AWS Welding Journal October 2013

October 2013
PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
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CONTENTS
26
October 2013 Volume 92 Number 10
AWS Web site www.aws.org
Features
Departments
26
Cold Cutting: A Clean and Repeatable Technology

A variety of end profiles can be produced cleanly with
modern cold cutting equipment
M. Leska
30
The Three Rs of Welded Art

Individuals with different backgrounds share a
common love for art and a deft ability to wield a welding
torch
H. Woodward, K. Campbell, and M. R. Johnsen
38
Producing Better Bevels with Plasma

Computer-aided manufacturing software along with
adjusting arc voltage are the answers to improving bevel
cuts with plasma
M. Avila
44
A History of the Oxyacetylene and Plasma Cutting Processes

An interesting historical perspective is given on two major
cutting processes
J. Henderson and N. Hussary
Editorial ............................4
Washington Watchword ..........6
Press Time News ..................8
News of the Industry ............10
Aluminum Q&A ..................16
Brazing Q&A ......................18
Product & Print Spotlight ......20
Brazing & Soldering Today
Technology News ..............60
Brazing Profiles ................66
Coming Events....................68
Certification Schedule ..........72
Welding Workbook ..............74
Society News ....................77
Tech Topics ......................78
Guide to AWS Services ........94
Personnel ........................96
Classifieds ......................106
Advertiser Index ................107
Brazing & Soldering Today
30
52
Basics of Brazing with Induction Heating

Six key steps are explained for proper brazing with
induction heating
B. Daly
56
Whats Happening with Aerospace Brazing

New brazing alloys are helping improve the thermal life of
jet engine parts
T. Sandin
Welding Research Supplement
52
283-s Application of Friction Stir Processing as a Pretreatment

to Fusion Welding
Improvements in the heat-affected zone and weld metal
microstructure were achieved with nickel-based alloys
J. R. Rule et al.
291-s Influences of Laser Spot on High-Speed Welding for
Cr-Plated Sheet
The development of a suitable elongated spot pattern improved
welding speed and joint quality on thin chrome-plated sheet
J. Zhan and M. J. Yang
297-s Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Deposits: Effects of
Shielding Gas and Postweld Heat Treatment
Increasing the CO2 content in the shielding gas had a marked
effect on tensile strength, hardness, and toughness
S. Zappa et al.
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published

monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla.,
and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send
address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW
36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672. Canada
Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608
Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
304-s Effect of Tempering Pass on HSLA-80 Steel HAZ

Microstructures
The microstructure and hardness of the grain-coarsened HAZ
were analyzed after being subjected to simulated thermal cycling
meant to represent tempering passes
A. Cruz-Crespo et al.
On the cover: Dedicated bevel cutting heads tilt or rotate to match the angle
being cut. (Photo courtesy of Hypertherm, Inc.)
WELDING JOURNAL
EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Show Your Support for

Students
Im proud to report that the AWS Foundation continues to take the lead in communicating to students how rewarding a welding career can be. Let me tell you just a little
bit about the Foundations programs and what has been accomplished thus far.
Since it was established in 1989, the AWS Foundation has awarded more than $6 million in scholarships to more than 4850 students. The scholarship program includes the
following:
National Scholarship Program with a minimum funding endowment of $50,000.
District Scholarship Program that provides $7500 to each of the 22 Districts annually
for a total of $165,000 in funding to help students at trade/technical schools, community colleges, and universities.
Section Named Scholarship Program, which now has 57 scholarships endowed by
Sections and/or individual donors within a Section.
District Named Scholarship Program 11 scholarships endowed by the Districts
and/or individual donors within a District.
Graduate Research Fellowship Program Two endowed at $500,000 providing an
annual award to two students of $25,000 that is matched in kind by the university
where they are conducting research.
Our scholarship program has grown over the last year, thanks to the American
Welding Society for its commitment to match all funds to new and existing scholarship
endowments. This matching program is still in effect. An endowed scholarship at the
National, District, or Section level can create a lasting legacy for you or your company.
For more information on how you can start your own scholarship, contact Sam Gentry
at sgentry@aws.org, or Vicki Pinsky at vpinsky@aws.org. Act now, as this matching program is for a limited time.
Our Welder Workforce Development program and efforts continue to grow and
expand. Traffic on the www.careersinwelding.com and www.jobsinwelding.com Web sites
has increased. The Careers in Welding mobile exhibit began its initial tour in 2011, and
traveled 17,000 miles to 23 events in 13 states in 2012. More than 37,000 visitors have
walked through the exhibit. Now in 2013, the tour has begun and is currently scheduled
to go to 13 events in 13 states. The first event this year was the Boy Scout Jamboree
where more than 3200 scouts toured the exhibit.
We continue to offer bricks that will be displayed on the American Welding Society
Scholarship Wall at the AWS World Headquarters building. This is a long-term project
and proceeds from the sale of the bricks will be used to provide additional welding scholarships. The wall is located in the garden and patio area for use by guests and AWS staff.
The 4 8 in. bricks can be individualized up to three lines can be engraved on them
for a $250 donation. The 8 8 in. bricks require a $500 donation, and can include up to
six lines. For a $75 up-charge, you can add a corporate logo or other symbol. We have
several companies that have purchased arrays with one brick having a logo placed in
its center. Through your participation, we can grow additional funds for use in our scholarship programs. The wall is part of a beautiful setting at the new AWS building. If you
have already purchased a brick, thank you. If you would like an order form, or if you have
questions, please e-mail Vicki Pinsky at vpinsky@aws.org.
The AWS Foundation is showing students how many
choices there are regarding careers in welding and how
rewarding these careers can be. Were seeing many more
young people showing an interest in making a welding
career choice. Help support these students by purchasing a brick, or endowing a scholarship.
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Chairman, AWS Foundation
OCTOBER 2013
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WASHINGTON
WATCHWORD
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
GAO: Mixed Results for Federal Support

of Manufacturing
In a recent report, the U.S. Government Accountability Office
(GAO) concluded that government support for manufacturing is
strong with respect to basic research in comparison to other countries, but lags behind in key areas such as commercialization and
job skills. Global Manufacturing: Foreign Government Programs Differ in Some Key Respects From Those in the United States, a report
which analyzes the programs of the United States, Canada, Germany, Japan, and South Korea, reaches the following conclusions:
The U.S. emphasizes R&D projects with commercial potential, while the foreign programs place greater emphasis on actual commercialization to help manufacturers bridge the gap between innovative ideas and sales.
The United States is a leader in intellectual property protection, but its government plays a less prominent role than the
Japanese government in developing technological standards on
industrial products.
A key difference related to training programs pertains to
the sustained role of government in coordinating stakeholder
input into a national system of vocational skills training and credentialing, which helps provide a supply of skilled workers for
manufacturers. This was particularly evident in Germany. In contrast, the United States largely devolves vocational training to
states and localities and does not have a national system to issue
industry-recognized credentials.
The full report is available at www.gao.gov/products/GAO-13365.
House Passes Agency Customer

Service Bill
The Government Customer Service Improvement Act of 2013
(H.R. 1660) has been passed by unanimous consent in the House
of Representatives. This legislation would require the Office of
Management and Budget (OMB) to develop minimum customer
service standards that federal agencies must use to develop detailed goals that improve response times for e-mail, telephone,
and written inquires and to modernize existing processes to make
service more efficient. It also would require agencies to develop
a customer service feedback system in coordination with OMB
that provides customers an opportunity to comment on the service they receive. An identical version of the legislation is now
pending in the Senate.
OSHA Outlines Inspection Strategy

As part of the justification for its fiscal year (FY) 2014 budget
request, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has detailed its workplace inspection plans for FY 2014.
The highlights are as follows:
OSHA will target more than 50% of its inspection activities
and resources on the construction industry.
OSHA plans to conduct a total of 39,250 federal inspections
in FY 2014 31,400 safety inspections and 7850 health inspections.
The number of health inspections continues to rise, reflecting OSHAs view that exposure to substances ultimately can be
as hazardous to health as workplace accidents.
OSHA intends to develop an inspection weighting approach
in order to direct inspections to high hazard operations, includ-
OCTOBER 2013
ing inspections of refineries and chemical plants, emerging chemical and health issues and workplace violence, operations that
require much more time and complexity than the average OSHA
inspection.
OSHAs justification is available at www.dol.gov/dol/budget/2014/PDF/CBJ-2014-V2-12.pdf.
Fatal Occupational Injuries Decreased

in 2012
A preliminary total of 4383 fatal work injuries were recorded
in the U.S. in 2012, slightly down from a count of 4693 in 2011,
according to results from the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The 2012
total represents the second-lowest preliminary total since the
census was first conducted in 1992. Other key findings include
the following:
The rate of fatal work injuries in 2012 was 3.2 per 100,000
full-time equivalent workers, down from a rate of 3.5 per 100,000
in 2011.
Most fatalities (41%) resulted from transportation incidents,
including roadway accidents involving motorized land vehicles.
Falls, slips, and trips accounted for 15% of fatalities, while
12% were due to being struck by an object or piece of equipment.
Most fatalities occurred in the construction industry, twice
as many as manufacturing.
New Rule Seeks to Protect Small Business

Subcontractors
Government contractors are now required to alert the applicable federal agency if they do not use the small business subcontractors that were key to producing the original bid proposal, according to a new Small Business Administration rule. The regulation,
which became effective in August, lists three conditions of small
business involvement in a prime contract bid that will require this
notification: a small business is specifically referenced in a bid or
proposal; the small business has entered into a written agreement
with the prime contractor to perform specific work as a subcontractor under the contract should the proposal win; or, the small
business drafted portions of the proposal or submitted pricing or
technical information that appears in the bid or proposal.
Congress Forms Aluminum Caucus

Members of Congress have recently established the bipartisan
Congressional Aluminum Caucus. The purpose of the caucus is to
serve as an informal group of members, dedicated to elevating
awareness of the U.S. aluminum industry and every aspect of the
metals production and use, from mining to manufacturing to recycling. The aluminum industry contributes $32 billion and 500,000
jobs directly and indirectly to the U.S. economy.
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at

1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Boeing Selects ESAB for Space Launch System Project
Boeing has selected ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Florence, S.C., as a partner
in manufacturing fuel tank structures for NASAs new heavy-lift rocket, the Space Launch
System (SLS). This will be the largest American rocket ever built and measure 200 ft
taller than the entire space shuttle rocket assembly. The SLS will measure 384 ft in total
length with a weight of 6.5 million lb.
ESAB engineers and experts have worked with Boeing and NASA for more than a
year to develop the Vertical Assembly Center a giant orbital welding system capable
of supporting the huge rocket fuel tank while circumferentially welding its sections together with the friction stir process. When completed, this center will be the largest
welding machine of its type ever built.
The center is being designed, engineered, and built at ESABs facility in Laxa, Sweden; supported by the companys North American Automation Division. The vertical
tower assembly is being built in the United States using U.S. steel and component
materials.
The SLS project is viewed as Americas next-generation space program, with the goal
of producing a rocket to transport people beyond Earths orbit. Slated for launch in
2017, this expandable rocket will have capabilities for transporting payloads for deepspace explorations.
Nissan U.S. Manufacturing on Track

Nissan projects its U.S. plants will
nearly double the number of export markets it will be able to serve by 2015. In August, the car company shipped the first of
more than 900 U.S.-built, right-hand drive
Pathfinders to Australia and New Zealand.
With the addition of these two new areas,
it is now able to export vehicles from its
Smyrna, Tenn., vehicle assembly plant to
By early 2014, Nissans production capacity 61 markets around the world.
will eclipse two-million units in the Americas,
In 2014, Nissans Canton, Miss., vehidriven by added capacity at its U.S. plants, as cle assembly plant will become the global
well as new facilities in Mexico and Brazil. source for Murano production, creating
(Photo courtesy of Nissan.)
export opportunities in as many as 119
markets.
Also, over the next few months, Nissan
expects to expand U.S. exports of Nissan Altima, Pathfinder, Maxima, and Infiniti QX60
models into new markets such as Ghana, Nigeria, Philippines, Vietnam, Israel, Argentina,
and parts of Latin America.
Auburn Manufacturing Celebrates $1.4-Million Expansion

Auburn Manufacturing, Inc., a developer, manufacturer, and marketer of textile
products for extreme temperature industrial applications, recently broke ground on a
$1.4-million, 22,500-sq-ft expansion to its Kittyhawk facility in Auburn, Maine.
According to Kathie Leonard, company president and CEO, expanding will provide
the extra room needed for its focus on advancing in coatings, nanotechnologies, and
heat protection enhancements.
As of press time, the building was complete and equipment along with inventory
were being moved into the facility. It should be fully operational by this month.
In addition, Auburn hopes to expand the facility again in another 35 years.
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology to

Grant Scholarships in Honor of Andr A. Odermatt
The Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio, has established two new $5000
scholarships in honor of its president, Andr A. Odermatt, to benefit students who attend
the establishment. The scholarships will be first awarded in May 2014. Odermatt has a long
history with welding, working with Oerlikon Welding Industries and Hobart Brothers Co.,
where he began in 1964 until his retirement in 2001. Interested students are directed to
apply for scholarships online at www.welding.org/g-13-scholarship-forms.aspx.
Publisher Andrew Cullison

Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
MEMBER
OCTOBER 2013
Your Best Choice To Replace 2% Thoriated
Lasts Longer
E3 Electrodess were tested

on a remote orrbital welding
system and
d wer
we e fo
found to
last at least 130
0% longer in
this particular application
a
when compare
ed to
2% thoriated.
2% thoriated
after 3 passes
E3
after 8 passes
Both electrodes shown were

run on a remote orbital
welding system on a 20 inch
pipe with a 2 inch wall.
2% ran approx. 19 linear ft
E3 ran approx. 50 linear ft
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Walter Surface Technologies Inaugurates $30-Million

International Campus
The 92,000-sq-ft extension of the Walter Surface Technologies
International Bio-Circle facility has been completed on its original site in Montreal, Pointe-Claire, Quebec. This achievement
for the surface treatment provider of abrasives and various tools
has come after several years and represents an investment of more
than $30 million.
More than 300 guests, including some of Montreals top business leaders and metalworking industry executives, were present
for the official inauguration. Tours were conducted by members
of the companys team.
Serving as the overall international headquarters for the Walter company, the campus encompasses corporate management,
R&D, labs, product management, test centers, marketing, sales,
warehousing, distribution, and after-sales service.
In addition, the Bio-Circle complex contains a bottling plant
where production capabilities are increased ten fold. Components include automated bottling systems, large mixing and storage tanks, plus pumping and packaging systems.
The new campus is a major asset for our future growth. Now,
we have the automation, the processes, and the facility to help us
execute our core value of delivering products and solutions that
help our customers work better. Today, this focus on making
green work is leading to the development of environmentally
helpful initiatives, which are increasingly welcomed in our industry, stated Pierre Somers, chairman and CEO of Walter Surface
Technologies International.
The new campus features include storage facilities with managed humidity for sensitive products; energy efficiency with 49
wells running 500 ft deep to capture geothermal energy; windows
that contribute to overall temperature control; controlled water
temperature in all rooms; air filtering systems that clean the air
before it is released into the atmosphere; and neutralization
of chemical effluents before they enter the municipal sewage
system.
Employees follow a recycling program as well that covers virtually every aspect of daily operations from cafeteria services to
individual work spaces.
Pierre Somers, chairman and CEO of Walter Surface Technologies International, cuts a chain to access the new Bio-Circle
facility.
Falls Stamping & Welding Venture

to Create 112 Jobs
Department of Business Assistance will provide funding and services to support the companys recruitment and training.
Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell recently announced Falls

Stamping & Welding Co. will invest $5.7 million for a business in
the town of Pulaski to supply metal subassemblies to the Volvo
Trucks plant in Dublin, Va. This project will create 112 new jobs.
The metal stamping company, formed in 1989 and headquartered in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, serves automotive, trucking, and
nonautomotive markets. According to Lane Witte, its vice president of sales, Pulaskis benefits include proximity to the Interstate 81-77 corridor and being close to one primary customer.
McDonnell approved a $175,000 grant from the Governors
Opportunity Fund to assist the town and county with this project. Through its Virginia Jobs Investment Program, the Virginia
Cadillac Coupe Goes Ultrasonic
10
OCTOBER 2013
Ultrasonic welding is helping the Cadillac ELR extendedrange electric luxury coupe, which goes on sale in North America in early 2014. General Motors (GM) Brownstown Battery
Assembly plant near Detroit uses the process to join metal electrode tabs on the vehicles 16.5-kW-h, lithium-ion battery system. It also employs an automated system to execute millions of
these welds each year.
Ultrasonic welding uses tools, an anvil and horn, for applying
rapid mechanical vibrations to the batterys copper and aluminum
electrodes. A camera vision system shoots a reference image of
General Motors (GM) Brownstown Battery Assembly plant uses

ultrasonic welding to join metal electrode tabs for the Cadillac ELR
lithium-ion battery. (Photo by Jeffrey Sauger for GM.)
the weld area prior to operation. In addition, quality operators

check electrode tabs before/after welding, and the system monitors dozens of signal processing features during each weld.
This battery-specific welding process is a result of collaboration among GMs Manufacturing Systems Research Lab and Advanced Propulsion Center along with the Brownstown plant. The
coupe is built at GMs Detroit-Hamtramck Assembly Plant, while
its battery pack is built at Brownstown.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
WELDING JOURNAL
11
EWI Opens Michigan Office
During the open house, Jeong Na, EWI technology leader NDE,
demonstrated SpotSight, EWIs new matrix phased array-based
ultrasonic imaging technology. The equipment, developed originally
for use in the auto industry, can be used in a wide variety of manufacturing environments for structural inspection of metal, plastic,
braze, and composite joints.
EWI held an open house August 27 to introduce area manufacturers to its new metro Detroit facility in Madison Heights,
Mich. Approximately 100 people met with EWI staff and watched
demonstrations of its SpotSight and AcousTech Machining
equipment.
This event was to tell people were here, explained Ron
continued on page 14
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800.733.3976 | westeconline.com
12
OCTOBER 2013
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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

continued from page 12
Brown, EWI business development manager, Advance Energy/Automotive, who heads up the Michigan office. The response has been very good from our customer base, and it also
shows our customer base up here that were serious about taking
care of them.
The facility currently occupies about 2000 sq ft of office and
classroom space adjacent to Easom Automation Systems, Inc.,
but the space can be expanded, if necessary. EWI is collaborating with Easom, an equipment manufacturer and technology systems integrator. Only two or three people will work in the office
on a permanent basis; EWI will bring staff up from its main facility in Columbus, Ohio, as needed.
Brown said plans are to hold training classes, workshops, or
other events at the site every two months.
The office is located at 32429 Industrial Dr., Madison Heights.
For more information, contact Brown at (603) 504-5148 or
rbrown@ewi.org. Mary Ruth Johnsen, editor
The new Tritex NDT office has opened in Newark, N.J. Pictured is
a worker using the companys Multigauge 5500 for inspecting
pipeline metal thickness through coatings.
Also, the company is now ISO 9001:2008 certified, which sets
out the requirements of a quality management system.
Tritex NDT Opens U.S. Office

Tritex NDT Ltd., a manufacturer of echo ultrasonic gauges
that measure metal thickness through coatings, has opened an
office in Newark, N.J. Due to steady growth and an increasing
global demand for its products, the company opened the office
to serve users in North and Central America, including Canada;
provide local product support; and offer sales/marketing
operations.
14
OCTOBER 2013
North American Robotics Companies

Set New Records for First Half of 2013
According to statistics released from the Robotic Industries
Association, Ann Arbor, Mich., North American robotics com continued on page 98
WE LISTENED.
WE DELIVERED.
New
Patente
Durabled
High Str
e
Alloy Ha ngth
ndle
The New 400 Series Torches,

with Patented Handles and the
New G Series Regulators
Visit Us At FABTECH
FAB
ABTECH In Booth N1457
Contact your local distributor or visit VictorEquip.com
Victor is a registered trademark of Victor Technologies. 2013 Victor Technologies International, Inc.
ALUMINUM
Q&A
Q: Recently, a reader thought it may be
interesting to provide a short quiz on aluminum welding issues. Therefore, I have
created 12 questions to test your aluminum and aluminum welding technology knowledge.
Respondents who e-mail me at tony.
anderson@millerwelds.com with all the
correct answers by October 25 will be eligible for a prize drawing. There is only
one right response to each question.
BY TONY ANDERSON
Out of the accurate entries received,
10 will be randomly selected to win a
signed copy of the AWS publication, Welding Aluminum Questions and Answers
(2nd edition), plus their choice of a golf
shirt (available in small, medium, large,
XL, 2XL, and 3XL) or leather welding
jacket (offered in small, medium, large,
XL, 2XL, 3XL, 4XL, and 5XL) Fig. 1.
In your e-mail submission, include a
list of the question numbers along with
your answer letters. Also, to make the

process easier in case you win, provide
your name, mailing address, clothing
choice (golf shirt or leather welding
jacket), and preferred size.
The answers to these questions, as well
as the names of the winners, will be published in the Welding Journals December
2013 Aluminum Q&A column. Good luck!
Fig. 1 All 10 winners will receive a signed

copy of the AWS publication, Welding
Aluminum Questions and Answers
(2nd edition), and their choice of a golf
shirt or leather welding jacket.
1. What is the principal alloying
element in the 8xxx series alloy group?
A Copper
B Lithium
C Zinc and Tin
D Other Element
2. What do the 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx
series alloys have in common?
A Heat Treatable
B Copper
C Nonheat Treatable
D Chemistry
3. Which of the following aluminum alloys has been solution heat treated and
naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition?
A 6061-T6
B 2014-T4
C 5052-H32
D 7075-T62
4. When gas tungsten arc welding a
6xxx series aluminum base metal without
filler metal (autogenously), what type of
discontinuity would you most likely
expect to find in your weld?
A Porosity
B Incomplete Fusion
C Hot Cracking
D Undercut
5. What is the most common reason,
when testing a weld made in 6061-T6
base metal, for a transverse tension test
16
OCTOBER 2013
to fail in the heat-affected zone and not

meet the minimum tensile strength
requirements of the welding code?
A Too Low Preheat

B Overheating Base Metal
C Porosity
D Hot Cracking
6. What is the most suitable 5xxx filler
metal to be used for welding a structure
made from 5454 base metal and that is to
be exposed in service to temperatures
between 150 and 350F for prolonged
periods?
A ER5356
B ER5183
C ER5556
D ER5554
7. What is the usual cause of porosity
in aluminum welds?
A Oxygen
B Silicon
C Hydrogen
D Nitrogen
8. The electrolytic process used for
producing aluminum that was discovered
in 1886 and is still used today is known
by what name?
A Davy Process
B Hall-Heroult Process
C Wohler Process
D Henri-Etienne Process
9. In accordance with the

requirements of AWS D1.2/D1.2M: 2008,
Structural Welding Code Aluminum,
what is the maximum preheat
temperature when welding base metal
5052?
A 150F
B 250F
C 350F
D It does not give a maximum preheat
for this base metal.

requirements of AWS A5.10/A5.10M: 2012,
Welding Consumables Wire
Electrodes, Wires and Rods for Welding
of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloys
Classification, the standard testing
method for all ER Classifications is
chemical analysis plus what other test?
A Tensile Test
B Bead-on-Plate Test
C Radiographic Test
D Guided Bend Test

what is the minimum length of an
intermittent fillet weld?
A 112 in.
B 212 in.
C 3 in.
D 312 in.
when testing for a procedure
qualification using a 5083-H112 (1-in.thick forging) base plate complete joint
penetration groove weld, what would be
the minimum tensile strength required to
pass the reduced section transverse
tension tests?
A 36 ksi
B 38 ksi
C 39 ksi
D 40 ksi
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum

technology, ITW Welding North America. He is
a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI),
a Registered Chartered Engineer with the British
Engineering Council, and holds numerous positions on AWS technical committees. He is
chairman of the Aluminum Association Technical Advisory Committee for Welding and author of the book Welding Aluminum Questions
and Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Welding Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672, or via e-mail at tony.anderson@
millerwelds.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
17
BRAZING
Q&A
Q: What is the correct amount of overlap
to use when brazing tubular aluminum
pieces together? Is the amount of overlap
for aluminum different than for other
metals such as stainless to stainless?
A: As a general guideline, I suggest that

the amount of overlap for aluminum
brazed joints be about 1T to 3T, where T
is the thickness of the thinner of the two
aluminum pieces being joined. Figure 1
shows sketches of a sheet metal joint and
a tubular joint with the recommended
overlaps.
Note that this overlap is less than the
typical 3T to 6T overlap that is recommended for all other base metals. The
reason for this relates to the closeness of
the melting temperatures of the aluminum brazing filler metal (BFM) and
the aluminum base metal being joined.
Often, the solidus temperature (melting
temperature) of the aluminum-based
BFM is only a few degrees lower than
that of the aluminum base metals being
joined.
Thus, when the BFM has reached its
melting temperature and is ready to flow,
BY DAN KAY
there appears to be a stronger driving
force for the BFM to react with and diffuse into the base metal rather than
merely skate over the base metal surface
and flow deeply into the joint by capillary
action.
Figure 2 is a cross-sectional sketch of
a poorly brazed joint I encountered. It
shows how the aluminum BFM flowed at
the top of the assembly where the smaller
tube goes into the fitting and the BFM
also nicely filled in at the bottom of the
assembly, but there is a large void around
the interior circumference of the joint.
Challenge questions to the reader:
How could this happen? What is wrong
with this joint design?
I was curious about how this joint was
brazed, so I asked the brazing personnel
how it was possible for the BFM to travel
all the way through the joint, and yet
leave a large void between.
His answer did not surprise me. He
admitted he could not get the BFM to
flow all the way through the joint after
repeated attempts on several samples.
Therefore, he just added extra BFM at
the bottom of the joint to make a nice
Fig. 1 When joining aluminum base

metals, the overlap should be only 1T to
3T, where T is the thickness of the thinner
member.
braze fillet at the other end of the joint,

which looked satisfactory to him.
Note: Brazing should never involve
feeding BFM to both sides of the joint to
create a fillet on each end. Proper brazing requires filling the faying volume between the two mating surfaces in the
joint. Thus, an important rule of brazing
is feed the BFM from one end of the
joint, then inspect the other.
Question: What should the designer
of this brazement have changed to ensure complete joint penetration by applying the BFM at one end of the joint?
As you can see from Fig. 2, the brazed
joint did not meet the 1T to 3T overlap
criterion for aluminum brazing. The
overlap shown is about 10T, far more
than is needed for full strength and leaktightness (hermeticity) in an aluminum
brazed joint. With this excessive overlap,
it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible in my opinion, to get the BFM
to flow all the way through that long
joint.
Had this assembly used only 2T or 3T
overlap, the joint would have allowed the
BFM to flow through to obtain complete
joint penetration and allowed visual inspection of the opposite side of the joint.
It would also have saved time, money,
and materials by eliminating the need to
apply a lot of extra BFM to the joint.
My recommendation is to practice
18
OCTOBER 2013
Fig. 2 Cross section of a 6061 tube

brazed into a 6061 fitting using AWS
BAlSi-4 (4047) brazing filler metal. The
excessive overlap prevented the filler metal
from penetrating the full length of the
joint.
brazing using 1T to 3T overlap to develop confidence in the strength and

leak-tightness it achieves. Too many people, in my experience, try to ascertain the
goodness of a braze joint by how they
feel about the amount of overlap. People have told me, Oh, I dont think
thats enough overlap, depending more
on their gut feeling rather than on hard
facts gained from testing and experience.
Its only with experience that designers can develop confidence that overlaps
of only 1T to 3T are satisfactory for making aluminum brazed joints.
This column is written sequentially by

TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
Shapiro are members of and Kay is an advisor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and
Soldering. All three have contributed to the
5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titanium-brazing.com) is brazing products manager at Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40
years of experience in the industry, operates
his own brazing training and consulting
business.
Readers are requested to post their questions for use in this column on the Brazing
Forum section of the BSMC Web site
www.brazingandsoldering.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
19
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
Focus on Brazing and Soldering with Cutting Processes
Brazing and Soldering Machine Built for

Medium-Volume Applications
The Braze Mate 100LS for brazing and soldering is designed for
medium-volume applications or short runs of various part styles. The
two-station machine offers automatic, timed heat control with multiple torches attached to a retractable arm. Rates from 40 to 70 parts/h
are typical. In addition, the production sequence begins with an operator loading the part into a stainless steel fixture mounted to an
18-in.-diameter dial plate. A deposit of the companys paste alloy is
applied to the joint area with a hand-held applicating device. The
operator manually rotates the dial 180 deg to a locked position. The
heat cycle is activated, automatically positioning the burners in the
heat zone. Once the joining temperature is reached, the torches automatically retract into idle position followed by an air and water
cooling cycle. Then the operator rotates the dial plate 180 deg back
to the load/unload station. During heating/cooling, a second fixture
is loaded and pasted.
Fusion, Inc.
www.fusion-inc.com
(800) 626-9501
Oxyfuel Torch Offers

Clearer Cutting Path View
attachments provide good line-of-sight

visibility as well; the company accomplished this through a sleeker three-tube
design.
includes light-, standard-, medium-, and

heavy-duty irons. They are available in
15-, 25-, 40-, and 80-W models.
Victor
www.wellerred.com
(800) 476-3030
Weller
www.victortechnologies.com
(636) 728-3000
Soldering Irons Include

Built-in LEDs
The 400 Series of oxyfuel torches incorporate handle and cutting attachment
designs that enable better ergonomics, a
clearer cutting path view, and visual cues.
They are available in medium- and heavyduty models and also sold as part of the
Medalist 250 and 350 outfits. The outfits include the torch handle, cutting attachment, welding tip, G Series regulators, and hoses. In addition, the torches
feature a patented contoured handle that
uses an engineered zinc-aluminum alloy,
Zamak. The oxygen and fuel valves are
color coded and labeled for instant identification by indicating directions for open
and closed valve positions. Their cutting
Book Devoted to Popular

Welding Techniques
The Art of Welding provides in-depth
coverage of the equipment and techniques
The companys soldering irons for doit-yourself and hobbyist applications have
three on-board LEDs that provide application lighting with minimum tip shadowing. Delivering a focused light beam to the
work allows users to accurately solder and
ensure a good connection. The round, softgrip, nonslip handle offers greater comfort. Once the tip position is determined,
the hand naturally gravitates toward the
triangular area that houses the LEDs.
Backed by a seven-year warranty, the line
20
OCTOBER 2013
Just About the Only Type

of Positioner We Dont Make.
HT Series
Head Tailstock
HD Series
Gear Driven
Positioner
Locust I & II
Welding Head
Manipulators
TR Series
Turning Rolls
Koike Aronson positioning equipment cant tee up your

