THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

A. Mathews Revolution and Reaction: Europe 1789-1849

R. Lerner, S. Meacham and E. McNall Burns -Western Civilizations V2
D. Murphy, T. Morris, R. Stanton and S. Waller - Europe 1760-1871
S. Miller Mastering Modern European History
M. Chambers, B. Hanawalt, T.R. Raab, I. Woloch and R. Grew The
Western Experience

ORIGINS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Introduction
By the 1780s France was the most populous and powerful state in Europe,
the most centralized and culturally the most advanced.
The French Revolution of 1789 proved to be a turning point in European
history. Its sheer radicalism, creativity and claims of universalism made it
unique. Its ultimate slogan Liberty, Equality and Fraternity expressed
social and civic ideals that became the foundations of modern western
civilization.
In the name of individual liberty French revolutionaries swept away the
institutionalized constraints of the old regime seigneural charges upon the
land, vestiges of feudalism, tax privileges, guild monopolies on commerce, and
even (1794) black slavery overseas. The revolutionaries held that legitimate
governments required written constitutions, elections, and powerful
legislatures
They demanded equality before the law for all regions of the country,
denying the claims to special treatment of privileged groups, provinces,
towns or religions.
The term fraternity expressed a different kind of revolutionary goal. It
meant that all citizens regardless of social class or region shared a common
fate in society and that the nations well-being could override the interests
of individual citizens.

STRUCTURE OF FRANCE BEFORE THE REVOLUTION

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Monarchy, Government and Administration

The Ancien Regime

The term is used to describe the system of government and structure of
society in France prior to 1789, ie what existed before the revolution. It
was one where the government was based on absolute monarchy and where
society and social structure were based on privilege.
Absolutism
Absolute monarchy was a system in which the state was ruled by a monarch
who claimed absolute or total authority. Absolute monarchs were thereby
answerable to no-one for their actions and their word was law. Theoretically
their powers were unlimited although in practice they governed within the
established laws of the kingdom. The basis of this authority was a mixture
of divine right (kings were placed in authority by God) and hereditary right.
Divine right was the foundation of the monarchy. Monarchs had a duty to
have paternal concern for their subjects.
Absolute monarchy was the norm in Europe in 1789. Monarchs were
buttressed in their rule by a landed aristocracy whose authority and
privileges were protected by the crown and on whom the crown relied to
keep local order. This state of affairs was given religious sanction by the
church, whose privileges and positions the crown protected.
These
institutions owned much of the land directly and could demand a range of
dues and services from their peasantry.
The monarchy of Louis XVI was absolute. He was answerable only to God
divine right was symbolized by the anointing of the king in the coronation
service. Political power was concentrated in the hands of 1 man; it was
personal and therefore the personality, qualities and weaknesses of the
monarch had a decisive impact on political decisions.

Social Structure
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18th century France was divided, not along classes but by order or estate.
There were 3 orders of citizens or estates. Each order had its particular
rights, privileges and obligations:
The 1st Estate the clergy
The 2nd Estate the nobility
The 3rd Estate everybody else; the peasants
What distinguished these orders was not necessarily wealth, but privilege.
The 1st two orders enjoyed a range of privileges and the 3 rd Estate none.

The 1st Estate the clergy

There were about 130,000 clergy in France from parish priests, bishops and
archbishops. In many ways the clergy mirrored French society- parish
priests were generally poor and had much in common with the peasantry;
bishops and abbots were all noble in background and recruited from the
aristocracy, wealthy and servants of the crown. They enjoyed large incomes
and a number of privileges. The clergy:
Had their own courts
Had their own assembly to control their affairs.
Enjoyed exemptions from all direct taxes (taille) and many indirect
taxes (covee royale)

Collected their own taxes -tithe on all land under cultivation, an average
of 1/10 and 1/15 of the annual harvest, from the rest of the population.
The Catholic Church had a monopoly over education and care of the sick.

