
are harmonic.
Now,
if
A move
on a conic confocal to that which AB, AC touch, the tangent at A, that

is the line QR, will make equal angles with AB, AC.
Hence, since
A{QCPB} is harmonic, PA is perpendicular to QR. Similarly, if B
move on a confocal, QB is perpendicular to RP. Hence RC must be
perpendicular to PQ, and therefore CA, GB make etxual angles with PQ;
whence it follows that C ruoves on a confocal conic.
[The proposition can easily be extended.
lateral circumscribing a conic,
and
let
A, B,
For, let
ABCD
C move on
be a quadri-
confocals.
Let
DA, CB meet inE, and AB, DC in F. Then, by considering the triangles

ABE, BCF, we see that E and F move on confocals. Hence, by considering the triangle CED, we see that D vsdll move on a confocal.]
If
we
reciprocate with respect to a focus
we obtain the following
theorem
If the angular points of a triangle are on a circle of a co-axial system,
tico of the sides touch circles of the system, the third side will touch
and
another circle of the system.
Ex.
2.
The
[Poncelet's theorem.]
six lines joining the angular points of a triangle to the
points where the opposite sides are cut by a conic, will touch another
conic.
The
to
reciprocal theorem is
The six points of intersection of the sides of a triangle with the tangents
a conic drawn from the opposite angular points, will lie on another
conic.
Project two of the points into the circular points at infinity, then the
opposite angular point of the triangle will be projected into a focus,
we have the obvious theorem

TiDo
lines
and
through a focus of a conic are cut by pairs of tangents:
parallel to them in four points on a circle.
EXAMPLES.
336
Ex.
3.
(i)
Two
Tlie following theorems are deducible
from one another.
lines at right angles to one another are tangents one to
each
of two confocal conies; shew that the locus of their intersection is a circle,
and that the envelope of the line joining their points of contact is another
confocal.
(ii)
Tivo points, one on each of tioo co-axial circles, subtend a right
angle at a limiting point; shew that the envelope of the line joining them
is
a conic with one focus at the limiting point, and that the locus of the ina co-axial circle.
(iii)
Ttco lines which are tangents one to each of two conies, cut a
tersection of the tangents at the points is
diagonal of their circumscribing quadrilateral harmonically ; shew that

the locus of the intersection of the lines is a conic through the extremities
of that diagonal, and that the envelope of the line joining the points of
contact is a conic inscribed in the same quadrilateral.
(iv)
AOB, COD
are
common chords of
one on each conic, such that
of the line
PQ
is
0{APBQ}
is
tivo conies,
andP, Q
are points,
Tiarmonic; shew that the envelope
a conic touching AB, CD, and that the tangents at P,
meet on a conic through A, B, C, D.

If two points be taken, one on each of two circles, equidistant from
axis, the envelope of the line joining them is a parabola which
radical
their
radical
axis, and the locus of the intersection of the tangents at
touches the
(v)
the points is a circle through their
common points.
Examples on Chapter XIY.
Shew that an hyperbola

1.
respect to the conjugate hyperbola.
is
its
own
reciprocal with
Shew that a system of conies through four fixed points

2.
can be reciprocated into concentric conies.
Shew that four conies can be described having a common

3.
focus and passing through three given points, and that the
latus rectum of one of these is equal to the sum of the latera
Shew also that their directrices meet
recta of the other three.
two and two on the sides of the triangle.
4.
If each of twô conies be reciprocated with respect to
the other
shew that the two
have a common
conies
self-conjugate triangle.
and the two reciprocals
EXAMPLES.
337
Two
conies Z, and L^ are reciprocals with respect to a

If J/j be the reciprocal of L^ with respect to L and
J/g be the reciprocal of L^ with respect to L^ ; shew that J/^
5.
conic
and
XJ.
J/^
^1^
reciprocals with respect to U.
6.
If two pairs of conj ugate rays of a pencil in involution
be at right angles, every pair will be at right angles.
If two pairs of points in an involution have the same

7.
point of bisection, every pair will have the same point of bisecWhere is the centre of the involution ?
tion.
The pairs of tangents from any point to a system of

which touch four fixed straight lines form a pencil in
involution.
Hence shew that the director circles of the system
8.
conies
Two
9.
circles
and their centres

any point.
of similitude subtend a
pencil in involution at
10.
If two finite lines be divided into the same
number
of
parts, the lines joining corresponding points will envelope a
parabola.
11.
If P, P' be corresponding points of two homographic
ranges on the lines OA, OA', and the parallelogram POP' Q be
completed ; shew that the locus of ^ is a conic.
1 2.
Three conies have two points common ; shew that the
three lines joining their other intersections two and two meet
in a point, and that any line through tliat point is cut by the
conies in six points in involution.
Shew that, if the three points of intersection of corre13.

sponding sides of two triangles lie on a straight line, the two
triangles can both be projected into equilateral triangles.
14.
Shew
that any three
angles
may
be projected into
right angles.
A, B, C are three fixed points on a conic ; find