392-dimple favorite, but we have you covered nearly everywhere
else from 100 lbs. to 4 million lbs., at any angle. Koike Aronson/Ransome
can help you weld just about any type of piece more profitably. Call us to find out
how we can make your welding operation more efficient.
Follow us on
Visit us at Booth #N806

at FABTECH in Chicago
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome Arcade, NY USA 800-252-5232
www.koike.com
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
used in popular welding processes. Author William Galvery, a member of the

AWS Long Beach-Orange County Section, provides insight to the proper use of
equipment and science behind welding,
including how it affects different metals.
Ryan Friedlinghaus, host of West Coast
Customs on Fox Sports, provides the tips
and techniques he uses every day. Chapters include general tools, materials, and
safety equipment; oxyacetylene welding;
oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting; and brazing and soldering. Detailed are the pros
and cons of each process and information
on equipment, setup, safety, and welding
techniques.
Industrial Press
www.industrialpress.com
(888) 528-7852
CO2 Laser Lenses

Protected against
Thermal Damage
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The companys CO2 laser lenses are

optimized for 10.6 microns and offered in
WELDING JOURNAL
23
Dross Separator Recovers

Solder
two versions standard A/R coatings

that provide < 0.2% total absorption and
a proprietary Cool-CutTM coating that absorbs < 0.15% of laser energy to protect
against thermal damage. Suitable for use
with lasers from 200 W to 4 kW, they feature focal lengths from 3 to 10 in. in 0.5in. increments. Also, they come in planoconvex and meniscus configurations in 1
to 2 in. OD sizes with thicknesses from
0.250 to 0.380 in. and can be supplied
mounted.
Laser Research Optics
www.laserresearch.net
(888) 239-5545
The Separo solder-recovery system allows companies to reclaim solder in-house

for cost savings. A shifts worth of wave
solder dross can be turned into usable solder ingots in less than an hour. It works
with lead-free or SnPb alloys and is capable of treating 911 lb of hot or room-temperature dross per cycle. The heavier solder alloy settles at the bottom of the
The Emmet A. Craig
RESISTANCE
WELDING SCHOOL
November 20-21,, 2013

McCormic Place,
McCormick
Chicago
To
T
o register go
g to www.fabtechexpo.com
www.fabtechexpo.com
.
Space is limited
24
OCTOBER 2013
heated crucible while lighter dross oxides

rise to the top and are captured in a specialized filter. After 30 to 40 min, molten
solder is transferred to the five ingot
molds below the crucible. No chemical additives are required, ensuring the reclaimed alloy is 100% pure and usable.
Manncorp
www.manncorp.com/solder-recovery
(800) 745-6266
Seitec STS-2533SJ selective soldering system with built-in spray fluxer. Designed
for use with multilayer and high-density
printed circuit boards, the soldering system allows for flux application on small
targets and through-hole components.
The videos, showing soldering close-up
slow motion, soldering process, soldering
process 2, and inline machine demo, can
be viewed at www.seikausa.com/tv.
Seika Machinery, Inc.
New Videos Demonstrate

Selective Soldering System
www.seikausa.com
(310) 540-7310
The company has added to its Web site

four new video demonstrations of the
Waterjet Machine Available

in Range of Cutting Widths
The HydrocutTM LX waterjet shape
cutting machine is a large gantry with a
high-stiffness beam design featuring dual
linear rails, plus rack-and-pinion drives.
It can be equipped with up to four waterjet stations, and can also carry up to two,
high-definition plasma stations with the
companys m3 Precision Plasmarc system.
The gantry offers all-steel construction
and rides on a floor-mounted, heavy-duty,
85-lb crane rail system. It achieves speed
control from 0.1 to 1400 in./min, and is
available in cutting widths from 8 to 18 ft
WELDING JOURNAL
25
Cold Cutting:
A Clean and
Repeatable Technology
Portable machine tools for cold
cutting have many advantages for
end prepping pipe prior to welding
BY MARK LESKA
MARK LESKA is Senior Marketing Coordinator, ITW Orbital Cutting and Welding,
E. H. Wachs (www.ehwachs.com)
Industrial Products Division.
Form Tooling vs. Single

Pointing
While each has its adherents, cold cutting and beveling is considered by many
a superior method due to its precision and
inherent safety advantages. Machining
eliminates the risks associated with open
flame torch cutting, particularly important wherever volatile hydrocarbons are

present. The cold cutting method also
eliminates the undesirable heat-affected
zone (HAZ) created by thermal cutting,
altering the molecular structure of the
metal. Due to these factors, more industries are specifying cold cutting as part of
their project bid process.
Cold cutting in its simplest terms uses
a portable machine tool to cut or prep
prior to welding or flange assembly. Weld
prep can take multiple forms: beveling,
compound beveling (with two or more
bevel angles), J prep, counterboring (machining the inside of the pipe), facing
(machining a square edge), and flange
facing (machining the mating surfaces of
bolted flanges) Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 Cold cutting produces a precise,

repeatable weld-ready finish in a single
step.
Fig. 2 Typical weld preparation profiles. Many profiles are only achievable by
machining.
or pipe cutting or weld preparation

tasks related to maintenance or
new construction, there are primarily two different methods commonly
used. The first is heat (thermal) cutting
with subsequent hand grinding, and the
second is portable machining, popularly
known as cold cutting, which produces a
weld ready surface Fig. 1.
Reasons to Choose Cold

Cutting
26
OCTOBER 2013
There are two basic types of portable

machining, form tooling and single pointing. Form tooling uses shaped tooling (or
cutting bits) to create the final contour
or profile of the finished prep. It tends
to pull larger chips and requires additional machine rigidity and power than
single pointing. The benefits of form
tooling are it can be faster than single
pointing and may be easier to set up and
operate for a less experienced operator
Fig. 3.
Single pointing refers to machining,
using the point of the tooling to take a
fine cut and pull a smaller chip. The ben-
efits of single pointing are the ability to

machine heavy wall or high-alloy material that tend to resist form tooling, and
the versatility of creating custom profiles.
Another benefit is the choice of using
a machine tool with a smaller power
requirement.
In addition, single point cutting bits
are generally less expensive than form
tooling cutting bits. They are often available as an insert bit and holder arrangement, with multiple cutting points offering a lower cost per cut. By its nature,
single point machining tends to have
longer cut times than form tooling, and
in certain instances may require set up
calculations by the operator to successfully create the final prep.
Machining Technologies
Machining produces the consistent,
repeatable weld preps needed to ensure
weld integrity, critical to timely and profitable project outcomes. Machining in
general utilizes a wide range of technologies to accomplish various tasks. These
machining technologies include lathe,
milling, reciprocating, abrasive, chipless
cutting, drilling, and threading. No single technology is best for all applications,
with some projects or tasks employing
multiple technologies. Portable machining also offers the ability to apply various remote control and automation
schemes where required.
Lathe
Fig. 3 Form tooling offers ease of setup and operation.
Fig. 4 Versatile split frame machining systems utilize lathe technology to deliver perfect preps.
Lathe machining offers great accuracy

and repeatability by utilizing a rigid, rotating frame with fixed tooling. Lathe
cutting and beveling is used where a project requires 360-deg machining of objects
such as tube, pipe, vessels, cylinders, and
conical objects. Lathe cutting produces
a finish that in years past was only achievable in a well equipped machine shop.
The best known pipe-cutting machine
tool using lathe technology is the split
frame, a rotating ring pipe cutter and
beveler named for its ability to split in
half for mounting to inline pipe.
Machining with a split frame (which
may also be referred to as a "clamshell")
is highly versatile. Properly configured,
it can be used for cutting, beveling, compound beveling , counterboring, facing
(or squaring), and flange facing. With its
comprehensive group of accessories, the
split frame becomes a complete, integrated machining system that can tackle
most field machining tasks Fig. 4.
WELDING JOURNAL
27
Fig. 5 One of the hottest technologies in cold cutting is abrasive cutting diamond wire saws.
Milling
Milling utilizes a rotating cutter
mounted to a carrier that follows a linear or radial path. Compared to lathe machining, milling produces fine chip debris and is not limited to 360-deg operation. This is particularly useful for localized machining of pockets or windows,
or partial segmentation. Milling operations include cutting, beveling, facing,
and grooving.
The modern market for pipe cold cutting technology goes back to 1949 with
the introduction of the Trav-L -Cutter
by E. H. Wachs. It is a portable milling
machine designed to cut, or cut and bevel
simultaneously, on most pipe materials
and schedules.
Reciprocating
Reciprocating cutting utilizes a
straight blade moving in a repeated forward and backward motion to achieve the
cutting action.
The advantages of reciprocating saws
are their relative simplicity and ease of
set up and operation. An example of this
type of reciprocating saw is the Guillotine, which cuts horizontally, vertically,
28
OCTOBER 2013
or anything in between with an elliptical cutting motion that lifts the

blade on the return stroke, enhancing cutting efficiency and minimizing
blade wear.
These saws can be configured with
remote control with auto feed and
auto clamping operation for subsea
or hazardous environments.
Chipless Cutting
Chipless cutting, also known as
foreign material exclusion (FME) is
designed to prevent cutting contaminants from entering the workpiece.
Chipless cutting is often used in food
and dairy, high purity, and power
generation applications where metal
shavings cannot be tolerated. In simple terms, FME utilizes a sharp
edged wheel that orbits while inward
pressure is applied to sever (cut) the
work piece, much like a household
can opener. Other examples where
chipless cutting might be specified
are hot cells, semiconductor, and deactivation and decommissioning
(D&D) activities related to nuclear
facilities, chemical agents, and ex- Fig. 6 Automated cutting technologies used
plosive munitions.
for demilitarizing WWII aerial bombs in Guam.
To illustrate, the U.S. Department of

Defense needed to destroy a WWII
stockpile of chemical agents stored inside steel, cylindrical ton containers (TC)
at a military storage facility. The project
required the TC to be remotely severed
without generating additional contaminates. Wachs FME technology helped
destroy over 1800 TC, successfully ending over 60 years of agent storage at the
facility.
Abrasive Cutting
dundant controls, automatic feed, automatic clamping, ROV power and control,
up to complete sequence automation with
system integration Fig. 6.
Repeatable Results
Properly machined weld preparations
are a vital prerequisite to achieving the
precise, high-integrity welds required in
todays modern industries. Cold cutting,
with subsequent or simultaneous beveling, produces the repeatable weld preps
that contribute to weld integrity.
Abrasive cutting utilizes a hard matrix material bonded to the leading surface of various shaped cutting end effectors. The newest machine utilizing industrial abrasive cutting is the diamond wire
saw (DWS), which cuts with a diamond
matrix cable rotating at high speed, fed
into the workpiece with controlled force.
Diamond wire cutting is useful where the
risk of material collapse, known as compressive cutting, exists.
Its the best solution when cutting
mixed material types such as concrete
and steel, which tend to quickly dull conventional saw blades. In addition, DWS
set up quickly, making them useful for
destructive cutting Fig. 5.
Change of Address?
Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address information (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
Cutting Edge Equipment
Drilling and Threading
Cutting Automation
Automation technologies can be applied to cutting processes where human
interaction is difficult or impossible, such
as zero visibility, radioactive environments, explosive environments, and deepwater subsea operations. Automation options can include remote, topside or re-
Low
ow Clearance
Clear
Split Frame
La
athe Cutting
Lathe
Low Clearance Split Frame
Milling Module
Guillotine Reciprocating
Recipr
Saw
See Whats Hot!

Cold Cutting Weld
We d Prep Equipment
Wachs
achs simultaneous cutting and beveling technology:
technolog
Supplier of Orbitalum
Provides you with superior weld t up
orbital tube cutting &
welding equipment.
Eliminates risks related to torch cutting & grinding
Minimizes your operating costs with multi-function applications
Drilling is a cutting process that utilizes a rotary cutting tool (drill bit) that
is advanced into a workpiece to cut or
bore holes, or remove material to enlarge
a hole. Threading is a rotary cutting tool
used to create screw threads. Traditional
hydraulic powered industrial drills for
drilling and threading are manufactured
by E. H. Wachs, plus a line of specialized
subsea drills.
Utilizing two hydraulically powered
opposed drills, the subsea drill is designed to drill inline holes for pin insertion used for installing solid rigging bars.
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WELDING JOURNAL
29
The Three Rs of
Welded Art
Reuse, recycle, repurpose: the
artists profiled here take the
principles of those three Rs to heart
iving your passion and getting paid

to do it sounds too good to be true,
but the artists portrayed in this article are doing just that. All of these
craftsmen love to tinker, weld, and express their creative ideas by putting stuff
together in fanciful ways. For them, solving each fabrication problem encountered along the way becomes a labor of
love that makes the final product more
meaningful. Their ultimate joy is having
their artworks appreciated by others who
buy them for display in their homes and
places of business. Read on to be inspired
and, when you feel the urge, raid a scrap
pile, go into your shop, and give welded
sculpturing a try.
Morphing from
Microbiologist to Welder
Kendall Polster, a microbiologist, recalled that throughout his life he built
things and made furniture, but he credits
his brother, Craig, a qualified welder, for
teaching him how to work with metal.
Metalworking became his passion. Polster said he was fortunate to have the
tools readily available and an expert to
train him on their use.
I started welding metal tables for myself. My friends liked my furniture, so I
sold some and made more, he said. In
1994, after working three years as a research biologist at The Blood Center of
30
OCTOBER 2013
Southeast Wisconsin and starting medical school, Polster took a leave of absence to pursue his newfound craft. He
never went back. Instead, he went on to
become known as The Weld Guy
Fig. 1.
Crude Scrap Becomes

Treasures
Having worked in construction and
landscaping during high school and college, he likes it when things have a function. Therefore, he said, I dont mind
when a customer wants me to change a
piece. Other people have good ideas
too. On the other hand, much of Polsters work is imaginative art that he sells
to museums, individuals, and galleries
around the country. His creations have
the rough, raw look inherent in the scrap
metal he uses to create his happy dogs,
eerie demons, whimsical robots, lamps,
guitars, huge hand guns, and bowls of
rusty flowers Figs. 24. Although
much of his work exhibits delicate details,
they are also robust and earthy. He likes
to call it manly art.
Thus began Polsters profitable career
selling a prolific assortment of welded
artworks that ranges from fanciful ornamental tabletop and wall decorations to
queen-sized beds, 24-ft-wide estate gates
(Fig. 5), and myriad other creations.
Now, Ive hit 40 and I weld junk, he
BY HOWARD WOODWARD,
KRISTIN CAMPBELL, AND
MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
(mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor and
KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org)
and HOWARD WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) are associate
editors of the Welding Journal.
joked. If that doesnt make my mom

proud of me.
Polster even revels in the beauty of the
processes he uses to transform the crude
metal pieces he salvages from scrap piles
into these treasures. I should say that
welding, torching, and grinding metal can
be quite a performing art in itself its
an experience. Torching through galvanized metal, watching the flames jet out
as you pierce through, then observing the
yellow, green, and blue haze glow for half
a minute after youve stopped torching as
it continues to burn, and the fountain of
sparks produced while and after you stop
torching on magnesium-filled cast iron.
He noted, On some furniture with
exposed welds, I lay a real nice bead and
on some sculptures I purposely weld a really bad drippy globby bead just to make
it look less refined. He mused, Im sure
a little Dr. Seuss never hurt anyone. He
recommends reading Green Eggs and
Ham. Quoting Dr. Seuss, I like nonsense, it wakes up the brain cells. Fantasy
is a necessary ingredient in living.
Polster urges everyone pursuing
welded crafts to observe safety practices
and wear protective clothing lessons
he learned the hard way.
I started working out of one side of a
two-car garage with no heat for my first
eleven years in business, he recalled. A
few years into it, I took over the other
side. My first tools were just a Miller
Thunderbolt stick welder, a 14-in. abra-
Fig. 1 Weld Guy, Kendall Polster, is

shown at the HarleyDavidson Museum
with some of his sculptures for sale. Visi
ble are a robot, wall mask, and a guitar.
Fig. 5 A bird and a squirrel reside in this

graceful irontree gate that Polster de
signed to complement the estates land
scaping.
Fig. 2 Happydog sculptures have al

ways been popular, fastselling critters.
Fig. 6 HarleyDavidson commissioned

this curved steel wall panel for its board
room, specifying the letters to be hand cut
for a more rustic appearance.
Fig. 3 Every den needs a demon mask to

chase away the blues.
Fig. 4 Polsters gun collection includes
large wall decorations and lifesized re
volvers in realistic and fanciful designs.
The stars are steel screw heads.
Fig. 7 Bicycle parts come alive in this in

tricate 2ftwide fish sculpture that fetched
$25,000 at a SRAM Corp. fundraiser.
WELDING JOURNAL
31
sive chop saw, and an oxyacetylene

torch. He remarked, It is amazing what
all you can do with just a few tools. Now,
I have a 6000-sq-ft shop with all sorts of
machines, plasma cutters, angle and plate
rollers, a shear, various saws, press brake,
and a machine shop, too. It seems the
more tools I get, the more I want. When
I got my first plasma cutter, it seems the
torch got dedicated to just heating things
up. When I got my first Miller MIG
welder, the old stick welder only got
pulled into service when I had to help a
friend weld on a rusty trailer. And when
I got my plate shear, I used the saws and
plasma cutter less. I have several welding
machines and plasma cutters now and
have never had a single problem with
them over the years. As for advice to people wanting to start out making art, I say
just do it. Get at it and make something.
I think people would be amazed at what
they can do if they just try.
Creative Therapy
Polster derives another benefit from
metalworking. I started diligently
sculpting when I was feeling a bit depressed over the ending of a relationship
with a girlfriend. Sculpting, he said,
took my mind off of the sadness. I guess
it was my form of therapy. It was during
this time that I welded my first dog. Up to
now, I have made close to 1000 dogs. I
guess a dog cant help but make you
happy. Polster enthused, It is also neat
to see how much personality you can give
a dog sculpture just by varying the placement of the head, body, and ears. He
does not name his dogs. I want the people who purchase them to give their own
name. Once this is done, the sculpture is
complete. I hope they enjoy their new
rusty-junk dogs.
Dozens of businesses have commissioned works from him including Miller
Brewing, Red Bull Energy Drink, Johnson Controls, Wahl Corp., and HarleyDavidson (Fig. 6), a colorful fish sculpture made from bicycle parts that sold for
$25,000 (Fig. 7). Polsters artworks are
currently exhibited and sold at Cranston
Gallery, Milwaukee; Lindsay Gallery,
Columbus, Ohio; Marc Delorme, Paris,
France; Roan and Black Gallery in
Saugatuck, Mich.; Harley-Davidson Museum, Milwaukee; and Art Space,
Kohler, Wis. Polster is pleased to say the
vast majority of the sculptures pictured
on his Web site have been sold. It is a
good problem to have, he said. The galleries always want more.
Emboldened by his ongoing success,
32
OCTOBER 2013
Fig. 8 Kyle Thilmany (left) and Kurt HermansenJent pose next to the 7fttall flower
(one foot of which is below ground) they fabricated using slotted spoon handles in 6 and
12in. lengths. The dragonfly attached on a stainless steel twisted rod is mainly made out
of small spoon handles.
Fig. 9 The assortment offered by Bending & Welding Spoon Art includes flowers, water
hose holders, and displays for empty wine bottles.
10
11
12
Fig. 10 Instead of using plain drawer

pulls for furniture, why not be clever and
repurpose cutlery?
Fig. 11 This singing in the rain jewelry

holder has two spoons that make up its
legs while another forms the midsec
tion/head. Two forks serve as its arms.
The mesh umbrella holds earrings, and
the raindrops carry necklaces and
bracelets.
Fig. 12 It does not look like this angel is

built with silverware, but two bent fork
tops create wings while the center is a
whole fork with its stem and top also bent
into a kneeling position with hands, a
head, and halo.
the Weld Guy tells everyone, You name

it, I weld it! I am flexible and will work with
any ideas to create a custom-fit piece for
whatever you want. Additional information is available from Kendall B. Polster,
The Weld Guy, weldguy@weldguy.com,
www.weldguy.com.
Forking It Over: Turning

Silverware into Art
With the thousands of forks and
spoons Kurt Hermansen-Jent and Kyle
Thilmany have purchased, you would
think they were preparing for a huge eating competition. Instead, they have been
using these utensils for making clever
creations ranging from tabletop figures
to tall flowers Fig. 8.
Earlier this year, the childhood friends
started Bending & Welding Spoon Art

(www.bendingandwelding.com) in Anchorage, Alaska. The venture, which
started from gifting silverware stick
men to family members, has rapidly
taken off.
Currently, the new business serves as
a fun part-time job. Hermansen-Jent, a
freelance welder and former commercial
diver/underwater welder, trained at the
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology.
Thilmany has aspirations to become a policeman. They also both work in the commercial fishing industry.
And although the young duo never
imagined they would be selling art,
they declare this new path has been
forktastic.
Whats nice about silverware is that
it is relatively easy to get ahold of in bulk,
and it is stainless steel, so we dont ever
WELDING JOURNAL
33
have to worry about the art rusting or at

least not over a long time, Thilmany
said. And they are welded sturdy enough
so that they can be left out year round,
even in our Alaskan winters.
Spooning a Signature Style

The array of decorative items made
with this cutlery, for garden and indoor
exhibition in flower pots and such, is described below and featured in Figs. 912.
Backyard creatures, including butterflies and dragonflies
Bowls
Displays for empty wine bottles
Flowers, including daisies and tulips,
for vases and in tall forms for yards
Furniture drawer pulls
Holders for water hoses and business
cards
A line of Hooked on Alaska hooks
in crab, airplane, starfish, fishermen,
and other styles for jackets, pots/pans,
and more
Jewelry holders and trees
Tabletop figures in many forms, including one with a disco flair that has a
scouring pad fro, an angel, and guys
on a toboggan.
Their art is available at many antique
and gift stores in Anchorage, and online
through Etsy (go to www.etsy.com and
then search for Bending & Welding
Spoon Art). Recently, a sales representative has begun marketing their
creations.
Fabrication Facts
At first, it was challenging to narrow
down the techniques for making a fluid
piece of art with the least damage, abrasions, and discolorations. Trial and error
helped; for example, gas metal arc welding produced too much heat and meltthrough on forks and spoons. Today, gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is performed using direct current electrode
negative with 2% thoriated tungsten
electrodes and 100% argon shielding gas.
Its cool to take metal and change it,
Hermansen-Jent said. He likes that
GTAW is a clean, easy-to-control process
with varying amperages, but given that
the torch is small, a lot of focusing is
required.
Brazing is also used in small spots.
Assembly takes place in the 10 20 ft
garage at Hermansen-Jents parents
house. The dedicated space has ample
working room and area for storing silverware Fig. 13.
Most bending work is around sized
34
OCTOBER 2013
Fig. 13 In their garage workshop, HermansenJent performs gas tungsten arc welding,
while Thilmany heat treats a piece of stainless steel silverware.
metal tubes. For tighter, more decorative

bends, silverware is heated until red hot,
then bent without leaving plier marks,
causing bends to look more fluid.
Because of the way that we prepare
the pieces, finalizing the product is very
easy, Thilmany added.
There is usually not a need for finishing work, but spray painting flowers in
different colors, and occasionally heat
treating designs, such as tulips, to give a
purple/gold color, is performed.
To build a small figure may take about
15 min while a larger, more complex
piece could take more than an hour.
Utilizing New Utensils

Originally, they used recycled silverware but quickly realized it was more expensive, time consuming to clean, and
caused inconsistencies.
That is when we made the switch to
using new silverware for our assembly
line collections, Thilmany said.
They purchase cutlery in large quantities at Sams Club and salt shaker tops,
which are used for the center of flowers,
from a local restaurant supply store. They
take donations of materials for fancier,
unique pieces or for special requests.
Inspiration Insight
A lot of our collaboration comes from
friends and family. Some of our best
ideas, though, come to us when we are
just out in the garage working, Thilmany
said.
They exhibit at public art shows, and
are open to new concepts/suggestions
offered by attendees that they will try
later. They appreciate receiving honest
feedback.
Our favorite part of our work is really immersing ourselves in the art community. Before this adventure, neither of
us really had much of an interest in local
business nor artwork. That has completely changed now, Thilmany said.
Fig. 14 Norm, the first massive sculp

ture Andrews created, at its viewing place
in downtown Grand Rapids, Mich., for the
ArtPrize competition.
Whats Next?
Up ahead for the duo is revealing their
new designs. They have made moose,
mosquitoes, and other items that have
not been seen before. In addition, they
want to create a winter line and are always trying to come up with Alaskanthemed models. Custom boxes are being
made to keep their festive figures in, too.
We tend to think that our main goal
for customers is to make them happy,
Thilmany said. We are not limited to any
one thing, so we will do functional pieces
to just straight artwork with no real use
other than decoration.
For two guys not having any previous
introduction to art, they have served up
some pretty hearty portions so far.
Building on a Massive
Scale
Although hes been working as a
welder for more than 20 years, John Andrews believes he didnt find his true calling in the welding field until 2011 when
he began work on his first large-sized art
piece. Andrews initially built that sculpture, a seated dragon with a wide-open
mouth and upward-pointed nose (Fig.
Fig. 15 Monty, Andrewss entry for the 2013 contest, completed and ready to be driven to Grand Rapids.
Fig. 16 An assortment of flowers and this wine tree are among Andrewss smaller
creations.
14), in hopes of selling it to pay off some

debt. However, after his sister, Jenny,
told him about ArtPrize, an international
art competition, he decided to enter the
contest. The dragon named Norm
after Andrewss 14-year-old dog who
died during its construction placed in
the top 25 of the competition. That success inspired Andrews to enter again this
year. This time its a flying dragon (Fig.
15) he named Monty after another dog
that has since passed away, a Clumber
spaniel owned by Andrewss wifes best
friend. By design, the faces of both dragons resemble their namesakes. Montys
creation is chronicled on Facebook; just
search for Monty, a Dog Gone Dragon.
Additional information is available at
www.jracustomwelding.com.
The 19-day ArtPrize competition
takes place in downtown Grand Rapids,
Mich. It welcomes entries from a wide
variety of artistic media, including music,
painting, and sculpture. Although there
are six juried awards, the public selects
most of the winners, including the
$200,000 top prize, by voting via text messaging, through the competitions mobile
app, or online. This years ArtPrize ran
from September 18 through October 6.
With Monty, Andrews said, I wanted
WELDING JOURNAL
35
17
18
19
Fig. 17 These metal ants were part of Andrewss Ants in Your

Plants display.
Fig. 18 Andrews used gas metal arc welding to create the
dragons body.
Fig. 19 The sculpture prior to attachment of the scales.
to create something special, something

that would be bigger and more dramatic
for the public with hopes of getting into
the top ten for 2013. (The top ten votegetters receive cash prizes.)
How He Got His Start

Andrews, who grew up in Reed City,
Mich., first learned to weld at Wyoming
Technical Institute in Laramie, Wyo.,
where he was studying auto mechanics.
After being disappointed in that field as
a career, he entered Ferris State University in Big Rapids, Mich., where he was
first enrolled in the Mechanical Engineering program, then switched to Weld-
36
OCTOBER 2013
ing Engineering Technology. He moved

from Michigan to Gainesville, Fla., in
2002, working for three different welding businesses before opening JRA Welding, LLC in 2002. Its a two-person operation, with Andrews doing the welding
and wife, Susan, taking care of the office
operations.
After I moved to Florida I started to
make welded gifts for my wife. I would
stay after work and use scrap metal, Andrews recalled. She loved my gifts and
it was easy on my wallet. One day I overheard her say that I could make anything
and I felt if she has that much confidence
in me, why not weld a large sculpture,
and thats how Norm came about.
Prior to the first dragon, Andrewss

art had been smaller in scale. Hed created a small motorcycle, fish, flowers,
swords, bookends, and wine trees, among
others Fig. 16. I also made a bunch
of ants and trellises for botanical art festivals and called my display Ants in Your
Plants (Fig. 17). I did okay with that, but
it wasnt satisfying enough for me, he
said.
One of his big first jobs after going
into business for himself was as part of a
four-person crew that built a green
home out of 12 steel shipping containers.
We turned the shipping containers
into a certified L.E.E.D. Platinum home
that is an industrial work of art, he said.
Fig. 20 Monty in flight with the scales attached.
While working on that job site, I was

taking a break and came up with the idea
of using shipping containers for scales on
the dragon. The painted containers
would provide color for the art piece and
even if those colors faded, the Cor-Ten
steel the containers were constructed of
would develop a rust-colored patina.
From Nose Tip to Tail

