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    complete description of frp composites

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
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    2K views480 pages

    Herakovich Mechanics of Fibrous Composites

    Uploaded by

    Ashutosh Singla
    complete description of frp composites

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 480
    Mechanics of Fibrous Composites CARL T. HERAKOVICH University of Virginia ohn Wiley & Sons, Ine. [New York # Chichester # Weinheim « Brisbane # Singapore « Toronto ACQUISITIONS EDITOR. yee Andra MARKETING MANAGER are Sen, PRODUCHON EDITOR Tons Yencraie COVER DESIGNER fn Kitimat ELUSTRATION COORDINATOR Smo Miwa ‘is boa pine nace paper. @ ‘he pape nhs ok as manure by il we ast manage’ princi Ine ‘tte areting ot imran Sted ar esing ins rt he by etn Srl pint al nd yan Printing Copyright ©1955 Joba Vey Sots, ne A gs sere Nopart of his pobiaton maybe reproduce tron erie ranted {nary farmer by ay means otrene mean paeping Tring. ring ‘other, exept permed ser Suro 0 and ft 176 Une Stee, ‘Copa ct tow eter pir wren pein he Pubic or ‘treatin rah pt te nprpe prey othe Copia ‘Gearnee Center 22 Roo Dr Durer A 23. (4) 780, {She fab sree te Fuser pean sl ended he emt: Depertmen Jan Wie San oe Tr Avenue ew York NY OiSbooi, Ly sh oi, 2) SS Mads PERAIRE WILEY COM. Harr of ara Cag a Pabst San 67105564 loan pg To Marlene, wife, best friend, and the mother of our children . .. Brad, Doug, Kris, and Russ PREFACE, ‘This texts imended for nsodsctory and advanced courses onthe tu ofitrous composite mate ‘als from the mechanics perspective. The book isthe result of ticking courses and conducting researl on composts for more an a quarter-century. Although the book is sel-contsined itis visable to precede the materia ia this book with a fundamental course on mechanics of solids ‘The entire book canbe used fora fll academic year of study. For an inendactoy,ane-semester ‘course, coverage canbe linited to Chapter 1; Chapter 2, Sections 22.12: Chapters 4,5, and 6 (Chapter, Secdons 81-82; Chapter9,Setons 91-93 and Chapter 1, Sections 111-11 3. Tn writing this bok the istect has ben fo provide fundamental information on the engineering propetes and advantages of fibrous composites the mathematical formations ofthe governing ‘equations of mechanics for anisoiopc, laminated materi; descrptions of test methods fr dete ‘mining properies of composites; expetimental results for the completo mechanical response of 4 ‘variety of composites up o and including fllar:corelation of actual material response in both the linear and nonlinear anges with theoretical predictions, including the presentaon of «theory for ‘damage evolution in composites; in-depth coverage of micromecbnis methods for predicting ihe clastic ropes of composites based upon the properties of th fibers and the atin: and in-depth coverage forthe thermal-elastic response of laminated tubes The theoretical aspect of the book ver say 0 fa fom the real world of the laboratory and acta srutural spplications. Sufic ‘ent dtaon actual materials have been incloded so tht te book cn seve aa Tsource on mate= rl properics and material response, “The author believes tha certain tole ae presente in a text on composites forthe ist ime, inciodng inesaminar stessea (Chapter 8), damage mechanics (Chapter 9), and lined tubes (Chapter 10). A chapter is devoted to inteviaminarsuetes because they often play a vital oe in <éetermning the srength of laminated fsous composites Likewise, damage theory for compos ites i presemted in Chapter 9 because samp composites exhibit extensive damage prior to ultimate failure, Finally, the chapter on laminated bes is included because the tbe is a fundamental tac ‘ural member, because an analytical solution exists for many types of loadings, and becate lal red tubes exhibit coupling phenomena that are common characteristics of composites, The ‘chapter on micromectnics competes the range of coverage from mnlro to macro. Both Si (Systime intemaional d'un) and U.S. customary units ae wed throughout the book to facilitate use by readers around the word and also to reinforce te relationship between ihe to systems of units. [No project like this is completod without the help of many people. Thanks ere gratefully extended to Professor Nicolae Tarana of lst University, Is, Rumania, for an extensive, in-depth eating ofthe entre book during a Fulbright year tthe Univenity of Virgins o Profestor Jmnes Simmonds, my colleague atthe University of Virginia, fr extensive eting of most ofthe chap. ‘er; to Professor Jacob Aboudi of Tel Aviv University for review of several chapters aswell as ‘many inept discussions on mechanics of composites during his tue sabbatical yeas that we ‘spent together atthe University of Virginia (to) and Virginia Tech (oe), to Professor Marek: Jerry Pinder, my colleague at the University of Virginia and Virginia Tech for numerous deus sions on composts over a period of close to 15 year; to Dr. Chent Rose of NASA Langley Research Center for eding Chapter 8 on interlaminar steses to Professor lee Ladeveze ofthe Laboratoire de Mécanique et Technologie, ENS Cachan / CNRS / Universit, Pai 6, and his col- league Dr. Alin Gate, fo an indepth review and editing ofthe section on damage mechanics in (Chapter 9; to Dr. Eric Le Dante of Socie Bertin & Cie, Plait, France, for supplying data for ‘wan ofthe figures inthe section on damage; to Professor Niall Horgan ofthe Unversity of Vie nia fr review of several ofthe exly chaps; to Mrs. Eman Siragy for an outstanding join com ‘ertng old figures toa form suitable for inclusion inthis tet to Mis, Penny Laferire, my former secretary, and Mis, Beverly Martin, my caren seer, for assistance wih Word processing and ‘scanning figures; and Dr Fars Miradch and Mas. Syney Hessley fr ssistancein the Prep tation and presentation of figures. would alo like to thnk all of my caren and former grate studess whom I bave had the opportunity to work with. Though them Ihave leared mich about ‘composites, and much of their work it included in this book, either direct or indirectly. Thanks tue also dc to al ofthe students who have taken course in composites from me and enbanced my ‘understanding ofthe subject throagh ter questions and rviows ofthe mantscript wile twas in paepantion Thanks aso goto the University of Viegnia and Virginia Polytech Istinte and Sate University (Visinia Tech), the two universes that have provided me the opporunity to teach causes on mechanics of companies and supported me inthis endeavor. Thanks to NASA Langley Research Center fr continuous support of research on composites ove more than a quar tencentry, and, more recently, the Air Fore Office of Scientific Research for major support of ‘esearch on high-tempersture carpets a the University of Virgina. And ily, since thank {you w ally collegues and frends atte University of Virginia, Virginia Tech, and other wiver- fis around the word Who have improved my understanding of compesitas trough our mamerous ddscusions. ‘This book has been in preparation for many year, andi is wih a sese of reli that I write this preface. (Cart T Herakovich CChulonesvil, Virginia February 1997 “More important than any one new application is the new ‘materials’ concept itself. It marks a shift from concern with substances to concern with structures, a shift from artisan to scientist as man’s arificer, a shift from chemistry to physies as the basic discipline, and a shift, above all, from the concrete experience of the workshop to abstract mathematics, a shift from starting with what nature provides to what man wants to accomplish.” Peter F. Drucker, ‘The Age of Discontinuity, 1969 “Where there is much desire to learn, there of necessity will be ‘much arguing, much writing, many opinions: for opinion in good ‘men is but knowledge in the making.” John Mitton, ‘On Opinion and Knowledge (Acropagitica, 1644) “Nothing happens unless frst a dream.” Carl Sandburg NOTATION BASIC CONCEPTS, ay, irction cosines ‘oy, components of ste tensor yeas displacements © angular oientaton m 088 a ind components of strain tensor ij engineering sear stains {e)_ sain mates {o} sues matix Cyy_fourbroder sities tensor components of sheer sess F, components of body ferce pr unit volume tection am Su Sy Component of boundary stes 1,20)2) material principal coordinates Je global coordinates Vi vector W stain eneey density S ofice Sp wactionsutuce Sp. displaernent surface V volume TT powntal energy TI Kinamatcally admissible 1 nf staclly adisibe 1 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 