In exchange the church supported the monarchy and donated a don gratuity
(gift of money raised largely through a levy on the lower clergy) to the
crown.
The church owned 10% of the land in France and enjoyed considerable
income from this source in rents and other dues. Although they were a
wealthy institution and had many ostensibly wealthy bishops, most parish
priests were poor and received only a fraction of the tithes levied
supposedly for their maintenance.
The 2nd Estate the nobility
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There were between 100,000 to 400,000 in the 18th century. Many were
small farmers but had social status and privileges including:

Not liable to some of the more cruel punishments

Exemption from the taille (main direct tax)
Exemption from forced labour on the roads (covee royale)
The right to bear sword and access to officer status in the army.
They owned over 10% of the land and enjoyed rights as local lords of the
manor (hunting rights, right to a portion of the peasants crop).

There were many types of nobles:

Nobility of the sword- descendants of the old feudal nobility
Nobility of the robe- gained their status through official posts they held or
had purchased in the law courts and royal administration
Annoblis purchase of a royal office

The 3rd Estate everybody else; the peasants

Over 95% of the 26 million population; ranging from wealthy bankers,
government officials and financiers to lowly landless peasants, this large
group was by no means homogenous. There were 3 broad groups:
1. The bourgeosie 4%-10% of the population with education and relative
wealth. They were also not a homogenous class, yet many could not
easily be distinguished from the nobility. The higher bourgeosie were
financiers, bankers, prosperous lawyers and office holders who sought
to transfer into nobility through purchase or marriage. They owned
12% of the land.
2. The urban workers 4 million small shopkeepers, skilled workers/artisans
and unskilled manual workers.
3. The peasantry 20 million, ranging from relatively wealthy peasant
farmers to landless labourers and sharecroppers. Many owned land but were
burdened with dues which limited their ability to survive from year to year.
Dues and taxes included:
o Money payments or labour on the lords land (covee)
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Payment in kind on the crops grown 12% of the harvest

Transfer tax on the sale or inheritance of land
To use the mill, oven and winepress of the lord
Special permission to build walls or harvest hay before
midsummer
Payment of tithes one twelfth of crop
Direct royal taxes taille (on income or land), vingtieme( 5% on
income to meet emergency like war) and capitation(poll tax).
Indirect royale taxes eg the gabelle (salt)
Labour on the roads (covee royale)

Dues varied from peasant to peasant, village to village and region to region
but were heavy and disproportionate on the peasants.
The 1st two groups formed the bulk of what became known as the sansculottes.

Social Change-Between 1800-1850 the population of Europe rose by some

50% which posed problems, including on food supply. The population
explosion was also accompanied by a shift in population distribution into
towns which caused its own problems of overcrowding and increasing rents.
Much of the urban population was poor, unskilled and unemployed. Such
pressures resulted in increased public health difficulties rapid spread of
diseases, high infant mortality and low life expectancy.

Change in the social structure saw the growth of the middle class with ideas
of liberalism and nationalism that challenged the existing social and political
values.
Economic StructureThe French economy saw considerable growth in the 18 th century, and
especially in the overseas trade sector which quadrupled in value. However,
the mass of the interior of France was relatively unaffected by this as its
development was handicapped by a number of factors including primitive
financial institutions, structural backwardness of manufacturing and low
levels of capital investments (S. Miller, p1).

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France had a predominantly agricultural economy, which was more than at

subsistence level. All villages and regions tried to produce their own grain to
provide bread which was the staple of the rural and urban diet. Peasants
also tried to cultivate cash crops like vines to produce wine for sale as an
extra income. They also supplemented their income by spinning and weaving
cloth. Frances main exports were wine and spirits and luxury goods such as
silk.
Bad harvest created severe shortages and rapid inflation. People could
therefore not afford manufactured goods which caused wider economic
crisis.
When agriculture flourished, trade and industry flourished; when harvests
were bad, bread prices rocketed and the impact on trade and industry was
immediate. A good harvest meant lower bread prices, leaving more income
available to spend on other goods; a poor harvest meant high bread prices or
shortages, with little for the purchase of other goods. Contracting demand
for goods led to unemployment amongst urban workers. The importance of
the price of bread was recognized because if bread prices rocketed, the
whole economy was affected. That is why in times of dearth local authorities
sometimes introduced price controls to prevent unrest.
Industrialization was beginning to transform economics and society.
Technological advances in machinery and the application of steam power
began to have an impact everywhere. The application of steam power to
manufacturing processes, like spinning, promoted the development of largescale factory production with this vast numbers of unskilled, poorly paid
workers, many of them women and children.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution had 2 elements:
1. There was a political revolution in which the system of absolute monarchy
was overturned and replaced by constitutional government answerable to the
elected representatives of the people. It was symbolised by the Tennis
Court Oath, made secure by the Storming of the Bastille and enshrined in
the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