Andrews built both dragons out of
scrap material, and while cost played an
important role in why he chose to use
scrap, the fact he could keep the steel
from being melted down or being sent to
a landfill was also important.
Monty is 1012 ft tall and 812 ft wide, with
a 20-ft wing span. If it was possible to
straighten it out, the dragon would be
77 ft long. The sculpture weighs in at
4000 lb.
In addition to shipping containers, a
partial inventory of the materials he used
on Monty includes a beer keg; various
sized propane, helium, kerosene, and

water tanks; a light pole; mini plow
blades; antique cow drinking fountains;
stainless steel prosthetic hip parts; and a
goal post. Andrews poured 480 lb of concrete into the tail as ballast.
To build the first dragon, Andrews
used a Hobart 110-V plasma cutting machine with a built-in air compressor. It
did the job cutting over 7000 scales, but
it didnt last very long into Montys 12,600
scales, so he bought a 220-V Thermal
Dynamics plasma cutting machine and a
large air compressor. Welding was done
with a Lincoln Electric 135 gas metal arc
welding machine with a combination of
steel and stainless steel 0.30 wire, along
with either argon, Ar/CO2 mixed gas, or
Stargon Fig. 18.
Making and attaching Montys thousands of scales was a laborious process.
First, I traced a bunch of circles with a
Sharpie onto the Cor-Ten steel shipping
container, then I followed the Sharpie by
hand with the plasma cutter, Andrews
explained. The scales start at the tail and

overlap each other all the way to the nose.
Each one was welded, then hammered to
fit the contour, then welded again and
hammered again (Figs. 19, 20). The slats
started about midway down his tail just
as the blue fades to green. Each slat was
bent and formed by hand then welded in
line with each row of scales.
Andrews began building Monty in his
backyard November 1, 2012, and completed the sculpture on August 3, 2013,
working on it in his spare time. He hauled
the massive sculpture to Grand Rapids
for ArtPrize on a 30-ft gooseneck trailer
he built himself, where it was displayed
at his venue, Barnes & Thornburg LLP,
on the corner of Pearl & Monroe.
I really love doing the large sculptures, Andrews said. Even though
Monty is only my second one, I feel like
have finally found my calling as to what
I want to do when I grow up. Yes, Im sure
Ill get tired of dragons, but large figurative art is what does it for me.
WELDING JOURNAL
37
Producing
Better Bevels
with Plasma
BY MICHELLE AVILA
MICHELLE AVILA
(michelle.avila@Hypertherm.com)
is public relations manager,
Hypertherm, Inc., Hanover, N.H.
By entering process parameters into a

computer-aided manufacturing software program,
plus monitoring and adjusting arc voltage settings,
it is possible to make the beveling process easier
Creating a beveled edge when cutting

metal is something nearly every company
is called upon to do. It is estimated that
90% of fabricators have to make at least
some parts with a bevel because beveled
edges are a necessity for weld preparation and other final assembly methods.
Despite the fact that beveling is a near
necessity when working with metal, it
isnt exactly fun or easy. Even those fabricators and companies who produce
high-quality beveled parts recognize the
challenges involved. Achieving desired
part specifications and holding consistent outcomes can be extremely difficult.
This is especially true for new part and
process setups when using plasma in a
production environment.
Obstacles for Achieving

a Good Bevel Cut
Dedicated bevel cutting

heads tilt or rotate to cut
the desired angles.
There are a number of reasons why

creating and maintaining a good plasma
bevel is difficult, even for experienced
companies. The first has to do with the
number of different bevel cuts available
see sidebar. Of the most commonly
used cut types, V and A cuts are easiest
because they can be applied in a single
pass. However, the X, top-Y, and bottom-Y cuts require two passes of the
torch. K cutting, often called a triple
pass bevel, requires three cuts. As you
can imagine, the challenge of getting a
good bevel multiplies with the number of
passes needed.
Combine different bevel types with
varying bevel angles, material types and
thicknesses, as well as amperage levels,
and the complexity of plasma bevel cutting grows. Each time theres a change
whether its the need to cut a part out
of thicker metal, change the angle, or
make a different type of bevel new
process data are needed. Determining
these process parameters is readily
achieved in the market, but isnt a fast or
accurate process.
Operators and programmers who do
this regularly can tell you theres quite a
bit of trial and error involved. This is true

even when starting with process data
supplied by the table manufacturer. The
end result is a lot of wasted time and
material.
In-House Research
Results
Hypertherm, a manufacturer of
plasma, laser, and waterjet cutting systems, recently conducted field research
on the bevel process.
Bob Boyes, a company product manager, discovered fabricators were spending between one to four hours setting up
each bevel job. He added that this time
frame was only for fabricators fortunate
enough to start with existing process
data. Fabricators who had to develop
completely new data took longer.
Sixteen different customers told me
it took a significant amount of time to set
up the right bevel-cutting parameters.
And when it came to more complicated
beveled parts that were either low-volume or single-run parts, they often just
gave up and used secondary operations
after shape cutting the parts on the cutting table, he explained.
But thats only the first problem. The
second reason beveling is so hard to get
right is the plasma cutting process isnt
static. The consumables found in the
torch wear with each cut. This causes
changes to 1) the arc, 2) the height between the torch and workpiece, and 3)
the molten metal flow path. This means
that even if you do manage to get the
right process parameters dialed in, its
only a matter of time before those parameters are wrong.
If the operator isnt making adjustments throughout the cutting process,
the torch will continue to get closer and
closer to the plate as the consumables
wear down, said Boyes. This movement
not only impacts the quality of the cut
edge but ends up changing the actual dimensions of the part being cut. Even
though the settings were correct at the
WELDING JOURNAL
39
Fig. 1 The addition of bevel process

parameters to cutting software means a
process that may have taken a minimum
of three passes in the past can now be
done with one.
Figs. 2, 3 Thousands of steel pieces

were cut and measured to produce factory-tested cut charts for mild steel.
outset and gave you a part that met specifications, that can quickly change.
How Bevel Cutting

Heads Operate
Some table manufacturers offer dedicated bevel cutting heads. These rotate
to match the bevel angle being cut which,
in theory, is supposed to make the bevel
process easier see lead photo.
The problem is that while these bevel
heads can help with beveling, more work
is needed because the plasma arc changes
its physical behavior as you tilt the torch.
The obstacles to creating a good bevel
are so great that even though more than
80% of parts destined to get a bevel are
initially cut on an X-Y plasma table, 90%
of the time the actual bevel itself is made
using a secondary cutting method. In
other words, most fabricators or companies needing to make a bevel are cutting
their part to size using plasma, then picking up and moving that part to another
area of the factory to cut the beveled
edge.
An estimated 40% of mild steel parts
cut today need a bevel. Thats a lot of
metal being moved around, adding lead
time and cost to the parts.
Changing the Landscape

The ability to not only make better
bevels, but make those bevels using
plasma, could potentially save fabricators an enormous amount of resources.
The need to move parts around the factory from one cutting station to the next
would disappear, as would the need to
purchase additional equipment and pay
40
OCTOBER 2013
additional employees to perform that

secondary operation.
Though not easy, the good news is that
it is possible to make better bevels using
plasma. The key is to first gather the right
process data for most every conceivable
bevel situation. Companies need to predetermine the process parameters for
beveling a range of material thicknesses
at different amperage levels. These parameters would need to change based on
things like bevel type, angle, kerf, cut
height, cut speed, and arc voltage.
As you can imagine, we are talking
about thousands of different parameters.
Indeed, too many for one person to realistically calculate. However, by entering them into a computer-aided manufacturing software program like ProNest,
and continuously monitoring and adjusting arc voltage settings, it is entirely possible to make the bevel process easier and
repeatable for consistent dimensional
outcomes Fig. 1.
Instead of relying on educated
guesses, along with trial and error, operators and programmers need only select
their desired amperage, material thickness, bevel cut type, and angle.
Calculating thousands of cut parameters and then entering these factors into
software isnt complicated. However, it
is time consuming.
Hypertherm estimates it spent more
than a year of engineering time developing a comprehensive set of bevel cutting
parameters Figs. 2, 3. The company focused on V, A, and top-Y cuts because
those bevel types comprise the majority
of finished product cut in the marketplace.
Engineers also worked to incorporate
arc voltage sampling for the height control so that a correct standoff distance
for cutting is sustained throughout the
life of the consumables. This combination enables the table owner to run the
plasma bevel cutting system efficiently
from rapid setup to consistent output of
high-quality parts.
Types of Beveled Cuts

Beveled edges cut on plate steel are described throughout industry by the English letter the resultant cut most closely resembles. Commonly, there are six different types of bevel cuts A, V,
top-Y, bottom-Y, X, and K as displayed in this image.
Conclusion
Instead of making bevels with a hand
grinder or other method, companies following this new process are able to set up
new bevel jobs within minutes.
For example, at Curtis Welding and
Fabrication in Iowa, positive results have
been achieved. Bevel cuts dont take me
any longer than a straight cut would. It
only takes a few seconds more for the
torch head to rotate around, said owner
Curtis Renaud, who has also achieved
hour and labor savings.

%$#"! "#"""""##"#"
#"""#"

WELDING JOURNAL
41
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2013 Donaldson Company, Inc.
A History of the
Oxyacetylene and
Plasma Cutting
Processes
BY JOHN HENDERSON AND

NAKHLEH HUSSARY
JOHN HENDERSON is group brand
manager, and NAKHLEH HUSSARY,
PhD, is chief scientist plasma,
Victor Technologies
(www.victortechnologies.com),
St. Louis, Mo.
A short review highlights the advances that have

been made in torch, regulator, and electrode design
44
OCTOBER 2013
Over the years, plasma cutting has

advanced significantly.
process? followed by a never-ending

quest to make the new technology safer,
faster, comfortable, accessible, affordable, and precise.
Oxyacetylene Origins
n the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the introduction of

the modern oxyacetylene torch
and stem-type gas regulator, as well as
the 50th anniversary of the modern
plasma cutting electrode and dual-flow
gas patents, this article takes a look at
some of the major developments in the
history of oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting.

Within the space allowed, it can only
touch a small fraction of the most interesting, significant, or lasting innovations.
Metalworking developments seemingly follow a pattern, with the pioneers
asking themselves a series of questions.
It starts with, Can we create a new
Edmund Davy, a chemistry professor

at the Royal Dublin Society, accidentally
discovered acetylene (C 2H 2) in 1836
(Ref. 1). At the time, Davy noted that,
From the brilliance with which the new
gas burns in contact with the atmosphere,
it is, in the opinion of the author, admirably adapted for the purpose of artificial light, if it can be procured at a cheap
rate.
The gas was rediscovered in 1860
by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot,
who coined the name acetylene. In
1895, French chemist Henry Le Chatelier discovered that the combination of
equal volumes of acetylene gas and oxygen produced a flame with a temperature
far greater (about 6000F or 3300C)
than that of any previously known gas
flame. Because of the way the atoms combine, the gas has a high calorific value
and releases a high amount of energy
when burned.
Credit for producing the first oxyacetylene torches in 1901 is given to
French engineer Edmond Fouche, who
invented a high-pressure model with the
acetylene delivered at up to 15 lb/in.2 and
a low-pressure injector model where
the acetylene is drawn into the mixing
area of the torch as a result of the suction created by the oxygen flow. Fouches
torches were further refined by a Parisian
firm, A. Boas Rodrigues & Company.
Their design featured a medium-pressure injector torch that delivered the
acetylene at 3 lb/in.2 or more and the oxygen at pressures of 120 lb/in. 2. These
torches created a more consistently neutral flame (low-pressure torches tended
to create an oxidizing flame and were
prone to extinguishing) and increased
operational safety (medium-pressure
torches mixed the gases near the handle,
requiring the operator to quickly shut off
the gases in the event of a backfire and/or
flashback)(Ref. 2).
The first oxyacetylene welding shop
in the United States was set up in 1906,
and in 1907 the technique was adopted
at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. There, oxyacetylene torches could cut a porthole in
3-in. armorplate in 30 min, a task that
formerly had required five men working
for two weeks to complete (Ref. 3).
By as early as 1910, publications (Ref.
4) began to note that, An oxyacetylene
WELDING JOURNAL
45
Fig. 1 A cutting torch from 1913.
Fig. 2 A 1918 cutting torch designed with a more comfortable handle.
cutter should be an adjunct to every repair shop of any size. Every auto repair
shop of any size will probably have one
of these oxyacetylene outfits in a few
years.
Interestingly, safe crackers were
among the first to put oxyacetylene
torches to practical use. While not exactly a noble profession, these well-paying cutting jobs did as much as anything
to advertise the efficiency of the process.
Remembering the
Innovators
The history of oxyacetylene cutting
wouldnt be complete without mentioning the innovators whose names and companies have become associated with the
process and its equipment.
On the gases side, Thomas Leopold
Willson, a Canadian working in North
Carolina, accidentally discovered the
first commercially viable process for
making calcium carbide in 1892 (acetylene gas forms when water is added to
calcium carbide). His business partner,
James Turner Morehead, helped find financing for the company and eventually
sold it to Union Carbide in 1898.
In 1902, German scientist Carl Von
Linde built a plant for producing liquid
air and then fractioned it to produce pure
oxygen. After building separation plants
in Europe, he then founded the Linde
Air Products Company in Cleveland,
Ohio.
With acetylene and oxygen readily
46
OCTOBER 2013
available, the world was ready for better

cutting torches. John Harris exhibited a
torch at the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair
and started Harris Calorific in 1905, and
Elmer Smith founded Smith Equipment
Company in 1916. However, one can
argue that the modern oxyfuel torch and
regulator design began with an accident
in San Francisco in 1913.
German immigrant Ludwig Wilhelm
(L.W.) Stettner was a highly skilled blacksmith and ornamental ironworker when
the yoke-style regulator on his oxyacetylene rig failed. In this type of regulator,
the gas directly impinges on the valve
seat, and a sudden rush of pressure can
and did cause a catastrophic failure that cost Stettner his left eye and temporarily blinded him in the right eye. His
hospital recuperation would change the
course of cutting history.
I then said, Boy, you got to do something with your brain now, so I start
thinking, Stettner recalled years later in
an interview, his English still heavily accented with German. It had to be done
mentally because I cant see. Fortunately,
the apparatus proved entirely successful.
Even after these many years, it is still the
standard of comparison.
The apparatus Stettner envisioned
included the modern stem-type regulator (where the gas is diffused by coming
up underneath the valve stem) and the
modern oxyacetylene cutting and welding torch. Though much improved in
safety and performance, the same basic
functions introduced in the early models
are still found in most cutting torches.

Stettner founded the Victor Equipment Company in 1913. The company
name comes from the English translation
of his wifes maiden name, Sieger, which
means winner or victor. Stettners
innovations include adding a lever (instead of just a valve) to deliver the cutting oxygen (1913) (Fig. 1), a handle that
features a tube within a tube to create a
smaller diameter, more comfortable handle (1918) (Fig. 2), and a separate cutting attachment and torch handle (1918)
(Fig. 3) for application flexibility. An additional historic photo highlights a whole
plasma cutting system, large in size, with
separate components Fig. 4.
A Focus on Safety
Many improvements in oxyfuel cutting involve making the torches and regulators safer and more durable, enabling
users to stay in the field, cut longer, and
come home safely. Further, some of the
developments taken for granted today
occurred during the early careers of those
still working today. For example, complying with OSHA regulations (today 29
CFR 1910.253, Oxygen-fuel gas welding
and cutting) has been a fact of life for anyone under 50, but the organization wasnt even established until 1971.
Some of the products that improved
safety include the universal torch mixer
(patented in 1975), which helped prevent
flashbacks due to unmixed gases. Users
could now switch between cutting gases
Fig. 3 A separate cutting attachment was available in 1918.
simply by using the right cutting tip instead of having to buy a new cutting attachment. Perhaps most significantly,
Victor patented the first torch with integral check valves and flashback arrestors
in 1982, a design that remains popular
today because users dont have to remember to add external devices to comply with safety requirements.
Problems associated with regulators
since the beginning have been burnthrough, explosion, and the potential for
creating a missile if a cylinder accidentally falls and damages the regulator. Recent regulator designs address the latter
issue by creating a regulator that fits inside the diameter of the cylinder and a
multilayer shock zone that can absorb
more than 5000 ft-lb of energy without
failure. The updated designs include a

new particle trap to stop contaminants
from entering the seat mechanism, and
they offer the highest resistance to oxygen-related fires, passing the ASTM G175 Promoted Ignition Test, which is administered in the medical gas regulator
industry.
Plasma Arc Process
Invented by scientists at Union Carbides Linde Division, the plasma arc cutting process materialized when scientists
constricted a gas tungsten arc to increase
its energy density and focus its momentum, thereby forming a cutting arc rather
than a welding arc. To understand the
complexity of the process, consider that even current models
and
modern
simulation
methodologies cannot fully
and efficiently model plasma
arc behavior without considerable simplifying assumptions.
In many ways, it really is rocket
science.
The pioneers in the industry include Robert Gage, as he
and his colleagues acquired
the original patent in 1955.
Meanwhile, James Browning,
a professor at Dartmouth College (Hanover, N.H.), and his
graduate student, Merle
Thorpe, were developing their
first plasma torches and power
sources. They focused on developing a high-temperature
torch that created arcs and
plasma jets hotter than the
suns surface (10,000F or
5600C).
Browning, a serial entrepreneur, founded Thermal DyFig. 4 This archived image shows what a whole
namics in 1957. Early on he deplasma cutting system used to look like. Note its
signed and built several highlarge size and separate components.
temperature research systems for the

NASA space program for wind tunnel facilities. These systems could also simulate re-entry conditions for Project Mercury, the first United States human
spaceflight program. Technologies and
products for plasma cutting, welding, and
plasma spraying were all part of the technologies developed there.
Based on research efforts while at
Creare, an engineering research company, two other Dartmouth professors,
Richard Couch and Robert Dean, began
their own plasma cutting company, Hypertherm, in 1968 in Hanover, N.H. (less
than eight miles from the Thermal Dynamics facility in West Lebanon, N.H.).
The technological rivalry between the
two companies has resulted in a stream
of ever-improving products, greatly benefiting the fabrication industry.
Dual-Flow Gas Technique

Today, most people take it for granted
that plasma cutting cuts any electrically
conductive metal. However, the process
was originally limited to stainless steel,
aluminum, and other nonferrous metals
that could not be readily cut with oxyfuel
and were slow to cut mechanically.
The first plasma systems used only a
single inert or nonactive gas (e.g., helium,
argon, or nitrogen) as the plasma gas because the tungsten electrode eroded rapidly in the presence of oxygen. However,
the plasma process had no advantage
over oxyacetylene for cutting ferrous
metals without the ability to use oxygen
to support oxidation and the associated
exothermic reaction.
This began to change in 1963 when
Browning discovered that introducing
another secondary or shielding gas to
surround the main plasma arc cooled the
edges of the arc and caused the arc to
protect itself by shrinking or (technically) constricting. Constriction further
WELDING JOURNAL
47
Table 1 Examples of Advances in Plasma Technology

Year
Thickness (in.)
Current
1957
1965
1976
2006
1965
1976
2006
2012
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
250
270
350
150
1,100
575
300
400
Plasma Gas
Shielding Gas
Cutting Speed (in./min)
None
None
H2O
Air
None
H2O
Air
Air
35
40
90
100
100
60
70
80
N2
N2
N2, H2
O2
N2, H2
N2
O2
O2
Table 2 A Comparison of Plasma and Shield Gases Used for Ferrous and Nonferrous Materials
Metals and Cut Quality
Plasma
Shield
Advantages
Mild Steel Precision Cut (50400 A)

Mild Steel Precision Cut at 30 A
Nonferrous Precision Cut
(Water Mist Secondary Process)
Nonferrous Precision Cut
O2
O2
N2
Air
O2
H2O
H35
N2
Mild Steel Conventional Cut

Mild Steel Conventional Cut
Air
O2
Air
Air
Nonferrous Conventional Cut

Nonferrous Conventional Cut (thin
materials 38 in.)
Nonferrous Conventional Cut (Water
Mist Secondary Process)
Air
N2
Air
N2
Weld-ready cut surface

Weld-ready cut surface
Best cut quality to 114 in., weldready surface, lowest cost per foot
Faster cutting on > 114 in., weld-ready
cut surface. Total cost is about 2030%
higher on materials 114 in.
Economic, good cut quality
Better cut quality can be weld-ready
if bevel angle is not an issue
Economic, but post-cut cleaning required
Better parts life than air, better cut surface
N2
H2O
Nitride-free cut, but will have more bevel

angle and a wider kerf than a precision cut
Table 3 High-Precision Cuts Include Those in Classes 13

ISO 9013: 2002 (E) Specication
Material Thickness (in.)
Class 1
Class 2
Class 3
Class 4
Class 5
25.8
10.2
6.7
5.2
3.8
3.1
35.3
15.4
10.3
8.1
5.9
4.9
Angle
0.125
0.25
0.375
0.5
0.75
1.0
2.0
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.3
concentrated the arc, produced a higher

energy density stream and subsequently
increased cutting speed and improved cut
quality. In dual-flow applications, the
plasma/shielding gas combinations were
usually nitrogen/air or oxygen for mild
steel, nitrogen/CO 2 or nitrogen/argonhydrogen mix for stainless steel and
aluminum.
Dual-flow cutting increased speed on
mild steel, helped reduce top rounding,
48
OCTOBER 2013
5.7
2.2
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.8
14.0
5.1
3.4
2.6
1.9
1.5
drove the arc deeper into the cut, and

minimized dross on the bottom of the cut.
There were also appreciable speed and
quality benefits on nonferrous materials.
The dual-flow technique cooled the
plasma consumables to extend service
life. By cooling the consumables, as well
as recessing them within a shield cup, the
new design decreased the likelihood of
the arc attaching to them and helped alleviate double arcing problems (Ref. 5).
Electrode Redesign and

Air Plasma Cutting
The dual-flow technique broke new
ground, but it required two other core inventions until the process could begin to
reach its full potential: the modern button-type electrode and the use of zirconium or hafnium as the emitter. Both inventions overcame the drawbacks of ex-
isting designs and pushed the use of new

arc chemistries. While tungsten is a great
emitter of the electrons necessary to create the plasma, it is a poor thermal conductor, so its service life decreases if thermal management is not implemented
properly. As a result, tungsten life used
to be measured in a few hundred arc
starts as opposed to thousands today.
To solve the problem, Browning
stuffed a small cylinder of tungsten into
the tip of a copper cylinder. The cylinder
was hollowed from the back so that cooling water could be introduced. This new
design offered both excellent electrical
and thermal conductivity; the copper
conducted electricity to the tungsten, but
also transferred heat away from the tungsten and prolonged its service life.
Patented in 1963, the design of the
plasma electrode remains largely the
same today (Ref. 6).
Hafnium and Zirconium

Because all known electrode materials deteriorated in the presence of oxygen, the concept of using air or oxygen
had been all but abandoned. Then in the
late 1960s, Soviet scientists discovered
that hafnium and zirconium offered the
much sought-after solution. Research
and development efforts took off as both
metals were found to resist rapid deterioration. Air provided significant cost savings, and using oxygen for the plasma gas
and enriching the shielding gas produced
the highest quality, fastest cuts on steel
(see Tables 1 and 2).
Portable Manual
Systems
Early plasma cutting power systems
were huge, heavy, power-sucking behemoths that required three-phase primary
current, as well as cooling systems. As a
result, their use was limited to the large
manufacturers who could afford them.
Recognizing the importance of developing a self-contained single-phase system for small shops, Thermal Dynamics
introduced the PAK-5 in 1980. In 1982,
the PAK-3 was the first commercially viable system to use air as the plasma gas.
At the same time, SAF introduced a similar product in Europe.
The reader should notice that up until
this point, plasma technology advances
focused on the torch. Unlike welding
processes, nearly all of the magic happens inside the torch. The most notable
exception would be the invention of in-
verter technology by Swedish engineers

Gran Hedberg and Curt Hanson in 1976.
With the advent of lightweight, portable
power sources that used single-phase
power and created a good cut quality with
single-gas torches, manual plasma cutting exploded in popularity during the
mid-1980s and early 1990s.
High-Precision Cutting
and Automation
The first high-precision plasma cutting systems were invented in Japan in
the 1980s and in the United States starting in the early 1990s. High-precision
plasma systems create a denser, higher
energy arc that in effect creates a sharper
cutting tool that comes close to competing with lasers in some applications. A
nozzle today has an orifice of 0.040 to
0.045 in. (vs. about 3/16th in. for some of
the early torches) and delivers up to
60,000 A per in.2.
As previously reported in the Welding
Journal, an automated plasma system can
cut with a precision of ISO Class 3 quality or better (see Table 3). The cut surface has the following characteristics:
square face (< 3-deg bevel); smooth,
with nearly vertical drag lines; little to no
nitrides or oxides; has little to no dross;
minimal heat-affected zone and recast
layer; and demonstrates good mechanical properties in welded components.
Noteworthy improvements in highprecision cutting also include systems capable of using the Water Mist Secondary
(WMS) or nitrogen-water process for
nonferrous materials. During cutting, the
energy from the plasma gas divides the
water in the torch into its principal components. The hydrogen creates a reducing atmosphere in the cutting zone, producing a clean, dross-free and oxide-free
cut surface. The process can reduce their
cutting costs by an average of 20 to 30%.
In recent years, research has also focused on hafnium electrode wear rates
and learning how arc shutdown interacts
with the molten pool of hafnium, the
plasma arc, and gas flow. The life of electrodes the single most controlling factor in consumable life has more than
doubled in the last 20 years. In fact, a new
multiple-hafnium electrode introduced
last year can increase arc starts from 400
to 900 at the 400-A current level.
No discussion of advanced plasma
cutting would be complete without mentioning CNCs, as high-precision cutting
would not be possible without automation. Obtaining a Class 3 cut or better re-
quires integrating the torch lifter, automatic gas controller, cutting current, and
X-Y axis movements with millimeter and
millisecond precision. With the power of
todays CNCs, even an inexperienced operator can obtain a precision cut (or the
fastest cut) using touch-screen technology. The power of nesting software contained within the CNCs further enhances
productivity and reduces scrap, as well
as frees the floor operator from being dependent on the engineering department
when on-the-fly changes are needed.
Cut quality expectations have evolved
from high quality in the 1960s to square
cut in the 1970s to high definition in the
1990s to the high-definition, high productivity, high-profitability cutting of
today. Nearly 60 years of research effort
make plasma cutting an economically
competitive choice for cutting thinner
and thicker metal, as well as putting
the process in reach of every fabricator
(Ref. 7).
On the oxyfuel side, torch and regulator manufacturers continue to enhance
product safety, operator comfort, and design products for a global workforce.
While plasma cutting has certainly displaced oxyfuel in many applications,
there will always be a role for the process
for cutting thicker metal, heating metal,
and field fabrication and repair. As long
as there is steel to cut, you will find a
burner using a torch that L.W. Stettner
would immediately recognize.
References
1. Wikipedia. 2013. Edmund Davy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_
Davy.
2. Hart, R. N. 2013. Welding: Theory,
Practice, Apparatus and Tests, Electric,
Thermite and Hot-Flame Processes (Kindle locations 2056-2058). Kindle edition.
3. ACS. 1998. Commercialization of
calcium carbide and acetylene landmark. www.acs.org/content/acs/en/ education/whatischemistry/landmarks/calciumcarbid eacetylene.html.
4. Hart, R. N. 2013. Welding: Theory,
Practice, Apparatus and Tests, Electric,
Thermite and Hot-Flame Processes (Kindle locations 2056-2058). Kindle edition.
5. Renault, T., and Hussary, N. 2007.
Life and times of plasma cutting. The
Fabricator.
6. Hussary, N., and Renault, T. 2008.
Electrode life: A measure of system performance in plasma cutting. Welding Journal 87(4): 3032.
7. Colt, J., and Cook, D. June 2002.
Exploring dry cutting technologies. The
Fabricator.
WELDING JOURNAL
49
The 2013 AWS Robotic

Arc Welding Contest
Calling all robot welding programming experts!
By Vern Mangold
Vice-Chair of AWS D16
Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding
n November 20, 2013, the robot About the Certified Robot Arc Welding Program
welding community will know who In keeping with the longstanding AWS tradition of safety, the AWS
D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding developed the
is the number one robotic arc Certified Robot Arc Welding (CRAW) program and the supporting
D16.4, Specification for the Qualification of Robotic Arc
welder in the world. The American Welding standard
Welding Personnel, which was the basis for the certification process
Society challenges all contestants who are that was developed by the AWS Certification Subcommittee on Cerof Robotic Arc Welding Personnel. This relatively new cerwilling to battle for the title of Robotic Arc tification
tification program has a lot of similarities to the Certified Welding
Inspector (CWI) program.
Welding Champion.
The contest will take place on Tuesday, November 19 and
Wednesday, November 20 at the FABTECH expo in Chicago. Contestants will choose one of the two CRAW cells available for testing.
A candidate can select the CRAW cell provided by Wolf Robotics
that consists of an ABB welding robot and is coupled with a Lincoln
power source and welding system. The other choice is a Miller
CRAW cell equipped with the full complement of Miller welding
equipment and a Panasonic welding robot. Each contestant has a
20-minute period to complete the robotic welding program, then
the program must be tested and subjected to a verification dry-run.
The final task is to perform the actual robot arc welding process.
The finished coupon will be visually and electronically inspected,
and the performance of the contestant will be judged on the quality
of the welds and the speed in which the examination was completed.
A 20-minute written quiz will also be administered. The two-part
challenge is a mini version of the official AWS certification for robotic arc welding personnel.
The winner is the entrant who posts the top combined score in
the written and performance tests. Competition results will be announced at 3:00 pm Wednesday, November 20 at the CRAW testing
booth in the North Hall of McCormick Place.
To become CRAW-certified, a candidate must pass both a closedbook written examination and a hands-on welding performance examination.
The term Win-Win is often misused, but it properly describes
the CRAW program. Employers benefit by the knowledge that welding personnel who have been certified through the CRAW process
will demonstrate the requisite level of technical knowledge required
to apply robots in arc welding tasks in a safe, efficient, and economical manner.
Successful candidates who achieve the CRAW certification
demonstrate to employers that they have achieved a high distinction
in the robot industry. They earn the right to carry the CRAW credential with pride and to advertise their achievement on their professional resume.
A Short History of Robot Arc Welding

The use of industrial robots to perform arc welding processes is relatively new. Industrial robots turned 50 years old in 2011, and the
process of robotic arc welding has been in existence in rudimentary
form since 1972. A slightly more mature robot welding process is
ADVERTISEMENT
How to compete at FABTECH

In addition to the traditional Professional Welders Competition and a new
Welding Wars team fabricating contest for students, AWS will conduct the
2013 AWS Robotic Arc Welding Contest at McCormick Place in the North
Hall at Booth N2099. The competition will be an abbreviated version of an
AWS CRAW certification examination, with a 20-minute written exam and a
20-minute robot programming and welding test.
First prize will be free tuition for full CRAW training and the official exam.
To apply to compete, visit www.aws.org/certification/CRAW or email
crawcontest@aws.org.
robotic resistance welding, also known as

spot welding. Spot welding is typically used
to join sheet metal structures together. Robots have successfully welded automobile
bodies together since 1965. Arc welding with
robots only became a reality when the servo
and computer technologies used by robots
improved and the ability of robots to move
in a continuous, variable, and controlled
fashion was perfected. This enabled machines, for the first time, to duplicate the
dexterity of human hand motion.
By trial and error, the robot arc welding
process developed over time until today
robot arc welding is considered a mature
manufacturing process technology.
In 1985, the AWS Technical Activities
Committee added a new technical machinery committee to its family of technical committees. John Hinrich, past AWS
director-at-large and former A.O. Smith executive, leveraged his extensive experience
with arc welding robots and his contacts
within industry to convince AWS to become
actively involved in the safe and efficient application of this emerging technology. At
Tower Automotive (formerly A.O. Smith),
Mr. Heinrichs engineers developed techniques and manufacturing protocols for arc
welding robots which became the foundational information and benchmarks for the
new D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding. The first task addressed by
the D16 Committee was the development of
an arc welding robot system safety standard.
The document identification number is
D16.1, which became an ANSI-approved

standard in 2001.
The committee has successfully published
four AWS/ANSI robot standards, along with
technical reports and other tools that continue to enhance and augment the safe application of arc welding robots.
The Industrial Robot Another

Tool in the Welders Toolbox
From the earliest introduction of continuous
path articulated robots, the process of continuous path arc welding has been considered a natural extension of the use of robots
in the manufacture of automotive and transportation-related products. Resistance welding of car bodies provided the predecessor
technology that was fundamental for the introduction and eventual acceptance of
A CRAW competition was first held at the AWS National Robotic Arc Welding
Conference in Milwaukee in June.
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Candidates must robotically weld a CRAW

weld coupon as shown above, as specified in
AWS D16.4, Specification for the Qualification of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel.
equipment supplied by companies seeking
better methods of arc welding steel and aluminum structures. Although the technological developments ushered in a new
opportunity to create robot arc welding applications, additional developments were required to make the applications
commercially viable and acceptable by the
general industrial manufacturing community. The missing element in this process was
standardization and harmonization of the
language and specifications used by industrial robot integrators, suppliers, and end
users.
Today, industrial arc welding robots are
valuable tools in the welding engineers toolbox. The use of hand arc welding processes
in the production of automotive and transportation products is virtually nonexistent in
American factories, both small or large, and
foreign or domestic. In addition to the manufacture of automotive and transportation
products, arc welding robots are considered
critical to the production of a wide variety of
commercial and industrial products that
range from submarines to small appliances.
The range of applications continues to
grow. Recent technological developments
have allowed robot technology to add the
welding of exotic, high-strength, and dissimilar metals to the ever increasing list of applications.
Safety First: An AWS Tradition