1; sresses (contacted notation) sine (contacted notation) wi Gy, sins coefficients (comzacted notation) S3g_ compliance coeticients comracted not tion) Ey ranaformed stress Sy twansformed compliance Oy reduced sities Oy wansformed reduced stiffness Young's modulus—souopie shear modulas—rowopie 1 Poison’ atio—istrpie Ep) sxal moduli—principal material ‘Guections Vize Vis anil Poisson's tos Vay_tamsvese Poisson tio Gry 0,3 esl shear moduli (Gry wanverse shear modulus Le) free thermal sins {el}s coeticien of thermal expansion (CTE) principal material dretions {et}, _cveticiont of them expansion — slobal sy directions AT temperature change {e5} seins associated with sess {e} total sins 18) coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE) (2) nygroscopi sans ‘AM percent ostre change Ey, axial modules 4B, sanvere modulus Guy in-plane shear modus oy inplane Poston’ rao An oeffcen of manual fence "eon! kind vi ‘jy efficent of mutual ivenoo— ‘eond kind gg _coeticlent of mutual inftence fst ‘Baa yy coefficient of mural influent ‘td (7))_ sess ransformaton matrix 175}. sain ransformaton matix—engioer- ing shear U; redoced sttfness invariants LAMINATE ANALYSIS soe dlc opens 5 corns boron oh yer 1 hicks ofA ayer 24 amine hikes Ue (655%) line cavaes (hem (6.6.7) lari midis (Q)! dtb-layer reduced stiffness matrix (8) gy) inp fceegt (8 =A, MyM) mene (A) ining tise (8) ina ening sng opting 1D) amine ening sins Nor 24 umber of yer nant () laminate average stresses Uo umn compane (07) uae tema fseengh {A@") equivalent thermal moment/length (mine cece of thr expan sn (CTD (oj! tdatayer coefficient of thermal expan- (07) equivalent hygroscopic forcesnength (88) equivalent hygroscopic moments! length (B) laminate coeticent of hygroscopic ‘expansion {BiF_ttetayer coeticient of hygroscopic expansion’ Mie Yye_eflective throug-thickness Poisson's ‘os 4; though-thicknes effective CTE B,. though thickness elective CHE. INTERLAMINAR STRESSES. Fy Fao My. interlaminar Frcs and moment 8y,, Poisson mismatch Fone coefficient of mata inoencs mis sch UG.2.V0.9.1"9.2) asplacement warping fnctions {ofP|__eulrium aon {oly mismatch sion of? |, _v mismatch solution FAILURE Micro-lovelFallure: composite ultimate sverage tress iq matrix stress at compost faire fiver sesso composite fale oS failure sees of matx portion of com- pose Vi ctl V, for additional szength of ‘out max ‘minimum Vj fr actual reinforcement oF bor ulina sess <8 ber dominated composts uhimste of" failure sess of matrix volume at fil- ‘Macroscopic Failure: XXo¥n Youn Ze normal ses 0.8.5. stearazess ites fe oonmal ain ukimaes Tj sear saln ites Fy srengih aso Fi Fy nsfrmed strength tensor {flo,) tensor polynomial funetion DAMAGE {0} effective suesses isd dy damage paremetars 52,14, GP) undamaged modal By By Gyy damaged moduli Ye¥o¥q thamodynamic forces Bp damaged strain energy density 1 thermodynamic potential Yo. Yq maximum valve of thermodynamic Tocte . F combined thermodynamic fore maximum vale of ? Y§ brittle damage theshold for transverse You Yor Yes Yo damage constants inelastic (permanent) sain components B- effective permanent stain if etecive inelastic ssi ates AG.) elastic domain unetion ©, incanc dissipation RG) asdeing function pial value of hardening fanetion 1, tandening parameter & 6, material parameters fo ardeing fune- 2 coupling parameter elastic domain fonction Gy tna sain rates fj elastic strain rates inelastic sain ates e_spplied aval stress on coupon eq. anil and uansvese coupon sine 1 tal lapeed ime TUBES j.Ry_ jase and ouside rait 1459 aial tangential and ail dspace 40,7 axial tangential, and radial cord Pip T,_ ial force and torque PrePe ‘itera and external pressure (fiber orientation for tubes Gy Sy stioess and compliance inx, 8, oordinats uniform axial strain P angle of twist per unit length n0% Gn Sys 9 SEBS nx, 8,7 coor: ‘tact tet sooal sn a0 orto Teena serena, omnes ta eine dp. Gy Ogg coffclnt of thermal expan T,Q,%,E defined material constants combi- N-number of layers Ey, Gag becffective axial modal Gif ube ctective CTE J tube polar moment of inet Lube length Gy atl fore coupling coeticient Gre txque coupling cooticient Sar thermal coup yu internal pressure coupling ceticient couticient MICROMECHANICS Strength of Material Vp fiber volume faction Vjg_ mati volume fiton total volume A sv sectional area ‘Avy ior an ax cos ects ea Cy etc sts BLES} etetive moa ba Vis Wis effective Poisson's ratios Of; = Oty. ffecive axial shear modal EE me Vp Vn Vpn er and manix rop- ‘eres Gis Gp everape aval stress and stain Continuum Mechanis: Gy composite average sess (2) locates at position x composite average sain Chur effective sfnass fective compliance average ses in ber average ses ia mac EP average stim in fbr average strain in matrix T= of, bor tron Sj, spied sess applied stein Ayla) sin concention factors Byg(a) sexs concentration fctrs AUS phase average strain concentration fae- BIR) _ phase average sess concentration fe ‘or Tyg founb-oder dey tensor AB AG) Aber and manix average aan ‘concentration tor, Bihy = BiG] ber and matrix average stress ‘concentration cto 1, plane sein tk modus (Gh effcive shar modulus ax bob modules Method of Celis: yo 40° 9” -sabcall average sain oe subell average suess subcell strin concemvaton factors subeell stiffness mates E composite (cell) strains Px). ¥PMG))microvarables vol x,2.%5) dlsplacemen of subcelt figs dimensions [rg] seems coeicint max (7) ciaplacement continuity coefficient Ay) tmetion sontnuty coefficient mathix (A) combined cooticint matrix (A) matrix of Hil’ strin concentrations Mori-Fanaka: Mori-Tanka interaction tensoe seth’ tensor ‘ibe and matrix stifes entre 2 GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS f Sher 1.2.3, mts! ip conte ‘i 59,2 global coordinates 01 wansformed quantity (ig. slbal coordinates (11 materia principal coordinates (CTE cocficient of thermal expansion Grp sxahitelepoxy ‘BAL. boron/atasinum GVEp elass/epoxy ae oe] = | = = a = = 1 ae © | aed oar w i i ow x UNITS CONVERSION en SUS Genome C5. Coomary st Te aesianneRee | Tame iens he LO pm = 1.0% 10m =39.7 x 10° in Takin Spr onsni | ToS Te Tach eTSa ToMSea Force LON= 0225 16 LO bf = 4448 Resegs | Tanes oor aes “Moment 1.0 N-m= 8,850 lbf-in ~ LO Tf in=0.1130 N-m ee | nasi Tere FoR TCR) = 187 (K)- 45967 eR) +489.67)/ 1.8 Wow: 7K) =7CO)+273.15)_| ote: TK) =TER)/18) TOpEPC= 0556 ne LOMEPF= 18 uerC TO gion = 00361 Tin = 27.68 law tyr = pound fre 1) ponds CHAPTER | THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS ul 12 13 vy 1s 16 7 19 COMPOSITES 1 Tngoduction 1 Defniton of 2 Composite 1 bers 4 131 Biber Types 4 132 Fiber Properties 6 ‘Mats Materials 8 Composite Forms 10 15.1 Unidirectional Lamina 10 152 Woven Fabrice IL 153: Laminates 11 154 Hybrid Composites 11 155 Chopped Fiber 13 Composie Properties 13, Advantages of Composites 15 LTA. Specific Siffnss and Speci Swengsh 15 172 Tailored Design 15, Fagus Life 13 Dimensional Sully 16 CCorosion Resistance 16 (Cost-Effective Fabrication 17 (Conductivity 17 Overall Cost Considerations 18, Applications 18 1 Aerspace 18 182 Composite Railway Caner 19 183 Athletic and Recrestinal Equipment 21 184 Automotive 21 185 Infastrctire Seuctures 22 186 Indastial 23 18.7 Medical Applications 23 1B Blecronie 23 189 Military 23 Fabrication Methods 23 19.1 Autoclive Cuing 23 1192 Filament Winding 24 193 Pulmsion 24, 194 Braiding 24 11955 Resin Transfer Molding 26 1946 Metal Matix Composites 26 Summary 27 References 27 ‘Aina! Reading Selections 27 Bxercises 28 av CHAPTER 2 CONCEPTS OF SOLID MECHANICS 29 2.1 Intoduetion 29 22 Tensor 29 23° Deformation 32 24 Simin 33 25° Suess M 26 Byuilriamn 35, 27 Boundary Conditons 36 274 Tretions 36 2.72. Free Srface Boundary Conditons 37 28 Continity Conditions 37 281 Displacement Continuity 37 2.82 Traction Contnsty 37 29° Compatbiliy 38 210 Consitatve Equations 39 DLL Plane Suess 40 212 Pine Stain st 2.13 Generalize Pane Problems 42 21M Simin Energy Density. 42 21S Minimum Principles 42 2.15.1 Minimum Potential Energy 43 2152Misimum Complementary Energy 44 2.153 Bounds and Uniqueness 45 References 45 Brercies 46 CHAPTER 3 3-D CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 47 3A fective Propeny Concept 47 32 Generalized Hooke’s Law 48 33° Material Symmenry 49 331 Monoclinic Material 49 332 Onhoropic Matrial 51 3.33 Tranvetsely Isotopic Material 52 3.34 Isotropic Material 34 34 Engineering Constants $4 35 Coordinate Transformations 58 35.1. Sues and Strsn Transformation aboutan Axis 59 4352 Suites Transformation 60. 