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2. There was a revolution in the social organization of France symbolized by

the abolition of privilege on the night of August 4th.
These 2 elements are not mutually exclusive.
Historians have long debated the causes of the French Revolution. Here we
examine some of them.

A) The Enlightenment (Spread of ideas subversive to absolutism)

The 18th century had witnessed the enlightenment, an intellectual movement
building on the scientific revolution of the previous century, which sought to
apply logic and reason to try to understand politics, economics and society.
The result was a critique of the existing situation that spawned a range of
ideas that developed into liberalism, nationalism, democracy and later
socialism. Thinkers/philosophes concerned themselves with almost every
branch of knowledge from the physical sciences, history, religion, education,
government, politics and economics. The ideas of philosophes like Voltaire,
Montesquieu and Rousseau led to a questioning of the existing arrangement
in society, politics, economics systems and religion (see page 25,A. Mathews)
and provided alternative approaches.

Voltaire campaigned against intolerance, miscarriage of justice and political

and religious intolerance.
Montesquieu advocated a mixed constitution with the separation of powers
and the branches of government acting as checks and balances on each
other.
Rousseau argued that the only moral and legitimate government was one
based on popular sovereignty and which conformed to the General will.
However philosophes were not revolutionaries, nor were they political
leaders. Yet they had no clear programme of political change.
They were not against monarchy, even absolute monarchy.
Their audience amongst the educated classes was quite wide. The 18 th
century saw the development of literary societies in many towns and cities
across France where intellectual debate could take place amongst the
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bourgeosie and liberal-minded nobility and churchmen. Writers and

journalists spread ideas and many were exposed to enlightened thinking.
Against a society based on privilege, liberalists proposed one based on equal
rights (freedom of speech and of the press, freedom of conscience and
equality before the law). It attacked social privilege based on birth and
advocated the idea of careers open to talents, or equality of opportunity,
meritocracy.
Against absolute monarchy, nationalists posed the idea of constitutional
government which was to serve the nation and were answerable to them by
giving all men the right to vote.
Against protectionist economic policy a doctrine of economic liberalism (free
trade) was suggested, and freedom of conscience instead of religious
intolerance.
The questioning of authority and existing institutions reached down to
artisans and workers in the form of scandal-mongering pamphlets and
cartoons. The targets of these satires and gossip were the monarchy and
the privileged; the king was impotent. The queen promiscuous, the
aristocracy perverted. This did much to undermine respect for the
privileged orders and monarchy.
Enlightened ideas however did not cause the French Revolution, but they did
provide a framework for criticism and a moral justification for change or
opposition.

B) Antagonisms among the Social Orders(Continuing existence of privilege)

1. There was tension within the 1st Estate - the Roman Catholic Church. Its
rulers bishops, archbishops and cardinals were in the main recruited from
the aristocracy. They enjoyed large incomes derived from property that
had been willed to the church over the centuries and that was exempt from
taxation.