Like any tool, industrial robots must be
properly selected. Robots should be applied
to manufacturing tasks designed to be safe
in nature and compatible with prevailing
regulations, rules, and standards. The technology is only effective if it can be used
safely and efficiently, and this reality is integral to the work of the AWS D16 Committee. The committee is dedicated to the safe
use of the arc welding robot technology and
the work of the committee speaks for itself.
It is significant that the D16 Committee
has produced ANSI standards that address
the technical needs of the welding industry
in the logical areas of business productivity
and efficiency. The D16.1 Specification for
Robotic Arc Welding Safety standard remains
the most important publication produced by
the D16 Committee. The D16.1 standard
provides comprehensive directions and information necessary for the safe use of robot
arc welding technology.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
Basics of Brazing with

Induction Heating
Properly used, induction brazed joints offer
a number of advantages
razing is a process for joining two

metals with a filler material that
melts, flows, and wets the metals
surfaces at a temperature that is lower
than the melting temperature of the two
metals. Protection from oxidation of the
metal surface and filler material during
the joining process is achieved using a
covering gas or a flux material.
Brazing and silver soldering are terms
that usually refer to the joining process
where the filler materials have a melt
temperature above 752F (400C) to create a stronger joint.
creases the equipment footprint while

implementing a lean manufacturing
process for higher-quality parts.
Induction brazing is used in the joining of many different metals for multiple
applications. Typical joints are steel to
steel, steel to brass, steel to copper, brass
to copper, copper to copper, aluminum
to aluminum, and copper to aluminum.
The six key steps include the following:
1. Design the joint correctly allowing
for a 0.0015 to 0.005 in. (40 to 125 m)
clearance between the two surfaces at the
braze material flow temperature to allow
BY BRETT DALY
BRETT DALY (bdaly@ambrell.com) is a
marketing specialist with Ambrell, an
Ameritherm Company, Scottsville, N.Y.
for capillary action and joint wetting

Fig. 1.
2. Clean the surfaces of the joint materials.
3. Apply flux to both pieces.
4. Fixture the two pieces together with
a braze ring or preform then position in
the coil.
5. Heat the parts until both pieces
achieve the braze material flow temperature then stick feed the braze material if
preforms are not being used.
6. Clean the brazed joint to remove all
of flux residue.
The Benefits of Brazing

The brazing process does not melt the
base metals being joined, yet it can produce strong robust joints. Brazing offers
distinct advantages over other joining
techniques:
Similar and dissimilar metals can be
brazed.
Brazing uses lower temperatures,
resulting in less part distortion and joint
stress.
Dimensional integrity of the finished product is easier to control.
Brazing produces strong low-stress
joints.
Advantages of Using
Induction Heating
Induction heating addresses some of
the issues of other brazing methods. It removes the requirement for a skilled operator, reduces energy costs, and de52
OCTOBER 2013
Fig. 1 The optimum braze joint strength occurs with a part joint clearance between
0.001 and 0.005 in. (25 and 125 m). Data from Lucas Milhaupt.
Fig. 2 Eutectic properties of silver (Ag)

and copper (Cu). It is critical that the filler
metal alloys melt and flow at a lower temperature than the melt temperatures of
both base metals.
Fig. 3 Filler metal and flux operating temperature ranges for typical materials used in
brazing steel, copper, brass, and aluminum.
Filler Metals and Fluxes
the brazing process, where the alloy melts

and flows at a lower temperature than the
melt temperature of either of the base
materials. As shown in the diagram (Fig.
3), the 30% copper/silver braze melts at
1454F (790C) compared to a melt temperature of 1980F (1180C) for copper
and 1760F (960C) for silver.
The primary function of the flux is to
protect the two metal surfaces being
joined and the braze metal from oxidation during the heating process. Some
flux materials also act as a cleaning agent.
A typical flux material for lower-temper-
The function of braze filler metal is to

provide a metallurgical bond to the surfaces of the materials on both sides of the
joint. There are many different braze alloys that are designed to correctly melt,
flow, wet, and bond materials for joining.
Typical braze filler materials that are
used to create the correct alloy for the
joint materials are copper, silver, zinc,
nickel, and aluminum.
Some filler metal alloys have eutectic
properties (Fig. 2) that are very useful for
ature brazing would be a potassium salt

of boron and fluorine with a temperature
range from 1050 to 1800F (565 to
982C). Other flux materials with less fluorine are available for higher braze temperatures between 1600 and 2200F
(870 and 1100C).
Brazing Different Metals

Aluminum. Aluminum requires a lot
of energy to heat using induction and its
thermal conductivity is 60% compared to
copper. Coil design and time for the heat
Examples of various assemblies heated to brazing temperature using induction heating.
WELDING JOURNAL
53

Table 1 Physical Characteristics of Commonly Brazed Metals
Material
Thermal Conductivity k cal/cm s C
Aluminum
Brass
Copper
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel
0.60
0.26
0.95
0.11
0.05
to flow are critical in a successful induction brazing process for aluminum parts.
Recent advances in lower-temperature
aluminum braze materials have allowed
induction to effectively replace flame and
furnace heating in high-volume brazing
of aluminum assemblies.
The low melting temperature of aluminum requires that the induction brazing process apply the energy to the part
correctly, to raise both part surfaces to
Electrical Resistivity ohm m 108

2.65
7.1
1.7
74
74
the braze flow temperature at the same

time, without overheating and melting
the edges of the part.
Steels. Induction brazing is the ideal
technique for joining steel parts where
welding is not suitable. A well-designed
induction brazed steel joint provides
many benefits, including part geometry
integrity and lower part stress.
Carbon and stainless steels have high
resistivity. They couple well to induction
Typical Melting Temp.

C
F
660
1220
930
1710
1084
1983
1480
2700
1510
2750
energy and heat easily. However, they

have poor thermal conductivity so the induction brazing of steel parts should not
be rushed. With steel, it is important to
allow the heat to soak through to the joint
surface for proper flow and wetting of the
braze material.
Copper-based alloys are often used as
a low-cost braze material on carbon
steels, while nickel-based alloys are used
for stainless steels.
Some Brazing Facts

Steel heats well, but is a poor thermal conductor.
Copper takes more induction energy to heat, but is an excellent thermal
conductor.
Brass heats better than copper, but
has lower thermal conductivity.
Silver copper alloys are popular
braze materials for brass and copper
parts.
Induction brazing is an excellent
method for joining parts made of dissimilar metals. Applications with mixed
metal joining include steel to copper,
steel to brass, and brass to copper. With
these metals, its all about timing. For a
successful brazed joint between different
metals, it is critical that both metal surfaces reach the braze flow temperature at
the same time as the joint. The induction
heating solution must take into account
the different thermal conductivities of
the materials, and the time each material
takes to get to temperature (Table 1).
As you can see, there are many advantages to using induction heating for
brazing. Induction heating is, in fact,
a very versatile method that can be
leveraged for joining a wide range of
materials.
54
OCTOBER 2013
Whats Happening with

Aerospace Brazing
New brazing alloys improve thermal barriers in jet engines
BY TOM SANDIN
TOM SANDIN is the brazing production
manager for Morgan Advanced Materialss
Wesgo Metals (www.wesgometals.com),
Hayward, Calif.
aterial scientists and ceramic

component
manufacturers
have been developing new
materials and processes that allow
engines to run hotter in response to the
aerospace industrys focus on higher performance and lower costs.
In gas turbine engines, a large
amount of air from the compressor is
used to cool the turbine vane and blades.
The amount of air needed is determined
by turbine temperature and the materials that need to be cooled. If the turbine
materials need less cooling or can be
made from materials that can withstand
higher temperatures, this would make
more air available for propulsion.
Increasing the turbines temperature
capability is key to improving engine
efficiency. However, engines run hotter
as processing temperature is increased,
and this increased heat tends to degrade
metals.
Inside turbines, presintered preforms
(PSPs) are being used to repair vanes
that break down from excessive heat and
wear. The PSPs, with a small amount of
braze alloy mixed with the base metal,
56
OCTOBER 2013
Morgan Technical Ceramics offers presintered preforms for hightemperature braze

applications.

Intake
Air Inlet
Compression
Combustion
Compressor
Combustion
Chambers
Cold Section
Exhaust
Turbine
Exhaust
Hot Section
Gold Nickel,
Nickel Braze Alloy
Fuel Systems
Gold Nickel, Platinum
Gold Nickel Braze
Alloy
PSP Repair Alloys,

Nickel Braze Alloys
Fig. 1 Common locations for use of alloys in a turbofan engine.
are used primarily in the turbine section

for repair of vane cracks and worn-out
areas.
As temperatures continue to climb in
these zones, new materials and technologies are being developed to create a better thermal barrier. This is expected to
significantly lower maintenance, repair,
and overhaul (MRO) costs. Examples
include the development of advanced
braze alloys, the use of ceramics on hightemperature metal to ceramic components, and the introduction of active
brazing, which allows metal to be bonded

directly to ceramic without metallization.
Braze Alloys Developed

for HighTemperature
Applications
Braze alloys are used in a variety of
advanced military aircrafts and commercial
aerospace engine components, and grades
are being developed that directly bond
ceramic to metal and other materials. Alloy
Table 1 Brazing Alloys
Alloy
Engine Section
Component/Base Material
Incronibsi 7 (AMS4777)
Nibsi4 (AMS 4778)
Incroibsi14 (AMS4776)
TiCuNi
Compressor/Low Turbine
Exhaust/Low Compressor/
Structural Mounts
Compressor, Fuel Systems
High Compressor/Low Turbine
High Compressor/High
Turbine/Low Turbine
Fuel Systems
Hastalloys, Inconels, Waspalloy

Ti64, Ti Alloys
Nioro (AMS 4787, Bau4)

PalNicro36M
Presintered Preforms
Palnioro 7 (AMS4786)
Inconel 718, 750, 600, 625

Hastalloys, Inconels
Superalloys
Inconel 600, 625
compositions vary and include those

designed for functional use in very hightemperature applications (750850C).
Alloys are selected to meet the specific service temperature conditions as
well as the requirements of all the components to be joined. Examples include
alloys used in new turbine hot sections
and brazing silicon nitride ceramic to
new superalloy engine parts. See Table 1
for an overview of available braze alloys,
showing the engine part it is used in and
the component/base material.
Most modern airliners use turbofan
engines because of their high thrust and
good fuel efficiency. A turbofan gets
some of its thrust from the core and
some from the fan. Incoming air is captured by the engine inlet. Some of the
incoming air passes through the fan and
continues on into the core compressor
and then to the burner, where it is mixed
with fuel, and combustion occurs. The
hot exhaust passes through the core and
fan turbines and then out the nozzle.
The rest of the incoming air passes
through the fan and bypasses the engine,
similar to air through a propeller. The
air that goes through the fan has a slightly increased velocity (Ref. 1).
Figure 1 is a diagram of a typical turbofan engine showing the most common
locations for use of alloys, including
those used for the engines cold section
(air inlet and compressor) and hot section (turbine and combustion chamber).
Morgan Advanced Materialss Wesgo
Metals site in Hayward, Calif., produces
more than 15 braze alloy compositions
for use in the compressor section.
Nioro is used on Inconel X750 or 718
to meet the solution anneal temperature
without the excess grain growth that
occurs from nickel-based alloys. Nioro
is a high-purity gold/nickel alloy for vacuum brazing. Nickel braze alloys are
used in compressor and turbine section
brazing. In its foil form, it can be used
for brazing honeycomb and metal seal
strips.
In the stator section of a turbofan
engine, the stator pulls the cold air in
and bypasses the engine, creating an
extra thrust. The stator also has a role in
reducing turbulence, so air pitching and
rolling are minimized.
In turbofan fuel systems, gold and
platinum-gold nickel are used to braze
WELDING JOURNAL
57

the fuel system tubes and nozzles. The
fuel nozzle, located where the first and
second combustion stages take place, is
exposed to a considerable amount of
heat. Ductility in the braze joints is
needed to help with the expansion and
vibration in the combustion section.
Gold and platinum braze alloys also
exhibit superior contrast in the braze
joint, allowing the use of X-ray technology to check braze joint integrity. In
addition, these alloys demonstrate
extremely good corrosion resistance.
Engine manufacturers have expressed
great interest in materials that can withstand extreme temperatures where conventional superalloys fail.
Active Metal Brazing

An area of increasing interest is
active metal brazing, which allows metal

to be bonded directly to ceramic without
metallization, thereby eliminating several steps in the joining process and creating an extremely strong, hermetic seal
that can reach higher operating temperatures. Aerospace applications include
nozzles for aerospace and industrial turbine engines, new turbine vane systems,
and engine sensor components.
Active metal brazing can be performed with any combination of ceramics, carbons, graphites, metals, and diamonds. Active braze alloys (ABAs) are
used for engine sensors that employ
metal-to-ceramic strips to monitor
engine functions. Brazing is done with a
high-temperature ABA so the sensor can
withstand 1000C (1830F) in service.
Active metal brazing facilitates the
joining of some materials and compo-
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nents that could never before be accomplished, and is especially beneficial in

military and aerospace applications.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Mark
Forkapa, aerospace market segment
leader, Morgan Advanced Materials,
North America, for his expertise and
contributions towards this article.
References
1. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration,
www.grc.nasa.gov/
W W W / K- 1 2 / a i r p l a n e / a t u r b f . h t m l ,
retrieved October 6, 2011.
Weld Smarter With

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Implementing the principles and
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step-by-step plan to manage your
welding operations for maximum
productivity and cost efficiency.
Specific recommendations and
real-life production examples
illustrate how your welding team
can realize productivity gains of 20 percent to 50 percent.
Total Welding Management explains the management
principles, structure, and details you need to transform your
welding operations from a cost center into a profit center. A
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TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Preferred Brazing and Soldering

Conditions for Copper-to-Aluminum
Transition Joints
As the global market for HVAC products continues to expand its use of aluminum components, the need for a suit-
able means of joining copper-toaluminum has become apparent.

When brazing or soldering is selected
as a joining process, several parameters
need to be controlled to ensure proper
joint integrity. These include the joint
design (i.e., root opening, shear depth,
Aerospace Grade
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and Cu-to-Al orientation) and brazing or

soldering consumables, i.e., alloy and
flux. Initial evaluation tests have been
performed by Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc.,
Cudahy, Wis., to investigate the effects
of different joint designs and types of
brazing/soldering consumables on the
overall quality of a copper to aluminum
transition joint (Ref. 1).
The 98Zn/2Al solder produced joints
that exhibited the least amount of erosion, highest shear/tensile strength, and
acceptable pressure resistance up to 44.8
bar (650 lb/in.2) for approximately 60 s.
Joints made with the 88Al/12Si exhibited
the least amount of porosity but considerable base metal erosion was observed,
which can affect assembly strength.
Specimens joined with the 78Zn/22Al
alloy demonstrated high tensile
strengths and consistent pressure testing
results but also exhibited base metal erosion and a significant amount of shrinkage porosity, which may cause concerns
for leak-tight assemblies.
Irrespective of alloy choice, it is evident the nominal joint clearances 0.08
mm (0.003 in.) or 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) and
its consistency from side to side in tubeto-tube assemblies are critical to the
degree the alloy pulls through and the
level of alloy/base metal interaction
occurs.
A Diffusion-Hardenable Solder with
Negative Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
Aimtek is proud to offer a variety of value-added services from

custom labeling, to specialized packaging, to parameter
development and application assistance. Our technical Engineering
Department and knowledgeable staff will help meet your standard
and custom requirements from concept to production.
We understand that a small request can make a big difference.
60
OCTOBER 2013
Soldered joints of dissimilar materials

in some high-tech applications (such as
optical quantum generators, gyroscopes,
thermoelectric generators, etc.) work in
a wide range of operational temperatures. As the result, a loss of the solder
joint sealing happens due to a significant
difference in the coefficients of thermal
expansions.
A new composite solder for joining
dissimilar materials has been developed
and tested at the Institute of Solid State
Chemistry, Ekaterinburg, Russia. The
solder contains 4852 wt-% of Ga-In-Sn
eutectic alloy and 4852 wt-% of copper
divanadate (Cu2V2O7) as a filler. The
eutectic alloy contains gallium 70, indium 22.5, and tin 7.5 wt-% (Ref. 2).
Components of the Ga-22.5In-7.5Sn
alloy are melted together in a crucible at

TECHNOLOGY NEWS
200C, held for 4 h, cooled to room temperature, and filtered using the shot filter
with 100-micron pores. The alloy is still
liquid because its melting point is only
9C. The resulting paste is mixed for 15 s
with 5052 wt-% copper divanadate filler,
which has a particle size of <63 microns.
The coefficient of the solidified composite material is from 0 to 0.5 106 C1.
Wetting Cu2V2O7 particles by Ga22.5In-7.5Sn alloy is good, whereby reaction between liquid gallium alloy and copper divanadate particles is already started
during their mixing. Coefficient of thermal expansion for the resulting composite
solder can be controlled by varying the
ratio between liquid and solid components in the solder paste for the range of
4852 wt-% of the gallium alloy.
Shock Resistance of the Lead-Free
Solder Sn-3.9Ag-0.7Cu
Effects of microstructure, intermetallic layer thickness, and strain rate on
mechanical shock resistance of copper

soldered joints made with the lead-free
solder Sn-3.9Ag-0.7Cu were investigated
at Arizona State University, Tempe,
Ariz., over the strain rate range from
103 to 12 s1.
Dynamic strength of the solder joint
is controlled by the following two factors: At low rate strain, it is controlled by
the bulk joint metal, whereas at high
strain rates, it is controlled by brittle
intermetallic layer (IMC) at the interface. This behavior only applies to the
case where the intermetallic thickness is
relatively thin. At the thickness of brittle
layer >15 microns, the intermetallic
layer controls the strength of soldered
joints at all strain rates (Ref. 3).
In the solder-controlled strength
regime, ductile dimple fracture morphology was observed. In the IMCcontrolled strength regime, cleavage
fracture of the Cu6Sn 5 intermetallic
layer was observed. At the critical strain
rate, there was a mixture of ductile
debonding through tin alloy matrix and

cleavage fracture of IMC layer. The
qualitative numerical 3D modeling was
conducted, which accurately depicts the
experimentally observed fracture behavior of solder joints.
Improving the Strength of Soldered
Joints by Increasing the Cooling
Rate
A high tensile strength and lower
ductile-brittle transition temperature are
necessary for the reliability of solder
joints both in structural and electronic
applications. The effect of cooling rate
during solidification on microstructure,
impact, and tensile properties of Sn-9Zn
lead-free solder was investigated at the
National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Mangalore, India.
Cooling rate was tested in the range
of 0.325C/s. The size of Zn flakes
became finer and distributed uniformly
throughout the matrix with an increased
WELDING JOURNAL
61

TECHNOLOGY NEWS
cooling rate (Ref. 4).

Ductile-brittle transition temperature
(DBTT) of the solder increased with the
increase in cooling rate. The solder
DBTT was found to be 20, 10, 8,
and 0C for furnace-cooled, air-cooled
stainless steel and copper-chilled samples, respectively. Tensile strength of the
solder cooled at a high rate in copper or
steel mold reached 4748 MPa (7 ksi),
while cooled in air at 3839 MPa (5.6
ksi), and only 3032 MPa (4.5 ksi) after
cooling in a furnace at the slowest rate.
Reducing the Strength Loss of
Lead-Free Soldered Joints
Commercially available lead-free solders Sn-3.4Ag-1Cu-3.3Bi and Sn-3.4Ag4.8Bi (wt-%) had demonstrated good
reliability performance in the circuit
board testing program, but they still have
not been considered for high-volume
electronics manufacturing.
Room- and elevated-temperature
62
OCTOBER 2013
tensile testing was done at The

Aerospace Corp., Los Angeles, Calif.
Mechanical tests showed the addition of
Bi reduced the loss of strength for leadfree soldered joints due to aging that
occurs in traditional Sn-Ag-Cu ternary
alloys (Ref. 5).
The room-temperature strength of
bulk SAC305 was reduced by 37% after
aging at 150C for 336 h, but the strength
reduction was not statistically meaningful for the SAC-Bi solder, and the tensile
strength even increased in the SnAg-Bi
solder. This positive effect is attributed
to the presence of bismuth and its role in
solid-solution strengthening as well as
precipitation as a separate phase.
The dumping capacity of Bi-containing solders showed similar trends, with
tan increasing in aged SAC305 but
decreasing in SAC-Bi and SnAg-Bi solders. General coarsening of microstructure is responsible for reducing the
dumping capacity as it takes place in tin
or Sn-Pb eutectic solders.
Analyzing the Interfacial Effect on

Electromigration in Flip Chip
Solder Joints
Along with the trend of miniaturization, the diameter of solder joints was
reduced from 100 to 50 microns at the
average current density around 104
A/cm2. Therefore, electromigration in
solder joints becomes a major concern
for the reliability of flip chips. Recent
experiments have shown that failure in
microsolder joints is induced by electromigration. Three-dimensional computational modeling was proposed by Sogang
University, Republic of Korea, to simulate evolution of micro- and submicroscale solder joints due to electromigration-induced diffusion (Ref. 6).
A 3D diffuse interface model with
multiple concentrations and semiimplicit Fourier spectral scheme was
employed that allowed investigating the
dynamic deformation of the solder joint.
Results have demonstrated rich dynam-

TECHNOLOGY NEWS
ics and solder breakage at the interface

on the cathode side.
The solder bump starts to break apart
from the current crowding region, and
the failure time is exponentially
decreased as the strength of the applied
electric field increases. The chemically
enhanced interface energy improves the
reliability of solder joints as well as the
contact area between the bump and copper plate.
Eco-Friendly Soldering Paste with
High Surface Electrical Resistance
A new solder paste that does not
require cleaning after soldering was
developed at Avangard Corp., St.
Petersburg, Russia, for surface mounting
of integrated currents onto printed circuit boards (PCB).
The paste is comprised of 8091 wt-%
of Sn-37Pb or Sn-36Pb-2Ag solder powders, and flux binder in the balance (Ref.
7). The flux binder contains 49% syn-
thetic resin Foral 85, 40% diethyl ether

of phthalic acid, 5% dibutyl ether of
phthalic acid, 1% salicylic acid, 1%
adipic acid, and 45 carnauba wax as a
rheology agent.
The paste composition is ecologically
clean based on natural biodegradable
compounds. It does not contain amines
and surfactants, plus has a very light
odor or none at all. Soldered PCBs were
tested, without washing, for flux residues
by using a Zestron flux test (www.ostecmaterials.ru/equipment/prod/44.html).
There were no acid residues observed
on the surface of soldered PCBs after
soldering. That was confirmed by high
values of dielectric resistance of the soldered surface after holding at 40C and
98% humidity for 96 h.
Metallization of Polyester Fabric
for Soldering
Metallized textile structure comprised of nonconductive organic or inor-
ganic synthetic fibers can be soldered

after the deposition of a three-layer
coating developed by Soliani EMC S.r.l.,
Como, Italy.
After degreasing and neutralization
in the 30% hydrochloric acid solution, a
polyester fabric is subjected to activation
for 510 min in a bath containing 50 g/L
of PdCl2 and 4 g/L of SnCl2. Then the
fabric is cleaned from colloidal residues
in a bath of hydrofluoric acid 20 mL/L
(Ref. 8).
The first nickel plating of the fabric,
is carried out for 510 min in a bath containing 47 g/L of nickel chloride and 18
g/L of sodium hypophosphite at 40C.
The second layer, copper, is deposited onto the nickel layer by dipping for
34 min in a copper sulfate bath with
strongly acidic pH. Then the Ni-Cu coated fabric is subjected to a zinc electrolytic deposition by dipping in a bath at 50C
is comprised of 65 g/L of zinc chloride
and 200 g/L of potassium chloride at pH
= 5.05.5.
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WELDING JOURNAL
63
BRAZING & SOLDERING

TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Finally, the metallized polyester fabric is obtained with three consecutive

layers nickel, copper, and zinc. Silver
can be deposited instead of zinc.
Laser Soldering Ceramic for
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is necessary to protect
electronic functional components in a
chemically aggressive environment at
high temperatures.
A process of laser joining ceramic
housings with glass solders was developed
at
Gnter-Khler-Institute
fr
Fgetechnik und Werkstoffprfung, Jena,
Germany. A glass solder, laser irradiation
of the soldering zone, thermal cycle of the
process, and process control were evaluated and optimized (Ref. 9). The solder
was applied manually as a paste to the
joining area of the ceramic housing and
subsequently glazed in a furnace. A sufficient wetting of alumina ceramic was
achieved only at the working temperature
of 1370C.
A maximum laser beam scanning rate
of 8000 mm/s was chosen to provide a

quasisimultaneous, uniform heating of
the soldering zone. The length of elliptic
spot on the ceramic surface was set to 4
mm to minimize the laser beam intensity
and temperature gradient. The manufactured joints are vacuum tight. However,
the glass solder cannot crystallize after
solidification due to the short process
duration.
Thus, the required temperature
resistance cannot be guaranteed unless
the glass solder composition has high
enough recrystallization temperature.
Soldering Reactions between Sn-Pd
Alloy and Nickel Surface Finish
Palladium-on-NiP surface finishes are
now widely used in the electronics industry due to low cost and high reliability in
both wire-bonding and soldering applications. Soldering reactions of Sn-xPd solder (where x varied from 0.05 to 1 wt-%)
with the Ni coating of 7 microns thick on
copper substrate were studied in Yuan Ze
University, Taiwan, Republic of China.
64
OCTOBER 2013

TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Soldering Iron Features a

Replaceable Tip
An original, replaceable soldering
iron tip was designed and tested by
Hakko Corp., Osaka, Japan. The
replaceable tip cap is fitted on the forward heat-conducting end of a soldering
iron. Conductive paste, powder, or a solder can be sandwiched between the tip
cap and forward end to improve heat
conductivity of the structure (Ref. 11).
The tip cap is manufactured from
metal powders (preferably iron-nickel or
iron-cobalt alloy powders) that are compacted by pressure molding to obtain a
desirable shape, then the green compact
is sintered at 8001300C in a nonoxidative atmosphere. The tips assembly
includes a sleeve with tightening bolt,
coil spring sleeve, or slotted compressible sleeve, which allows for easy removal
and replacement of the tip cap.
Thus, the tip cap can be replaced
when it is finally worn out, while the heat
assembly unit needs to be replaced only
when its performance degrades. For

example, the tip cap is replaced after
manufacturing from 10,000 and 40,000
soldering points.
It is interesting to note that the smallest iron erosion depth in the range
300450C occurs in the Sn-37Pb solder
(only 30 microns at 400C), while the
biggest erosion occurs in Sn-0.7Cu solder
(about 170 microns at 400C). The standard SAC solder Sn-3.5Ag-0.75Cu also
exhibited a lot of erosion (about 135
microns at 400C) for the iron tip but still
less than that of the Sn-0.7Cu solder.
References
1. Darling, C. F., and Marek, S. G.
2012. Preferred brazing and soldering
conditions for copper to aluminum transition joints. IBSC-2012: Proceedings from
the 5th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference, 487492. Las Vegas, Nev.
Eds. R. Gourley and C. Walker.
2. Krasnenko, T. I., et al. A diffusionhardenable solder. Russian Patent
2438844. Priority of May 11, 2010.
Published January 10, 2012.
3. Yazzie, K. E., Fei, H. E., Jiang, H.,
and Chawla, N. 2012. Rate-dependent
behavior of Sn alloy-Cu couples: Effects
of microstructure and composition on
mechanical shock resistance. Acta
Materialia 60: 43364348.
4. Prabhu, K. N., Deshapande, P., and
Satyanarayan. 2012. Effect of cooling
rate during solidification of Sn-9Zn
lead-free solder alloy on its microstructure, tensile strength and ductile-brittle
transition temperature. Materials Science
and Engineering A 533: 6470.
5. Witkin, D. B. 2012. Influence of

microstructure on quasi-static and
dynamic mechanical properties of bismuth-containing lead-free solder alloys.
Materials Science and Engineering A 532:
212220.
6. Kim, D. 2009. Computational analysis of the interfacial effect on electromigration in flip chip solder joints.
Microelectronic Engineering 86: 21322137.
7. Grjaznov, S. J., Ivanov, N. N., and
Ivin, V. D. Solder paste. Russian Patent
2438845. Priority of July 1, 2010.
Published on January 10, 2012.
8. Re, G. C. Metallization of textile
structures. European Patent application
EP 2397577. Priority of June 18, 2010.
Published on December 21, 2011.
9. Hubert, D., Kammann, J., Kash, S.,
Mller, H., and Wchter, S. 2012.
Selective laser soldering by means of
glass solder for high temperature applications. IIW Doc #XVII-A-0012-11: 5.
10. Ho, C.-E., Lin, S.-W., and Lin, Y.C. 2011. Effect of Pd concentration on
the interfacial reaction and mechanical
reliability of the Sn-Pd/Ni system.
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 509:
77497757.
11. Yoshimura, K., Uetany, T.,
Nagase, T., and Masaki, H. Soldering
iron with replaceable tip. U.S. Patent
8237091. Priority of May 25, 2005.
Published on August 7, 2012.
Information provided by ALEXANDER

E. SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titaniumbrazing.com) and LEO A. SHAPIRO,
Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
The liquid-solid reaction between Sn-Pd

alloy and Ni was found to be controlled
not only by the concentration of Pd but
also by the reaction time (Ref. 10).
Two predominantly intermetallic compounds, Ni3Sn4 and (Pd,Ni)Sn4, were
observed in the joint microstructure. The
growth of these phases at the interface
depends on both palladium content in the
solder and reaction time. Only Ni3Sn4
phase was found at the very low Pd concentration of 0.05 wt-% after soldering at
250C for 220 min. Discontinuous
(Pd,Ni)Sn4 phase scattered above the
Ni3Sn4 layer appeared when the Pd content was 0.1 wt-% at a relatively short
reaction time of 60150 s. Most of the
(Pd,Ni)Sn4 crystals disappeared, but the
Ni3Sn4 layer remained after 300 s holding
at the soldering temperature. When the
Pd concentration was further increased to
0.2 wt-% and higher, the (Pd,Ni)Sn4
developed a continuous layer in contact
with the Ni3Sn4 layer.
Shear strength has dramatically
decreased at Pd content 0.2 wt-% and
higher due to formation of the
(Pd,Ni)Sn4-Ni3Sn4 dual layer, but the
strength again goes up at the Pd concentration 1 wt-% and long holding time
about 20 min.
WELDING JOURNAL
65
BRAZING & SOLDERING PROFILES (advertisement)

Aimtek, Inc.
Lucas Milhaupt,
Global Brazing Solutions
Established in 1973, Aimtek is a manufacturer and value-added supplier of Aerospace-grade Brazing and Welding Alloys.
Aimtek specializes in precious metal-based
brazing alloys, as well as nickel, titanium,
and high temperature superalloys. Aimtek
is the exclusive North American distributor
for Soudax, a respected European manufacturer of resistance microwelding equipment
and hand tools for ball tack welding,
honeycomb, and numerous other set-up
operations. Aimteks quality certifications
include AS9100, ISO9001, Pratt & Whitney
LCS, UTC Supplier Gold, Rolls Royce,
Honeywell, and GE.
Lucas-Milhaupt is your single supplier for

the most comprehensive selection of silver,
gold, copper, nickel, and aluminum brazing
supplies. We can provide you technical support and materials globally, wherever your
company manufactures your product. We
are your one source for brazing materials
including Handy One flux cored products,
silver and aluminum coated products,
Sil-Fos, Easy-Flo, Braze, Silvaloy,
Silvabrite, Ultra Flux, and Handy Flux.
201 Washington Street,

Auburn, MA 01501-3224 USA
(508) 832-5035 Fax (508)832-5043
www.aimtek.com
5656 S. Pennsylvania Ave.