15.
geometrically a point on the curve at which AP,
subtend
equal angles.
PC
16.
any line is drawn cutting
the sides of a given triangle in A', P\
respectively, and
is
the point on the line siich that [A'P'C'P] is harmonic; shew
that the locus of
is a conic.
S. C. S.
22
EXAMPLES.
838
17.
pencil,
is
When four conies pass through four given points, the

formed by the polars of any point with respect to them,
of constant cross ratio.
If two angles, each of constant magnitude, turn about

manner that the point of intersection
of two of their sides is on a conic through the vertices, the
other two sides Avill intersect on a second conic through their
18.
their vertices, in such a
vertices.
If all the angular points of a polygon move on fixed

and all the sides but one turn about fixed points,
the free side of the polygon will envelope a conic.
19.
straight lines,
20.
If a polygon be circumscribed to a conic,
angular points but one lie on fixed straight

that angular point will be a conic.
lines,
and
all its
the locus of
APPENDIX.
ANSWERS
TO THE EXAMPLES.
&c.
CHAPTEK
Pq{x -
Ads.
3.
+{ - l)^p^{y another.
5.
a)"^
- p-^îx -
=0.
4.
Take OA, OB
Since
h, k respectively.
a)""-^
The
by^
II.
{y-b)+p^{x-ay^-'^
make
lines
and
for axes,
AP = c .BQ, we
let
have
{ij
-h^ - ...-
equal angles with one
OA, OB, OP, OQhe a, h,

h-a = c{k-i). If [x, y)
PQ, 2x = h, 2y = k; whence required locus is

Take the fixed lines for axes and let P be {x, y) and
Q be {x', y'). Then x' x + yco?,(j), y' =y + xcoso}. Find x and y in
terms of x and y', and substitute in the equation of the locus of P.
8.
Use polar co-ordinates with
for pole.
10.
The equations of AB,
AD, BG, CD are ^ = 0, 6 = a, rsin (^- a) + asina = 0, and rsin^ = &sina;
where a, b are the lengths of AB and AD, and a is the angle BAD.
be middle point
2x ~a = c{2y - b).
7.
The equation
AC
of
of
is
= tan~i
and
of
+ o cos a
Ans. 7y-Bx-19=0,
BD
is
rasing
a.
-a6sina + 6rsin(a-^)=0.
14.
7a; + 3j/-33 = 0,
Ty- 3a; +10 = 0, and 7x + 3t/-4 = 0.
15. If the base be taken as axis
of X, the sum of the positive angles the sides make with it is constant.
{x - c) {x - d)
y^ + {x-a){x-b)
Xtn
rru
r
-^
^ +
of the locus is
16.
The equation
4.i
y''^
'--^
'
a-0
The
points are on the axis of x and
origin.
18.
The
a, h, c,
equation of the locus
d are their distances from the
- a')xy +
is (a
-a
l{x
a) {x
- a') = 0, where
is axis of x, the other given line the axis of y, and OA = a, OB = a',

and I the intercept on axis of y. 21. The bisectors of the angles between
AB
the two pairs of straight lines coincide [Art. 39].
4:
{ha'- h'a)
of question
2.
equation, viz.
[h'b
liV).
26.
The
23.
This
is
result easily follows
m tan 3^ + 1 = 0.
22. Ans. [ab' ~a'b)^
reduced to the preceding by means
from the polar form of the
If the straight lines be
29.
^-^
y=mx, and y=mox; we have k^=^^
hh^
y m-^x,
iv^
222
^"*
APPENDIX.
340
ay^ + t>y^x + cyx^ + dx^ â{y ~ m-^x) {y - m^x) {y - m^x) and (1 + m-^^) (1 + vu^)
(1 + m^^) = 1 + (7?ij + m^ + m^)^ - 2 {in-^m^ + m^m^ + ni^vi-^ + {m^m^ + m^m^
,
30. The equation of any pair of perpendicular lines

whence the result.
Hence given equation must be equivalent to (Ex + Fy)
is x^ + \xy - y^ = 0.
{x^ + \xy-y^) = 0, so that E = A, F= -D, F+\E = BB, and \F-E=SC.
The
33.
Let A, B,
34.
are ax^ + 2hxy
lines
be
+ by^-^,{a'x^ + 2h'xy + bY) =

and
(a^, Jj), {a^, 63)
(a.3,
63)
and A\
[Art. 38].
C be
B',
[a^, /Sj),
The equations of the three perpendiculars from A', B', C on

the sides of ABC are x (a^ - a^ + y (^2 ~ ^3) ~ 'î (S ~ ^3) ~ iî (^2 ~ ^3) = ^ (1)
% (ag - ttj) + 2/ (63 - h^) - Og (ag - i) - J82 (^3 - &i) =
(2), and x{a^- a^
{a, jSg), (03, /Sg).
+ y {\-K) - aîa^- a^) - ^3{b-^-h^) = (3). If (1), (2), (3) meet m a point
sum of the constants is zero, and this sum can be written in
the symmetrical form ajttg - aâ^ + aâ^ - OgOg + aâi fljag + Sj/Sj '" Â
the
CHAPTEE
4.
(-a,
6.
The
IV.
-2a{l+n^) x = 0, where
locus is {l-ii^) (x^+y'^ + a^)
7.
{a,
0),
x = 0.
Ans.2x2+2i/2 + 2a!+62/ + l=0.
common
two points A, B. The

kn^. x^ + y^ \-2dx + 2ey +f{Ax + By) = 0.
0) are the
radical axis is
^2
See Art. 38.
8.
and
line or of the circle.
10. Substitute
If a
12.
for
common
r in the polar equation of the
tangent,
PQ,
of two of the circles
cut the radical axis in 0, the tangents from
to all the other circles of
the system, including the limiting
be equal to
circles, will
the limiting points are on a circle on PQ, as diameter.
OP;
13.
If
therefore
one
circle
must cut in imaginary points,