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Income from both property and tithe was distributed among the ranks of
the clergy. The princes of the church, along with the leading monastic
orders, took the lions shares. Parish priests who collected the tithes
received very little. This imbalance in the distribution of revenues was
resented not only by the priests, but by peasant tithe payers who hated to
see their taxes spent to support a distant and haughty ecclesiastical
hierarchy rather that their own, often very deserving, local clergy.
2. Within the 2nd Estate the nobles of the sword regarded the nobles of the
robe as upstarts. In 1781 they pressed successfully for a law that
restricted the sale of military commissions to men whose aristocratic lineage
extended back at least 4 generations. The tensions between these 2 nobles
kept the aristocracy fragmented and vulnerable and hence unable to form
together into anything more than a negative and potentially destructive
force.
The disdain for the nobles of the sword by the nobles of the robe was mild
compared with the contempt in which haughty aristocrats held the 3 rd
estates. The upper echelons of the 3 rd Estate also aspired to be nobles. By
1780 the nobility of the sword was intent upon closing off the avenue of
social advancement. No matter how much money a merchant, manufacturer
banker or lawyer might acquire he was still excluded from political privileges.
He had almost no influence at court; he could not hold high political office,
and the majority could not vote and they had less access to the army and
the church.
3. As the middle orders achieved greater affluence their members were
bound to resent discrimination. While the lower bourgeoisie were frustrated
by the lack of opportunities for advancement, they nevertheless still felt
themselves above the peasants and workers. The peasants in turn resented
their obligations as they paid taxes to Church and state.
The various orders continued to press for what they called their liberties.
They put their interests before that of the state. They felt that they
should be allowed to carry on their affairs without state interference.
As a result the political theories of the philosophes appealed to both the
discontented nobility and the bourgeoisie.

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C) The Role of the Monarchy (Ineptitude of Louis XVI)

The personal qualities of the monarch played a crucial role in shaping
developments prior to revolution. Louis XVI was awkward in society. He was
good natured but weak, and indecisive, a man of limited intelligence who
lacked self-confidence which made him an ineffectual leader. He was more
interested in his hobbies (like deer hunting) than attending to government
business.
His wife Marie-Antoinette, an Austrian princess did not help the cause. Her
activities were the source of slanderous scandal. She was frivolous,
meddlesome and tactless. Vain and strong-willed, she was fond of court
entertainment and palace intrigue. She inspired the dedicated hatred of
reformers, intellectuals, and the common people. Her reputation was
completely dashed when it was thought that she was promiscuous even with
cardinals of the church.
As a result of Louis hesitancy and ineptitude he pressed for reform and
then retreated from it; he changed ministers whenever the pressure was on.
It was paralysis of effective government at the very top that helped bring
about and ensure the success of the revolution of 1789.

D) Deepening Financial Crisis

Britain defeated France in the 7 years War (1756-63). This was Frances
2nd defeat in a major war in less than 25 years. It had 3 principal effects:
1. It undermined respect for the monarchy by damaging French prestige.
2. Its costs left the Crown heavily in debt.
3. It left the Crown anxious to reverse its humiliation.
Between 1740 and 1783 France took part in 3 major wars- the War of
Austrian Succession 1740-48, the 7 Years War 1756-63 and the American
War of Independence. In the first 2 there were only losses, in the last the
gain was minimal. All of this meant that there was pressure to increase
expenditure on the army and navy.
To finance the debt the Crown borrowed money but then had to pay the
interest which in turn added to expenditure and hence the overall debt.

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In addition to the high costs of war came expenditure of running the

administration and the royal household (pg 27, Mathews).
The continuing and deepening financial crisis of the 1770s and 1780s was
brought on by years of administrative improvidence and ineptitude. This
chaotic nature of financial administration included:
o Lack of uniformity in the tax system (tax privileges, varying
taxes)
o Inefficiency and corruption involved in their collection
(Farmers-General, venal offices, lack of efficient accounting
systems).
The Crown found itself trapped in a spiraling cycle of debt and dependence
on credit that made eventual bankruptcy likely unless radical reform was
undertaken. Thus the Crown had to maximize its revenues and so consider
reform of the chaotic financial system. However parlement resisted reform
decrees posing as defenders of the nation.
The last 4 years of Louis XVs reign saw a determined effort to trim the
powers of the parlement (the main obstacle to reform) and to initiate
substantial financial reforms. The opposition of the Paris parlement led to
its exile and then abolition, along with several other parlements.
Louis XVI succeeded to the throne seeking popularity and under great
pressure reversed his predecessors reforms and restored the Paris
parlement.
By 1776 controleur general Turgot proposed a new package of financial and
economic reforms, including stricter accounting procedures. The Paris
parlement refused to register the edicts, the king failed to stand by his
minister and the reform package collapsed.
In the American War of Independence 1776, France decided to support the
colonists, imposing extra strains on royal finances, leading to bankruptcy a
few years later.
Jacques Necker a Swiss Protestant banker came to the rescue with financial
reforms and the ability to raise cash through loans. However, Neckers
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attempt to control the level of war expenditure aroused the opposition of