Milwaukee, WI 53110 U.S.A.
(414) 769-6000
info@lucasmilhaupt.com
www.lucasmilhaupt.com
Fusion, Inc.
Fusion produces a wide variety of brazing
and soldering alloys in paste form. Each
contains atomized filler metal, appropriate
flux, and special binders which facilitate
automatic application. Thus, all the ingredients for a strong, reliable brazed or soldered
joint are delivered in one step. Fusion also
designs and builds automatic brazing and
soldering machines. These custom-built
systems convey fixtured parts through a
timed sequence of filler metal application,
heating, and cooling. Typically, 200-700
assemblies per hour can be joined with just
one operator.
4658 E 355th St
Willoughby, OH 44094
www.fusion-inc.com
66
OCTOBER 2013
Metglas Inc.
Metglas is a subsidiary of Hitachi Metals
America and is a worldwide leader in the
production of amorphous metal brazing
foils. Metglas brazing foils are a solution to
produce virtually reject-free joints with
high strength and superior resistance to
corrosion and high temperature oxidation.
Metglas brazing foils are available in
various alloy compositions and widths and
can be cut or stamped into exact shapes for
the most demanding applications. For
further information visit Metglas Inc. on the
web at: www.metglas.com or contact us at
1-800-581-7654 or 843-349-6800.
Jimmy Jordan
(843) 349-7319
Metglas@metglas.com
www.metglas.com
Thermo-Calc Software
Thermo-Calc Software is a leading developer
of software and databases for computational
thermodynamics and diffusion controlled
simulations. Thermo-Calc: powerful software
for thermodynamic calculations for multicomponent systems. DICTRA: a unique tool
for accurate simulations of diffusion in
multicomponent alloys. TC-PRISMA: new
software for modeling concurrent nucleation,
growth and coarsening of precipitates.
Databases available for steels, Ti, Al, Nisuperalloys, solders and other materials.
4160 Washington Rd Suite 230

Mcmurray, PA 15317
(724) 731-0074
paul@thermocalc.com
www.thermocalc.com
Victor Technologies
Victor TurboTorch is the most requested
brand in brazing and soldering. Victor
TurboTorch is the professionals choice for
all your brazing and soldering needs, offering a full line of air fuel and oxy
fuel torches, equipment and accessories.
Victor TurboTorch is one of the Victor
TechnologiesTM portfolio of brands that
offers superior solutions for cutting, gas
control and specialty welding. Look for
us at www.VictorTechnologies.com, or
TurboTorch.com.
16052 Swingley Ridge Road, Suite 300

Chesterfield, MO 63017
(800) 426-1888
Fax: (800) 535-0557
CustomerCare@VictorTechnologies.com
www.VictorTechnologies.com/TurboTorch
Greiners job shop arsenal now includes the

worlds largest steel rolling capacity.
W40x593# I-beam being rolled to a

100-ft. radius.
Our Roundo R-16S Angle Rolling Machine is only the second machine
with this technology and capacity in the world, and the only one in
the United States. It can roll any beam size either the easy way or the
hard way. It can roll a W40-in. by 211-lb. beam to a radius less than
100 ft. with almost no distortion. Plus, roll up to 24-in.-OD pipe with
2-in. wall thickness.
Give it to us straight, and well handle the curves

Plate Forming: 2,750-ton Press Brake with 40' long bed
Plate Rolling: Up to 4-3/4" thick by 12' wide carbon steel
I-Beam Rolling: Up to 44" the hard way and any size the easy way
Pipe Rolling: Up to 24" in diameter with 2 wall thickness
Tube Rolling: Up to 30" square
Channel Rolling: Up to 36" the easy way and 24" the hard way
Angle Rolling: Up to 12" by 12"
Tees: Any size
Solid Bar Rolling: Up to 14" square and up to 16" round
Flat Bar Rolling: Up to 40" by 7" the easy way and
20" by 6" the hard way
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your

next Metal Rolling job.
www.greinerindustries.com
Structural Steel Fabrication

Steel Plate & Sheet Metal Fabrication
Miscellaneous Metals
Machining
Rolling & Forming Services
Cutting Services
Industrial Coatings
Industrial & Electrical Contracting
Crane Rental & Trucking Services
Heat-Bending Services
(AISC Certied for Major Steel
Bridge Fabrication)
COMING
EVENTS
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
Brazil Welding Show 2013. Oct. 14. So Paulo, Brazil. Sponsored

by DVS, German Welding Society. www.brazil-welding-show.com.
MFGDAY 10.04.13 National Manufacturing Day. Oct. 4. Open
house events held nationwide. Sponsored by Fabricators & Manufacturers Assn. Intl, Nat. Assn. of Manufacturers, and Mfg.
Extention Partnership. Visit www.mfgday.com for interactive map.
National Manufacturing Day, EWI Open House. Oct. 4, Columbus, Ohio. Registration required. www.ewi.org/events.
ICALEO Intl Congress on Applications of Lasers & ElectroOptics. Oct. 610, Hyatt Regency Miami Resort, Miami, Fla.
www.lia.org/conferences/icaleo.
The Intl WorkBoat Show. Oct. 911, Morial Convention Center,
New Orleans, La. www.workboatshow.com.
25th National Robot Safety Conf. Oct. 1416, Indianapolis Marriott East, Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by Robotics Industries
Assn. (RIA). www.robotics.org/events/.
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.ciacmontreal.com.

12th Inalco Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21, 22, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.inalco2013.com.
SOUTH-TEC. Oct. 2931. TD Convention Center, Greenville,
S.C. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-4763;
www.southteconline.com.
FFA Annual Convention. Oct. 30Nov. 3, Kentucky Exposition
Center, Louisville, Ky. Future Farmers of America.
www.ffa.org/Pages/default.aspx.
ASNT Fall Conf. and Quality Testing Show 2013. Nov. 47, Rio
Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing. www.asnt.org.
Crane Users Conf. Nov. 1214, Hyatt French Quarter Hotel, New
Orleans, La. www.craneconference.com.
POWER-GEN Intl Event. Nov. 1214, Orange County Convention Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com/event-info.html.
WESTEC. Oct. 1517. Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 7334763; www.westeconline.com.
Intl Conf. for Vision Guided Robotics. Nov. 1315, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. www.visiononline.org/events/.
Canadian Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 2125, Palais des Congrs
AWS Professional Program. Nov. 1821. FABTECH, Mc-
Get a Running Start to FABTECH Week!

Join AWS, FMA, SME, PMA, and CCAI for the 2nd Annual RUN4MFG 5K race
on Sunday, Nov. 17, 2013 in Chicago. The course route proceeds
through Lincoln Park along the beautiful Chicago Lakefront. The run will
raise funds to support manufacturing education and the educational
foundations of the FABTECH show partners.
Register today at fabtechexpo.com/run4mfg
68
OCTOBER 2013
Cormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Numerous sessions offered on the

latest in welding research and commercial developments. Pick
one day or attend the entire four-day program. Sponsored by
American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
QUALITY TOOLS THAT GO TO WORK WITH YOU
4FFVT!#PPUI
N2215
U.S.REGULATORS
FABTECH 2013. Nov. 1821, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.

This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
Uniweld. Still building the

Regulators you want
right here in the U.S.A.
FOR U.S. JOBS
Welding Dissimilar Metals Conf. Nov. 18. FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223; www.fabtechexpo.com.
RV8010 Heavy Duty
Single Stage
FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223; www.fabtechexpo.com.
5th Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surfaces.

Nov. 19. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by Intl Thermal Spray Assn., an AWS Standing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext.
264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
RWMA Emmet A. Craig Resistance Welding School. Nov. 20,

21. FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by
American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
Alloys in Power Plant Technology Intl Conf. Nov. 26, 27. NH
Berlin-Mitte, Berlin, Germany. www.vdi-international.com/alloys.
So Youre the New Welding Engineer Conf. Nov. 19, 20.
Uniweld can build any

regulator you need: Heavy Duty,
Medium Duty, Single Stage, Two
Stage, Oxygen, all Fuels and every
gauge youll need to go with em
all 100% tested.
UNIWELD
UNIWELD PRODUCTS,
PRODUCTS, INC.
INC.
2850
2850RAVENSWOOD
RAVENSWOODROAD
ROAD
FORT
FORTLAUDERDALE,
LAUDERDALE,FL
FL33312
33312U.S.A.
U.S.A.
XXXVOJXFMEDPNtJOGP!VOJXFMEDPN
XXXVOJXFMEDPNtJOGP!VOJXFMEDPN
800.323.2111
800.323.2111
Call or email for catalog.
CyberSE 2013, Intl Conf. on Cyber Science and Engineering.

Dec. 14, 15. Guangzhou, China. www.cyberse2013.org.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 2527. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. www.fabtechcanada.com.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.

April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Standing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
FABTECH Mexico. May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City,
Mexico. www.fabtechmexico.com.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012. Pragati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent
with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
WELDING JOURNAL
69
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.sme.org/composites.

The Big M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and
Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 912. Cobo Center, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.thebigmevent.com.
FABTECH 2014. Nov. 1113. Georgia World Congress Center,

Atlanta, Ga. This exhibition is the largest event in North America
dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 4439353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
FABTECH 2015. Nov. 912. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. This
exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
Educational Opportunities
Brazing School Fundamentals to Advanced Concepts. Oct.
2224 (Greenville, S.C.); Nov. 1921 (Simsbury, Conn.).
www.kaybrazing.com/seminars.htm; dan@kaybrazing.com; (860)
651-5595.
CWI Preparation Courses. Nov. 1115. D1.1 Endorsement: Nov.
15; API Endorsement: Nov. 8. All courses and endorsements
held at Welder Training & Testing Institute, 1144 N. Graham St.,
Allentown, Pa. www.wtti.com; (610) 820-9551, ext. 204.
Emmet A. Craig Resistance Welding School. Nov. 20, 21. At

FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by
RWMA (Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance), an AWS
standing committee. www.aws.org/rwma/school.html.
For New Welding Engineers. Nov. 19, 20. At FABTECH,
McCormick
Place,
Chicago,
Ill.
Register
at
Friction Stir Welding, Introduction. Nov. 6, EWI, Columbus,
Ohio. www.ewi.org/events.
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. Oct. 17, 18,
Albuquerque,
N.Mex.
Lyncole
XIT
Grounding,
www.lyncole.com/courses; education@lyncole.com.
High Purity Processing Technical Seminar. Oct. 2123,
Janesville, Wis. Sponsored by RathGibson. www.rathgibson.com.
Industrial Ventilation Training Programs. Oct. 1416,
Birmingham, Ala.; March 1719, 2014, Las Vegas, Nev. For electronic copy of the brochure e-mail rdeckhoff@gmail.com. The
Deep South Center for Occupational Health & Safety.
Introduction to Friction Stir Welding. Nov. 6, EWI, Columbus,
Ohio. www.ewi.org/events; education@ewi.org.
Laser Vision Seminars. Oct. 2, 3; Nov. 6, 7; Dec. 4, 5. ServoRobot, Inc. www.servorobot.com.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. Oct. 2224. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Contact Jim Nicoll at brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.com; (248)
585-6400, ext. 233.
Welding Dissimilar Metals. Nov. 18. At FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Register at www.fabtechexpo.com.
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, failure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Best Practices for High-Strength Steel Repairs. I-CAR courses
for vehicle repair and steel structural technicians. www.i-car.com.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; (614) 888-8320; www.nationalboard.org.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group, www.cwbgroup.org.
70
OCTOBER 2013
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS 20132014
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Miami, FL
Exam only
Los Angeles, CA
Dec. 813
Orlando, FL
Dec. 813
Reno, NV
Dec. 813
Houston, TX
Dec. 813
St. Louis, MO
Exam only
Charlotte, NC
Jan. 510
Miami, FL
Exam only
Beaumont, TX
Jan. 1217
Long Beach, CA
Jan. 1924
Denver, CO
Jan. 2631
Miami, FL
Jan. 2631
Pittsburgh, PA
Jan. 2631
New Orleans, LA
Feb. 914
Waco, TX
Feb. 914
Seattle, WA
Feb. 914
San Diego, CA
Feb. 2328
Atlanta, GA
Feb. 2328
Mobile, AL
March 27
Kansas City, MO
March 27
Houston, TX
March 27
Norfolk, VA
March 27
Milwaukee, WI
March 27
Birmingham, AL
March 914
Indianapolis, IN
March 914
Boston, MA
March 914
Portland, OR
March 914
Miami, FL
March 2328
Chicago, IL
March 2328
Springfield, MO
March 2328
Dallas, TX
March 2328
Minneapolis, MN
March 30April 4
Las Vegas, NV
March 30April 4
Syracuse, NY
March 30April 4
San Francisco, CA
April 611
New Orleans, LA
April 611
Nashville, TN
April 611
Miami, FL
Exam only
St. Louis, MO
Exam only
Annapolis, MD
April 27May 2
Detroit, MI
April 27May 2
Corpus Christi, TX
April 27May 2
Fresno, CA
May 49
Miami, FL
May 49
Albuquerque, NM
May 49
Oklahoma City, OK
May 49
EXAM DATE
Dec. 5
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Dec. 14
Jan. 11
Jan. 16
Jan. 18
Jan. 25
Feb. 1
Feb. 1
Feb. 1
Feb. 15
Feb. 15
Feb. 15
March 1
March 1
March 8
March 8
March 8
March 8
March 8
March 15
March 15
March 15
March 15
March 29
March 29
March 29
March 29
April 5
April 5
April 5
April 12
April 12
April 12
April 17
April 19
May 3
May 3
May 3
May 10
May 10
May 10
May 10
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)

Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)

CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Atlanta, GA
Jan. 610
New Orleans, LA
Mar. 31April 4
Minneapolis, MN
July 1418
Miami, FL
Sept. 1519
Norfolk, VA
Oct. 1317
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
EXAM DATE
Jan. 11
April 5
July 19
Sept. 20
Oct. 18
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI

(No exams given.)
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
Miami, FL
Dec. 813
New Orleans, LA
Jan. 510
Denver, CO
Feb. 914
Dallas, TX
March 914
Miami, FL
March 2328
Sacramento, CA
April 27May 2
Boston, MA
April 27May 2
Charlotte, NC
May 49
Pittsburgh, PA
June 16
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
LOCATION
SEMINAR DATES
EXAM DATE
Seattle, WA
Feb. 2428
March 1
Houston, TX
March 31April 4
April 5
Las Vegas, NV
May 59
May 10
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The course dates are followed by the location and phone number.
Dec. 913 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
Dec. 26 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 14 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Oct. 2125 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Training: Nov. 1820; Exams: Nov. 2122 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline dates by visiting our Web site www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply
early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
72
OCTOBER 2013
WELDING
WORKBOOK
Datasheet 343
Design of Brazements
Mechanically, the design of a brazement is no different from
the design of any other component. The guidelines that apply to
machined or other fabricated parts with respect to concentrated
loads, stress raisers, stress concentration, static loading, and dynamic loading, for example, also apply to the brazement.
Brazed joints must be properly engineered, processed, and
inspected. Therefore, they must be designed so as to permit ease
of fabrication and examination. The ultimate goal is to produce
quality brazements able to withstand the service conditions to
which the finished fabrication is exposed.
Design Variables
Brazement designers must define as many of the design variables of the brazed joint as practical to ensure the desired service properties and life of the joint and the completed brazement.
These design variables include the following:
Base metal(s), including specifications, chemistry, and physical
properties.
Joint design, including joint clearance at room temperature and
at the brazing temperature and the physical shape of the members (i.e., stress concentration points and base metal fillets).
Brazing atmosphere or flux.
Stress distribution at the brazed joints.
Service requirements, such as mechanical performance, electrical conductivity, pressure tightness, corrosion resistance, and
service temperature.
Brazing filler metal, joint strength, melting characteristics, vapor
pressure characteristics, and method of placement.
Brazing process variables, including temperature, atmosphere,
time at temperature, heating and cooling rates, and distortion.
Prebraze cleaning, including grease and oil removal, oxide removal, and the prebraze clean-up cycle (outgassing) in the furnace with the appropriate atmosphere of gas or vacuum, when
required.
Postbraze cleaning, including flux or oxide removal and stopoff removal.
Postbraze heat treatment, including tempering, annealing, hardening heat treatment, solution treatment, and aging.
Testing of the brazed joint to attain design data.
Inspection method, including examination method(s), test requirements, frequency, test limits, and qualification requirements.
This list of variables is not all inclusive with respect to possible variables. For more complex brazements, additional details
would need to be developed and defined.
All brazement variables and instructions must be included or
referenced on the assembly drawing or brazing procedure specification used during brazing so that adequate information is available to the brazing engineer and shop personnel.
Base Metal
The strength of the base metal has a profound effect on the
strength of the brazed joint; thus, this property must be kept in
mind when designing the joint for specific properties. Some base
metals are easier to braze than others, particularly with specific
brazing processes. For example, nickel base metal containing high
Excerpted from the Brazing Handbook, fifth edition.
74
OCTOBER 2013
titanium, aluminum additions, or both presents special concerns

in furnace brazing. For those applications, vacuum furnace brazing is usually selected because of its excellent control of the available oxygen, which combines with the aluminum and titanium.
An integral function of brazement design involves consideration of the mechanical requirements of the base metal or metals
used in the brazement as well as the effect of the brazing cycle
on the base metal and the final joint strength. Cold-work-strengthened base metals are stress relieved, and their overall strength is
reduced by the brazing process temperature and time when in
the stress-relieving stage.
When designing a brazement to have strength above the annealed properties of the base metal after the brazing operation,
heat-treatable metals are specified. The base metals can be of
the oil-quench, air-quench, or precipitation-hardening types. Alternatively, the detail parts can be hardened and then brazed
with a low-temperature filler metal using short times at temperature to maintain the mechanical properties.
Joint Design
Several factors include selection of the type of joint or joints
to be used in a brazement. These include the brazing process to
be used, fabrication techniques employed prior to brazing, number of items to be brazed, method used to apply the filler metal,
and ultimate service requirement of the joint.
The unit strength of the brazed joint may occasionally be
higher than that of the base metal. However, the strength of the
filler metal is generally considerably lower. Joint strength varies
according to the joint clearance; the overlap distance on lap joints;
the degree of interaction between the filler and base metals; the
presence of discontinuities in the brazement; and to a greater extent, the specific joint design.
Lap joints and butt joints are the most common types of joints
used in brazing operations.
In lap joints, the length of the overlap may be varied so that
the joint is as strong as the weaker member, even with a lowerstrength filler metal or with the presence of small discontinuities
in the joint. An overlap at least three to four times the thickness
of the thinner member usually yields maximum joint efficiency
when the joint is stronger than the base metal or the joint is
strengthened by diffusion brazing.
Lap joints are typically used because they offer the greatest
possibility of efficiency and the greatest ease of fabrication. They
do have the disadvantage of increasing the thickness of the metal
at the joint and creating a stress concentration at each end of the
joint, where an abrupt change in cross section occurs.
Butt joints can be used when the thickness of the lap joint
would be objectionable and the strength of the completed joint
will meet the requirements of the brazement in service. Even
though the strength of a properly executed butt joint may be sufficiently high in laboratory tests, in service, it will almost always
fall far below the strength of the base metal due to the stresses
applied.
The strength of a butt joint also depends on the strength of
the filler metal in the joint, the clearance, the degree of interaction between the filler and base metals during the brazing or diffusion brazing cycle, and the service requirements.
SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
Instructors Institute Meets at AWS Headquarters
The 2013 Instructors Institute was held

at AWS headquarters July 2126. Shown
(from left) kneeling are Chris Ellinwood,
Jim Behee, Mike Castro, and Eric Krauss;
standing are David Ennis, Chris Armitage,
Nick Peterson, Brent Hurd, Scott Mazzulla,
Jack Minser, Carl Watson, Dan Rivera,
District 17 Director J. Jones, Jerry Benebrake, Instructor Rick Polanin, Doug

Desrochers, Robert Shigley, Matt Hayden,
Troy Miller, Jay Ginder, Nehemias Burrion, Jim Falgout, Brandon Hoffner,
Donna Bastian, Kevin Adair, Ed Norman,
Bob Sand, Jason Schmidt, Brent Pashak,
Salvadore Russomanno, Robert Thomas,

and Mark Seibel. The AWS staff participants included David Hernandez, Martica
Ventura, and Alina Blanco.
The hands-on welding exercises were
performed off-campus at Florida Gas and
Welding Supplies.
Certified Welding Inspectors Convene for a 9-Year Recertification Class
Jim Greer, an AWS past president, conducted a 9-year recertification class July
2126 at AWS Headquarters. Attending
were Roger Hill, Nigel Crosby Sr., Donald
McKendree, Michael Rosilez, Fidel Soto,

Emanuel De La Cruz, Natividad Armendarez, Edwin Harrell, Leland Creecy,
Royce Yancey, Anthony Cormier Sr.,
Ronald Royal Jr., Leroy Begay Jr., Richard

Jordan, Richard Braun, Stan Kaminski,
William Stevens, Todd Sabo, David McCausland, and William Matthews.
Notice of Annual Meeting American Welding Society

The Annual Meeting of the members of the American Welding Society will be held Monday, Nov. 18, 2013, beginning at 9 AM at McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. The regular business of the Society will be conducted, including election of officers and nine members of the Board of Directors. Any business properly brought before the membership will
be considered.
WELDING JOURNAL
77
Tech Topics
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meetings are open to the public. Persons wishing to attend a meeting should e-mail the
program manager listed.
Oct. 2, 3, B4 Committee on Mechanical Testing of Welds. Boulder, Colo. S.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oct. 811, D1 Committees on Structural Welding. Seattle, Wash. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Oct. 911. A2 Committees on Definitions and Symbols. Wheeling, W.Va. S.
Borrero, sborrero@aws.org.
Oct. 23. SH1 Subcommittee on Fumes
and Gases. Columbus, Ohio. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
The following meetings will be held at
FABTECH, Chicago, Ill.
Nov. 17. C7 High Energy Beam Welding and Cutting Committee. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 17. C7B Subcommittee on Electron Beam Welding and Cutting. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 17. C7C Subcommittee on Laser
Beam Welding and Cutting. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1 Committee on Methods of
Inspection. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1A Subcommittee on Nondestructive Examination of Welds. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1B Subcommittee on Visual
Inspection. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1C Task Group on the Welding Inspection Handbook. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. C2 Committee and Subcommittees on Thermal Spraying. J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D14B Subcommittee on Gen-
eral Design and Practices. E. Abrams,

eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D17D Subcommittee on Resistance Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D17J Subcommittee on Friction Stir Welding for Aerospace. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 19. C6D Committee on Friction
Stir Welding. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D9 Committee on the Welding, Brazing, and Soldering of Sheet
Metal. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D15C Subcommittee on Track
Welding. J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D17K Subcommittee on Fusion Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. A5H Subcommittee on Filler
Metals and Fluxes for Brazing. S. Borrero,
sborrero@aws.org.
Nov. 20. A5K Subcommittee on Titanium and Zirconium Filler Metals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. D14E Subcommittee on
Welding of Presses. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
Nov. 20. D14I Subcommittee on Hydraulic Cylinders. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
Nov. 20. D16 Committee on Robotic
and Automatic Welding. C. Lewis, clewis
@aws.org.
Nov. 20. D17K Subcommittee on Fusion Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 21. C3 Committees on Brazing
and Soldering. S. Borrero, sborrero@
aws.org.
Nov. 21. D14 Committee on Machinery and Equipment. E. Abrams, eabrams
@aws.org.
Nov. 21. D17 Committee on Welding
in the Aircraft and Aerospace Industries.

A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Standards Approved by ANSI
C2.19/C2.19M:2013, Specification for
the Application of Thermal Spray Coatings
to Machine Elements for OEM and Repair.
New. 7/29/2013.
J1.1M/J1.1:2013, Specification for Resistance Welding Controls. New. 7/29/2013.
AWS D8.1M:2013, Specification for Automotive Weld Quality Resistance Spot
Welding of Steel. Revised. 7/29/2013.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment during the approval process. The standards
listed above were approved by ANSI effective on the date shown.
ISO Standards for Public Review
ISO/DIS 15012-4, Health and safety in
welding and allied processes Equipment
for capture and separation of welding fume
Part 4: Design requirements
ISO/DIS 15614-1, Specification and
qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials Welding procedure test
Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels and
arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys
Copies of the above ISO standards are
available for review and comment through
your national standards body, which in the
United States is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th
Fl., New York, NY 10036; (212) 642-4900.
In the United States, if you wish to participate in the development of International Standards for welding, e-mail A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees

Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
Safety and Health Committee seeks educators, users, general interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general interest, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and ed-
78
OCTOBER 2013
ucational members. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.

Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Subcommittee seeks professionals. B. McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Committee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals.
A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcommittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum alloys for aerospace applications, D17J

Subcommittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1
Committee seeks educators, general interest,
and
users.
E.
Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive
welding, the D8 and C2 Committees seek
educators, general interest, and end users.
E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and Surfacing and reconditioning of industrial mill
rolls, D14 Committee and D14H Subcommittee seek professionals. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
TAC and ISAC Members Meet at ARC Specialties
ARC Specialties hosted the AWS Technical Activities Committee (TAC) and International Standards Activities Committee (ISAC) July 30 and 31 at its facilities in
Houston, Tex. John Martin, ARC vice president, presented a company overview, fol-
lowed by tours of the facilities. A barbecue dinner and networking reception were
held in the evening. Richard Holdren, ARC
senior welding engineer, is TAC chair.
Allen Sindel from Alstom Power and Walter Sperko from Sperko Engineering Serv-
ices serve as TAC vice chairs. Also participating at the meetings were Dean Wilson,
AWS president-elect; Vice President David
Landon; Vice President-Elect John Bray;
and Damian Kotecki, ISAC chair and an
AWS past president.
Kotecki Presents Keynote Address at Stainless Steel Seminar in India

Damian J. Kotecki, AWS president
20052006, gave a keynote address at the
symposium marking the 100th anniversary
of the pouring of the first commercial heat
of stainless steel, held Aug. 1214 at the Indian Institute of Technology campus in
Mumbai. His address, Landmark Events in
the Welding of Stainless Steels, recounted
the history of weld metal constitution diagrams, dramatic effects of argon-oxygen decarburization on refining of stainless steels
and improving weldability, unintended consequences of very efficient desulfurization
of AOD refining on autogenous GTAW of
stainless steels, accidental addition of nitrogen in AOD refining of stainless steels with
the effect of improving the weldability of
duplex stainless steels, and discovery of the
detrimental effect of bismuth additions to

high-temperature performance of stainless
steel FCAW electrodes.
The seminar talk topics included melting and refining of stainless steel, forming
and fabrication, welding and joining, physical metallurgy, corrosion, experiences from
industry, and newer grades of steel. Nearly
400 persons attended the event. Kotecki
later toured the Bharat Heavy Electricals
Ltd. (BHEL) Welding Research Institute in
Tiruchirappalli, presented several technical
lectures and a presentation on AWS Initiatives in Attracting and Training Welding
Professionals, which highlighted virtual
welding in the AWS Careers in Welding Damian Kotecki (right) receives a speaker
trailer, the Boy Scouts of America welding gift from R. Easwaran, general manager,
merit badge, and the AWS Online Web site. BHEL Welding Research Institute & Labs.
AWS Life Members to Receive Free FABTECH Perks

Life Members of the American
Welding Society are urged to take advantage of their complimentary free admission to the upcoming FABTECH exposition plus free registration to the entire Professional Program (a $325
value), scheduled for Nov. 1821 at McCormick Place in Chicago, Ill.
The Professional Program registra-
tion entitles AWS Life Members to attend any of the technical sessions occurring during the four-day period.
Registration forms are available in
issues of the Welding Journal, as well as
in the Advance Program that was mailed
to members previously. You may also
request the form from the Membership
Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 260.
To obtain your free registration,

mark AWS Life Member Free Registration at the top of your Registration Form. Fax both sides of the form
to (305) 443-5647, Attn: Rhenda Kenny,
membership director; e-mail to
rhenda@aws.org; or mail the form to
Rhenda Kenny, AWS, 8669 NW 36th
St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672.
November Deadline for Masubuchi Award Nominations

November 1, 2013, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2014
Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This
award includes a $5000 honorarium. It
is presented each year to one person,
40 years old or younger, who has made
significant contributions to the ad-
vancement of materials joining through

research and development. Nominations should include a description of the
candidates experience, list of publications, honors, and awards, and at least
three letters of recommendation from
fellow researchers. The award is spon-
sored by the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineering. E-mail your nomination package to
Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor,
The Pennsylvania State University,
tap103@psu.edu.
WELDING JOURNAL
79
New AWS Supporters

Sustaining Member Companies
Coherent Technical Service, Inc.
46561 Expedition Dr., Ste. 100
Lexington Park, MD 20653
Representative: Trevor Sonnenberg
www.goctsi.com
produced are up to 40,000 lb in a wide variety of wear, abrasion, and heat-resistant

alloys. The companys in-house services
include engineering, pattern making, machining, and quality assurance.
Columbia Steel Casting Co.

10425 N. Bloss Ave.
Portland, OR 97203
Representative: Marty Slagle
www.columbiasteel.com
Founded in 1901, Columbia Steel manufactures steel and iron-alloy castings and
wear parts for industrial equipment. Parts
RMS Energy Co., LLC

18559 243rd Ave. NW
Big Lake, MN 55309
Representative: Cody Cook
http://isolatedphasebus.com
RMS Energy is an isolated phase bus
service company offering new installations, retrofitting replacements, and pro-
Supporting Companies
Ben Ash Iron Works, Inc.
215 E. Greenleaf Blvd.
Compton, CA 90220
Elcharions Systems Technologies Ltd.