(1)
therefore h is positive; (2) the centres must be on the same side of the
radical axis, therefore a and a' have the same sign.
15. See Art. 86.
is
within the other,
the radical axis
We may take
19.
a;cosa + 2/sma-a=:0, x cos

for the equations of the sides.
diculars from
{x, y) is
coefficients of x^
and
/
(
27r\
-l
+y sm
The sum
simi of squares of
27r\
[a-\
xy
is
-a = ^0,
&c.
of the squares of. the perpen-
left sides
y^ are equal, since cos 2a + cos
also the coefficient of
zero, since sin 2a
and in
2[a-l
+ sin 2
this
sum
the
)+....=0;
H
J
....
=0.
ANSWEKS TO THE EXAMPLES.
341
- + - = 2, (h, k) being the point through which PQ passes. 21. If P

X y
be any point on the circle, and A^Bihe ends of a diameter, PA'^+PB'^=AB^ ;
20.
Eliminate
22.
express this in polar co-ordinates.

o
their intersection, are equal to
one another.
must
axis
on
intersect
the radical
x^ + y^-2by
0),
The
{b^
8/2
For straight lines,

0) is x'^ + y^-2by -a^ = 0.
33, Take x'^ + y^- 2ax = 0,
29.
must be the
The equation
+ 2x1/ cos J. -
The equation
35.
x^+{ya)^-^{b cf.
bisectors touch the circles
circles.
lines
If given
27.
+ c-){x' + y^ + a^) + 2a{b--c^)x4.abcy = {x'^ + y--a^'f.
of the required circle
a;2+
Two
to y=xtsiTi6, the equation
for the equations of the circles.
of the locus is
The given
26.
the cu'cles.
of
and tangents are parallel

of the locus is y^ + 2xy cot 6 -x^ + a^ = 0.
A + B + C = 0. 31. Any circle through (a,
The orthogonal circles are x^ + y'^ - 2cx + a^ = 0.
points are (a,
24.
lengths of the lines, from the points of contact to
The whole
25.
2S.x=^,y=-^.
tangencyisj) = 2acos2|orp^-2asin2^.
circles.
Condition for
d.
\-
centre of the escribed circle
ordinates are therefore
centre
BG, and AB, AG produced is

AB, AG being axes. The radical
of circle touching
[x+ y)
2s
The
36.
radical centre of the three escribed
s-
is
(i),
given by
and
X
a+c
4s
U
1-
00
^=^, "
+u
=i,
its co-
-^
The radius required is equal
4s
one of the circles from the radical centre, and this is

found by substituting the co-ordinates in (i).
Let the centres of
37.
to the tangent to
the circles be {x\
{x'\ y'^,
y'),
the fixed points {a,
0),
and the point of
(ii) {x" + a)^ + tj"^ = c%

+ y'^ =
(iii) {x'-xfy + {y'-y")^ = ^cK
Also 2x = x' + x", and 2y = y' + y". From
(i) and (ii) {x' - x") {x' + x") ~ 2a {x' + x") + (?/' - y") {y' + y'') = 0, i.e. x {x' - x")
contact
{x, y).
Then we have
(i)
{3/-a)^
c'^,
~ y") = 0. This with (iii) gives us {y' ~ y") and {x' - x"). Then,
from twice the sum of (i) and (ii), we have {x' + x"Y'\-{y' + y")'^
+ 4a2 - 4a (x* - a;") = whence the required locus.
- 2ax +y
taking
iy'
(iii)
CHAPTEK
4.
5.
(i)
The parabola
y^
= (w + l)2 ax,
where
a straight line through the vertex,
6 y^ = x^ + 6ax + a^.
is
is
V.
yk = 2a{x-4a).
10.
The chord
The equation
(ii)
is
the given ratio.
the curve y^ = nx^ + 2ax.
of contact of tangents
from
4a, k)
of the lines joining vertex to points
APPEND rx.
342
contact
of
Tj^= y
11,
[Art.
is
(aî,
77)
77)
Tt)e
and
TW =
(iCj,
-6)"-^
= 4aa;,
7?)
the middle point of

is
locus
is
y = m^x+
/c),
and
...(ii),
(ii) is
and
(iv)
y^
- x- -^
^/O is
^
A
~xy
r^d.
T.
Let
12.
of the parabolas, then their
y = r\ cut the curves in

= 'la{x-^-^x^. Hence,
15. The chord
intercept, t]^-\-W- = âi.
6)'
= 4aa:.
we have
\i
7i^^h'^
the polar of
is parallel to
y')\
(^',
its
If the
chord pass through the
we have [h-y')y' =^'ia{h-x').
Hence the required

Let y = m-^x-\
25.
y = m^x+...('^)i and y=m^x-\
is
.,
or
+ 4a2 where (x',
the parabola y [y ~l:)~'ia{x-h).
\ni-^
(iii)
g^/ =0,
= 2a{x- x').
y') y'
The ordinate
tions of the four tangents.

(i)
y')
(a;',
equation therefore is {y (/i,
y"^
(y+
respectively,
whose middle point

fixed point
lax -vie
midway between the axes
equations will be (y
if (^.
y^-4.ax
J'^-^
the axis of x be
and
38]
...(iv),
...(i).
be the equa-
of the point of intersection of
and the ordinate of the point
of intersection of
V1.2/
a(
VWg
hence the ordinate of the middle point of
7^4/
+++
The symmetry of this

).
m^J
result shews that the ordinate is the same for the middle point of the
If the fixed line and the two tangents
27.
other two diagonals.
^^^ ^^
the
axis, we have 2a = ^1+^2make angles a, d-^, 6.^ with
tan^g
and
{x', y') be the point of intersection of the tangents, tan^^
these intersections is
^(
2
= mx'
are the roots of y'
^
\mi
72
ci
+-
^/ig
We therefore
have tan 2a=
v'
,
x - a
which
shews that the intersection of the tangents is on a fixed straight line;