333 Compliance Tansforation 62 354 Transversely Isotopic Material 3.55 @ Dependence of Transformed Siffss 63 36 Summary of 3-D Constitutive Bguations 65 27 Material Dependence of Transformed Sitiess 68 38 Thermal Efects 70 381 Thermal Stains and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 70 382 Consituive Equation 72 39° Moisture Effects 75 394 Hygroscopic Expansion 75 392 Hygro‘Thermo Elastic Constiutive Euaton 75 30 Summary 76 References 76 Berciee 76 CHAPTER 4 PLANE STRESS CONSTITUTIVE, EQUATIONS 78 4.1 Plane Sess Stiffness and Compliance 78 4141 Redaced Stifoess Matrix 79 4412. Reduced Sines and Compliance for Orthotopic Material 80 ‘41.3 Compliance and Stiffness in Terms of Engineeing Conran $1 42 Consstuive Equations in Matedal Coordinates 82 43. 2-0 Transformations aboutan Axis 52 43.4, Lamina Stes-Stal Relations in Global Coordinates 84 44 Sines and Compliance © Dependence 87 45° Lamina Engineering Constants 90 454 Axial Modalae 90 452 Polson’s Ratio 91 453 Tranwvere Modulus 93 454. Shear Modulus 93 4435 Coefficients of Mamallauence 95 456 Additonal Lamina Engineering Constants 96 457 Comparison of Theory and Experiment 98 46 Measurement of Material Bnginceing Constants 100, ‘461 Axil and Shear Moduli 102 47 Invasint Properties of Reduced Stifiness 102 48° Thermal Effects 103 48.1 Covffciet of Thermal Expansion 108, 482. Thermo-Flasc Consitave Equation 105 49 Moisure tects 108 49.1 Bygroscopic Expansion 108 ‘492. Hygrotherl Cnstiative Equations 108 410 Summary 109 References 109 rercies 108 awl CHAPTER 5 LAMINATION THEORY 112 sa 52 33 34 35 36 37 38 59 510 sal 512 sus sas 516 say 518 519 520 Inxodstion 112 ‘Notaion 112 “Assumptions of Lamination Theory 114 Seain-Dispacement Relationships 114 Suesees 116 ‘In-Plane Forces per Unit Length 116 Moment per Unit Length 18 ‘Laminate Constatve Relations 119 ‘Symmeaic Laminates 122 ‘Special Laminates 124 5.10.1 Specially Ototopic Laminates 125 5.102Balanced Laminates 126 5.103 Quasl-omopic Laminates 127 ‘Examples for Laminate [A,B], nd [D] Vales 130 ‘Laminate Engineering Constants 136 5.124 Angle-Ply Laminates 138 5.122Genera Laminates 143 5.123 Comparison of Angle-Ply Engineeing Constants 143 ‘Suess Disuibuions 145 5.13.1 Steses Duc to Loading 146 5.13.2Sresees Doe to Moment Loading 151 513.3 Comment on Suess Distibtions 152 Susses and Suains in Angle-Ply Laminates 152 5.14.1 Stree a Principal Material Coordinates 152 5.142 Strains in Princip Material Coordinates | 158 Unsymmetric Laminates 159 ‘Thermo-Elastic Lamination Theory. 163 3:16. Themmal Fores and Moments 163 5.162 Laminate Coefficient of Thermal Expension 165. 5.163 Angle-Ply CTE Comparisons 166 5.164 Thermal Suesses 168 5.165 Applicaion 0 Unsymmeaie Laminates 169 ygrothermal Laminate Analysis 171 Laminate Trough-ThicknessProperies 172 5.18.1 Troogh-Thickness Poisson's Ratios 173, 5.182 Throogh“Tickness Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 177 5.183 Through-Thickness Coefficient of Hygroscopc Expansion 178 Designing with Laminates 179 Summary 182 References 182 Brersites 183 CHAPTER 6 TESTMETHODS 185 61 Introduction 185 62 Quality Assessment 186 621 Microscopy 186 622 Unrasnic Inspection 186 623 X-Ray 187 63 Physial Properties 189 634 Density 189 632. Fiber Volume Faction 190 633 Void Contest 190 634, Moisture Content 191 64 Mechanical Property Characterization 192 64.1 Gener Considerations 192 642. Stuin Measurement "192 643 Tensile Testing 193 4A Shear Testing 204 645 Compression Testing 23 6:46 FousPoint Beading 216 6:47 Thermal Expansion 217 References 218 ASTM Sundards 219 Buereises 21 CHAPTER7 MATERIALRESPONSE 222 7A Ineodvcton 222 7.2. Polymer Matrix Composites 223 724 Unidirectional AramidEpoxy 223, 122 CurbonEpoxy 227 723 Cuboo/Polyimide 232 73. Metal Matix Composites 234 734 Unidirectional Boro Alaminam 236 132 Silicon-Catbide Titanium "240, 7A Summary 245 References 245 CHAPTER 8 INTERLAMINAR STRESSES 247 81 Inmoduction 247 {L1L1 Historical Review 248 2. Finte-Width Coupon 249 82.1 Equiv Considerations 250 822 Mismatch Considerations "260, 823 Digpacement Fields 263, 824 Design Considerations 263 83 Finite-Element Analysis 265 43.1 Displacement Formulation 265 832 Free Edge Deformations 258 84 Complementary Eerxy Fornlason 275 4.1 Global Eguliteium Formulation (KI. Solution) 276 842 Complementary Energy Minimization 279 143 Extenion/Bending Formulation with Mismatch Terms 280, 85 Inerleminae Suess Distbuont 285 85.1 Gross-Ply Laminates 285 852 AnglePly Laminates 285 853 Quis-fsomopic Laminates 204 86 Summary 299 References 299 Exercises 301 CHAPTER 9 FAILURE AND DAMAGE 303 9.4 Inrodetion 303 9.2 Failure Mechanisms 303, 921 Axial Tensile Stengih. 308 9.22 Axial Compressive Strength 306 93. Macroscopic Fale Theories 307 9.3. Maximum Suess Theory 309 9132. Maximum Stain Theory 313 933 Teai-Hil Theory 314 9.34 Tensor Polynomial Pature Ceitrion 316 935 Comparison of Failure Creda 319 9.36 Comparisons for Of-Axis Laminae 320 94 Laminue Failures 325 9.41 Free Blg-Intnted Failure in Angle-Ply Laminates 325 9.42. Stacking Sequence-Dependeat Angle-Ply Laminate False 329 9.43 Quasilsowopic Laminate ailues 332 95 Damage Mechanics 332 915.1 Mesoscale Composite Damage Theory 333 9552 Mesoicale Damage Parameter Determinison 342 933 alu Prediction 349 915A Mesoscale Composite Damage Theory Predictions 350, 96° Sunmary 389 References 359 Breccses 361 CHAPTER 10 LAMINATED TUBES 362 101 Tawoduetion 362 102 Single-Layer Elasticity Soluion 363 10.21, Stains in Cylindrical Coordinates 363, 1022 Compatibility 364 102.3 Constitive Equaions 365, 102. Equilibrium 366 1025 Displacements 365 102.6 Suess Boundary Conditions 370 10227 Simplified Displacements 370 1028 Stains 370 1029 Steses 371 102,10 Normal Suess Boundary Conditions 372 102.1 axial Force 372 10212Torque 373 10.213 Thermomethanical Loading 373 102.14 Pure Thermal Loading 373 10215 Special Fiber Orentations 374 103 Lamisated Tube 375 103.1 Layer Displacements 375 1032 Traction Coninity Condiions 375, 10.33 Displacement Continuity Conditions 375 1034 Reduced Displacements 376 1035 LayerStains 376 1036 Layer Swesses 377 1037 Axial Force 377 1038 Torque 377 1039 Boundary Conditions 378 103.10 Traction and Displacement Coninuity Requirements 378 103.1 Simultaneous Equations for a Laminated Tube | 378, 104 Tube Response 380 104.1 Effective Axial Modulus 380 1042 Effective Poison’s Ratio 380 10.83 Effective Avial Shear Modalus 381 10.84 Etfedve Coefficients of Thermal Expansion 382 10:85 AxiaRotiona Coupling 334 105 Stress Distibations 389 105.1 Axil Stesses 0, 390 1032 Hoop Suesses 05 393 1033 Radial Suesses 8, 393 105 Shear Stresses tg 393 1046 Noninear Response snd Dynamic Loating 399 107 Solid Cylinders 399 108 Summary 399 References 400 Exercise 401 CHAPTER 11 MICROMECHANICS 402 HA Ingodvetion 402 112. Effective Prperies 402 113. Suongth of Materials Approximutions 404 112.1 Effective Asal Modulus 404 11132 fective Axial Poisson's Ratio 405 1133 Bffectve Traverse Modulas 407 34 Efocsive Axial Shear Modus 408 135 Degree of Onhouopy 411 11346 Summary fr Suength of Materials Approsches 417 114 Contianam Approaches 12 1141. Equivalent Homogeneity 412 41142 Volumetric Averaging 412 1143 i's Concentration Factors 413, 1A Voigt Approximation 414 UA Reuss Approximation 416 1A Concentric Cylinder Assemblage Mods! 417 1147 The Method of Calls 424 LIAS The Generalized Method of Celle 436 1189 Sel. Consistent Method «36 1410 Modi-Tanaka Method 438 11 Micromechanics Using Fine Flements 438, 11,412 Model Comparisons 439 115 Summary 446 References 446 Exercises 448 ‘Appeadix A MATRIX INVERSION 449 Appendix B_ BOOKS ON COMPOSITES 450 ‘Author Index 453 Subject Index 456 cuarrert THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES “Ob, buta man’s reach shoul exced his grasp, or whats a heaven for? Robert Browning 1 Introduction ‘The field of composite material i oth old and new. Iti odin the sense that most natural objets, including the human body, plants, nd animals, ae composites. Ir i new in the sense that omy since the ea 1960s have engncers and scien exploited seiouly the vast potential of fabricated ‘bros composite materials, Development f now composites and new aplication of composites is ‘now accelerating. Because of this, te material propetics and applications cited in this introductory taper should be considered only as typical of eaeat examples. As beter and more economical composites are introduce, and as mare copiners become knowledgeable in the analysis, design, ‘nd Iabriaton of composites, the sppliations will expand eve fase. Those mentioned here wil serveas a peck through he crackin the dor tos word of enginested mateials and structures whose teat appears tobe far-reaching. Future aplication of composites wl be Himited