Atop Technical Complex 278
Phc Ava Expy., POB 6902
Trans Amadi
Port Harcourt Rivers 50001, Nigeria
Plansee USA LLC

115 Constitution Blvd.
Franklin, MA 02038
Affiliate Companies
Advanced Fluid Containment LLC
9501 W. 900 S., Ogden, UT 84404
Badd LLC
4750 New Middle Rd.
Jeffersonville, IN 47130
Enermex International, Inc.

7214 Clinton Dr.
Houston, TX 77020
First Engineering
16438 Salida El Sol
Romona, CA 92065
Gujarat Metal Cast Industries Ltd.
2 Panchratna Bldg., Subhanpura Rd.
Vadodara Gujarat 390023, India
Bohler Lastechniek Groep

Haarlemmerstraatweg 89
Halfweq NH 1165MK
Netherlands
Progress Rail Services

12100 E. Walls Rd.
Amarillo, TX 79118
Cedifop
Molo Sammuzzo, Porto Di Palermo
Palermo 910139, Italy
Model Werks
3290 Overland Rd.
Apopka, FL 32810
Columbia Industries LLC

5775 NW Wagon Way
Hillsboro, OR 97124
Thatcher Sales & Erectors

7951 Mill Creek Rd.
Monterey, TN 38574
viding cleaning, inspections, aluminum

welding, maintenance, and emergency
services.
Loram
3900 Arrowhead Dr.
Hamel, MN 55340
Representative: Jim Nelson
http://loram.com
Wheelers Welding Service, LLC
8301 W. Fm 1705
Happy, TX 79042
Representative: Dereck Wheeler
Educational Institutions
Chetek-Weyerhaeuser H.S.
1001 Knapp St., Chetek, WI 54728
Center for Employment Training
294 S. 3rd St.
El Centro, CA 92243
Intl Maritime Welding Society
18 Quirino Hwy., Corner Midway
Park Gate Zone 16 Bgy 183
North Caloocan, Manila, Philippines
Laurel Technical Institute
200 Sterling Ave.
Sharon, PA 16146
Maricopa Skill Center
1245 E. Buckeye Rd.
Phoenix, AZ 85034
Western Suffolk Boces Wilson Tech
507 Deer Park Rd.
Huntington Station, NY 11746
Welding Distributor
Machine & Welding Supply Co.
1660 U.S. Hwy. 301 S.
PO Box 1708, Dunn, NC 28335
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Shown are the members participating
in the June 1Dec. 31, 2013, campaign.
Members receive 5 points for each Individual Member and 1 point for each Stu-
dent Member recruited. The standings

listed are as of August 18.
See page 81 of this Welding Journal for
campaign rules and prize list or visit
www.aws.org/mgm. If you have questions

about your member proposer points, email Rhenda Kenny at rhenda@aws.org;
or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
20+ Points
Jackie Morris, Mobile 40
Dereck Wheeler, Oklahoma City 25
1519 Points
Joseph Vincent, Kansas City 18
Paul Kreitman, Chicago 15
1014 Points
Rodney Riggs, Tulsa 11
Chris Layton, Central Arkansas 10
Joe Livesay, Nashville 10
Dennis Nance, Iowa 10
80
OCTOBER 2013
Amendments to the Bylaws of the American Welding Society

The members of the American Welding Society will consider amendments to the Societys Bylaws at the Annual
Meeting, to be held Monday, Nov. 18, 2013, in Chicago, Ill.
These Amendments were approved by the Board of Directors May 20, 2013, and are recommended for adoption
by the Members.The Bylaws require that the text of any
amendment be published in the Welding Journal and mailed
Article I Membership
Section 1. Classes of Members.
(a)General.
The membership of the Society shall
consist of the following classes: Sustaining
Members, Members, Retired Members,
Student Members, Honorary Members,
and, Life Members Corporate Member
and Member. (The members of the several
two classes are sometimes herein after referred to as members.) The Board of Directors may designate the dues to be paid
by members of each class and may designate additional classes or change the
classes of members or the rights of, and
qualifications or limitations upon, any
class of members. No individual shall be a
member of more than one class, or more
than one category within that class.
(b)Definition of Classes of Members.
1.Sustaining Member Corporate Member. Any individual, corporation, firm,
partnership, job shop, educational institution, organization, or other association,
interested in the science and technology
of welding and allied processes shall be eligible to be a Sustaining Corporate Member. Corporate Members may belong to a
number of categories to be defined by the
Board of Directors. Each Sustaining Corporate Member which is not an individual
shall designate an individual as its representative.
2. Member. Any individual who has a
degree or has at least five years of experience having a direct bearing on the has an
interest in the science and technology of
welding and allied processes shall be eligible to be a Member. Members may belong to a number of categories to be defined by the Board of Directors. Members
will include categories for Retired, Student, Honorary, and Life Members.
3. i) Retired Member. Any individual who
is retired and receiving no remuneration
for any type of welding activity and has
been a member (other than a Student
Member) for at least fifteen consecutive
years prior to retirement shall be eligible
to be a Retired Member.
4. ii) Student Member. Any individual
who attends a recognized college, university, technical school, vocational school,
or high school shall be eligible to be a Student Member until the anniversary date
of his or her initial membership which follows the termination of his or her status
at least 30 days before the Members take action. Members

are encouraged to vote on the proposed amendments, in
person, at the aforementioned meeting, or through the exercise of the proxy published in this issue of Welding Journal on the page following these amendments. The present
wording is indicated with a strikethrough and the proposed
wording is shown in red boldface.
as a student. In any event, no individual

may be a Student Member for a period exceeding four years. Student Members shall
not have the right to vote or be eligible to
hold an elected office except in Student
Chapters. Students may hold appointed
offices in Sections. Additional conditions
to qualify as a Student Member may be
defined by the Board of Directors.
5. iii) Honorary Member. An individual
who, in the judgment of the Board of Directors, has achieved acknowledged eminence in the welding profession or exceptional accomplishments in the development of welding shall be eligible for election as an Honorary Member pursuant to
Section 3(b) of this Article I. There shall
not be more than one Honorary Member
for each five hundred members then in the
classes of Sustaining Corporate Member
and Member. Not more than two individuals shall be elected as Honorary Members in any one fiscal year. Each Honorary
Member shall be exempt from payment of
dues and shall enjoy all the benefits of a
Member.
6. iv) Life Member. Any individual who
has served as President of the Society or
who shall have paid his or her dues for
thirty-five years shall be eligible to become
a Life Member. (Years in which dues were
paid as a Retired Member shall not be included in computing the foregoing thirtyfive years.) Each Life Member shall be exempt from payment of further dues, but
will continue to receive publications and
may obtain additional publications at subscription rates applicable to his or her most
recent class of membership.
Article III Organization

Section 2. District Organization.
(c) District Nominations. Before February 1 of any year in which required (see
Article V, Section 4, of these Bylaws), the
District Director, with the approval of the
District Executive Committee, shall appoint a District Nominating Committee
shall be appointed. Each Sections leadership shall appoint a representative to
serve on the Committee. The Sections appointee shall be a member of the Section,
preferably a current Officer. consisting of
a member from each Section in the District and Two other members of the District, one of whom shall be the District Director and one of whom may be a former
Chair of the District Nominating Committee, if available, shall also be appointed

by the District Director. If a former Chair
of this Committee is not available, the District Director may appoint to this Committee any individual from any of the Sections
in his or her District who then currently
serves, or in the past has served, as Chair
of a Section. The members of this Committee who represent Sections shall be selected from among those who are then currently a Section Chair, Vice Chair, Treasurer, or Secretary. The current District Director shall designate the Chair of this
Committee from among those members
who represent Sections.
The District Nominating Committee
shall select a qualified nominee for District Director of their District and report
to the Executive Director and Secretary
(who shall in turn report to the National
Nominating Committee) not later than the
first day of May of that the year requiring
an election, the name of the nominee they
have selected. Special qualifications for
the District Directors office are defined
in Article V, Section 4, of these Bylaws.
When reporting nominations to the Executive Director and Secretary, the written
acceptance and a brief biographical sketch
of each nominee for District Director shall
also be included by the District Nominating Committee.
Article IV National Meetings

of Members
Section 3. Notice.
Notice of any annual meeting or special meeting of members shall be provided
mailed to each member in a manner requested in their profile (electronic or post)
not less than 30 days nor more than 50 days
(60 days if notice is by other than first class
mail) before the date of the meeting. Notice may also be given by publication in the
Welding Journal in an issue which is provided mailed to all members not less than
30 days nor more than 60 days before the
date of the meeting. Notice of any special
meeting shall state the purpose or purposes for which the meeting is called, and
only the business included within stated
purpose or purposes may be conducted at
such special meeting.
Section 5. Quorum.
Two One-hundred members (other
than Student Members) shall constitute a
WELDING JOURNAL
83
quorum at Annual Meetings. Proxies shall

not be counted for quorum purposes for
an Annual Meeting. Three hundred members entitled to vote, including at least 20
members from each of two-thirds of the
Districts, shall constitute a quorum at any
special meeting of members. Proxies shall
be counted for quorum purposes for any
special meeting called by the Board of Directors. Unless otherwise specifically required by law, the affirmative vote of the
majority of members present in person or
by proxy shall be necessary for the taking
of any action.
Article V Board of Directors

Section 4. District Directors.
There shall be twenty-two District Directors, one from each of the Societys Districts. District Directors shall be duly nominated by their respective Districts for a
term of three years, as provided in these
Bylaws (Article III). One-third of the Districts shall nominate their District Directors in successive years. An individual District Director shall be eligible for reelection for one term (for a total service of six
consecutive years). An individual shall not
be eligible for a third term until at least
three years have elapsed following his or
her term of service. To be eligible for election as District Director, a candidate must
have served as Chair of a Section; as Chair
or Vice Chair of a standing, technical, committee, project committee reporting to a
standing committee, or special committee
of the Society, or as Director-at-Large.
A District Director shall supervise and
promote the affairs of the Society in his or
her District in accordance with these Bylaws and subject to the rules and direction
of the Board of Directors.
Section 6. Meetings.
Meetings of the Board of Directors
shall be held as may be determined from
time to time by the Directors. The President or any five Directors, by written notice to the Executive Director and Secretary, may call a special meeting of the
Board of Directors. Written Notice of the
time and place of each meeting of the
Board of Directors shall be given to each
Director by telephone, or other electronic
communication to an address provided by
the member personal delivery, telegram,
or cablegram at least two days before the
meeting date, or by first-class mail deposited in the United States mail at least
fifteen days before the meeting date.
Article VI Committees of Directors

Section 1. Executive Committee.
(d) The reversal of any action by the Board
of Directors, or by the members.
A majority of the Executive Committee, but no less than six Directors, shall
constitute a quorum. The Committee shall
act by the affirmative vote of a majority of
84
OCTOBER 2013
its members at a meeting at which a quorum is present or by unanimous action by

a writing or writings signed by all of its
members. Any one or more members of
the Committee may participate in a meeting thereof by means of a conference telephone or similar communication equipment allowing all persons participating in
the meeting to hear each other at the same
time.
Unless the meeting is called as a communication meeting, each member of the
Committee participating by telephone or
similar communication equipment shall
pay the entire expense of his or her participation by telephone or other similar communication equipment. Meetings of the
Committee may be called by the Chair or
by any three members. Notice of the time
and place of each meeting of the Committee shall be given to each member by telephone or other electronic communication
to an address provided by the member at
least twenty-four hours before the time of
the meeting, by personal delivery,
telegram, or cablegram at least two days
before the date of the meeting, or by first
class mail deposited in the United States
mail at least 15 days before the date of the
meeting.
Unless a separate Finance Committee
is appointed by the Board of Directors, the
Executive Committee shall perform the
duties of the Finance Committee.
Article VIII Officers

Section 4. Treasurer.
The Treasurer, after being duly nominated and elected by the members, shall
serve for a term of three years and be eligible for reelection for one term (for a total
of six consecutive years). To be eligible to
hold the office of Treasurer, an individual
must be a member of the Society other
than Student Member, must have served
on the Board of Directors or Finance Committee for at least one year, must be frequently available to the national office,
and should be of executive status in business or industry with experience in financial affairs.
Article IX Nomination and Election

of National Officers and Directors
Section 1. Eligibility for National Office.
Only Sustaining Members, Members,
Honorary Members, Life Members, or Retired Members other than Student Members of the Society who have been members for a period of at least three years shall
be eligible for election as a Director or National Officer.
Section 2. National Nominating
Committee.
The term of service of the National
Nominating Committee shall be for 12
months beginning May 1. It shall consist
of a Chair, those Directors serving the
third year of their current term on May 1,

two added members and a Past President.
The Chair is the President whose term of
office expired at the end of the previous
fiscal year, or, if this Chair is unable to
serve, the President shall appoint another
Past President as Chair. The two added
members shall be appointed by the President from among those who hold or have
previously held position on the Board of
Directors or have served as Chair, Vice
Chair, or Secretary of a standing, technical, or special Committee. The Past President member shall be the President who
served as the previous Chair, if available.
In the event that the Chair is unable to
serve, the next most recent Past President
shall be appointed to this position by the
serving President or the immediate Past
President. If a Director shall appoint an
alternate if is unable to serve, an alternate
with the same qualifications as required
for the two additional members of the
Committee, will be appointed by the President. and notify the Chair in writing. If
the Past President is unable to serve, the
next most recent Past President shall be
appointed by the serving President as a replacement. If a member who serves on the
Committee is a candidate for office, the
person shall be automatically removed
from the Committee.
It is the duty of this Committee to nominate candidates for national office. The
Committee shall hold an open meeting
preferably at the Annual Meeting, at which
members may appear to present and discuss the eligibility of all candidates. The
Committee shall deliver to the Executive
Director and Secretary, in writing, on or
before the first day of May of each year,
the names of its nominees for the various
offices next falling vacant, with the written acceptance of each nominee. [Nominees for District Director shall be nominated by each District Nominating Committee. See Artide Article III, Section
2(c).] The nominees for other Directors
shall be selected by this Committee with
due consideration to geographical distribution. The Committee shall also prepare
a brief biographical sketch of each nominee (except for the nominees for the District Directors) which shall be submitted
to the Executive Director and Secretary
for publication in the Welding Journal.
Article XI Publications, Awards,

and Research
Section 4. Welding Research.
(a) Procedures. The Society may provide for research in welding and related
processes directly, by contract, or by cooperating with separate research organizations. A separate section of the Welding Journal may be provided for research
publications.
ASME BPVC, Section IX

Changes in the 2013 Edition
BY WALTER J. SPERKO
The following is a summary of the significant changes that appear in the 2013
Edition of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC), Section IX. All of the
changes can be readily identified in the
Summary of Changes found in the front
matter of Section IX. Note the opinions
expressed in this article are those of the
author and not the official opinion of BPV
Standards Committee IX.
These changes become mandatory Jan.
1, 2014.
Administrative Changes
The 2013 Edition of Section IX is the
first in a new biennial publishing cycle for
the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. There
will be no 2014 addenda issued. The next
publication will be a new edition published
in July 2015.
The big change in Section IX 2013 is
the introduction of two new Parts: QG
General Requirements, and QF Plastic Fusing. While QF is new (discussed later),
Part QG is nothing more than an extract
of the general and administrative requirements found in Parts QW Welding and QB
Brazing. These requirements would have
been repeated a third time in Part QF Fusing had Part QG not been created. That
is, the statement, QW-100.1, A Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS), is a written document that provides direction to
the welder or welding operator for making production welds in accordance with
Code requirements, can also be found in
Part QB (except that it says brazing, not
welding) and would have been repeated
again in QF (except it would have said
fusing). This and other administrative
requirements have been removed from
QW and QB, creating:
QG-101, Procedure Specification. A
procedure specification is a written document providing direction to the person applying the material joining process.
About three pages of common requirements were extracted to create Part QG
with no significant changes in those requirements. One notable change, however, is replacement of the often repeated
phrase, manufacturer or contractor,
with organization. That definition is sufficiently important that it is defined in
QG-109.2 as follows: Organization: as
used in this Section, an organization is a
manufacturer, contractor, assembler, in-
staller, or some other single or combined

entity having responsibility for operational control of the material joining
methods used in the construction of components in accordance with the codes,
standards, and specifications which reference this Section.
While organization is now used
throughout Section IX in place of manufacturer or contractor, this definition is
no different from the historical working
definition of a manufacturer or contractor the organization that has to comply
with the rules in Section IX is the organization that has responsible operational control of joining of Code components.
Subjects Now Located in Part QG
Relationship of Section IX requirements to the Code, standard, or specification that invoked Section IX.
Procedure and performance qualifications conducted under earlier editions of
Section IX and new qualifications.
Supervision and control by the organization having responsible operational
control during welding of test coupons.
Use of joining procedure specifications
and performance qualifications by companies of different names when they are
part of the same corporate ownership.
Use of procedure specifications and
performance qualifications when ownership changes.
Simultaneous performance qualification by more than one organization.
Definitions for welding and brazing
formerly in QW-492; fusing definitions are
in Part QF.
While these requirements have been
relocated, there was no intention of
changing the administrative rules, so any
practices that were acceptable or prohibited under the previous editions of Section IX are intended to be acceptable or
prohibited in this edition.
The committee has also added guidance for other standards developers and
engineers who want to invoke the requirements of Section IX on the proper way to
do so as a new Appendix K. Many standards and specification writers do not understand that Section IX only addresses
writing and qualifying welding, brazing,
and fusing procedures and those who will
apply them, nothing more. It also notes
that, when the referencing standard or
specification wants to impose impact testing, it needs to specify the test temperature, extent of testing, and acceptance criteria. Appendix K provides model words
to assist those invoking Section IX to help
them get it right.
Plastic Fusing Part QF
Part QF has four Articles that parallel
the organization of Parts QW and QB:
QF-100 General Requirements
QF-200 Procedure Qualifications
QF-300 Performance Qualifications
QF-400 Data (Variables)
While the present rules only cover hot
plate fusion of high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), Part QF has an open structure
to allow the addition of other plastic fusing applications such as electro-fusion that
is currently on the BPV IX agenda.
As with the welding and brazing rules,
the plastic fusion rules do not cover production-related issues such as nondestructive examination of production joints,
qualification of equipment, quality assurance requirements for material, supplementary written tests for operators, data
log evaluation, and preproduction testing.
Such requirements are found in the construction codes.
QF-200 defines the requirements for
preparing a Fusing Procedure Specification (FPS) and for fusing procedure qualification. A table of essential and
nonessential variables for hot plate fusing
is given just like as is done for the welding and brazing processes. There are requirements for recording and evaluating
data taken during fusing of the test
coupon; visual examination of the coupon;
elevated-temperature, sustained-pressure
testing of the coupon; full section bend
and side bend testing; and high-speed tensile impact testing.
Although qualification rules are included in QF-200, QF-221.1 provides a
Standard Fusing Procedure Specification
(SFPS) that, if followed, does not require
qualification.
QF-300 provides rules for qualification of operators of fusing equipment.
The variables include position, diameter, material, and the fusing equipment
manufacturer.
QF-400 lists all the variables for procedure and performance qualification,
and it shows diagrams of fusing positions,
WALTER J. SPERKO (sperko@asme.org), P.E., is president of Sperko Engineering Services, Inc., Greensboro, N.C.
WELDING JOURNAL
87
test specimens, and test fixtures, and gives

acceptance standards for fusing procedure
and performance qualification. It also
contains definitions unique to fusing as
well as blank forms.
In short, if you know how to follow the
rules for qualification of welders and
welding procedures, you already know
how to follow the rules for fusion.
Welding Procedure (QW-200) Changes
Three new welding processes have
been added. Hybrid plasma-GMAW and
hybrid laser-GMAW use both welding
processes in a single weld pool, increasing welding speed and reducing the
amount of weld metal required. Both will
be highly automated processes. Friction
stir welding has an immediate application
in aluminum plate heat exchanger fabrication and will see wider application as
that technology develops.
The last line of QW-451 requires qualification of WPSs for welding base metals
more than 8 in. (200 mm) thick to be qualified using similarly thick test coupons.
While thin materials are forged heavily
and have fairly uniform grain structure
through the thickness, very thick materials do not get as much forging and, as a
consequence, grains midplane are coarser
and the material is less uniform as compared to thinner sections. These larger,
nonuniform grains do not exhibit the same
ductility and toughness that is found in
thinner sections.
In the 1970s, the Section IX committee drew the line at 8 in. and required organizations that will weld on thick materials gain experience with the nonuniform
properties of thick materials by welding
test coupons made from thick material.
As QW-451 currently reads, however,
nothing prevents a manufacturer from
procuring a 10-in.- (250-mm-) thick test
coupon and only depositing in. (19 mm)
of weld metal with a single welding process
without welding the full thickness of the
test coupon. Such a PQR supports welding on base metal up to 13.33 in. (338 mm)
thick and depositing the same thickness
of weld metal with that process. That obviously does not achieve the objective of
gaining experience with welding of thick
materials. To preclude that, a note has
been added to QW-451 specifying that test
coupons more than 6 in. (150 mm) must
be welded for their full thickness.
Its well known that a groove weld qualification qualifies a WPS for all sizes of
fillet welds, all thicknesses of base metal,
and all diameters of pipe and tube. This
is true except when impact testing is a
requirement.
Readers should note that supplementary essential variables, when applicable,
override the standard qualification limits,
including the above general rule. Specifi-
88
OCTOBER 2013
cally, QW-403.6 (The minimum thickness

qualified is the thickness of the test
coupon or 58 in. (16 mm), whichever is
less.) and QW-410.9 (single-pass qualifies
multipass welding, but not vice versa) restrict the above general rule for fillet weld
qualification by groove weld test. A note
has been added to QW-451.4 pointing out
that fillet welds qualified by groove weld
test are subject to restrictions imposed by
supplementary essential variables when
qualification of the WPS with impact testing is a requirement.
When using turned (cylindrical) tension test specimens, there has always been
a tolerance on the diameter of the specimens in QW-462.1(d). This is because the
dimensions in this figure are standard test
specimen dimensions taken from SA-370,
a common reference standard for mechanical testing.
Unknown to most, however, is that SA370 allows use of a nominal area instead
of requiring measurement of the specimen diameter (see SA-370, Fig. 4, Note
6). That is, when the specimen was a standard 0.505 specimen, instead of calculating the area based on diameter measurement, you can just use 0.200 in.2 or simply multiply the failure load by 5 to get the
tensile strength. As of this edition, specimens that violate the machining tolerances in QW-462.1(d) may be accepted
provided the actual diameter is used to
calculate the area of the specimen.
In temper bead welding, users have
reported difficulties complying with the
0.010-in. spacing between Vickers hardness impressions since the specified 10kg load creates a large impression in soft
materials. When hardness impressions
are too close together, the plastic deformation from one impression can affect
subsequent hardness readings, so ASTM
E92 specifies a minimum spacing between impressions of 2.5 times the impression maximum dimension of the
nearby impressions.
This revision of QW-290 specifies a
minimum number of readings in critical
locations rather than equally spaced hardness traverses. Provisions were also added
to allow the use of instrumented indentation testing (IIT) per ASTM E2546 to perform hardness measurements. This is a
novel test method where an impression is
made by successively loading and unloading an indenter with progressively higher
loads and measuring the spring back of
the material with each unloading cycle.
Not only can hardness data be obtained,
but some measure of tensile strength,
yield strength, toughness, and residual
stress can be extracted from these data.
If you weld to corrosion-resistant weld
metal overlay, a new paragraph QW-424.2
allows you to weld directly to the overlay
following a WPS in which the overlay is
represented by a P-number base material

that nominally matches the chemical
analysis of the buildup or overlay. No additional qualifications are required.
In stud welding, there was a conflict
between QW-409.8, which allowed amperage to be changed at will, and QW-410.10
which limited amperage to 10% of that
used on the test coupon. The 10% tolerance was determined to be the correct
requirement, and QW-409.8 was deleted
from the table of variables.
Welder Qualification (QW-300) Changes
While there were no significant
changes in the rules for personnel qualification, Code Case 2757 was issued for
qualifying welding operators by sectioning and etching of mockups when the
welding equipment does not produce
parts that can be radiographed or bend
tested.
Base Metals and Filler Metals
Notably, 172 new line entries were
added to the P-number tables, including
20 new ASME material specifications containing 39 grades, 12 new ASTM specifications containing 19 grades, an update
of API 5L containing 79 new grades, and
5 new foreign material specifications containing 16 new grades.
Historically, only materials that were
permitted for construction by the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code were allowed to be assigned P-numbers. In 2009,
materials listed in the B31 Codes were allowed to be assigned P-numbers. As of the
2011 addenda, the rules changed to allow
any material to be assigned a P-number,
and the information required to be submitted to the Committee is given in Appendix J, which was added in this edition.
Further, QW/QB-422, the P-number
table, has not listed ASTM versions of a
specification if the ASME version was
listed; this has always caused confusion
since it meant that the ASTM version of
a specification was not obviously assigned
a P-number even though the ASTM specification was the basis for (and most of the
time is identical to) the ASME specification. The 2013 edition has modified the
format of the table to A/SA-XXX and
B/SB-XXX so that both the ASTM and
ASME versions of specifications are
clearly assigned the same P-number.
The A-number table of weld metal
compositions has always contained ellipses (. . .) for some elements. While the
historical interpretation of these ellipses
has been that those elements are not supposed to be purposely added to the weld
metal at more than tramp level, the 2013
table shows limits for all listed elements.
Fortunately, these limits are based on the
Section IX continued on page 93
SECTIONNEWS
Shown at the Connecticut Section presentation ceremony are (from left) Mike Knipple, District 1 Director Tom Ferri, awardee Evan Dawidowiez, Joe McGloin, Steve Goodrow, Walter Chojnacki, and Rick Munroe.
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director

(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
CONNECTICUT
JULY 30
Activity: Evan Dawidowiez received a Section scholarship to further his studies at
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology.
He is the third generation in his family to
study at the school. The presentation was
held at Asnuntuck C. C. in Enfield, Conn.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director

(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Attendees are shown at the Southwest Virginia Section program in July.
District 3
District 5
Michael Wiswesser, director

(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director

(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
JULY 18
Speaker: Bob Campbell
Affiliation: Banker Steel
Topic: Developing welding procedures
Activity: The program was held at Central
Virginia C. C. Stewart Harris, District 4
director, attended the event.
Carl Matricardi, director

(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director

(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
Shown at the Southwest Virginia Section program

are (from left) speaker Bob Campbell, District 4
Director Stewart Harris, and Treasurer David Cash.
WELDING JOURNAL
89
The Auburn-Opelika Section members are shown during their tour of the KIA plant.
Mahoning Valley golf outing organizers are

(from left) Chair Chuck Moore, Nick Ambrosini, and Carl Ford.
Brian Chin presented an overview of the
Sections activities. George Fairbanks,
District 9 director, attended the program.
Columbus Section golfers are shown at the annual outing in July.
COLUMBUS
JULY 25
Activity: The Section hosted its annual golf
outing at Cooks Creek Golf Club, South
Bloomfield, Ohio, with eleven teams participating. Members of other local technical societies were invited to play in the
event that raised $1961 for the Sections
scholarship fund. The event sponsors included American Engineering and Manufacturing, Lincoln Electric, Miller Welding, Mistras Group, HETEN Engineering,
EWI, Miami Valley Materials Test Center,
and Det Norske Veritas. Top honors went
to Rob Borahs team from Laserflex that
finished 13 under par.
90
OCTOBER 2013
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director

(225) 473-6362
fits@bellsouth.net
AUBURN-OPELIKA
JUNE 19
Activity: The Section members toured the
KIA manufacturing plant in Auburn, Ala.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director

(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
MAHONING VALLEY
AUGUST 2
Activity: The Section hosted the 38th annual Jim Best memorial golf outing for 53
participants. The organizers included Section Chair Chuck Moore, Golf Committee
Chair Carl Ford, and Nick Ambrosini.
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
Sara Anderson (left) and Thea Bunde represented hole sponsor Toll Gas and Welding
Supply at the Northwest Section golf event.
Shown at the Chicago Section meeting are from left (seated) Eric Krauss, Bob Zimny, Eric
Purkey, Craig Tichelar, and Jim Greer. Standing are Lisa Moran, Pete Host, Jeff Stanczak,
and Cliff Iftimie.
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director

(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.fincantieri.com
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
CHICAGO
AUGUST 4
Activity: The Section held a board meeting at Papa Joes Restaurant in Orland
Park, Ill. Attending were past AWS President James Greer, Eric Krauss, Bob
Zimny, Eric Purkey, Craig Tichelar, Lisa
Moran, Pete Host, Jeff Stanczak, and Cliff
Iftimie.
Shown at the Northwest Section meeting in August are (from left) Mace Harris, Jay Gerdin,
Mark Carter, Pam Lesemann, Doug Juhl, Chair Ric Eckstein, and Dana Sorensen.
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director

(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
Posed for their mug shot are the winners of the Northwest Sections golf outing (from left)
John Adler, Randy Anderson, Jim Swanson, and Dave Erickson.
NORTHWEST
JUNE 17
Activity: The Section hosted its 34th annual golf outing at Sundance Golf and
Bowl in Dayton, Minn. The event raised
$3500 for the Sections scholarship fund
including a $1000 donation from Production Engineering Corp. The hole sponsors
were Oxygen Service and Toll Gas and
Welding Supply. The putting green sponsors included Mace Harris, Mike Hanson,
Advantage Marketing, Chart Industries,
Lincoln Electric, Miller Electric, Minneapolis Oxygen, Ridgewater Technical
College, South St. Paul Steel Supply, and
Weld Safe Midwest. The first-place win-
Mace Harris, Northwest Section treasurer, talks to visitors at the Oxygen Service Co. technology show in August.
WELDING JOURNAL
91
Nanette Samanich, District 21 director, proudly stands amid the Boy Scouts, speakers, and trainers who participated in the Nevada Sectionsponsored welding merit badge project.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director

(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
OLYMPIC
AUGUST
Activity: Chair Sjon Delmore and Wyatt
Swaim, with Lincoln Motorsports, instructed Seth Delmore, 13, on the basics
of gas tungsten arc welding during the Red
Bull Grand Prix at the Indianapolis Speedway. Seth has been studying welding technology since he was nine years old.
District 20
William A. Komlos, director

(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
Shown at the Indianapolis Speedway are (from left) Wyatt Swaim, Seth Delmore, and Sjon
Delmore, Olympic Section chair.
ning team was John Adler, Randy Anderson, Jim Swanson, and Dave Erickson
from Oxygen Service.
AUGUST 7
Activity: The Northwest Section held its
first planning meeting of the year at
Wyoming Machine in Stacy, Minn. Participating were Chair Ric Eckstein, Mace
Harris, Jay Gerdin, Mark Carter, Pam
Lesemann, Doug Juhl, Anna Wald, and
Dana Sorensen.
AUGUST 21, 22
Activity: The Northwest Section members
manned a booth and conducted a welding
contest at a metal fabrication and technology show hosted by Oxygen Service Co. in
St. Paul, Minn. The $1041 proceeds from
the event went to support the Sections
scholarship fund.
92
OCTOBER 2013
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director

(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
NEVADA
District 17
JUNE 1
Activity: Forty-one Boy Scouts received
their welding merit badges at this ceremony, following a three-week training and
welding clinic. The speakers discussed
welding job opportunities as an Ironworker, inspector, nondestructive evaluation technician, aircraft welder, and in the
teaching profession. Nanette Samanich,
District 21 Director, presided at the event.
District 18
District 22
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
John Bray, director

(281) 997-7273
sales@affiliatedmachinery.com
Kerry E. Shatell, director

(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
Section IX continued from page 88

limits in the SFA specifications, so meeting them should not be a problem. In addition, a column for aluminum has been
added. Readers should keep in mind that
A-numbers, F-numbers, and even P-numbers are optional if the WPS specifies the
same filler metal and base metal as was
used to prepare the PQR test coupon. The
A-numbers, F-numbers, and P-numbers
simply allow the WPS to specify filler metals and base metals that are different from
what was used on the test coupon without
performing additional testing.
Filler Metal Specifications Updated
SFA-5.21/SFA-5.21M, Electrogas Welding Filler Metals
SFA-5.14/SFA-5.14M, Nickel-Alloy
Welding Electrodes
SFA-5.23/SFA-5.23M:2011, Low-Alloy
Steel Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes and
Electrodes
SFA-5.8/SFA-5.8M:2011, Filler Metals
for Brazing and Braze Welding
SFA-5.36/SFA-5.36M:2012, Carbon
and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored Electrodes
and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal
Arc Welding, was also added and will replace SFA 5.20, Carbon Steel Flux Cored
Electrodes, and SFA-5.29, Low-Alloy Flux
Cored Electrodes, within the next five
years.
Other than revised formats for many

AWS classifications, the biggest change is
that metal cored electrodes are now in
SFA-5.36. While they will also remain in
SFA-5.18 and AWS 5.28 for the next several years, they will eventually be removed. This will allow us to update our
WPSs in an orderly fashion to the new
SFA-5.36 classifications since electrode
manufacturers will eventually stop making product to the present specifications.
The Committee rejected a revision to
SFA-5.32, Shielding Gas, which was an
adoption of ISO 14175. The proposed version allowed an increase in impurities in
the gas and an increase in the dew point.
The Committee rejected those changes
and notified AWS of its concerns.
Brazing (QB) Changes
No significant changes were made in
the brazing rules.
Inquiries
While most of Section IXs inquiries
were routine, an old question resurfaced:
When Section IX states that all the variables listed for a given process have to be
described, does that mean that the table
of variables should be blindly used as a
checklist when writing or reviewing a WPS
and PQR, or, perhaps, can a less-rigid approach be taken? A number of interpretations were issued under IX-13-03 that
Name Your Candidates for

These AWS Awards
The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December
31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Contact Wendy Sue Reeve,
wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
William Irrgang
Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual who has done the most over the
past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advancing the science
and technology of welding. It includes a $2500 honorarium and a
certificate.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession, or
one who is credited with exceptional
accomplishments in the development of the welding art. Honorary
Members have full rights of membership.
National Meritorious
Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and dedication
to AWS affairs, assistance in pro-
moting cordial relations with industry and other organizations, and for
contributions of time and effort on
behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual who promoted the advancement
of welding internationally by fostering cooperative participation in
technology transfer, standards rationalization, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a $2500
honorarium.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients
significant contributions to the welding industry for service to the international welding community in the
broadest terms. The award consists
of a certificate and a one-year AWS
membership.
are worth reading; they essentially say that

some variables can be described indirectly and that some variables are conditional; however, the Committee went further and prepared a white paper, Auditing Welding under ASME Section IX, that
was used for training ASMEs consultants
who perform Code stamp audits so they
would know what to look for when auditing welding activities. This white paper is
posted online on the Section IX Committees home page. It can be found by doing
a Web search for the paper by its title. Interpretations can be found at:
http://cstools.asme.org/Interpretations.cfm.
Coming Attractions
Electrofusion of plastic pipe will be
added in the 2015 revision. Also, given the
unpredictability of the number of combinations of hybrid welding possibilities, the
Committee will develop a more generic
approach to qualification of hybrid
processes in which all the variables of each
process will have to be addressed plus
those that relate to interfacing between
processes such as spacing between
processes and process sequence.
All ASME Code Committee meetings
are open to the public. The schedule is
posted at www.asme.org, and www.sperkoengineering.com. Errata and editorial corrections will be posted at www.asme.org/
kb/standards/publications/bpvc-resources.
Looking for Work?