33.
At points common to y^-4:ax = and any circle
therefore, &c.
= 0. The coj|^ + y^ + ^g ^^ + ^fy + c

^^ therefore the normals
efficient of y^ is zero, hence 2/i + 2/2 + 2/3 + 2/4 = ât t/i, y^, 2/3 meet in a point, y^ is zero; for we know that yi + y^ + V^ ^
The normal at [x', if) is 2a{y-y') + y' {x - x') = 0. If
38.
[Art. 106].
this pass through (Ji, h), we have 2ak + y' {h-x' -2a) = 0, whence 4a27c2
x'^
+ y'^ + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, we
have
= 4aa;' {h -x' - 2af. This gives a cubic equation for x' from which we have
+ a;" + a/" = 2;i-4a, or + a) + (a;" + a) + (a;"' + a)+a = 2?i; therefore, &c.
(a;'
a;'
41.
Take for axes the tangent
through
its
point of contact.
parallel to the given lines
43.
The
ordinates of the normals which meet in
line is
{h, k)
a;
and the diameter

44. The
c.
2a +
are given by 2a (y -lc)
ANSWEES TO THE EXAMPLES.

y {x-
= 0.
h)
If {h, k) be
343
on the curve, we have 2a (y -h)
+ j- {y^ -
k^)
= 0.
Hence the ordinates different from k are given hj y{y + k) + 8a^ = 0; so

The equation of the chord is y {yi+y^) -4:ax-y-^y^ = 0,
that y^y2 = Sa^.
~ = - 2a.
hence this cuts the axis where x = -
be the ordinates of the points A, B, C,
make
angles
d-^,
d^,
so for the rest.
that
if
three
6^
6.^,
and
and
let
Z/s
Vi
AD
ia cot 6^
Then [Art. 102],y-j^ + y.2

+ cot ^3 = cot ^2 + ^0^ ^4 which shews
cot ^^
are constant, the fourth also
angles
AB, BG, CA,
with the axis.
Hence
of the
Let î ^2
47.
is
constant.
Let P, Q, B, S be (x^, y-^} &c. The equation of the circle on PQ as

diameter is {y - y{) [y - y.^) -{-{x- x-^ [x - x^) = 0. Where this meets y^ = 4a:c,
50.
we have
roots of
(y
- y^) [y - y^) +
{y"^
j^^
l&a^ + iy + yi){y + y.2) = 0,
cut the
axis
- y^^) {y^ - y^) = 0.

so that
points whose
^
at
the difference of these abscissae
2/31/4=2/12/2
are -
abscissae
Hence y^ y^ are the

,
Bnt PQ,
+ 16*^-
^7^ and 4a
-^
4ft
BS
hence
is 4a.
CHAPTER VL
The equation
4.
of a line
through the middle point of a chord perdown by assuming Art. 114 (iii).
pendicular to the chord can be written
The elHpse
15.
is
a^
Use
20.
+ftr
= 1.
^-^
a^
The
21.
Put
a;
= i(
"
P be
{x' , y'),
30.
The semi-axes
of the locus
of
difference of the radii of the cu-cles.
{x
- x')
{h, k),
P be
\'(a^m'^
+ l'^).
+- |
is parallel to
is
and shew that the
independent of m.
QH and BS is
If
27.
- x', - y'
e2\
5
semi- sum and semiThe chord which has {x', y')
are the
36.
the polar of
{x', y'), its
equation
is
therefore
y'
x'
r>
+ (y- y') ^2" ^-
the middle point
is
Hence,
on the
if
the chord pass through a fixed point
ellipse
(h^x)
+{k-y)
,,
= 0.
37.
Let
and let the chord make an angle 6 with the major axis of the
The co-ordinates of the point on the chord at a distance r from
{x\ y'),
ellipse.
ae
the point of intersection of
middle point
Use y = vix+
y m{x-ae) cuts the ellipse
line
product of the roots of the quadratic in
for
18.
\a-^
eccentric angles.
where
+ by
344
APPENDIX.
are x' + rcos6, and y'
+r
sin 6; substitute these co-ordinates in the
+ ^^=0
equation of the elHpse for PQ, and in the equation
then see Art. 111.
a^
W = .7^b + ^)-
Let
40.
The equation
38.
a,
of the quadrilateral; then, since
we have
straight lines,
(a -hS) is constant,
43.
at
^2
+ /3),
AB, BC,
{
'
+ y) and
(7
+ 5)
Q
= -sin^--k cos
a
constant;
But
6 (1).
'
From
(2).
therefore
be a cos ^ and 6 sin ^,
CQ. = hb sin 6
triangle
-ha cos 6 = A,
sup-
on the tangent
(h, k)
is
(1)
and
we have
(2)
^2
/j2
-7,
fa
are parallel to three fixed
therefore - cos ^ + ^ sin ^ = 1
CD
Therefore -^
ah
Q;
-irr
(a
OPCQ = 2
then quadrilateral
pose.
IJp'
"^
1)=^,.
The equations (-, +
39.
( 0(?
-2
PR
be the co-ordinates of the angular points A, B, C,
7, 5
/3,
of the locus is
for
T7i
The area
of the triangle
PCQ
can be readily deduced
from that of the quadrilateral.

Ans. 2 (%2 + ^2^2)3 ^ (^2 _ 52)2
50.
[a^x^ - b^y"^)^.
63.
If (p be the eccentric angle of P, the co-ordinates
of Q are {a + b)co8<p and (a. -f &) sin 0, or (a -6) cos 0, (6-a)sin0, according as PQ is measured along the normal outwards or inwards.
Let T be [x', y'). In the quadratic equation giving the abscissae of
55.
points where 2"
^=
1 cuts the elUpse, substitute
for
the product of the roots of the equation in r will be equal to
CHAP TEE
3.
19.
2?/
are
which are
{x'y')
-^y
to the
parallel
-7-
y
'2
have
[Art. 110];
SP
SQ.
VII.
An hyperbola. 4. An hyperbola. 5. A rectangular hyperbola.