only by the Tack of ingenuity and the unwilingness of indvidels and soetety to explore this vast unknown ‘There ean be no question hatin the worlwide competitive markets ofthe 21st century some ingi- uals and some societies will met the challenges and opportunities offered through the use of “engineered composites,” The potential Betis are oo great fo tis not tobe tue. Tn order to provide a motivation forthe use of composts, ther enginering properties are compued with those of monolithic materials, and applications where composites have proven ‘sdvanages over monolihce ae presented in thie chapter. However, the main focus of this book is ‘he mechanics of composite. The fundamental laws of mechanic are melee. What wil change it the sys and faeeation of aew mst, and the designs that canbe accomplished with mate ‘ls exhibiting superior ropes, properties tha ean be tllored to moet the demands of te appli- 1.2_ Definition of a Composite ‘ery simply, a composte is a material which is composed of two or more distinct phases (Fig 1.1), Ths a composite is heterogencous. To a certain extent this definition depends upon the level of analysis, a all materials may be considered heterogeneous ifthe scale of interest i sull= enay small. AS use in this book, vous composites are material in which one phase acts a8 a 2. THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES FIGURE 1.1 Multiphase Media reinforcement of a secand phase, The second phase is called the marx. The challenge i © com bine he ibers andthe matrix 0 form te ost fies matecal for the intended aplication One ofthe most efficent statues known is he human boy. The sketch af he muscles inthe ‘human body in Fig. 12s brautifol example ofthe efficient ws of ieous composites, The mus les ate preset ina layered system conisting of fibers a diferent angles and in diferent concen ‘wains, Thi system results ina very stong, effet, versatile, and adaptable structure which i ‘spable of performing amazing feats Its achllenge to engineers to design and fabricate struc- tures which fonction a a versatile and efficient a manne as the hurnin body. The book by Cis ‘man (1995) includes numerous excellent views clearly showing the heterogeneous and Hbrous rate ofthe human body. Other obvious examples of matully occuning filyous compass incl the wings ofa Bird the fis ofa ish, tees, and grass. All ofthese structures ae typified by too or more phases, one of which ie sttonger and tier than the thes and serves a the primary load-serying component The book by Wainwright etal. (1976) is concerned withthe mechanics of wide variety of organisms that ae bros composites. The book includes a discussion of fiber ‘wound cylinders treated as reinforced membrane stems and shows he fundamental role played bythe fiber orientation, ‘Fibrous composite materiale were wsed in Egypt as exly a 4000 a. for making laminated writing mati from the papyrus plant Cling fom the papy7s pant were alo sed by early Egyptians to make boats, sal, bakes, and ropes. Papyrus parchment are stil in se today. ‘Asound 1300 2, as indicated in the Book of Exodus (o not give them straw for ther brick, ‘make them find thee own araw") stra was used a enforcement fr mod biks, «practice ha ‘ln use today. According to Haran tl 1994), ancient Egyptians also made contines of coarse fibers drawn fom hest-sfteed pass, and the French scientist Reaumir considered the ‘ote of forming fine glass ibers as early ab the 18h century It was not wil 1939 that coi ous glass fters were produced commercially (nox, 1982). These fers were produced minty for high-empertire elecrica application. Two moe decades passed before the so-called advanced fters were produced: boron (ate 1950s) and carbo (1960s). Thus, ffom the east, ‘plitions of composts by the Egyptians to the instodvtian of advanced composites in he sc- ‘nd half ofthe 20d century, roughly 6000 years have passed. Without doubt, the progres in the the of fbrous composites inthe later ba of the 20h century hasbeen much greater han that dr ing the prceting 6000 years. "And where are we ody? We ae on the verge ofan explosion i the use of these fibrous mate- rials for srvctral splcaions. The applications over the pst quarter-century have ben pinay in specialty aoas sucha aftletic egupent and aeospace structures. More receally we a seeing spplieaions in the infastrutare, including plans for sn ll-compositebidge over an interstate Highway abd the ancpation ofa ll-comporite automobile hat wil result in significa immprove- ‘meni in fuel mileage, improved safety, and reduced maintenance Is clear that w+ more engineers Definition ota Composite @ FIGURE 1.2 Muscles in the Human Bod (hewn courtesy of Doing Kindersley Limited) 4 THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES become familiar with the posal engineering a economic advantages, as well the analysis snd design procedures with hese materials, the number and range of application wil grow even ‘more rapidly. And asthe volume of merit producod increases, the cost per pond will decrease Aramatcally, thereby making composites moe affordable for even more applcaions. ‘A wide variety of fibers and matix materils ae now svalable for we in advanced compos its, The selection ofthe specifi iber and mats to be used in 2 composite i nt aitary. The ‘wo (or more) phases ofa compaste must be carefully chosen if he composite material sto be structurally efficient, The composite generally must be resistant to debonding at the fberimacin interac, nd it must ls be resistant to fiber beakage and matrix cracking. However, in applica: tins where iis desired to dispute energy during the failure process (sch as i crashwerthy impact-resistant structures), progressive fiber fire en fiber/matix debonding (damage devclop= ‘ment ar sive fearures because they dslpateenery. Thus, a major challenge forthe mechan fice and materials community isto unertand the factors inflcocing damage development and © ‘knowhow to design for it under severe environmental and mechanical loading conditions, includ ing defecation phase aswell s the in-service phase. In the reminder ofthis chapter we wil ican a representative sample of fibrous composite ‘materials propertssadvaniages,fariestion methods, and wie as situa composites 1.3.1 Fiber Types ‘A wide variety of fibers are availabe for use in composites, and the number ie everinreasing Glass fibers have heen in use since the 1930s; however, it wat only i the Inte 1950e that fibers ‘hich exhibit significantly higher aifness were developed for tricurlappiations, These new high-specic sess tines divided by density) and high-specific meng (stenath divided by ‘ens fibers are called advanced fibers. Composites made from them are calle advanced cam posites. An in-deph discussion of fiber types and fabrication methods canbe found inte book by (Chawia (1987). The first advanced fiber developed for applications in stuctral composites was the boron ‘ber introduced ty Talley (1959). Other examples of advanced fers include exbon (some fon of which are rapt), rand (Sold under the tade name Kevlar by Du Poa), slicon carbide, lt ‘ina, and sapphire. As mentioned, glass fiber generally are nol considered to be advance fibers ‘ease oftheir elaively low modulus compared with those of ater advance fies, Howe, lassi an imporant engineering fiber because ofits igh specific strength and low cot. Thus, it vil be incided inthis bok when elatie properties are discussed, The ference betwocn carbon and graphite fers isthe carbo coctent. Caton fibers ypeily havea carbon cookeat af 80-95% iereas graphite fibers have a extbon content in excess of 99% (Lubin, 1982). Carbon fibers become graphitzed by heat meament at temperatures in excess of 1800°C (3272"F), For the remainder ofthis book, the genera term carbon wil be used for both carbon and graphite fers, As indicted in Table I, the diferent bers have diferent morphology, engi, size, and shage. Some fibers, sch spas, carbon, and alumina, are supplied inthe form o tows (ls called rovings or sands) consisting of miny individual contmuoas fiber filaments, The sie ofthe nd vidual filaments ranges from 3 t 147m (0.1 x 10* wo 538 x 10° in). The maximum ws tempers ture ofthe bers anges frm as low ab 250°C (482°F 0 a8 high a 2000°C (3622°F); however, ‘most applications, the use temperatre ofa compote contlled bythe use temperate of te Fibers 5 Filament) Fabrication | Size, | Filaments Fiber Type Origin | “Method | um (in) | Tow Glass | S-2glas | Mola | Fiterdrawing | 6-18 | 2000 las ___| 230-550) Organic | Kevlar | ~ Liquid |~ Spinning | 1272) | 1000 crystal ast PAN Heat and 8ai5, 12,000 cabon | | sess | Paws | Pict Hea | 1083) | 2000 IMs PAN | Heatand | —5ci97) | 12000 Boron | Tungsen | cv | 1226000) | 1 | core ceramic [Nicalon | Polymer | Pyrolysis | 15 (60) | 300 (SC) | precursor | Scs.6 | Caton | evd | a7 Goa | i (ic) core | | lL ‘Alumina | Slurrymix | Spin and bear | 20 600) Z ‘TABLE 1.1 Typical Features of Fibers Boron i ceramic monofilament fiber manufactured by chemical vapor depoiion (CVD) of ‘boron ona (usally tungsten core, Ths the fiber isl is a composite. as a circular cross sec tion and has been produced over wide range of fiber diamesers (33-400 jm) with the typieal boron fiber diameter being approximately 140 jim, This is a relatively lage fiber dimer and ‘results in ower lexi, in parscular because boron i very bile material The mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion ofthe tungsten core andthe deposited boron rest in resid ‘sresses which develop during fateiaton cool-down o room temperature. ‘Carbon laments ae made by contlled pyrolysis chemical decomposition by heat of apre- ‘eursor materi in Ser form such as polyacryonisile (PAN), rayon, or pte by et westent at temperatures ranging fom 1000 to 300°C, withthe flberproperies varying considerably with the {abricaton temperature. The fabrication process and properties of carbon filaments were summa eed by Riggs (1990), Individual eabon faments havea diameter of 4-10 im. Tows ean consist, of fom 3000 to 30,00 filaments. These tows are geacrally what is efered i whes carbon bes fare discussed, The smal lament size and tw arrangement result ina very Nexible fiber (ow) Which can actually be ed into a kot without breaking the iter. The modulus and strength of ct= ‘bon fibers is contlled bythe (proprietary) process, which cgsiss of thermal decomposition of the organic precurior under well-controlled conditions of temperatore anders, ‘second iypeof carbon fibers made from a pitch precursor. The pth er are made by spn- ing speoleu based producto frm apltch precusor. The cos section of euoa fiber is often odcicul, Indeed, many have the shape of a Kidey bean. Carbon Gibers have a beterogeneous ricrostroture consisting of namerous lamellar ribbons. The mompology ie very dependent onthe ‘manufacturing process. PAN.based carton fiters typically have an onioaskin appearance wih the {6 THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES: bsl planes in move ores cicular ares, whereas the morphology of itch-basd fiber is such that the baal planes long radial planes. Thus, te ropetes of carbon ibers ae anisotopie, Glass bers are avallabl ina varies of forms: E-glss and S-2 (Owens-Coming Fibeglas Corporation are the most common for steal applications, lass i wed where stength and high electrical essivity are required, and $2 glass is used in composite strctural applications ‘which require high atength, modus, and stability under extreme temper and comive ene ronmens. Glas ers are produced by drawing molten glass trough numerous tiny orifices i srvify-fed tank wo form continuous laments which ae gathered together in sand ot tow. A ‘homie sizing (a coating) that serves to both protect the lament srfaces as well x bind them together is applied tothe filaments during production. The sands are wound ano a drum a very igh speed (up to 6 mys, 200 fuse) at heen ofthe process. This fabrication method results ‘niviual laments that are small in dlameer, isotopic and voy exible. Alumina fibers are ceramics fabricated by spinning a sary mix of alumina particles and adi- tives to form a yar whichis then subjected to controled heating, The most immperant feature of lumina fibers isthe strength retention at high temperature “Aramid i an organic Ser which i melt-pun from aliquid polymer solution. The Du Pont ‘Company developed tes fibers an sels their product under the ade name Kevlar fou grades of ‘Kevlar wih varying engineering proper ae evallabe. The chemical and physieal str of, said fers as well a he fabrication proces ze desebed in considerable detail by Morgan and ‘Allred (1990), The morphology af the fiber consis of rally arranged eystaline hess resulting in anisoupie properies. The filaments are small in diameter (-12 ym) and, partially because of| this, very flexible, Aramid bers end to ave high tensile strength but ony intermediate modus. ‘They also exhibit sigiicalyIowersengih in compression. Silicon earbide (SiC) sa cera ber made by ve of two methods. The fist mth consists of chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of slicon and ean onto a pyrolye grape costed carbon core, Tis ider (developed by AVCO Specialty Materials Co, nthe United States and designated 'SCS.6) is very similar in size ad microstactare o Born fiber The SCS6 fibers relaively si in flexure, having a diameter of 140 um (0.00556 in), The scoond method for producing silicon at- bide fibers (developed in Japan under the trade name Nicaloa) is contalled pyolyis (chemical ‘decomposition by bead ofa polymeric precutsor. This method resus in ameats which aes arto ebm filments ia tems of size (-14 ye, 0.00086 i) and microsuvctue. The diameter of & ‘ican laments approximately one-tenth tht of an $CS-6 ber, and hence itis ch more ex ible. The Nicalo filaments are arranged in tows with 250 to S00 filaments pee tw. Although CVD. ‘is more expensive than the pyrolysis proces, itresuls in superior props. 1.3.2 Fiber Properties ‘Typical engineering properties af specific fibers are compared withthe properties of suet sad ‘ati materials in Table 2 and Fig. 13. A wide varity of values for fiber properties can be found inthe hertare depending ypon the manufseturer, the fabresion process, and the ext rmetied. Highnd valves re prevent to demonstrate the best ropes tht ca be attained the resent ime, Experience fs shown that thee values continue to improve as ew fibers re devel ‘ped. The table includes density p, axial modalus Ey, axial Poisson's tov, axial esi stength (Of, specifi tfnss and specific sueagth normalized with respecte vlc fo alin, sid sal coeficient of thermal expansion (CTE) 0, "The modulus and sength vals ar for tne loading slong the axis ofthe ber Clongit- ‘ab, Possibly the most important properties given in Table 12a the specific stfiness the specifi strength, andthe cooticient of thermal expansion. The specific stiffness and strength vals ae ommalized with those of aluminum. The normalized yalce of specific stifhess and specific Fibers 7 Dendy speate | specie | rapamion Pa | segue | Ponan's | sane | Smee | Stegm | Coen gi | otic, | | sacle, | Oe | mY | ee, maria | doer) | conden |" | snrtinan | ity | a | nection ETATS aay [es | oe [meee aaa Reina || 270 [oan [033 | ase | io | 19 | aaasm "Tani I| 45,016) [ora | —e36 | semi [ass | 1a | sss) TIERS Gl rein a TCI EC I aay “reo || ens [165 x0 | vases | Tasca) raps] 235,079 | Tacos, | ox [aver | 2 Tea caaey at || stom) | s00) [om | simi | a7] ar = Toe || asc0nm) | 35055, | ann [seas | ss [os | oem Ente ® | rat@omm [isa | om | sane | 36 | 9 | 0c 56 [sso [wou | 0s _| usec | st] a | soem Nites || 255,008) | im0G2) | 028 | mos | a8 | ae aan Auer || 395016) | soe [oa [swam | a7 | 19 | 7520 $2Gmn || 24600) | wescae [om | ese) | 14 | ioe | 169) EG [asso | e009 | am | suogi | iw [7s | saa) Sane [307 0105" | as0@) [om | sancam | 43 [si | tea ‘MATRIX MATERIALS Hey arom | aoe | os | seses) | owe [os [oa Tone [Tae 00s) | 3505) [ass | iasas) [aos | ea | 3609 Cone a905 | 70 _| am | amos | as] os_| How ‘Siem [Sze | aoany [028 [sie | as | as | aan ‘TABLE 1.2 Properties of Engineering Materials, Fibors and Matrix strength are compared grapiilly in Fig. 1.3, and the tes sain responses ofthe fibers are com> pared in Fig. 4. ‘As indicated in Table 12 and Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 vanced fibers exhibit abroad ange of prop- cries. Indead, the properties of carton ters can vary significantly depending ype the faeicaon process. Atte timo this writing carbon fibers can be fabricated o have high nodules (700 GF, 100 Msi orien stength (3 GPa, 725 ks) but pt both, A method wo fabricar carbon fiber with both high modulus snd igh tengh is desired. Te SCS-6, IMB, bore, and sapphire bers offer the best combination of sins and strength, but three ofthese fibers have lage dames and ‘hus have lie lei the IMB carbon fiber with ts small dame isthe exception ‘The values presented inthe table show that te sprifi stiffness andthe specific stent ofthe ‘monolithic srtual materals—steet, aluminum, and titariwm—are all very smi. In coarast, ‘he specific sifies ofa fber canbe more than 13 times ha of stucural metals, andthe specific strength canbe more than 16 ines that of structural metal. Thus he potatoe large welght say ng is preset trough the use of advanced composites, ‘8 THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES { ome we | 6 Kev | ne op | o Toa As ip sm | ota i Buca ow 1 oscss pwn | © Sapphire ° | o wast I 0 toes | @ mea’ og os ry mo ro Ep FIGURE 1.3 Normalized Specific Stfiness and Strength ‘The fiber data in Table 1.2 and Figs 13 end 1.4 are forthe fiber only, wih the ouding along the fer ani. These properties are reduced significantly wen the beri sed witha mats mate Salto form a composite. The specific properties are reduce even further when the lnaing isin a direcon eer than along the fibers. Nevertheless, actual experience has shown that significant ‘weight savings are posible in peimary engineering sactures through the se of advanced compos Stes. As will be discused ltr inthis chapter, weight is not the ony reason for choosing eomnpos- its indeed, for some applications compass te chosen whea theresa weight penalty, bit hee sxe othr advantages such a heat Wanifer characteristics or soncondactive properties which ae ‘more important The value in Fig 1.3 ae nommalied with respect o those of alumina. 