Jobfind is a free service for job seekers.
It is a meeting place for welders, CWIs,
engineers, technicians, welding managers,
supervisors, and consultants.
Companies can post, edit, and manage
job listings easily, have access to a rsum
database of qualified people, look for candidates who match employments needs for
full or part-time work, and use either 30day or unlimited monthly postings at reasonable cost.
All job seekers enjoy free access to job
listings specific to the materials-joining industry. Check out Jobfind first, its online
at www.aws.org/jobfind.
AWS Member Counts

September 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................603
Supporting .....................................339
Educational ...................................631
Affiliate..........................................529
Welding Distributor........................52
Total Corporate ..........................2,154
Individual .................................59,414
Student + Transitional .................8,471
Total Members .........................67,885
WELDING JOURNAL
93
Guide to AWS Services

8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
INTERNATIONAL SALES
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)

Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Chief Financial Officer

Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Chief Technology Officer

Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
Executive Assistant for Board Services

Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
National Sales Director

Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Administrative Services
Society and Section News Editor

Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Human Resources
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Director, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Public Relations Manager

Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Associate Director, Operations

Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qualification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommittees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Reinforcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
Section Web Editor

Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES

Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)

Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Welding, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)

Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com

Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors federal issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS

Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal

Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding

Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering

Manufacturers Committee
MEMBER SERVICES
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all international certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding

Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
EDUCATION SERVICES
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.

www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Director, Development and Systems

David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development

Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Counselor nominations.
OCTOBER 2013
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards

may be obtained only by sending a request in writing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
94
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation

established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundations work with your financial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
Education Services
PERSONNEL
Sherwood Valve Expands

Sales Team
Laboratory Testing
Inspector Adds Credential
Sherwood Valve,
Washington, Pa., a
supplier of systemcritical compressed
gas solutions, has expanded its sales team
from three to eight
regional sales managers, plus a key account executive, and
Mike Palinkas
a new vice president.
Mike Palinkas was
named vice president, sales, and Tim
Madden was appointed key account manager. The regional sales managers are
Gregg Carr (West), Dan Ellsworth
(Northeast), John Foster (Southeast),
Arnie Lockstein (Mid-Atlantic), Bill
Matson (Midwest), Johnny Musgrove
(Southwest), Rob Sufana (Lower Midwest), and Mark Vozar (Ohio Valley).
Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield,

Pa., a supplier of materials testing and
analysis services, announced Phil Trach,
NDT technical coordinator, has been approved by the Naval
Sea Systems ComPhil Trach
mand as a MIL STD-2132 Examiner in contact ultrasonic testing. The certification is required for performing tests on propulsion systems components for military
suppliers. Trach, with the laboratory
since 2005, also holds MIL -STD-2132
Examiner certification in immersion ultrasonic testing.
United Performance Metals

Names Two Directors
Adept Technology
Appoints Senior
Executives
United Performance Metals, Hamilton, Ohio, a supplier of stainless, nickel,

cobalt, aluminum, and titanium, has promoted Brian Bick to director of sales and
named Brian Romans director of business operations. Bick has been with the
company for 15 years. Romans joins the
company with experience in sales, purchasing, production planning, and contract management in the specialty metals market.
Adept Technology, Inc., Pleasanton,

Calif., a provider of intelligent robots and
autonomous mobile services, has appointed Larry Anderson vice president
of mobile sales, Merrill Apter vice president of North American sales, Terry
Hannon vice president business development, and Hai Chang vice president of
Asia and strategic programs. Anderson
previously served Aehr Test Systems as
vice president of worldwide sales. Apter
96
OCTOBER 2013
previously was vice president of sales for

Americas at Telesis Technologies, Inc.
Hannon formerly served as president and
CEO of NP Photonics, Inc. Chang previously served the company as director of
sales for the Americas and was responsible for establishing the companys subsidiary in China.
CRC-Evans Pipeline
Names Leadership Team
CRC-Evans Pipeline International,
Inc., Houston, Tex., has announced executives for its Offshore Channel operations. Adam Wynne Hughes was appointed president; Scott Black was promoted to global operations managing director; and John Watson promoted to
global operations director. Hughes, with
the company since 2011, has 28 years of
experience in the industry and serves on
the board of International Pipeline and
Offshore Contractors Association. Black,
with 25 years of welding, fabrication, and
materials management experience, previously served as global operations director; and Watson, with 29 years experience in the welding fabrication industry,
formerly served as operations manager.
Obituaries
David G. Howden
David Gordon Howden, 76, died Aug.
23 at his home in Sunbury, Ohio. A Life
Member of the American Welding Society (AWS) and a past president
(19941995), he retired as an associate
professor in the Department of Industrial, Welding and Systems Engineering
at The Ohio State University in 2002.
Howden received his PhD in industrial
metallurgy from the
University of Birmingham, UK. In
1963, he joined the
Centro Tcnico de
Aeronutica
in
Brazil where he performed metallurgical
research and teaching. He later worked
David G. Howden at the Department
www
www.aws.org/foundation
.aws.org/foundation
We are happy to announce the 2013-2014
Recipients
NA
NATIONAL
TIONAL SCHOLARSHIPS
Earl C. Lipphardt Educators Scholarship
DISTRICT SCHOLARSHIPS
District 3 Educators Scholarship
Elisa Ramsey
Pennsylvania State University
Elisa Ramsey
Hagerstown Community College
Teaching
T
Teaching
each
e
today for tomorrow
tomorrowss industry!
Teaching
T
Teaching
e
today for tomorrows
tomorrows industry!
W
William
illiam (Bill) Kielhorn Educators Scholarship
No recipient for 2013-2014
T
Timothy
imothy T
Turner
urner Educators Scholarship
Darrel W
Waldbauer
aldbauer
Northern Alberta Institute of T
Technology
echnolo
echnology
e
Timothy
I am honored to receive the T
imothy Turner
Turner
Educators Scholarship. This scholarship will aid
me in developing additional professional skills
for use in the welding industry and educational
realm. The superior administrative skills I
acquire in pursuit of my degree will assist me
with my duties in instructing and managing
welding students. I greatly appreciate being
selected to receive this award.
Anthony Blakeney
Southeastern Louisiana University
I would like to thank the American

can W
Welding
We
elding
Society Foundation for awarding me the
2013-2014 District 9 Educators Scholarship. It is
an honor to receive this scholarship and it will be
used to further the pursuit of my doctoral degree.
It is through opportunities provided by the AWS
AWS
W
Foundation that many students are able to
financially continue their educational goals and
further their aspirations in the welding field.
District 1
11
1 Educators Scholarship
Scott Poe
Ferris State University
11 for the selection

"I would like to thank District 11
of the Instructors scholarship. I also would like
to thank Jef
Jeff
ff Grossman for showing
show
me h
how
ow
much fun teaching welding can be."

Robert Arendt
Indian Hills Community College
For more information on
2014-2015 Educators Scholarships,

please contact the AWS
AWS Foundation
at vpinsky@aws.org.
vpinsky@aws.org.
Welding
W
eelding
el
for the Strength
Strength of America
The Campaign for the American W
Welding
eelding Society Foundation
Fo
I am pleased that I was chosen for the

scholarship from District 16 Iowa chapter
chapter.. I will be
using the money towards online training through
the AWS.
AW
WS. Thanks again.

Robert Ulibarri
Central New Mexico Community College
It is an honor to be selected for the District #20

Educators Scholarship. I have been a welding
educator and have run my own welding business
for the past 13 years. This scholarship gives me
the opportunity to pursue my goal of becoming a
Certified We
Welding
elding Inspector
Inspector.. Thank you to the
AWS
A
W
WS for this wonderful opportunity.
opportun
opportunity.
PERSONNEL
of Energy, Mines, and Resources, Ottawa, Canada. In 1967, he became associate manager of the Materials Joining
Technology section at Battelle Columbus
Laboratories, and in 1977, joined The
Ohio State University Department of
Welding Engineering. Dr. Howden was
an Honorary Member of the Japan Welding Society, a Life Member of ASM International, and a member of the American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW). He served as a
vice president of IIW and chaired the International Authorization Board. He also
chaired a number of committees of the
National Academy of Sciences Materials
Advisory Board, published widely in professional and technical journals, and authored two books. His numerous professional awards include the Oxigenio do
Brasil Award from Associao Brasileira
de Metais, and the Adams Memorial

Membership, George E. Willis, William
Irrgang, and Lincoln Gold Medal Awards
from AWS.
Mark B. Lovett
Mark Brian Lovett, 26, an AWS Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) and
member of the Nevada Section, died
Aug. 20 from a fall
sustained on the job
at a construction site
near Las Vegas, Nev.
A graduate of Coronado High School in
Las Vegas, he became a certified
ASNT
ultrasonic
technician at 18 beMark Lovett
fore becoming one of
the youngest CWIs in the country. He
partnered with his father, a CWI and
building inspector, for eight years.
Publish Your Research in the
and Youll Get

Your research sent to more than 68,000 American Welding

Society members

Your published paper posted on the AWS Web site for FREE
access worldwide (www.aws.org/w/a/research/index.html)

The most recent Impact Factor of 1.00

No page charges

Your paper printed in full color

Electronic submission and tracking through Editorial Manager

(www.editorialmanager.com/wj)

Every research paper published in the Welding Journal since

1970 available FREE on the AWS Web site
(www.aws.org/wj/supplement/supplement-index.html)
By far
far,, the most people,
people, at the least cost, will be exposed
to your research when you publish in the world-respected
Welding
Welding Journal

panies have set new sales records

through June 2013.
A total of 10,854 robots valued at
$679.3 million were ordered from North
American robotics companies in the first
six months of 2013, an increase of 1.9%
in units over the same period in 2012 and
1.3% above the previous first-half record
set in 2005.
Shipments to North American customers through June totaled 11,308 robots valued at $715.1 million, breaking
the previous first-half records set in 2012
by 11.0% in units and 10.4% in dollars.
In addition, activity was strong in nonautomotive industries such as semiconductors, life sciences, and food/consumer
goods, all of which posted double-digit
growth through June.
Dominion Foundation
Awards $220,000
to Ohio Colleges
Twelve Ohio institutions recently received $220,000 in Dominion Foundation
Higher Education Grants during a presentation at the University of Akrons
Martin University Center. They focus on
programs that will help prepare students
for technical positions in Ohios energyproduction and other industries.
Among the recipients, each of which
received $20,000, are Apollo Career Center, Lima, to support its virtual reality integrated weld training program; Belmont
College, St. Clairsville, for purchasing
welding machines to be installed in its refurbished welding lab; Eastern Gateway
Community College, Steubenville, to help
purchase and install a virtual reality arc
welding trainer; Stark State College,
North Canton, to add two welding stations for increasing training at its new
Barberton satellite center, which will enable the college to meet local demands
for welders certified by the American
Welding Society; and The University of
Akron Foundation to help expand a
welding center in its College of Engineering with a goal to increase hands-on
learning.
Navy Metalworking
Center Celebrates
25th Anniversary
Throughout 2013, the Navy Metalworking Center (NMC), Johnstown, Pa.,
is celebrating 25 years as an Office of
98
OCTOBER 2013
A 360 VIEW OF THE MOST INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESSES. FABTECH 2013.
METAL FORMING | FABRICATING | WELDING | FINISHING

FABTECH represents every step of the metal manufacturing process
from start to nish. Its where new ideas, products and technology
are highlighted through interactive exhibits, education and
networking. Compare solutions from 1,500+ exhibitors, find tools
to improve quality and productivity, and learn ways to increase prot.
REGISTER NOW for the show with a degree of difference.
November 1821, 2013 | Chicago, IL | fabtechexpo.com
North Americas Largest Metal Forming,

Fabricating, Welding and Finishing Event
Scan code to
watch video.
Follow us:
Cosponsors:
his conference covers

welding, examination,
and post-weld heat
treatment of dissimilar joints,
including carbon-steel, nickelbase, stainless, chrome-moly
and other alloys. It also covers
topics such as explosive
welding and how standards
address the complicated nature
of dissimilar welds.
The traditional welding codes
are nearly silent on the issue of
joining dissimilar metals.
Many companies do not
haveor have lostexpertise
in this area.
The most difficult-to-weld
challengesincluding various
material combinations
involving aluminum, creepenhanced ferritic steels, nickel
alloys, and morewill be
covered.
AWS Welding Dissimilar Metals Conference

FABTECH Chicago Nov. 18, 2013
www.aws.org/conferences
Register at www.fabtechexpo.com
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology

and application of welding and allied joining and cutting
processes, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying.
Microtech Welding to Expand

Microtech Welding Corp., a provider of microscopic and laser

welding services, recently announced plans to invest in its Fort
Wayne, Ind., location. The 7500-sq-ft facility will be increased to
create an extra 4400-sq-ft of manufacturing space.
CEO Robert Christman mentioned the expansion will allow
better serving of its customers needs. Also, the company plans
to purchase a new CNC laser welding machine and workstation.
The $540,000 investment will require hiring at least one additional welder, bringing its total headcount to 19 people.
Industry Notes
The Department of Energy, Sandia National Laboratories, National Wind Institute of Texas Tech University, and Group
NIRE commissioned the Scaled Wind Farm Technology test
facility in Lubbock, Tex. ABBs systems in the turbines included
three ACS800 wind converters and three matching Baldor induction generators.
Jay-Cee Sales & Rivet, founded by Jack Clinton, is celebrating

65 years in business. The company started in Detroit, Mich.,
in 1948 selling shoes, socks, pants, and war supplies. Today, it
has expanded to all types of rivets, drive screws, and adhesives.
The Community College of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pa.,

is partnering with Mon Valley Career and Technology Center
for a welding certificate program. According to Justin Tatar,
assistant dean at the colleges Washington County Center, the
18-credit course will be taught at the career center in Speers.
The initial class will begin Oct. 15.
Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Ill., has been assigned a U.S.

patent (8,487,455) developed by Mike Trinkner, Kaukauna,
Wis., for a welding power generator having vertical shaft
arrangement.
Northrop Grumman Corp. and Roanes Rigging and Transfer

The Navy Metalworking Center (NMC) has advanced and applied
a variety of manufacturing processes through its 25 years. The welder
above uses flux cored arc welding to test an improved electrode targeted for CVN 79 structural welds. (Photo courtesy of NMC.)
Naval Research (ONR) Manufacturing Technology Program

(ManTech) Center of Excellence.
Since its inception in 1988, the organization, formerly known
as the National Center for Excellence in Metalworking Technology, has adapted to Navy needs. It has also advanced and applied
metalworking technologies to defense-related manufacturing issues. Among its vast technologies are friction stir and hybrid laser
arc welding with electron beam direct manufacturing.
We are very honored that ONR has trusted us to operate this
important program for the long term, said Edward J. Sheehan
Jr., president and CEO, Concurrent Technologies Corp., which
operates NMC.
It has supported metalworking manufacturing needs for Navy
ship/air platforms with other Department of Defense weapon
systems and today backs Navy ManTechs Investment Strategy.
As you might expect, NMCs achievements are the result of
the hard work, dedication, and talent of many people across a
wide area, said Daniel L. Winterscheidt, NMC senior program
director, who is marking his tenth year in that role.
Co., Inc., Baltimore, Md., which performs services including

welding, have been approved by the Defense Contracts Management Agency to start a credit mentor-protege agreement.
Mistras Group, Inc., Princeton Junction, N.J., through its Power

Generation Group, has signed a contract with Babcock &
Wilcox to provide nondestructive evaluation inspection services for replacement of the Unit No. 2 steam generators at the
Prairie Island Nuclear Generating Plant, Welch, Minn.
ThyssenKrupp Aerospace, via its UK subsidiary, has acquired

the business activities of The Waterjet Group, Darton, South
Yorkshire. Also, the sale of ThyssenKrupp Tailored Blanks to
Wuhan Iron and Steel Corp./China has been completed.
Abakan, Inc., Miami, Fla., has incorporated a new subsidiary,

MesoCoat Coating Services, Inc., to provide thermal spray
coating services using its nanocomposite PComP materials.
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., has expanded its support of science, technology, engineering, and math initiatives. This includes a five-year commitment by the companys HOPE (Hypertherm Owners Philanthropic Endeavors) Foundation to
fund Montshire Museums School Partnership Initiative.
Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett recently recognized com continued on page 102
WELDING JOURNAL 101
Graebener-Reika, Inc., now offers high-volume tube and pipe

processing capabilities. Work is conducted out of its Reading,

Pa., facility. For more details, visit www.gr-inc.com.
panies and entrepreneurs creating jobs with making positive

contributions to the states economy at the inaugural Governors ImPAct Awards ceremony. Bosch Rexroth Corp. was honored with the Jobs First Award for the Lehigh Valley region.
AT&F, an ISO 9001:2008 certified custom steel fabricator in
Osborn, a surface treatment systems and finishing tools sup-
MagneGas Corp., the developer of a technology that converts
plier, has expanded its facility in Santa Fe Springs, Calif., to

include all its product lines.
Matheson, Basking Ridge, N.J., started a Youth Reach Program for welding education. Goals include drawing attention
to developing the next generation of welders; helping make
equipment/supplies more affordable for students; and reaching out to welding instructors with safety information and bringing a company expert into classrooms for a guest lecture.
Industrial Scientific Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., has reached an

agreement with Industrial Safety Technologies for selling its
Oldham fixed-point gas detection business, encompassing the
HQ operations in Arras, France, with fixed systems support
operations in China, Germany, India, and the United States.
Cleveland, Ohio, has opened an extra location in Charleston,

S.C., specializing in serving the commercial marine industry.
The new division, AT&F Marine, is led by Chris van Raalten.
liquid waste into a hydrogen-based metalworking fuel, recently

announced GTW Welding Supplies, Inc., Greenville, Mich.,
has become a distributor selling its fuel to the western region
of Michigan.
SGS recently announced its NDT Training and Examination

Center passed the annual British Institute of Non-Destructive
Testing reassessment of an Authorized Qualifying Body and
surveillance of an Approved Training Organization audits with
zero noncompliance reports.
CryoGas International, Lexington, Mass., has been sold to gasworld.com Ltd., the global industrial gas magazine publisher
and events company based in the United Kingdom.
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
and HT4400 plasma cutting systems, has

been expanded. The nozzle design consists of two parts a traditional copper
base and composite tungsten insert. In addition, these nozzles produce a high-quality cut.
Thermacut, Inc.
www.thermacut.com
(800) 932-8312
tial fan that ensures homogeneous heat

distribution with the large volume of ventilated process gas. This enables component-sensitive heating of the products
with set temperatures on a low level.
and working lengths up to 56 ft. Standard
equipment includes the companys Vision
T5 touch-screen CNC. It is offered with
a choice of 60,000 lb/in.2 waterjet intensifier pumps up to 200 hp.
ESAB Cutting Systems
www.esab-cutting.com
(800) 372-2123
Safety Supplies Retailer

Launches New Web Site
SEHO Systems GmbH

www.seho.de
(859) 371-7346
Nozzles Feature Composite

Tungsten Insert
Reflow Soldering System

Yields Void-Free Results
The MaxiReflow HP offers technology
that combines convection heat and a hyperpneumatic module ensuring virtually
void-free solder connections. It is
equipped with an excess pressure chamber allowing shorter cycle times and enabling gas convection to be used for heating assemblies. Each heating zone of the
system, as well as those integrated in the
hyperpneumatic chamber, has a tangen-
102 OCTOBER 2013
The range of Tungsten EX- nozzles,

which are replacement parts for Hypertherms HPR 130/260, MAX200,
The company, a retailer of welding and

safety supplies, protective clothing, and
welding gas, recently launched a new Web
site. Among the featured manufacturers
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology and application of welding and allied joining
and cutting processes worldwide, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying
www.aws.org/conference
www
w.aws.org/conference
.aws.org/con
.
Are you
you outside your
your "comf
"comfort
for
o t zone"
in dealing with w
welding
elding in yyour
our operations?
A gr
group
oup of highly e
experienced
xperienced welding
welding engineers
engineers will hold a two-day
two-day AWS
AWS conference
conference for
for
manufacturing
manuf
acturing pr
professionals
offessionals
e
who ha
have
ve tto
o mak
make
e decisions about w
welding
elding that are outside their
"comfort
"comf
for
o t zone."
If yyou
ou ffind
ind yourself
yourself facing
facing questions
questions in the welding
welding area that relate
relate to...
to...

...this conf
conference
erence will no
nott give
give you
you ALL the answ
answers,
ers, but it will tell
tell you
you how
how to
to approach
approach the
challenges of w
welding,
elding, and pr
provide
ovide yyou
ou with vvaluable
aluable tak
take-home
e-home ttools.
ools.
AWS
A
WS
S Conference:
Conferre
ence:
SO
YOURE
REE THEE NEW
N
WELDING
N ENGIN
NG
ENGINEER
NEER
November 19-20, 2013
McCormick Place
Chicago, Illinois
How
Ho
w tto
o ge
gett up tto
o speed quic
quickly.
kly. How
How to
to ask the right questions.
How
How to
to ge
gett the results yyou
ou need, sa
save
ve mone
money,
y, and sta
stayy out of tr
trouble!
ouble!
This two-day
two-day conf
conference
ference is ffor
or
o manager
managers,
s, engineer
engineers,
s, designers,
designers, and others
others with
with welding
welding responsibility
responsibility but limited
limited
e
exposure
xposure tto
o or back
background
ground in w
welding.
elding. The conference
confer
e ence ffocuses
oc
o uses on ar
arcc w
welding
elding applications, but
but the pri
principles
nciples have
have
u
universal
niversal applicability.
applicability. Presentations
Presentations and discussion
discussion are based
based on the Application
Application Analysis
Analysis Worksheet,
W
Wo
orksheet, whi
which
ch was
was
d
developed
eveloped tto
o tteach
each a senior col
college
lege cou
course
rse tto
oe
engineers
ngineers about
about to
to enter
enter industry,
industry, with
with the objective
objective off helping
helping them
them
d
develop
evelop a path tto
ou
understand
nderstand and deal
deal wi
with
th the challenge
challengess the
theyy w
were
ere abou
aboutt tto
o fface.
ace
a .
Registerr att www

www.fabtechexpo.com
w..fabtechexpo.com
.fabtechexp
PRODUCT & PRINT

SPOTLIGHT
is Flexovit, a manufacturer of abrasive

products for portable power tools. The
site permits ordering of more than 3100
products from a variety of manufacturers.
Eagle Safety Products
www.eaglesafetyproducts.com
(636) 583-4428
Soldering Alloy Provides

Drop Shock Performance
is used to tighten the product, which

needs 11.8 in. of clearance. Pipe snaps
off squarely once the user works the cutting tool manually around the cut zone.
The LCRC4 Low Clearance Rotary
cutting device is designed for 2- to 4-in.
steel, cast iron, or ductile iron pipe. The
junior-sized product requires a 4-in.
clearance around the pipe to make the
cut.
Reed Manufacturing Co.
www.reedmfgco.com
(800) 666-3691
Solder Wire Features

High Halide Content
The SACM is a solder alloy that offers drop shock performance without
compromising on thermal cycling. The
alloy is useful for the manufacture of consumer electronics that experience frequent handling, such as mobile devices.
The solder is doped with manganese for
increased strength, and contains less silver than other lead-free alloys, providing a more stable cost structure.
Indium Corp.
www.indium.com
(315) 853-4900
Cutting Devices Handle

2- to 42-in. Pipes
The RC42S Rotary cutting device is
designed for manual cuts on 40- to 42-in.
steel pipe and takes leverage advantage
from its long handle. An included wrench
The LF3237
solder wire is a
highly activated,
water-soluble
flux formulation. With a high
halide content
of 1.2%, the
wire is designed
to improve soldering and wetting performance on printed circuit board
finishes, while the residues are easily removed with water. Product series wire is
available standard in the SN100C,
SAC305, and SAC387 alloys with a standard flux content of 2.2%. Lead-containing alloys may be requested in diameters
from 0.2 to 3.5 mm.
liver square, dross-free cuts with 2 deg

or less cut-edge bevel. Benefits include
torch technology for a stable plasma column and gas flow; self diagnostics that
track pierces, pierce errors, and types of
errors for the last six electrodes; and separate
gas
control
for
plasma
cutting/marking through a CNC output,
serial link, or manual selection.
Burny Kaliburn, a Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Solder Pastes Supplied

in Jars, Tubes, and
Syringes
Cobar Solder Products, Inc.

www.cobar.com
(603) 432-7500
Plasma Cutting Systems

Come in Three Amperages
The Spirit II Series plasma system
features FineLine technology. The 150A, Model 150 has the ability to pierce
most metals up to 1 in. thick with a maximum capacity of 1.5 in. The 275-A,
Model 275 can pierce most metals up to
1.25 in. thick and has a maximum capacity of 2.5 in. The 400-A, Model 400 is able
to pierce most metals up to 2 in. thick
with a maximum capacity of 3 in. All de-
Lead-free, lead- and halogen-free, plus

tin-and-lead solder pastes are available in
500-g jars, 600-g tubes, and 10-cc syringes.
Offering wetting, low voiding, high tack,
and good shelf with stencil life, the pastes
are manufactured to specifications in ISO
9001 and ISO 14001 certified facilities.
Formulated from high-purity ingredients,
these pastes ensure process consistency
even with ultrafine pitch printing requirements.
SMTSolderPaste.com
www.smtsolderpaste.com
(800) 745-6266
WELDING JOURNAL 105
CLASSIFIEDS
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
2013
CWI PREPARATORY
Guarantee Pass or Repeat FREE!
80+ HOUR COURSE

MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Houma, LA Nov. 1122

Ellijay, GA Dec. 213
Pascagoula, MS Oct. 21Nov. 1
56+ HOUR COURSE

EXTRA INSTRUCTION TO GET A HEAD START
Houma, LA Nov. 1422

Used Equipment for Sale

www.mitrowskiwelding.com
40 HOUR COURSE
GET READY FAST PACED COURSE!
Houma, LA Nov. 1822

Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
JOE FULLER LLC

sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
We manufacture tank turning rolls

3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:

