Session 2

Todays Agenda
1. Basics of Reflection Seismology
1.

Seismic Waves and Terminology

2.

Reflection Coefficients

3.

Seismic Resolution

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Lecture 2

Mitchum et al., 1977b

AAPG1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

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Una lnea ssmica clsica

Que nos dicen las ondiculas acerca del subsuelo?

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Ondicula
Rarefaction

Compression

A = Amplitud

= Longitud de onda
length, ft or m

P = Periodo
time
(stationary observer)

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P = Tiempo en que la
onda viaja una
longitud de onda
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= Duracion del
pulso
time
(wavelet length in TWT)
4

Ecuaciones Basicas

P=1/f
=V*P = V/f
d = V * (T/2)
where
P = Periodo
V = Velocidad
f = Frequencia
d = distancia (espesor)
= Longitud de onda T = tiempo

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Termonologia
For this display:

Pico

Garganta

Peco = compresin,
i.e., las partculas
sufren un encogimiento
mutuamente

Garganta =
rarefaccin, i.e., las
partculas sufren un
una separacin

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What Causes Reflections?

Any interface between bodies
with different acoustic
properties
Acoustic properties define
Impedance (Z) , in which
Z = velocity * density

Shot

Receiver

Layer 1
Layer 2

Boundary

Small change in impedance small amount of reflected energy

Large change in impedance large amount of reflected energy

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Seismic Waves
Seismic energy propagates as a spherical wave
Energy reflected at a boundary radiates up as if there
was a source at the reflection point (Huygens
Principle)
It is quite appropriate to think
of energy propagation in
Energy
Source
terms of energy moving as
wavefronts

Energy Propagation
as Waves
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Seismic Rays
Although seismic energy propagates as a wave,
another representation is commonly used
We use rays that track the energy from the source to
the receiver
This simplifies diagrams and mathematical formulas
Energy
Source

Energy
Source

Energy Propagation
as Waves
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Energy Propagation
as Rays

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Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc

I=

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I=

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I below + I above

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Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc
I = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc
I = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I below + I above

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4320 - 3400

11

Seismic Interface

Shale

Velocity = 2000 m/s

Density = 1.7 gm/cc
Z = 2000 * 1.7 = 3400

Sand

Velocity = 2400 m/s

Density = 1.8 gm/cc
Z = 2400 * 1.8 = 4320

I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I below + I above

4320 - 3400
4320 + 3400

0.119

Of the incident energy, 12% is reflected, 88% is transmitted

N.B. Most R.C.s are less than 0.01
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12

An Impedance Increase

An Increase in Impedance, i.e., when the upper

unit has lower impedance than the lower unit

The RC is positive
The polarity of the response is the same as the
outgoing pulse
Shot

Receiver
=

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Peak then
Trough

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Peak then
Trough

13

An Impedance Decrease

A Decrease in Impedance, i.e., when the upper unit

has higher impedance than the lower unit

The RC is negative
The polarity of the response is flipped with respect to
outgoing pulse
Shot

Receiver
=

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Peak then
Trough

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Trough
then Peak

14

The Basics of Reflection Seismology

Seismic energy travels down, is reflected off
impedance boundaries, and detected at the surface
Shot

Seismic
Record

Receiver

Rarefaction Compression

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3

Velocity1
Density1

0.4
0.5

Increase in
impedance

Boundary 1

0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9

Velocity2
Density2

1.0
1.1
1.2

Decrease in
impedance

Boundary 2

Velocity3
Density3
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1.3
1.4

15

Acoustic Structure of the Earth

Imped
Low

Shot

Receiver

High

Reflection
Coefficients

I1 = 1 * V1

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I2 =

* V2

I3 =

* V3

I4 =

* V4

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Pulse

Seismic
Trace

C
O
N
V
O
L
U
T
I
O
N

16

The Seismic Method

Energy
Source

An Explosion!

.4 s

Listening Devices

.8 s

.1
.2
0
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
0 sss

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

Some Energy is Reflected

Most Energy is Transmitted

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Raw Seismic Data

Time

Device
#1

Device
#2

For the explosion we just considered ...