+ 3a; -f 4 = 0. 20. x-2^0, y -S = 0, xy -Sx-2y + 12 = 0. 26. The
lines joining
These
re
- a; jj^
/j/2
xy'
^2
a, 0) are {yx' xy'f = a^{y- y'f.

a'^) -2x'y'xy + y'^x^ = Q, the bisectors of
two fixed points
to
y'^
{x"^
+ -^ = 0.
-j-
a^
= const.
xy
Since these bisectors are fixed lines,
we
ANSWERS TO THE EXAMPLES.
CHAPTEE
If
4.
a,
SA =
7 be the
/3,
are- = l
on
+ ecos
e'
5.
As in
respectively,
Art. 165
See Art. 165
7.
cos (^
{6
a)
(r
the
(5),
a),
'
chords are
ecos d
= 1 + e cos
d,
and r
= l + e' QOB{d -a),
If the conies
I
common
the
an angle
axis
10.
(3).
^
If the conies are -
13.
makes with the
at
and- = l + e'cos
6,
'
)- -
tangent
the
Therefore, &c.
2 cos ^ cos ^
perpendicular
^^^
tan-i ^
c + cosa
&c.
2cos^-
Vni.
angles of A, B,
vectorial
and;Sf^' =
S45
common
the
=e cos ê'cos
chords are
= 1 db -
These touch respectively the conies
cos
16.
6.
distance of the focus from the directrix, the conies will be
If
(^-
o).
d be the
ed
= 1 + e cos
6,
r
e'd
and ^ = 1 + e' cos

j8,
{d
ed
ecos
the equations
same
represent the
will
forms
=cos^^
/,
+ sin^
f
(
sin
eliminate
aH
d-{-
sin S\
y- \
cos {d- ^),
straight
cos/3\
1h
17.
/3.
If the conies touch one another at
a).
+sm^
line.
sin/3
-,
e'd
Write
,
and
e'
cos {6
+e
cos
d.
circle
a)
+ cos [6 - j3)
cos
^\
^\
J
be
Eliminate
^,
and of sin
r=a cos
^,
the
in
= cos^^( cosaH
equate the coefficients of cos
equations
the
d
r
{d
Q,
and
o),
and
and we obtain a
r.
CHAPTEK
7.
the equation of the conic - =

biquadratic for
and
some point
Ans. X = l.
8.
Ans.
10a:2
3a;2-2a;^-5i/2+7a;-9y + 2 = 0,
IX.
+ 21a;7/ + 9i/2-41a;-39?/ + 4 = 0. 9. Ans.

3ic2 - 2a;?/ - 5^/^ + 7a; - 9]/ + 20 = 0.
and
10. Ans.
6a;2-7a;^-3i/2-2a;-87/-4 = 0, and ^x^-lxy -^'^-'lx-^y'-1
= 0.
14.
the
circle.
Take
for origin, and the axis of x through the centre of
The equation of the circle will be r = ^ cos Q (1) the equation
of the conic ax^ + llaxy
+ hy'^ + Igx + Ijy + c = 0,
or in polars ar^ cos^ Q
APPENDIX.
346
^ sin ^ + Sr^ sin^ e
+ 2hr^ cos
from
(1)
and
(2),
+ 2gr cos 6 + 2/r
sin ^
+c=
(2)
Eliminate d
then we obtain an equation in r the product of the four
cd?
roots
which
of
be
will
=t^
constant; and (a- lY + ^Jv^
771,
Since the origin
To
then
PQ
find the fixed point in Ex.
is
is
constant from Ex. 11.
is
CHAPTER
3.
fixed,
is
a diameter, and CO,
1,
X.
take OP,
PQ make
OQ
parallel to the axes;
equal angles with the axis.
Hence the co-ordinates of the point can be found referred to the centre
and axes of the conic. The fixed point in Ex. 2 is the point where the
is met by the tangent at the other extremity of the normal
tangent at
through 0, as is seen by taking OP, OQ indefinitely near to the normal.
Take
for origin and the chords for
7.
For locus see Art. 138 (4).
We have
axes.
13.
axes.
to prove that
In the parabola y'y"
the chord and
its
independent of the direction of the
is
constant.
is
conjugate for axes
'
Take
20.
for origin,
then the equation of the curve will be
+ by^ + 2fy + c = 0. Tangents from {x', y') are given by {x, y) [x\ y')
then the coefficient of
+ hyy' +f {y + y') + c}^ = 0; in this put y =
X will be zero if fy' + c = 0, that is if [x', y') be on the polar of 0. Or,
then KL, the polar of 0, is parallel
let the tangents at P, Q meet in K
ax"^
axx'
{
to
AB
and
Hence \TOS
(ii)
if
QOP
00} is
meet the polar of

harmonic, and therefore
sponding to any point

that T,
25.
a straight line.
in L,
{QOPL}
TO OS.
on the tangent
at
there
is
T,
harmonic.
(i)
curve of the fourth degree.
a conic
Corre-
28.
one point T' such
T' are equidistant from the centre, and there
section of the tangents at
is
22.
is
one inter-
T'; hence every tangent to the ellipse
and only one point the locus is therefore a

on the director circle, the tangents from T, T
therefore
the
direction of the point at infinity on the
parallel;
are
tangent at P; also when T, T are both
perpendicular
to
the
locus is
tangents
from
T, T' are parallel to the tangent at P,
infinity,
the
at
and therefore intersect at the extremity of the diameter through P,
The centre of the conic is
37.
which proves the proposition.
cuts the locus in one

straight line.
given.
Hence,
if
diameter through P,
is
the
be the given point,

is
on
all
the conies.
this
curve
is
called
S being
given,
the centre,
constant;
foci,
If T, T' are
middle point of SP.
Then
P',
the other extremity of the
The
locus is such that
a lemniscate.
CD-^ = SP
40.
SP SP'
Let S, S' be
the given point, and
S'P = 4:S0
OC.
the
This proves that

the locus of i)
directions,
and
is
and SO
a parabola, since
the tangents at S,
let
CD
Let
43.
is fixed.
OC
and
347
drawn in
are
fixed
variable ellipse touch, at P,
tlie
meet in T. CT bisects SP in V, and is