1.4 Matrix Materials Polymers, meas, and ceramics are all used a¢ matrix materials in continous fiber composites, Polymeric maria mata canbe further sublivide into themaplasies and thermoset. The tet ‘moplastcs soften upon eating and canbe reshaped with beat and pressure. Thermoplastic polymers ‘sed far composites include polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, nylon, polymeane,poy-ether- cthet-etone (PEEK), polyphenylene slide (PPS), and polysulfone. The thermoplastic composes offer de potential fr higher toughnes and high-volume, low-cost procesing. They have a uefa tempera range upwards of 25°C (437) ‘Thermoset polymers become cros-inked during fbecaion and do nt soften upon reheating ‘The most common themnoset polymer mari mateils are polyesters, epoxies, and polyimises, Polyester are sed extensively with las fibers. They ae inexpesive ae Lightweight, have awe. fal temperature ange upto 100°C (212°F), and re somewhat resstn to eavonmentalexportes, “pales are more expensive but have beter moisture resistance and lower shrinkage on curing Matrix Materials sim, os) ory SEE ima, Hf iF = = 2s = = ‘00 100-300-300 400 S00 600 £ FIGURE 1.4 Siress-Strain Response of Advanced Fibers ‘Their maximum use temperate isin the vicinity of 175°C (347F).Poyimides havea higher use temperature (300°C, $72°F but are moe dificult fabricate. Potential problems with the use of polymer matrix material are the Timid use temperature ‘ange; susceptibility to environmental dgraiation due 1 moisture, radiation, ad atomic oxypea (athe space eoviroament; low traverse strength; an high residual steses due the large mis- ‘atch in coefficients of theal expansion between fiber and matix, Typically, polymer matix composies cant be used near of above the glass ansitonteiperatre Tat which many physi- ‘al properies change (deprade) abruptly. "The ost common metals used as matrix matells ae alum, tan, ae copper. Rex sons for choosing a meta asthe atx material include bigher use temperate range higher ans vere suength, toughness (as contrasted with the brite behavior of polymers and ceramics), the ahsence of moistare effects, and high them conductivity (copper). On the negative side metals fae heavier and more susceptible to imecacal degradation atthe bermatrx interface and 1 ce ‘sion. Aluminum matrix composites havea use temperature upwards of 300°C (S72°F), and tts ‘sium can be used at 800°C (I470"F, Essealy all matevals exhibit degradation of properties {he highest temperate. ‘The main reasons for choosing ceramics as the matrix include a very high use temperature range (22000°C, 3600°F), high elastic modulus, and low density. The major disadvantage 10 ‘ceramic matix materiale iether britdenee, which makes them susceptible to fave. Carbon, eon carbide and sliconniride are ceramics that have ben used a matrix ati ‘Carbonicarbon isa composite that consists of carbon fibers ina carbon matrix. The primary ‘advantage of this material 6 tha itcan withstand fempeaties in excess of 2200°C (4000"P Indeed, earboncaron can be stronger a levted temperature than a om temperature, The ds ‘advantage of carbonfcarbon composes isthe their fabrication is an expensive, multistage process. ‘Thus this material Is used only where its high temperature capabilities are essen Tor the 10. THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES. plication. One aplication of carboncarbn is on the leading edge ofthe space shutle, where ‘ey high ompeatues occur daring ren. 4.5 Composite Forms 1.5.1 Unidirectional Lamina ‘Theundiectional lamina (Fg, 1.5 sthe basic fem of continuous fiber composites. The lamina (or py) may be compote of one or me ayers of material, but all bers are in the same direction. It ‘may be fabricated in vasity of ways, including from propre ap, Hlameat wisdng, pulrusion, or resin transfer molding (RTM). Te stfes and strength inthe fiber direction are tpially much rete than inthe manavere diretions, depending on the mex material and the quality ofthe ‘beatin bond. The properses ofa unidectional lamina are othtoni, with diffrent proertios nthe material pincipal dietons (parle and perpendicular othe fiber) Fora sufiiet mumber of lames (oF layers) inthe hicksess direction, the effective propenties inthe wansvere plane (erpendiulato the fibers) may be izotropic, Such a mtr i ealld “Wraneverselyiotopo.” Figure 1.6 shows a photomicrograph of pla css section of unsiectinalcarbon/epoxy, tnd Fig. 1.7 shows atypical cross section of unidreedona illcon cubide/ianium. Ieis evident FIGURE 1.6 Carbon/Epory (Photo coutery Of Joseph M. Kunze, University of Virginia) Composite Forme 11 FIGURE 17 Silicon Carbide/Titantum. (Phat couesy of Joseph M. Kunze, Univesity of Virgins) from these figures thatthe Siber volume is quite variable, with fibers actully touching in some locations, forthe carbonlepoxy. The metal marx composite exhibit much more uniform fiber sping and, therefore, ber volume fracdon. The tuagen coe i leary visible inthe scan car tie ibe, Figure 1.8 shows the facture sufuce of a unsiectional(prallel-fiter) composite consisting of boron fiers in alominum mattis. Again, the tungsten of te boon fiber is very evident. Ths fracture surface shows fiber breakage, mars failure, iberimauix debonding, and fiber “plo.” 1.5.2. Woven Fabrics Woven fibers have been n use for centres for products made from fbross materials. Examples include cloth, baskets and other conse, and hats. The flee bes, ch as as, carbon, and sami, can Be woven into clot sbi, which can them be impregnated with a mais material. A wide variety of weave patterns are avaiable. Two pattems ae pica in Fig. 19, pain weave (every fiber over and under every ther perpendicular fiber) and a fve-hamess satin weave (onder ‘only every fifth ber), Woven fabric naturally have beer in-plane transvereffeesive properies ‘tan undetonal lamina. Thy lay or rape beter in structural configurations wih substantial cvatueand are more durable during handing. 1.53. Laminates [aminaes (Fig. 1.10) are made by stacking te unidirectional (r woven fabri) layer at ifferent ‘ber orientations. The effective properics ofthe nminste vary with the arination, thickness, and Stacking sequence ofthe individual layers. A shorthand notation has ben developed a desrib the laminate stacking sequence and orintton ofthe individual layers. This notation wll be described in detail in Chat 5 I ls willbe demonstrated later that an fmporat clas of laminates are those which have asymmetric sacking seen abot the Iaminste midplane, 1.5.4 Hybrid Composites Composites are used ina vasety of applications where either more than one fiber type is used or Where a composi is combined with ancther material such a « metal. Such combinations of 12. THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES FIGURE 1. Fracture Surface of Boron/Aluminum (Phot by Frank Wawner, University of Virginia) Plain Weave Five-Haroess Satin Weave FIGURE 1.9 Woven Fabrics ferent materials ar called brid, Different fiber types are combined in the same material ys tem when itis dsired to ake advantage of the est tributes ofthe diferent ers wie matin ing te lowest possible cost. An example isthe combination of Kevat and carboa fter, Kevlar exhibis excellent tensile properties and i less expensive than cirbo: however, the compressive popenies of Kevlar ae nt as good as the tense propeis. Hence, some carbon fites may be combined with the Kevlar to provide the desired compressive proper. Composite Properties 13 FIGURE 1.10 Laminate