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3

Listening device #1 records a reflection

starting at 0.4 seconds

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7

Listening device #2 records a reflection

starting at 0.8 seconds

0.8

To Image the Subsurface, We Use Many Shots (explosions)

and Many Receivers (listening devices)
Arranged in Lines either on Land or Offshore
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18

Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficient

Minimum Phase
Causal (real no motion
before wave arrives)
Front loaded
Position of RC first
displacement; peak
displacement is delayed
by

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Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficient

Zero Phase
Not Causal (not real there is motion before the
wave arrives)
Symmetric about RC
Maximum peak to side
lobe ratio
Position of RC is at the
maximum amplitude
(peak or trough)

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20

Types of Pulses
Impedance Zero
Log
Phase

gas
sand

trough gives
info on the
RC at the
upper contact
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Quadrature

Quadrature
Phase

trough gives
info on the
sand interval

Obtained by taking a
Zero Phase dataset
and rotating it -90
Advantage: Troughs
& Peaks characterize
an interval rather
than an impedance
contrast
Applicable when
zone of interest is
~ tuning thickness

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21

Polarity Minimum Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

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SEG Normal Convention

+ An increase in impedance is:

Negative # on the tape
Displayed as a Trough

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22

Polarity Zero Phase

Reflection
Coefficients

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SEG Normal Convention

+ An increase in impedance is:

Positive # on the tape
Displayed as a Peak

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23

Convolution What Is It?

Convolution is a mathematical operation

that obtains the response of a seismic
wave interacting with a single reflection
coefficient
Think of the vertical displacement of a beach ball
as a wave passes it

3 inches

You snap a photo every 4/1000 of a second to record

the movement
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Displacement of the Beach Ball

Zero
Vertical
Displacement

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Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

Photo

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25

For Seismic Reflections

We display a seismic trace as a reflection detected by a
receiver at the surface with time increasing downward
Shot

Receiver

Seismic Record
Rarefaction Compression

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3

Velocity1
Density1

0.4
0.5

Increase in
impedance

Boundary 1

0.7
0.8

Velocity2
Density2

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0.6

NOTE: This is a minimum

phase pulse
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26

A Graphical Solution

Assume:
That our seismic pulse is a
simple sine wave with values
(at 4 msec sampling) of 0,
60, 85, 100, 85, 60, 0, -60,
-85, -100, -85, -60, 0
The maximum amplitude of
the pulse is 100 units
The RC = 0.5

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RC

Pulse Wavelet
0.5

60

30

85

42

100

50

85

42

60

30

-60

-30

-85

-42

-100

-50

-85

-42

-60

-30

27

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28

Lecture 2 Part 2

Question: What is a thick bed?

Impedance

R. C.

Wavelet
1

Wavelet
2

A
B
C
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Composite
Top of Bed
Response

Dp

NO
Interference

Base of Bed
Response

29

Seismic Resolution

Vertical Resolution
Resolution vs Detection
Thin Bed Response and Tuning

Lateral Resolution
Fresnel Zone

Migration and Lateral Resolution

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Detection vs. Resolution - Analogy

You are driving at night.
You spot a light in the distance.
Is it a car or a motorcycle???

Aha, it is a car!

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Resolution vs. Detection

Resolution: Ability to distinguish two features from
one another
Detection:

Ability to identify that some feature

exists

Detection limit is always smaller than the resolution

limit
Resolution limit depends on the pulse

Detection limit depends upon Signal-to-Noise

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Vertical Resolution
What is the minimum vertical
distance between two
subsurface features such
that we can tell them apart
seismically?

Shale
Baseline

Shale

Gamma Ray

For Example:
Based on seismic data,
could you determine that
there is a thin shale layer
between the two sands?
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Sand

Sd

10 m

33

Thick Bed Response

Question: What is a thick bed?
Impedance

R. C.

Wavelet
1

Wavelet
2

Wavelet 2 starts after

Wavelet 1 ends
Composite

A
B

Top of Bed
Response

Dp

NO
Interference

Base of Bed
Response

Answer: A thick bed is one that has a TWT > Dp

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Partial Interference
Wavelet 2 starts before
Wavelet 1 ends