powerful ministers. Additionally, Neckers ambition to join the inner circle
of the kings advisors caused friction because as a Protestant he was
debarred. Louis XVI was persuaded to abandon him and his reforms in 1781.
Alexandre de Colonne was appointed controleur general. The debts continued
to mount steadily and interest payments were taking up an increasing
proportion of royal expenditure. The Paris parlement meanwhile refused to
register new loans and the interest rates demanded by financiers began to
escalate.
Colonne proposed a reformed tax structure that would remove the tax
privileges of the nobility as well as reforms that would ensure efficient
collection and accounting. The proposals required some kind of endorsement
if there would be any chance of making them stick. The Assembly of
Notables was that body but they criticized the proposals as being
impractical. The attacks on Calonne were such that the king dismissed him,
replacing him with Brienne. The assembly was still not amenable so it was
dissolved, declaring that only the Estates-General which had not met for
over 170 years could approve new taxation.
Thus, various ministers attempted to raise revenue by implementing a stamp
duty and a direct tax on the produce of land. The King called an assembly to
discuss the issue. They proposed that in order to pass such a general tax
the Estates General would have to be called to approve the new taxation.
Meanwhile the bad harvest in 1786 resulted in reduced tax yield causing
bankruptcies amongst tax officials. Facing imminent bankruptcy Brienne
presented a watered-down version of Calonnes proposals but once again the
Paris parlement (posing as defender of the nations interest) refused to
register them, declaring that only the Estates-General could approve new
taxation.
When the king met the parlement in November 1787 to register a new loan
protests by the duc dOrleans led to his exile and the arrest of critics of
royal policy. The actions of the king stimulated protest Revolt of the
Nobles. This brought about the final collapse of royal finances by August
1788. The king was forced to call the Estates-General and recall Necker.

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Thus the Crown and the various controleurs generaux were not blind to the
financial situation but, every attempt at reform failed. There were a number
of reasons:
Financial reforms were sometimes coupled with unpopular economic reforms.
Reform was sometimes attempted at times of general economic hardship.
Reform was opposed by ministerial and court rivals and those vested
interests that would lose out.
The crown failed to support reforming ministers when opposition arose.
The parlements, especially that of Paris, opposed reform measures.

e) The Impact of the American War of Independence

In 1776 American colonists rose in revolt against George 111 of England.
Louis XVI supported them as a chance for revenge against Britain. While the
Americans and French were successful, its effects helped precipitate the
events leading to revolution.

Financial Impact Finance could be raised either through extra taxation

(vingtiemes) or borrowing. Extra taxation was already being levied in order
to pay off the debts left by previous wars. That left borrowing. The crown
already had to pay the interest on previous loans. The Crown found itself in
a circle of debt having to take out new loans to pay off old ones, with the
total debt spiraling ever upwards. By 1786 over 50% of royal debt was going
directly on interest payments. To avoid bankruptcy urgent financial reform
was necessary. It was the attempt to achieve this reform that provoked the
political crisis which led to revolution.
Economic Impact During the war trade with the WI was severely
disrupted. There was dearth of raw cotton which affected the textile
industry.
As many cotton-workers were peasants, their income was
adversely affected. The problems were compounded because the end of the
war was followed by economic depression.
Political Impact- Soldiers who fought in America brought ideas which
supported notions of popular sovereignty and constitutional government;
they believed that all citizens had basic natural rights .
The Meeting of the Estates General
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The Estates General was an institution representing the 3 estates.