Another example of a hybrid system is laminate consisting of layers of composite sund- ‘wiched berween layers of metal Alcoa makes material Qnown by te trade mame ARALL) in which ayers of aramidlepory ae laminated with layers of aluminum, The advantages of he hybrid {ystem as compared with the allmetal tract incade beta aig life and higher specific i= res and specifi teagh. The Byeid can be machined using sditioal meal technigoes, sn the ‘outer aluminum layers provide a moisture hair as wells lightning protection 1.55 Chopped Fiber ‘Many fibers, such as carbon and glass, canbe chopped into short lengths and den used in com pression and injection:melding compounds to produce indusial components such as machine ‘ams, gears, and valves The molding processes have pester flexibility for components with com plex geometries. The fished products have many ofthe vantages of continsous fiber compos- ites incloding resistance to creep, comosion, and fatigue as well a high speci stfess and seth, 1 Composite Properties “Table 13 presents typical average or effective propertics fr unidirectional compos. The desig- nation of the diferent composites consist of the name ofthe fiber followed by the name of the marx. As will be discussed in dealin ater chaps, unidirectional fibrous composites exhibit “ferent properies in diferent directions. This i elected in Table 1.3 by he labels asia and ‘ransverre, which refer to properties in the dzeson of the fiber (axis) andthe properties perpen- ‘ical the fiber (ranserse). The properties of @undietinal composite ae also a fnction of the volime faction of fiber. Thus fer Volume factions are also piven in the table. The values ‘resented in this tale have been gleaned from a wide variety of sources, including personal ‘esearch by te author and collaborators. ‘As indicated inthe table, hare canbe wide range of composite properties depending pon the choice of ier and matrix andthe dzeson of loading. The paicular comps presented in te able were chosen to demonstra the range of properties possible for polymeric and metalic ‘matix composites. The axial moduli rnge from a low of 43.5 GPa (6.31 Msi for Sglassepoxy (S ‘las fibers in epoxy matix) to a high of 227 GPa (32.9 Msi for oronaluminum. The ranverse ‘modal re much smaller, ranging from 58 GPa (0.3 Msi) fr Kevlar wo 145 GPa @ Msi for SCS- (6(1-18-3. The degre of arhowopy as measured bythe rato of axial to waneverse modulus also varies over a wide range rom slow of 1.5 fora metal matx composite, SCS-67V-15-3, 0 «high ‘of 1438 for Kevlar, (Carbovepany composts made wih high-moduls fibers can exhibit a degree 14 THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES: ‘ASd | T300/ | Kevlar’ | Boron’ | SCS-6| | S2glasv Materat | ss0n-6 | S208 | ‘epoxy | al | Teas | “epoxy ess, 132 | isa | 138 | 205 aa6 | 200 gemPavia?) | oss | ease | @o | eae | ery | oor Arhlonditse, | Me | 192 | 78] 227 | 2a | a3s cra” | ei | asa | ao | @ | oa | 6s Tanvenemadiee | 1030) 108 | ss | 9 | ms [113 ears) | a4 | aso | oH | @2 |_en | aon Poimor'smmio 1 930 | 024 | 034 | 02 | o27 | 027 Poiworemtio | 959 | os | 037 | 03s | 04 | 040 ShewrmoduieGy | 360 | 568 [207 | sve | 32 | aus crosd | ean | oy | 9 | 635 | a7 | 050 SearmofiinGy | 317 | 338 | ia | #4 | si7 | 412 craand ” | @4o | 4m | 29 | asa | cs | co Moduiusrtio | 126 | 123 | sas | te | is | 46 Eile, ‘Aaialenailesomagie | 257 | 151 | 1380 | 290° | WSt7 | 172 Xn im | a5} am | asn | am | eso pai Trnveretenie | 54 | Sa | me | a | a7 | aa seaghe | 7] 63 | a | an | a | 60 MPa iy Swength rao ee ae | | |e | a AuicTEs, | 08 | O77 | | so | ois | om worn” | cosy | cosy | ea | oy | oo | op Teme cies (29: | sale ss) aes ome] wewr "| ao | 3 | oy | oa | ao | ao Foerwotune ose | ose | ass | oa | 039 | om fraction V, Piydicioees, | 0127 | oan | oxa7 | oe [ oa samo) "| 000s) | coos) | coos) | coor, | ooo) ‘TABLE1.3 Typical Properties of Unidirectional Composites of onttropy as high s 40.) I sal evden rom the table that he coc of thermal expan ‘Son ange fom small negative values in the fiber direction to large postive ves nthe answers direction. "Adsionsl propertis of widinetonal and laminated composites, inching nonlinear stess- strain response curves are presented in Chapter 7, ‘Advantages of Composites 15 Advantages of Composites “The intial development and aplication of advanced fxous composites were pursed primarily ‘ease of the potential fr lighter soucsus. The fst applications in te eatly 1960s were i serospace srvtues, where weight crdcally affects fuel consumption, performance, end pay toad, and in spors equipment, where lighter equipment often leads © improved performance. Today frou composts are often the material of choice of designers fora variety of reasons, including low weight, high sifiess, high stength, electrical conductivity (or noneonductivi), Jow thermal expansion, low or igh re of heat transfer, corrosion resistance, longer age ie, ‘optal design, reduced maintenance, fabrication to net chp, and retention of properties thigh ‘operating temperstre, Some oF these svantages are discussed in more detail inthe following paragraphs. 1.7.1 Specific Stiffness and Specific Strength Undoubtedly the most often cited advantage of Fibrous composts i ther high speci tifness and high spcitic suengih as compared with waditonal engineering material. These properties esd ‘o improved performance and reduced energy consumysion, both Vitaly important in he design of simost all engineering sractaws. Tho spacifesifioss and speciiesuength af composites have ‘oon discussed i dtl (se Figs 13 and 1.4), red Design Because composts are fabricated, they canbe engineered to meet the specific demands of each pirical aplication. Available design options include (bt are na limited to) he choice of mate als ite and matrix), the volume faction oF fiber and matrix, fabrication method ayer erent tions, nimber of layers in piven diecton, thickness of individaal layers, ‘ype of layer (sidzeeona or fri) andthe layer stacking sequence. ‘This vast aay of design variables for composites comasts sharply with more atonal engi- neering material, where the choices re much more linited. The aviability of wide aay of Structred materials means tht more efficent structures canbe fariated wih less material wast Unlike isotropic materials, composites ae directionally dependent. Thus composts can be designed to have the dese properties i specified directions without overdesigning inher dire ‘ions, The large number of variables svsilale with composites also means tha the use of comp fs, optimization, expert systems, and artifical intelligence should be considered in improving designs. 1.7.3 Fatigue Lite ‘igure 1.11 shows the ftigue lives of several composites compred with that of aluminum. These ‘51 curves niet the smb of load eels N thatthe material can withstand under ten sess 5. Clery, composites exhibit mach beter resistance Io fatigue than does aluminum, This can be ‘tical in souctres such as sizcraft, where fatigue lifes often the mos important design consider aon, Improved fague life sone ofthe major reasons wi thee has ben a shift composites by the ae indasty, Fag lifes also important for many other stacues that experience eyele loading, such ae transportation vebiles, brides, industrial companents, and structures exposed fo variable wind or water loading. Sasi \ = - 00 N 40% eyes) FIGURE 1.11 Fatigue Life Comparisons (Courtesy ot Hexel Composites) 1.7.4 Dimensional Stability ‘Nearly all tuctues are expose to temperature changes during their lieimes. The strane soci med with emperture change can esl in changes in sive or shipe, incresed friction and wear, and thermal stresses. In some applications tes thermal effects cin he crcl, Increased fition ‘between moving parts (n an engine, fr example) can result in failure because of overeating Smal changes inthe spe of space antenna can render it totally inoperative forte intended us Cyclic themnal loading as experienced by some space structures, can rill in them fatigue ‘Highways buckle du to thermal expansion, and roof systems develop leks and, at times, fll dae to themal expansion and conraction. Thus, there are many aplicstions where 2ero- oF nst= 2sr0CTE material can result in tgnificant benefits. Through proper design, its posible to have ze10-CTE componites oo desig the CTE ofthe composite match tt of oer componeats 1 ‘minimize thermal mismatch and the resting thermal sesss. Figure 1.12 shows a carbonlepory ‘optical bench forthe Space Telescope. The bench vas designed have azeo cefiiet of ther ‘mal expansion overa wide range of temperatrs, 1.7.5 Corrosion Resistance Polymer and ceramic macix