TWT thickness = 0.9 * Dp

Impedance

R. C.

Wavelet
1

Wavelet
2

A
B

Composite
Top of Bed
Response

Dp

Some
Interference

Base of Bed
Response

2nd half-cycle from Wavelet 1

and 1st half-cycle from Wavelet 2
form a trough doublet
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Maximum Interference - Tuning

Wavelet 2 starts wavelength
after Wavelet 1 starts

TWT thickness = Dp
Impedance

R. C.

Wavelet
1

Wavelet
2

A
B
C

Composite
Top of Bed
Response

Dp

Maximum
Interference
Base of Bed
Response

2nd half-cycle from Wavelet 1

and 1st half-cycle from Wavelet 2
are completely in phase
resulting in 2x amplitude
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Determining Vertical Resolution

Input Parameters:

Pulse

Peak Frequency of the pulse at

the depth of interest
Computations:
Period = 1/Peak Frequency

Period
(ms)

Velocity at the depth of interest

wavelength =
period X velocity

Wavelength = Period * Velocity

Limit of Vertical Resolution = Wavelength/4

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Typical Vertical Resolution

Shallow Event
Velocity = 2000 Meters / sec
Pulse:
Center Frequency = 50 Hz
Period = 1 / 50 = .020 sec
Wavelength = .020 x 2000 = 40 Meters
Limit of resolution = 40 /4 = 10 Meters

Deep Event
Velocity = 3000 Meters / sec
Pulse:
Center Frequency = 20 Hz
Period = 1 / 20 = .050 sec
Wavelength = .050 x 3000 = 150 Meters
Limit of resolution = 150 / 4 = 37.5 Meters
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41

Summary: Vertical Resolution

Resolution is the ability to distinguish distinct
events
Thin bed response occurs below tuning thickness
Short-duration seismic pulses are preferred
Broad bandwidth, zero-phase pulses are best
Pulses with minimal side-lobe energy enhance
interpretability

To Improve Resolution
Bandwidth can be increased by deconvolution
Frequencies to be included must have adequate S/N

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What Is Lateral Resolution?

Would we image the narrow horst?

Would we image all three channel sands?

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Lateral Resolution
What is the minimum horizontal distance
between two subsurface features such that we
can tell them apart seismically?
Neidell & Poggiaglioimi, 1977

AAPG1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.

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44

The Fresnel Zone

An event observed at a detector is
reflected from a zone of points

The raypaths from source to

detector which differ in length by
less than a quarter wavelength can
interfere constructively
The portion of the reflector from
which they add constructively is
the Fresnel zone
Changes that occur within this zone
are difficult to resolve
The size of the Fresnel zone depends
upon the wavelength of the pulse and
the depth of the reflector
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Migration Reduces Lateral Smearing

Ideal / Model
Response
800 m

Stack
No Migration

Image After
Migration

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Good Migration Enhances Resolution

Standard Migration
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High-end Migration
47

Fresnel Zone Equations

Pre-Migration

Post-Migration

Fd = Vavg T/F

Fd = /4 = Vavg /4 F

where:

Fd = Fresnel Diameter
Vavg = Average Velocity
T = Time
F = Frequency of Pulse
= Wavelength
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Typical Lateral Resolution

Shallow Event

Time = 1.0 s
Vint = Vavg = 2000 m/s
Pulse = 50 Hz
PreMig Fresnel Diameter = 282 m
PostMig Fresnel Diameter = 10 m

Deep Event

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Time = 5.0 s
Vint = 4600 m/s
Vavg = 3800 m/s
Pulse = 20 Hz
PreMig Fresnel Diameter = 1900 m
PostMig Fresnel Diameter = 47.5 m
49

Graphical Answers

Fresnel Zone Circles

Shallow Window
282 m pre-migration
10 m post-migration

Deep Window

1 km

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1900 m pre-migration
47.5 m post-migration

50

Summary: Lateral Resolution

Migration enhances lateral resolution
Large aperture (receiver cable length) is
needed for high lateral resolution
Fine spatial sampling is needed for high
lateral resolution

Prestack migration provides better lateral

resolution than poststack migration
Depth migration provides better resolution
than time migration

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Geophysics 629

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