CT and SP make equal angles with the
therefore parallel to S'P, so that
VT=VP=VS;
tangent at P; hence
and
CT
STP
therefore
a right angle,
is
the radius of the director-circle of the variable ellipse.
is
CTl
[SP + S'P) constant, the question is reduced to 37.

vii.
47.
{PGOG'} is harmonic,
and GCG' is a right angle therefore CP and CO make equal angles with
CG. Then see solution of 2.
53.
Ans. c=<2&.
54.
Let the
conic which goes through A, B, C, D, F cut the circle ABE in G; then,
AB and CD make equal angles with the axes, and so also do AB and
EG; hence EG ia parallel to CD, so that G and F are coincident. The
direction of the axes is known, we have therefore only to find the centre.
If V,
are the middle points of CD and EF respectively,
is a
diameter.
Draw a circle through D, C, E if this cut the conic in a
fourth point H,
and CD make equal angles with the axes of the
conic ; therefore
is parallel to AB
hence the line through the
middle points of AB and
is another diameter.
Thus the centre
is found.
55.
The six points are always on a conic, and the conic
is
{ax'x'' + ly'y" - 1) [ax^ + 6?/2 - 1) - [axx' + hyy' - 1) {axx" + hyy" - 1) =
Hence, since
This follows from Ex. 23, Chapter
44.
VV
EH
EH
EH
[see
Ex.
3,
Art. 187].
and x'y" + x"y' =
(2)
CP
is
Square and add, then
[x"^
+ y"")
(x"^
j-
(1),
+ y'"") = (^ - -
the curve
is
a parabola P, P' are on a line through the focus, and equi-
distant from the focus.
58.
The chord
of ax^
for middle point is parallel to the polar of
{x', y')
{x
- y'y" =
for a circle are x'x"
CP' CS^, where C is the centre and < is a focus; also from
CP and CP' make equal angles with the axis of x and (1) and
shew that P, P' are on different sides of the transverse axis. "When
that
(2)
(2).
The conditions
- x')
ax'
+ {y - y') by'=0.
The
line
through
+ by^- 1 =
{x',
{x', y')
is
given by
point 0.
to aa;2
(/, g)
hence we have
on a rectangular hyperbola.
+ lnj'^ -1 -\
59.
Any
its
which has
equation
is
perpendicular to the
y')
chord must pass through
and
(x', y')
/yj'
;-
fit'
so that
conic of the system
is
- a^ + [y /S)^ - c^} == 0, where (a, /3) is the

Find the centre, and eliminate X.
If the normal
63,
ax'^
+ 6?/2 - 1 =
oxfhy' - agx'
at
+ {a-l)
{{x
P {x',y')
x't/
pass through
(1).
We have
(/, g)
to
we have
shew that
-^ = ^~
^-^ + ^-^ =0,

X
APPENDIX.
348
or xy' + yx' -2x'y' = 0, vdYl go through the
one of the four points of intersection of

is
= "ag = b-a
73.
(1)
same point if (x',y') is any

and the conic. The point
conic.
The four points
75.
are
fb
(_
&c.,
where
(/,
Hence
-"
be the point
g)
&c.
(x'l/')
\x"y'J
at
which the normals meet,
\'X
on the straight line /a; - gy = a^ -
is
yj
other three points.
If
83.
y=m{x-ae)
2
x^-a^ + y^ + 2maey-m^b'^ = 0,oT-^ +
b^g
and so
PA.Pa = ^'
{a;^,
^^^-^^
^f
y-^)
+ 2fy +
96.
If
XI.
be ax'-\-2hxy
If a'x-
be the equation of another conic,
b'y'^+ 2g'x
is
"^^ ^^-"^^ ^^^'^l.
Let the equation of the conic which passes through

being axes.
+ by'^ + 2fy = 0, the tangent and normal at
21i'xy
also are the
&c. be the four
3.
+ \ [a'x^ +
= a^-b^.
^,-l-~-^,{aey-mb^f = 0.
+ b'y''^ + 2g'x+2f'y -t-c'

through their common points are
if
CHAPTEE
be the chord, the circle
xy = c^ be the equation of the hyperbola, and
points,a.d(a,/3)beP; then
h-,
aH
,-
Now,
the feet of the normals.
are
included
c')
= 0.
in
ax^
Put
all
+ 2h'xy
the conies
+ 2hxy + by^ + 2fy
= 0,
then
+
Xi
x^
2q'
,
and therefore
is
independent of
5.
X.
The axes
of the para-
Now
in a
is least
when
bolas are always parallel to conjugate diameters [Art. 207].
given ellipse the acute angle between two conjugate diameters
and in
between
which has the least eccentricity.
Hence if a pair of conjugate diameters are known, the conic has the
6. If TQ, TQ' be
least eccentricity when they are the equi-conjugates.
the tangents, and Fbe the middle point of QQ', TV and QQ'are parallel to
they are the equi-conjugates

the equi-conjugates
is
conjugate diameters.
different ellipses the angle
greatest in that
See solution to
Art. 219.
21.
circle.
24. tan2-=:
Use the
result of Ex. 2,
--^, where ^
The
16.
5.
is
the angle between
Aj
from Art. 229 and Art. 186, Cor.