The last time the Estates-General had met was in 1614. Back then the
nobility and clergy which usually voted together, had been able to relegate
the 3rd Estate to the fringes, but times had changed. Yet the Nobles
wanted the Estates General to meet under the same old conditions. The
Paris parlement declared that the 1789 Estates-General should follow the
forms of 1614 which could result in the 1 st 2 privileged orders outvoting the
3rd Estate. This offended many, including the new Nobles. The claim of the
parlement to be acting in defense of the nation sounded hollow. It was now
obvious that they were acting solely in defense of their privileges and
positions within the state.
The 3rd Estate demanded that all Estates meet together. They also
demanded the doubling in their numbers in the Estates General. The Estates
General was set to meet in May, 1789.
In the months prior to their meeting, the King had vacillated on the issues
of increasing the numbers of the 3rd Estate and voting procedure. This
upset the 3rd Estate. When the Estates General met in May, the leaders of
the 3rd Estate walked out.
On 17th June the 3rd Estate issued a final invitation to the other 2 orders to
join them then declared itself to be the National Assembly. This was
testament to the popularity and power the Estate now enjoyed. On June 20
royal troops excluded the 3 rd Estate from its usual meeting place, but rather
than disperse they assembled in an empty tennis court where they took an
oath not to disband until a new constitution for France had been agreed
this was the famous Tennis Court Oath. This action did not only protest
against the King but the Assembly was asserting its right to act as the
highest sovereign power in the nation.
The king ordered the other Estates to meet with the National Assembly.
They were asked to prepare a Cahiers or list of grievances. The delegates
of the 3rd Estate took this seriously and presented a list. The Assembly set
out to implement reform. Meanwhile the economic crisis continued as the
price of bread rose steeply.

Need for Estates General - Social and Economic Crisis

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The harvest of the summer of 1788 had been a disaster all across France;
many crops were destroyed by heavy hailstorms and food prices were rising
rapidly. Hunger and inflation made the other burdens on the unprivileged
seem all the more unjust and in need of reform (Reveillon riots, April 1789).
Everywhere the Estates-General was looked to as the body that would solve
all problems. However, there was lack of co-operation amongst the 3
estates, along with a lack of response from the crown.

The Bourgeosie With limited opportunities for advancement and falling

resources, their social frustration found expression in support for
enlightened ideas as about careers open to talents and equal rights. Not
surprisingly they supported the parlements defence of the nations
interests and the demand for an Estates-General. They wanted not only
constitutional limitation on the power of the crown but also abolition of
noble privileges. In the enlightened talk about natural rights, equality,
popular sovereignty and irrationality of privilege by birth, the bourgeosie
found justification for their demand for a dominant share of political power.
The Peasantry In the last of the 18th century the growth of the rural
population was 1 of the factors increasing pressure on the land, and
increasing competition for land led to rises in rents. Meanwhile the general
drift of prices was upwards whilst oversupply of labour helped depress
wages. In 1770s and 1780s the standard supplements to farm work wine
producing and weaving were troubled by fluctuations in demand and prices.
On top of all this came a large rise in taxation between 1749 and 1780s. All
this was in addition to the effects of land harvests and the other burdens
on peasants such as seigneurial dues.
The Estates-General became the focus of the hopes of redress of some of
the burdens from which they suffered indirect taxes on essentials like
salt, the hated corvee royal and the seigneurial obligations that hampered
their ability to make ends meet.
High prices and shortages reached their peak during the soudure (MayAugust). Hunger began to cause sporadic unrest in the countryside as early
as January 1789- on grain convoys, spontaneous tax strike (peasants
assumed royal taxes, tithes and seigneurial dues would be abolished.

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The Towns Bad harvest did not only affect the peasantry. Increases in
food prices directly affected the urban poor and the economy generally.
Bread prices went up from about 50% in the summer of 1788 to 80% the
following year. There was much less to spend on manufactured goods like
textiles; leading to a slump in demand, cuts in production and hence
unemployment or wage cuts.
While it would be incorrect to say that the revolution was a Parisan affair, it
was in Paris that the central drama of the revolution was played out and it
was the people of Paris who were to have a crucial part to play, not only in
the events of 1789 but in the general course of the revolution after 1789.

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