materials ean be selected to make composites resent to coroon ‘rom moistare and cher chemicals. Curent applications f las fiber composites that have been driven by conosion considerations ince flement-woand underground storage tanks, structural ‘members for offshore drilling platforms and chemial pants, sucks rod used in pumping al fom ells, pipe, and domestic application including doors, window frames, and deck famitre in coastal regions whee saltwater eomosion a major problem, ‘Advantages of Composites 17 FIGURE 1.12 Optical Bench ‘Goto county of Alliant Techsystems) Polymeric and ceramic matrix composites can often be made tobe essentially maintenance fee compared with raditional engineeing materials. This i tue primarlly because ofthe eorosion resistance. Rouced maintenance can represeat substantial savings and sould be considered in all ‘otal cost evaluations. Unfortunately, ll to often, cost decisions are based primarily on the iit ‘apt expenditure without regard for he total iti cost of minting the structure, Corosion ‘esistane result in longer life ofa suucture and hence reduced (or delayed) replacement cs 1.7.6 Cost-Effective Fabrication Composite sractures can be fabricated efficiently trough the vse of antomated methods such filament winding, polirsion, and tape laying. Eticiencis in fabicaon ean also be achieved ‘eae composts canbe fabricated with very litle material waste. In many cases, composite ‘component can be fabricated exactly 0 size specifications with no material waste Tiss in tack ‘consast tthe use of metals, Whereis often necessary “hog ci" lage portions of macral o sive atthe final configuration. Fabrication cst lo are directly related othe number of pars in astute. Tho wse of com ponites can subetanally reduce thi number because of the ability Zabrieat to net shape and because of the ase of bonded rather than svete joins. As an example, two sections of a fuselage ‘were made by (a) ivetng eluminum componenis and b) adhesively bonding composite compo- rons. The numbor of parts in the sluminum srueture was ~11,000, whereas the compost sruc- ‘ure had only ~1000. This tenfold reduction represents a significant savings in both the cost of components andthe cst of assembly 1.7.7 Conductivity 1s desirable that many engineering sructres be electrically nonconducting, Excellent examples ‘ar the glasipolyester ladders and booms which have replaced stel and aluminum in order 10 reduce the possibility of elecwocution. Noncondoeting coaonents are alo important for apice- tions in the electronics industry, whether it bes computer chip or he entire balding in which he chips are fabricated. In cons, copper matrix composites are now under consideration for high> temperature aplicaons because of te high thermal conductivity of copper. Copper matrix com poses can serv as radiators in regions where ts necessary t maintain lower termperaires, tis hoteworthy thatthe iberpasslders and the copper matrix composites are chosen even though there isa weight penalty 48 THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES 1.7.8 Overall Cost Considerations In evaluating the cost competiveness of structures made from composite materials the ttl ife- ime cost shold be ineloded. Per pound, composites ae usually mare expensive than tadtonal, material; however, many ater factor must be included in & meaning east comparison, Fist, fewer pounds of compotite material are required because of the higher specific stiffes and strength. Second i is porible tat fabrication costs canbe lower. Thi ransportation and ereo= ‘on costs ae generally lower for compost sructures. Filly, the compesite structure will gener- ally last much longer than the traditional material snd will ie much less maintenance during “fe. Composite materials have been shown wo be cost competitive in a wide variety af serospce, automotive, instal, domes, ol dling, and electronic applications among oes. 1.8 Applications 1 would be imposible inthis inroductory chapter to cover the fll range of composite applica ions, even at ths relatively erly state of the art Its scourate to say that there is a coatnuing explosion of new aplictons. few examples ina wide vavety of feds wil be given in oder 0 demonstrate that these application do indeed cover a wide range for a multiude of reasons, 1.8.1 Aerospace irra, spaceeaf,stellies, space wlescopes, the space shut, the space station, mises, booster rockets, and helicopters areal examples Where composite miteras have been (or wil be) ‘sed to advantge. The primary reasons for using composites in arraft include speci tifness ‘nd specific srength, design wilorbility, and fague resistance. As noed previously, dimensional stability also is ofen major consideration fr space applications. Some aircraft would not have been posible withou the availablity of advanced composes. The al-composie Voyager ai. plane (Fig. 1.13) flew nonstop around the word without refeling, and he forwardswept X29 FIGURE 1.13 Voyager Composite Alrcraft (Photo couresy oF Allan Techsystems) ‘Applications 19 vas possible only because of the special features of campsites. Many aerospace stots Include components hat are made with different composts depending upon the type of loding experienced by the individual component, Possibly the most exotic example of the advantages ‘which can be pained through the ue of comptes re the stealth aicaft which were usd #0 tffetvely inthe erly 1990s, The sel esti of the planes would not have been possible were Snnot forthe availability of advanced composites. ‘Shown in Fig. 1.14 isthe Perseus high-atade (24,300 m, 80.000 ft) al-compost, remote conolled aircraft used for wether and otber atmospheric sues (manufactured by Aurora Flight Sciences, Inc). The primary reason for chosing composites for this plane is weight. The spice ‘shrte ig 1.15) bas many structural components made from composites. Carbonlepax, Kev, nd caronferbon ae used on diferent components, Cirborlarbon is used on the lading edges nd nove cane ofthe shut, where temperatures upwards of IS00°C (2732"F) occur ding te nu. Another example of the use of composites in smplanes is depicted in Fig. 1.16, where an exploded viow ofthe B2 bomber shows the variety of composis used fer differen sractoal pplication i his plane. Both fiberslass and graphite ier are used with epoxy mani and poy- ‘imide maui 1.8.2 Composite Railway Carrier ‘Amos interesting example that ncdes relatively large mmber of factors ha tipped the scales in favor of composts over souctral meals is a composite rilway auto eanser (Fig, 1.17) ‘esigned and bait by Aleoa/Goldsworhy Engineering fr the Union Pacific Raid in 1990 20. THE WHAT AND THE WHY OF FIBROUS COMPOSITES any SS organs Pai 78 {es Groptte pony BS turinam 2 e am FIGURE 1.16 B2 Advanced Materials (Photo courtesy of Northrop Grumman) Automobiles can now be transporte in stackable polymer matix composite modules that ae $3 (16.1 m) long and 85 ft (2.6 m) wide. AE the ime, dh modes were the largest single units ever sssembled fm pliraded strata component, The composite carters weigh fom 5 to 10% less {han he traditional ar racks"; redesigned wo eliminate shock an vibration damage to ato com ponents at sped up io 80 mph (129 kph), compared tothe maximum of $0 mph (80 kph for stan- ard car sacks are completely enclosed to protect agains vandalism, theft, nd comosion; and have reduced msintenance costs, higher rial, and teter utilization (modules come in two different heights snd ean be sacked up to thre levels high) ‘Applications 21 FIGURE 1.17 Composite Railway Carrier (hots courtesy of W Brandt Goldsworthy and Assoc. In) 1.8.3 Athletic and Recreational Equipment Examples of athletic and recreational equipment made from composites inclu tennis rackets, golf ‘labs, baseball bas, helmets, skis, hockey sticks, fishing rds, boat hulls, windsurfing boars, water ski, sl, canoes and racing sells, paddles, yichtng ope, speed boats, seba diving tanks, fe racecars. Advanced composites are sed in hic equipment primarily to improve perfor ‘mance thraigh ighter weight and improved tsilering. Inthe recreation aca low weight i often Aesiable, but redaced maintenance an corosion resistance ar also major factors resulting inthe selection of composites. A noable example ofthe use of composts in salboating isthe success of ‘he composite boat and compost sails he America's Cup races, Several examples ofthe use of| ‘composites in athlete and recreational aplication are shown in Fg. .18 1.8.4 Automotive “The reasons for choosing composites in automotive applications include lower weight and gest

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