TO' be the other bisector of the angle QTP,
then T {QO'PO'\ is harmonic, and therefore TO' is the polar of 0. Let
nOB! cut TO' in K, then T {B.OIi'K\ is harmonic, and OTB is a right
the tangents.
1.
25.
28. Art. 227.
35.
result follows
If
'

RT, E'T make equal angles with OT.
angle; hence
349
and
37.
Use
38.
a circle cut a parabola in four points the sum of the distances of those
*If
points from the axis of the parabola
Shew
42.
is zero.'
= 0,
ax^ + 2lmxy + by^ + 2lx + 2my + 1 = 0.
with respect to which the triangle formed by a:=:0,
is self-polar, is
hyperbola be 2xy = c, and
the
50.
The equation of the second circle

i^v Vi) ^c- ^ ^^ ^^^^' points.
The point of intersection of the tangents at JB
a;2 4 t/2 ^ 2xx^ + 2yy^ 0.
t
IS
?-^
this
+ 4:X2X^xJ^Xcp:^ + X2X^ + X4X2) =

of
x^
on the second
is
Now
{!).
G,
1.
is
+ ^3 + ^4)
the equation giving the abscissae
4:3c^
parabola.
3.
An
angle at the centre.
conic
is
aa;2
ax'^
+ 6w2_
+ by^ = l, and
abc^
the circle
is
The equation
the envelope
let
let
is
ax^-\-by'^
= \,
1=
and
is
is
If the
16.
circle.
the original conic
xy=
-^
acc^ -f
-.
rp,
be
let
(2)
20.
zh4ab.
26.
+ ^+2- = 0.
if c^
11
=~ + ah
that
See Art. 197.
is
is,
25.
If the original conic
Take the
27.
fixed
the lines be (a;- a) {x-a') 0\ then the envelope
the conic be
4^{ax-\-}vy){)ix-\-by)
similar ellipse.
the radius of the circle, the envelope
(a-ay'y'^ = \.aa' {x- <x){x-a').
and
(1)
not a diameter, subtends a
is
the director-circle of the conic.
point for origin, and

axes,
4.
The envelope
c
of the envelope is
+ f = l,
XII.
chord, which
xhe envelope
a+o
hyperbola.
A common
12.
ellipse.
right
is
c^ (x^
if
(7
An
is
circle
is
,
+ 8ga^ + 4Lfcx + c^:^0. Hence 4x1^x^x^x^ = 0^, and

and these shew that (1) is true.
{x^ + x^ + x^) + x^^ + X2X^ + x^X2 =
^, B,
CHAPTEK
if
Let the
Let
x^ + y^ + 2yx+2fy 0.
circle
first
that the conic,
and lx+ my +
7/
31.
Take the given diameters for
2hxy -f by^ -1 = 0; then the envelope is
38.
Transfer the origin to 0, and
(a, ^).
let
be the equation of PQ, one of the chords. Write down

the equation of OP, OQ [Art. 38]; then the condition of perpendicularity
fe -H w?/
-f-
gives the tangential equation,

-â-l-6
= 0.
One focus
is (0,
0),
(Z'^-fm^) (aa2
viz.
the centre
is
the other focus
is
are conf ocal.
the envelope
a+b
,
^
a+bj
)
If a
a parabola.
1)
a+
^ is constant,
If the given conic is a rectangular

is
+ &/3--
- 2aaZ-26;3m
a + bj
and
the envelopes
^
hyperbola a +
= 0, and
APPENJDIX.
350
following are important special forms of the tangential
The
N.B.
equation
<p {I,
in)
(i)
If c
(ii)
If
(iii)
If
= 0,
= 0,
the conic
is
a parabola.
a = 6 = 0, the conic touches the axes.

a = 6, and /i = 2acos w the origin is a focus.
CHAPTEE
Xni.
abc
a,
j3',
y'
8A^
a",
/3",
a'",
/3"',
y"
Ans.
any two of the conies are of the

3.
The
form /, g, h. The conic i/a2 + r/32 + W7^ = will pass through the
points (/, g, h), and {f, g', A') if 2if^ + vg'^ + ioJi^ = 0, and
Let the lines be la^mp7iy = 0; then the
6.
uf^ + vg'^ + wh'^ = 0.
two points on the diagonal a = are given by m^^^ + 2\^y + n'^y^ 0, a 0.
and Pa^ + 2va^ + mY^ = 0,
The other pairs are 71272 + 2fjiya + Pa^ = 0, ^3 =
four points of intersection of
Y = 0.
7.
on the conic Pa? + m^/S^ + ^r^^ + 2XjS7 + 2iJ.ya + 2va^ 0.

The perpendicular distances of (a, /3, 7) from the three sides are
These are
all
Hence the equation required
(aa- b^-cy), &c.
is
&2
r^n^b^-cy =
+ cy + aa-b^
^^+ aa
c2
b^ +
The equation
8.
+ C7)2 = 0.
point which
cy-aa
of the cu"cle is of the
this cut
is
to jBC is (ap, ^Q
at
BGinP,
P',
form a^y + hya + ca^ + \ {aa + b^

The
BP BP' = r^ - R-.
9.
then
distance p from
+ psin C, y^- p sin B).
0.
(cq, ^q, y^),
on a line parallel
If this point be
on the
conic,
we
have
^1^-
-Zsin^sinC
Hence we have
,2
'2
[If
&
771
71
the conic were given by the general equation

^^ ^^
Hence we
i^
,.2
'3
0K>
^
i;
sin2 G
jQq^
we should have
7o)
+ wsva}B-2u' sin ^ sin C
find at once the conditions for a circle, viz. vc^-\-wh~-2u'bc
similar expressions.
351

P
If
11.
be
+ m^ + ny=0
la
h)
g,
(/,
and
"
+ 1 = 0.
on the line ^ + ^
KLM touches J la + sjm^ + Jny =

0'
be
then
h')
g',
(/',
09'{'-m
X/37
M are
K, L,
(/, g, h),
If
is
12
&c.
P be
be
If
on
by
given
(qh'-g'h)
0'
0,
If
are
on
the
conic
fixed
hh'ifg'-fg)-
+ fjLja + va^ = 0, Z
is
the fixed point
(X,
/x, v).
(Examples 11 and 12 are taken from an interesting paper by Eev. H.

Martin published in the Messenger of Mathematics, Vol. IV.)
18.
If ua^ + v^^ + wy^ 0, be a parabola it will touch the line at
and therefore all the four lines given by aa^bj3cy 0.
(a', B',
y) be one focus, the other
then A'
34.
oL
in
Let
is (/', g, h),
A" where -
r= il
is (/, g', h),
and
C is
{f, g, h').
"y
-',
If
be the point of intersection of -4^', BB',
(/, g, h)
B'
20.
be (-,,,,,) write down the con\^

P 7/
h) may be on the line joining these two
will
dition that the fixed point (/, g,

points.
infinity,
Hence the equation
of A'
A"
GC,
BC, CP' intersect

is
'^
It is clear that A' A",
j3
/'
9'
and
7 =0.
h\
,'\
h'
also the other
two diagonals B' P",
C", of
the hexagon formed by the six lines, pass through the point {f+f, 9 +g',
h + li). Hence by Brianchon's Theorem the hexagon circumscribes a
conic.
common
40.
Consider any two of the conies, and draw their fourth

Then, the radical axis of their director-circles is the
tangent.
directrix of the parabola touching the four lines [Art. 299 (5)] the radical
axis therefore [Art. 308, Ex. 4] passes through the orthocentre of the
;
original triangle.
Then, since the director- circles are equal,
that the centres of any two of the conies,
and
it
follows
therefore the centres of all
the conies, are equidistant from the orthocentre of the triangle.

centre of the circle with respect to which the triangle
41.
is self-polar is
The
the
Hence, from 40, the theorem will be true for all conies
whose director-circles are equal, if it be true for any one of them. Let
ABC be the triangle, and the orthocentre, and let OA cut BC in A'.
Then, if P be any point on BC, the line AP is a limiting form of an inorthocentre.
scribed conic,
and the
circle
on
AP
as diameter
is its director-circle
also
OA OA' is equal to the square of the tangent to this circle from 0, and
OA OA' is equal to the square of the radius of the seK-polar circle, hence
.
APPENDIX.
352
the self-polar circle cuts the director circle at right angles.
the proposition, since
is
any point on BG.
50.
This proves
The equations
of
the tangents from the angular points of the fundamental triangle are
Vz^ +
Wy^ - 'ITJ'yz = 0, &c. Hence the six points are on the conic
nVx"- + WUy^ + UVz^ - 2 UU'yz - 2VV'zx - 2WW'xi/ = 0,
This intersects
^'2j;2
in the
[VWBut
^ v'Y +
W'z'^'
-^^' ^V'yz -
2TF'
Vzx
-2U' V'xy =
same four points as

U'^)x^+
+2{V'W' - UU')yz4-
this latter conic is the original conic, since
=0.
VW- U'^ = uA,
&c.
THE END.
CAMBUIDGE
PRINTED BT JOHN
CTiAY.
M,A. AT
THE TJNIVERSITT PRESS.
Date Due
BOSTON COLLEGE
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المرجع فى القطوع المخروطية- 1905

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AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON SOLID

AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON CONIC

Smith, M.A., and

Books I.VI. and XL Globe Svo.

Books VI. and

MASTEE OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

NEW YOEK: THE MACMILLAN

Fust Edition printed 1882. Second Edition printed 1883.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

have investigated the

elementary properties of the Ellipse, Parabola, and

perbola, defined with reference to a focus

before considering the General Equation of the

the best for

body of each chapter are

most part very easy applications of the book-work, and

each chapter are more

and include very many of

those which have been set in the recent University and

College examinations, and in the examinations for

to the examples, together with occasional

hints and solutions, are given in an

the body of the work, given complete solutions

Although I have endeavoured

mentary parts of the subject

possible for the benefit of beginners, I have tried to

the work in some degree complete

and have therefore

on Trilinear Co-ordinates, and short

accounts of the methods of Reciprocation and Conical Pro-

student should consult the

friends for their kind-

proof sheets, for help in the

verification of the examples,

ness in looking over the

on these latter subjects

for valuable suggestions

hoped that few mistakes have escaped detection.

PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

second edition has been carefully revised, and some

The Straight Line

Examples on Chapter VII

Polar Equation of A Conic, the focus being

Examples on Chapter VIII

General Equation of the Second Degree.

Every curve whose equation

of the second degree is a conic-

Co-ordinates of the centre of a conic

of the axes of a central conic

Equation of the asymptotes of a conic

Condition that a given straight line

Condition that two given lines

conjugate diameters of two conies

Segments of chords of a conic

Equations giving the

Equation of a conic referred to tangent and normal

Equation of the axes

One conic through

Conics through four points.

Equation of the director-circle