(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: 9Year CWI Recertification,
RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT Thickness,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
CWS, SCWI, Advanced Inspection Courses
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Call the AWS sales team at:
(800) 443-9353
SERVICES
Rob Saltzstein at ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Lea Paneca at ext. 220
lea@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen at ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
106 OCTOBER 2013
ADVERTISER
INDEX
Aimtek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
www.aimtek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 772-0104
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

www.hcrsteel.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(905) 356-6025
American Torch Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

www.americantorchtip.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 342-8477
Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

www.intercononline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 665-6655
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC

www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Kimberly Clark Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

www.kcprofessional.com/BalderPromo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 241-3146
Astaras Welding Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

www.e3tungsten.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

www.rodguard.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 944-1552
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

www.koike.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 252-5232
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50-51, 95, 100, 104

www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 455
LA-CO Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

www.markal.com/www.tempil.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 956-7600
AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

www.aws.org/foundation/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 250
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC

www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42, 103

www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 480
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

www.lucasmilhaupt.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(414) 679-6000
AWS Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

www.aws.org/standards/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 935-3464
Magswitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
www.magswitch.com.au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(303) 468-0662
AWS Technical Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

www.aws.org/technical/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 340
Mathey Dearman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
www.matheycnc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(918) 447-1288
Bellman-Melcor, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

www.channelflux.com/www.bellmanmelcor.com . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 367-6024
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65

www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Prince & Izant Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

www.princeizant.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 634-0437
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 25
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
RWMA/Resistance Welding Mfg. Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

www.aws.org/rwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267
Donaldson Torit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

www.donaldsontorit.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 365-1331
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC

www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
E. H. Wachs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
www.ehwachs.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 537-8800
Thermal Arc/Victor Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

www.victorthermaldynamics.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

www.electronbeam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 935-2211
Thermo Calc Software AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

www.thermocalc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(724) 731-0074
FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68, 99

www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Tweco/Victor Technologies International, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

www.tweco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
Fischer Engineering Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1750
TRUMPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
www.us.trumpf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487
Uniweld Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

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SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, OCTOBER 2013

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Application of Friction Stir Processing as a

Pretreatment to Fusion Welding
The pretreating technique resulted in an improved weld heat-affected zone
and weld metal microstructure in several nickel-based alloys
ABSTRACT
Friction stir processing (FSP) was applied as a pretreatment technique to modify
the base metal microstructure of nickel-based alloys, including Inconel Alloy 600
(IN600), Alloy 625, Alloy 718, and Hastelloy X. Microstructural analysis of gas tungsten arc (GTA) welds placed on pretreated Ni alloys indicates simultaneous refinement of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM), which is otherwise not
achievable using conventional techniques. The grain refinement resulting from FSP
resulted in increased epitaxial growth sites for the WM as well as up to a threefold reduction in near-fusion boundary (FB) HAZ grain size for IN600. Augmented strain
weldabilty testing of Alloy 625, Alloy 718, and Hastelloy X suggests HAZ liquation
cracking susceptibility was reduced as a result of FSP pretreatment. Alloy 718 showed
the highest degree of HAZ refinement (1.9 times untreated base material) and also
showed the greatest reduction in maximum HAZ crack length and total crack length.
Weld heat input was also shown to have an effect on the near-FB HAZ of pretreated
alloys. It can be expected that fusion weld parameters will have an effect on the efficacy of FSP pretreatment.
Introduction
Friction stir processing (FSP) is mechanistically similar to friction stir welding
(FSW); however, no weld is created in the
former. Friction stir processing utilizes the
microstructural changes resulting from severe plastic deformation beneath a rotating tool to locally modify the properties
and performance of metals. Some applications for FSP have included crack repair
or microstructural modification of fusion
welds. Several studies have investigated
using FSP as a post-arc welding technique
to reduce weld discontinuities and improve the weld mechanical properties of
various Al alloys (Refs. 1, 2) and NiAl
bronze (Ref. 3). However, very little attention has been focused on the prospect
of using FSP to modify base material microstructure such that weldability issues
such as hot cracking are reduced or elimiJ. R. RULE (James.r.rule@gmail.com), J. M.
RODELAS, and J. C. LIPPOLD are with Welding and Joining Metallurgy Group, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio.
nated for subsequent fusion welds. Friction stir processing pretreatment can be
used as an alternative conditioning
process for the rejuvenation of microstructures with deleterious features or
phases, thus enabling subsequent fusion
welding.
Naturally, welding in the solid state via
FSW is a simpler process than the combination of both FSP and fusion welding.
However, in some situations, using FSW
exclusively is not entirely practical, especially for high Tm materials. By nature of
the FSW process, joint geometries are limited to primarily butt and lap configura-
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Processing
Fusion Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Grain Refinement
Weldability
Nickel Alloy
tions. Other joint configurations require

complex fixturing and/or complex machine control schemes (Ref. 4). Additionally, high process forces experienced during FSW of high-Tm materials, especially
for thick sections, limits welding to only
very robust FSW machines with large associated workspace footprints. Such practical limitations hinder FSW capabilities
in the field. One can envision FSP pretreatment performed remotely to only
modify the microstructure where necessary, e.g., a portion of the workpiece that
is under high restraint, stress concentration, etc. The locally modified workpiece
can then be transported to the field after
FSP where final joining can be accomplished via conventional fusion welding
techniques.
To date, only a single study has investigated the utility of using FSP as a pretreatment for microstructural modification of subsequent fusion welds. The
unique work, by Mousavizade et al. (Ref.
5), focused on the effect of FSP pretreatment prior to laser welding of cast IN738.
The top ~1.5 mm of 5-mm-thick IN738
plate was friction stir processed. Following
FSP, the stir zone (SZ) region was laser
surface remelted. Any cracking that occurred during laser surface remelting was
the result of inherent mechanical restraint. The authors noted qualitative improvements in HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility due to increased material
homogeneity and refinement of liquationinducing microconstituents from FSP. The
HAZ of non-FSP IN738 contained many
cracks transversely oriented to the fusion
boundary. In contrast, the FSP-treated
material exhibited no cracks in the nearfusion boundary HAZ after laser surface
remelting. The authors suggest that constitutional liquation of coarse primary
and interdendritic - eutectic in the cast
base material was circumvented as a result
of FSP from breakdown and refinement of
WELDING JOURNAL 283-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY J. R. RULE, J. M. RODELAS, AND J. C. LIPPOLD
Fig. 1 Plan view photograph of FSP pretreated plate in as-tested condition. Placement of GTA spot weld is also indicated (red arrow). Note: Central portion of plate was polished to 600 grit after FSP to aid in post-spot
Varestraint test crack detection and measurement.
Fig. 2 Schematic of spot Varestraint test.
WELDING RESEARCH
fluenced by altering
the extent of growth
(Ref. 7) with increased growth site
density leading to decreased grain size.
Many studies have investigated the effects
of increasing the heterogeneous growth
site density to refine
WM grains by using
additions of inoculant
particles. Studies have
been performed in
several alloy systems
including
ferritic
Fig. 3 Example of crack measurement (20 magnification).
steels (Ref. 8), Al-ZnMg alloys (Ref. 9), and
Al-Li alloys (Ref. 10).
interdendritic eutectic constituent.
However, a significant downside to the
Beneficial changes resulting from prepractice of introducing inoculant particles
treatment are not limited to the HAZ and
is the alloy-specific change in chemistry
may also occur in the weld metal (WM) of
required for the base material or filler mapretreated material due to the refinement
terial. Additionally, the thermal stability
obtained from FSP. The WM grain strucof the particles makes the inoculation efture during arc welding is primarily confect somewhat dependent on the welding
trolled by epitaxial and preferred growth
parameters. For some applications where
from the fusion boundary with competiWM refinement is sought, a change in
tive growth dominating remote from the
alloy composition is not feasible, e.g., aufusion boundary (Ref. 6). Like a casting,
togenous welding. Noncompositional
the WM grain structure can be directly inmethods such as arc manipulation tech-
niques can also be used to change the extent of growth in fusion welds via several
mechanisms including decreased weld
pool temperature (Ref. 7). Example methods include electromagnetic stirring
(Refs. 1113), mechanical vibration (Refs.
11, 14), and AC pulsed current (Refs. 15,
16). These techniques have demonstrated
effectiveness in altering WM grain morphology. However, arc manipulation requires direct implementation of additional equipment, and adds complexity to
the welding processes. Furthermore, additional parameters such as arc oscillation
and current pulse frequency must be developed and controlled for different materials. Increasing growth site density by
grain refinement using FSP prior to fusion
welding is a promising straightforward
technique that does not require compositional or fusion welding process parameter alternations.
The objective of this work is to evaluate the effect of FSP pretreatment on the
microstructural evolution of subsequent
fusion welds. The effects of FSP pretreatment on the HAZ liquation susceptibility
for three HAZ liquation-susceptible Nibased alloys was investigated. For alloys
that included Alloy 625 (Ref. 17), Hastelloy X (Ref. 18), and Inconel 718 (Refs.
19, 20) prior studies have identified mech-
Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Examined Alloys

Alloy Composition (wt-%)
Alloy
Alloy 600
Alloy 625
Hastelloy X
Alloy 718
Ni
Cr
Fe
Mn
Al
Ti
Si
Other
bal.
bal.
bal.
53.2
16.07
21.61
21.28
18.10
9.00
3.67
19.15
bal.
0.24
0.26
0.64
0.22
0.20
0.17
0.19
0.48
0.20
0.28
0.18
0.14
0.30
0.08
0.05
0.20
0.072
0.051
0.12
<0.007
<0.015
<0.005
0.002
<0.001
<0.002
<0.002
Nb: 3.5, Mo: 8.61

Mo: 8.33, Co: 1.03, W: 0.49
Nb: 5.11
284-s OCTOBER 2013, VOL. 92
1.02
anisms by which solute and/or eutectic

constituents promote localized melting
and subsequent wetting and penetration
of grain boundaries in the partially melted
zone (PMZ) of the HAZ. Lastly, the effects of WM microstructural evolution in
FSP pretreated Inconel Alloy 600 was
also investigated.
Experimental Procedure
The nickel-alloy material utilized in
this study was in the form of plate nominally 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) thick. Table 1 lists
the chemical compositions for the investigated alloys. Samples used for friction stir
pretreatment measured nominally 3 6 in.
(76 152 mm). Friction stir processing was
performed on a gantry-style machine (Accustir, General Tool Corp., Cincinnati,
Ohio) that used a directly water-cooled
0.750-in. shoulder diameter W-25Re tool.
The tool pin was a featureless truncated
conical pin 0.125 in. in length. The partial
penetration nature of FSP resulted in a
stir-processed zone that was approximately half the thickness of the plate. The
length of the process region was approximately 80% of the sample length. High
process temperatures during FSP of Ni alloys necessitated the use of argon shielding to prevent oxidation of the workpiece
and the FSP tool.
Friction stir processing parameters, including the spindle rotation rate and traverse rate, were adjusted such that defectfree process zones were able to be
obtained. Table 2 shows the processing parameters used for FSP of the three HAZ
liquation-susceptible alloys. For Alloy
600, two process parameters were chosen
that represent the extremes of the processing window with respect to heat input,
i.e., high and low heat input. Friction stir
processing parameters for Alloy 600 are
also listed in Table 2.
Following FSP, autogenous gas tungsten
arc (GTA) welds were placed atop the FSP
material. Prior to arc welding, the samples
were cleaned with acetone. Arc welds were
placed on the top plate surface entirely
within the stir zone and made in the same
direction as the FSP traverse. A programmable GTA welding machine (Jetline Engineering, Inc., Model TKM-72-M, Irvine,
Calif.) was used with welding speed, current, and voltage of 1.57 mm/s (3.7 in./min),
110 A, 11 V, respectively.
The HAZ liquation susceptibility
of FSP pretreated
materials was evaluated using the
spot Varestraint
technique (Ref. Fig. 5 Inverse pole figure maps of IN600 along sample normal direction
21). Prior to test- (ND) for transverse cross sections of the following: A High-heat-input FSP;
ing,
pretreated B low-heat-input FSP; and C non-FSP base material. Dashed line deplates were ground notes the fusion boundary.
flat to facilitate
crack
detection
Specimens examined using LOM were
after testing Fig. 1. Figure 2 shows a
electrolytically etched using an aqueous
schematic of the spot Varestraint test. The
solution of 10% oxalic acid with a current
spot Varestraint test utilizes a GTA torch
density of 0.86 A/cm2 to reveal general mito create a spot weld on the test specimen
crostructure. A SEM (FEI, Model Quanta
(180 A, 20 s arc time) such that the circu200, Hillsboro, USA) equipped with an
lar spot weld was centered along the edge
EBSD camera was used for crystalloof the FSP SZ. Using this method, both
graphic orientation analyses. Electron
base material and FSP pretreated material
backscatter diffraction was used to gather
are tested simultaneously. After the spot
information regarding the distribution of
weld pool is stabilized, the arc is extincrystallographic orientations within the
guished and load is applied at a stroke rate
FSP and arc weld regions. Samples for
of 6 in./s (152 mm/s). The applied load deLOM and SEM/EBSD were mechanically
forms the sample around the die block
polished with the final step consisting of
with a predetermined radius thus imposvibratory polishing using colloidal silica.
ing a known level of strain. Strain levels
Maps generated from EBSD data were
ranging from 1 to 7% were evaluated.
used for measurements of grain size and
After Varestraint testing, any oxidation
grain boundary length. The ASTM linear
was removed using SiC grinding papers.
intercept method was utilized for LOM
Heat-affected zone cracks orthogonal to
grain size measurements. EBSD grain size
the fusion boundary were observed using
was determined using an equivalent area
a stereo microscope at 20 magnification.
method that determines an equivalent
Both total crack length (TCL) and maxigrain diameter based on the measured
mum crack length (MCL) values were
area of the grain. A grain tolerance angle
measured using stereo optical microscopy
of 5 deg was used to define a grain.
at a 20 magnification. All crack lengths
were measured perpendicular to the spot
Results and Discussion
weld fusion boundary as shown in Fig. 3.
Metallographic analysis was perCharacterization of Friction Stir
Processing Pretreatment of IN600
formed using a combination of techniques
including light optical microscopy (LOM),
Extremes in the IN600 processing winscanning electron microscopy (SEM), and
dow were selected to represent the gamut
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD).
Table 2 Friction Stir Processing Parameters for Investigated Alloys

Alloy
Alloy 600 High Heat Input
Alloy 600 Low Heat Input
Alloy 625
Hastelloy X
Alloy 718
Spindle Speed
(rev/min)
Tool Traverse
Speed (in./min)
150
100
100
160
100
2.0
4.5
2.5
2.0
2.0
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 4 Light optical micrograph of transverse cross section of GTAW place

on top of low-heat-input FSP run.
WELDING RESEARCH
treated BM. Clearly, FSP is a viable

method for inducing HAZ grain refinement and thereby reduce the severity of
grain coarsening of a base material before
fusion welding.
The HAZ grain size reduction obtainable using FSP pretreatment has the potential to improve fusion weldability issues
such as HAZ hot cracking. A number of
weldability studies have observed a relationship between near-fusion-boundary
HAZ grain size and liquation cracking
susceptibility. In a study by Thompson et
al., the HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility of Inconel Alloy 718 was shown to be
linearly dependent on grain size (Ref. 22).
The benefit of reduced hot cracking susceptibility with finer grain size is attributed to the increased grain boundary area
associated with smaller grains. Provided
the liquid wets the grain boundary, the
larger grain boundary area promotes the
spreading of liquid (assuming a constant
volume of liquid), thereby reducing the
thickness of liquid films present on the
boundary. The increased boundary area
along with liquid spread across a larger
boundary area reduces the strain concentration and crack susceptibility. Because
IN600 is not as susceptible to HAZ liquation cracking as other solid solutionstrengthened alloys with richer compositions, weldability testing of FSP
pretreated IN600 was not performed.
As-Friction Stir Processed Microstructure
of Liquation Cracking-Susceptible Alloys
Fig. 6 Optical micrograph showing grain size difference in the following: A Hastelloy X base metal;
B FSP stir zone (500 , 10% Oxalic); C Alloy 625 base metal; D FSP stir zone (500 , Lucass
reagent); E Alloy 718 base metal; F FSP stir zone (500, Oxalic).
of grain sizes obtainable via FSP. The highand low-heat input parameter combinations of 150 rev/min; 2 in./min and 100
rev/min; and 4.5 in./min, respectively,
were selected. All resulting stir zones were
representative projections of the FSP tool
having a truncated shape with SZ width of
~0.75 in. and depth of nearly 0.125 in.,
which correlates to the shoulder diameter
and length of the pin. The resulting IN600
SZs for high- and low-heat-input FSP runs
exhibited average SZ grain sizes of 15 and
9 m, respectively. For comparison, the
grain size of nonpretreated base material
was significantly larger, 54 m.
Following FSP, autogenous GTA welds
created directly atop the FSP SZ such that
welds were contained entirely within the
SZ and in the same direction the FSP traverse. Figure 4 shows a transverse cross
section of the autogenous GTA weld made
atop the FSP region. The size of the GTA
weld is such that the corresponding HAZ
still is located within the former SZ. For
both FSP heat inputs, coarsening of the
prior SZ is readily apparent. Compared to
the starting SZ grain size, the average

grain size in the HAZ along the fusion
boundary increased to the initial FSP
grain size by a factor of 4 to 5, depending
on the sample. The initial SZ grain differences resulting from the different parameter combinations did not have a significant effect on the resultant near-fusion
boundary HAZ grain size. While prior SZgrains coarsened as a result of the autogenous GTAW pass, near-fusion-boundary
grain size remained below 100 m, unlike
the untreated IN600 base material. Nearfusion-boundary grains for untreated base
material are several hundred microns in
diameter. Figure 5 shows EBSD inverse
pole figure maps of transverse sections
near the fusion boundary. The pole figure
maps clearly illustrate the difference in
near-fusion-boundary microstructure for
FSP and nonprocessed material with respect to grain size. Despite coarsening of
near-fusion-boundary grains from GTAW,
the FSP-pretreated samples exhibit grains
on average three times smaller than the
GTAW HAZ grains of the non-FSP pre-
Examination of stir zone material reveals considerable grain refinement relative

to the base metal for Hastelloy X, Alloy 625,
and Alloy 718 Fig. 6. Hastelloy X grain
size was reduced from 88 m in the base material to an average of 6 m. Similar grain
size refinement was also observed for both
Alloy 625 and 718 Fig. 6. Average base
metal grain size for Alloy 625 and Alloy 718
was 26 and 44 m, respectively. Compared
to the bimodal grain size distributions observed in Alloy 625 and 718 base material,
the distribution of grain size in the SZ was
considerably more uniform. Lastly, NbC
particle size appeared to be unchanged following FSP, suggesting such carbide constituents within the size range observed in
the base material (approximately 28 m)
are simply translated during stirring and are
not broken down mechanically.
Varestraint Testing of FSP
Pretreated Materials
The susceptibility to HAZ liquation

cracking was determined in terms of maximum crack length (MCL) and total crack
length (TCL) within the HAZ of the spot
weld created during Varestraint testing.
The MCL and TCL as a function of strain
for the three liquation-susceptible alloys
are shown in Fig. 7A, B, respectively.

Cracking behavior during spot Varestraint
testing was found to exhibit a threshold
behavior. The threshold strain to induce
cracking was found to exist between 1 and
2% strain. For material tested in the asreceived condition, the MCL and TCL
measurements suggest that HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility is most severe
for Alloy 718 followed by Alloy 625 and
Hastelloy X. This observation is consistent
with thermodynamic predictions of the solidification temperature range (STR).
Thermocalc was used to predict the STR
using equilibrium as well as the ScheilGulliver model, which assumes complete
mixing of solute in the liquid and no diffusion in the solid. Table 3 lists the predicted
STR for the three tested alloys. As with
the trends in observed magnitude of maximal crack length and frequency, thermodynamic predictions show the largest STR
for Alloy 718 followed by Alloy 625 and,
lastly, Hastelloy X.
For all three tested alloys at all tested
levels of stain, FSP pretreatment decreased the MCL. The reduction in observed MCL is attributed to the reduction
in near-FB HAZ grain size as a result of
FSP pretreatment. The long (20 s) dwell of
the spot weld created during the Varestraint test results in coarsening of the
original fine grains formed during FSP.
However, despite the expected coarsening, near-fusion-boundary grains in FSP
pretreated alloys remain 1.9, 1.6, and 1.5
times smaller than nonpretreated base
material for Alloy 718, Alloy 625, and
Hastelloy X, respectively. Interestingly,
large differences exist in the susceptibilities as measured via spot Varestraint testing for the tested alloys in spite of similar
near-fusion-boundary grain size after pretreatment. Such differences are related to
the inherent differences in alloy composi-
tion that lead to varied inherent liquation susceptibility.

The largest decrease
in MCL was observed for Alloy 718.
Pretreatment via
FSP decreased the
MCL by as much as
30%. The greatest
overall
improvement in MCL was
observed for Alloy
718, which is inherently the most prone
to HAZ liquation
cracking. Reduction
in MCL was also observed for Alloy 625; Fig. 8 Arc weld HAZ grain size response to heat input. Solid lines represent
however, to a lesser FSP material and dashed lines represent base material.
degree than Alloy
718. Similar liquating
constituents
creased as a result of the FSP pretreat(NbC and Ni3Nb (Ref. 23)) present in
ment. Like the value for MCL, the degree
Alloy 718 are also present in Alloy 625 alof improvement was largely dependent
though present in smaller quantities due
not only on the applied strain level, but
to the leaner alloy composition of Alloy
also the alloy system. The greatest im625 with respect to Nb. Hastelloy X, which
provement was realized with Alloy 718.
contains liquating constituent phases inTotal crack length for Alloy 718 was recluding (M23C6, M6C, Laves, and P Phase)
duced by as much as 25%. For Alloy 625,
(Refs. 18, 24, 25) shows the smallest rewhich has liquation cracking susceptibility
duction in MCL after FSP pretreatment.
that lies between Alloy 718 and Hastelloy
As with the measured MCL, values obX, only demonstrated a maximum imtained for TCL as a function of strain de-
Table 3 Computed Solidification Temperature Ranges for Examined Alloys

Alloy
100% Liquid
Temperature (C)
100% Solid
Temperature (C)
Difference (C)
Hastelloy X
Alloy 625
Alloy 718
1387
1354
1355
1329
1267
1220
58
87
135
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Spot Varestraint results. A Maximum crack length; B total crack length as a function of applied strain for Hastelloy X, Alloy 625, and Alloy 718.
shown in Fig. 9A, B for FSP and untreated

Hastelloy X base materials, respectively. As
with the IN600 results discussed previously,
the prior SZ grains are coarsened significantly (initial Hastelloy X FSP SZ grain size
was 6 m for material processed using 180
rev/min, 2 in./min). Although the SZ grains
have coarsened as a result of GTAW, they
remain smaller than the untreated base material, which exhibits near-fusion-boundary
grains five times larger than the FSP-pretreated condition. For applications such as
repair welding of coarse-grained base materials, FSP pretreatment is a viable solution for local refinement of resulting fusion
weld microstructures.
Weld Metal Refinement Via
FSP Pretreatment
Fig. 9 Inverse pole figure maps along the fusion boundary for the following: A FSP pretreated; B
untreated Hastelloy X base material. Sample sectioned and examined along the ND-RD plane.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 10 Inverse pole figure maps along sample normal direction (ND) for plan view sections of IN600.
A High-heat input FSP; B low-heat-input FSP; C non-FSP base material. Dashed line denotes
weld metal fusion boundary with fusion zone to the left of the line.
provement in TCL of approximately 15%.

Interestingly, the measured TCL at intermediate strains was actually higher for
FSP pretreated material vs. the base material. Although in some instances the
TCL is higher for the FSP pretreated material, the MCL for pretreated Hastelloy
X is lower for all tested strain levels. Such
a result suggests the refinement resulting
from the pretreatment leads to the presence of more numerous cracks albeit ones
with smaller dimensions.
The high heat input of the 180-A GTA
spot weld held for 20 s leads to significant
coarsening of the FSP pretreated microstructure. Linear GTA welds on pretreated materials were made using welding
heat input parameters that are more representative of conditions used for actual joining applications. Near-FB grain size was
measured for welds with heat input values
ranging from 19.2 to 28.8 kJ/in. (0.761.13

kJ/mm). For all examined heat inputs, the
near-FB HAZ grain size for all three liquation-susceptible alloys remained smaller
than nonpretreated base materials Fig. 8.
Consistent with Varestraint measurements,
Alloy 718 showed the greatest improvement, especially when using a higher heat
input welding parameter, with up to a sixfold reduction in near-FB HAZ using FSP
pretreatment. Microstructural examination
of linear GTA welds on pretreated Hastelloy X shows clearly the degree of grain refinement resulting from the autogenous linear GTA weld (28.8 kJ/in.) relative to the
comparatively higher heat input spot Varestraint test material (180-A arc for 20 s),
does not result in the same extent of destruction of FSP grain refinement. Inverse
pole figure maps demonstrating the grain
refinement resulting from a linear weld is
Also apparent in the orientation maps

shown in Fig. 5, the weld metal (WM) grain
size is reduced along with the HAZ grain
size as a result of the FSP pretreatment. Because the growth of solidification grains in
the WM occurs epitaxially (Refs. 26, 27), an
increase in growth sites associated with finer
grains along the fusion boundary will decrease the WM grain size. The effect of increased epitaxial growth resulting from
finer grains is mechanistically analogous to
other techniques used to increase heterogeneous growth in welds (Ref. 27).
The effect of FSP processing parameters (i.e., the effect of starting grain size)
was examined using EBSD orientation
maps of WM plan sections Fig. 10. The
extent of grain refinement within the WM
for the FSP pretreated base material is
readily apparent compared to the asreceived base material. Figure 11A shows
the difference in measured WM grain size
using EBSD for the low and high FSP heat
input parameters compared to the asreceived base material. Interestingly, despite the differences in starting grain size
for the two different FSP heat input conditions prior to arc welding, the average
WM grain size was quite similar for both
FSP parameter combinations. Due to the
relatively small EBSD scan area and the
highly columnar nature of WM grains,
measurements of total grain boundary
length using EBSD more clearly demonstrates the extent of WM microstructural
modification by FSP. Neglecting solidification subgrain (cell and dendrite) boundaries, WM microstructures examined
were almost entirely comprised of high
angle grain boundaries (> 10-deg misorientation). Total boundary length measurements for the three conditions are shown
in Fig. 11B. The WM formed from the
low-heat-input FSP condition demonstrated 455% higher total grain boundary
length compared to non-FSP base material. Compared to the high-heat-input FSP
condition, the low-heat-input FSP condi-
Fig. 11 A Average WM grain size as measured by EBSD; B average WM grain boundary length for untreated and FSP pretreated IN600.
Fig. 12 A Optical micrograph of plan view section of GTA spot weld along FSP SZ/BM boundary in Ti-5111; B higher magnification view near boundary between FSP pretreated and untreated base material. Microstructure revealed using Krolls etchant.
tion exhibited slightly higher total grain

boundary length (along with average grain
size) likely due to the difference in starting SZ grain size. This refinement of WM
grains can be directly attributed to the
greater extent of epitaxial growth sites and
resulting competitive growth of WM
grains from refined fusion boundary
grains created by FSP pretreatment.
Face-centered cubic materials such as
IN600 do not exhibit strong grain size dependence for Hall-Petch strengthening
(Ref. 28). Hardness measurements of the
low- and high-heat-input FSP conditions
were 73 and 70 HRB, respectively. Without FSP prior to arc welding, the measured WM hardness was 69 HRB. Although large strength improvements are
not expected from the extent of weld
metal refinement obtained via FSP pretreatment, other mechanical properties
such as ductility are expected to improve
with increased weld metal grain refinement. As with the HAZ, refinement of
WM microstructure has the potential to
more effectively accommodate liquid
present at grain boundaries as well as reduce grain boundary stress concentrations (Ref. 24). As a result, numerous
weldability issues such as weld metal liquation (for multipass welds), ductility
dip cracking, and strain age or reheat
cracking (in multipass welds) can poten-
tially by minimized (Refs. 24, 29) via reductions in WM grain size.

FSP Pretreatment in Other
Material Systems
Fiction stir processing pretreatment for

HAZ and WM refinement is not limited to
Ni-alloy systems. Other systems that are
prone to significant coarsening of HAZ and
WM microstructure resulting from fusion
welding are expected to have a similar benefit. Titanium alloys, for example, are especially susceptible to severe coarsening of
weld metal grains (prior beta grain size).
For applications requiring good resistance
to fatigue crack initiation resistance, large
grains sizes are detrimental to performance
(Ref. 30). To reduce coarsening, solid-state
joining techniques such as FSW have an advantage with respect to preventing severe
grain growth. However, because FSW cannot be applied universally, FSP pretreatment before fusion welding may be advantageous. Figure 12 shows a plan-view
section of FSP Ti-5111 (a near- alloy) with
a spot weld placed such that one half is contained within the fine-grained SZ (Ti-5111
SZ grain size 12 m) and the other half is
contained within the HAZ, which is comprised of very coarse prior grains similar
to the parent -processed microstructure.
On the FSP side of the spot weld, the near-
fusion boundary prior grains are significantly coarsened; however, the grains remain considerably smaller than those on the
non-FSP side. The smaller grains on the
FSP side resulted in increased epitaxial
growth sites and an increase in refinement
compared to the adjacent side of the spot
weld. Weld metal grains solidified from the
FSP-pretreated material were reduced in
size by nearly an order of magnitude larger
in average diameter.
Conclusions
Friction stir processing as a viable
method for the modification of fusion
weld microstructures was successfully
demonstrated. Refinement of both weld
metal and HAZ grain size was achieved by
friction stir processing of the base metal
prior to fusion welding by autogenous
GTAW. As a result of the HAZ thermal excursion from arc welding, fine grains of the
FSP stir zone were coarsened by a factor
as high as eight depending on location
within the HAZ. However, HAZ grains
near the fusion boundary for stirprocessed material still remained smaller
than the base material by a factor of three,
depending on alloy system. Heat-affectedzone grain refinement can be expected to
have several practical benefits, especially
related to the weldability of hot-crackingWELDING JOURNAL 289-s
WELDING RESEARCH
WELDING RESEARCH
susceptible materials. For liquation-prone

Ni-alloy systems examined (Alloy 625,
Hastelloy X, and Alloy 718), HAZ liquation cracking susceptibility was found to
be diminished as a result of the refinement
produced when base materials are FSP
pretreated prior to fusion welding. The
greatest reduction in MCL and TCL as determined via Varestraint testing was observed in Alloy 718, the alloy that retained
the finest grain size after welding.
Within the weld metal, grain size was
also reduced as a result of FSP. Average
grain size did not vary greatly with changes
in FSP heat input. The smaller grains
along the fusion boundary for stir
processed material increased the epitaxial
growth site density, resulting in more competitive grain growth forming finer weld
metal grains. The total grain boundary
length (area) was increased significantly
(455%) for stir-processed material compared to non-FSP base material. As with
the refined HAZ microstructure, weldability and mechanical properties of the
weld metal are expected to be improved
provided heat input is sufficiently low to
prevent excessive coarsening. The applicability of FSP pretreatment was also
demonstrated for other Ni-based alloys as
well as a titanium alloy.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Air

Force Research Lab through Universal
Technology Corp. Grant #09-S568-06701-C1. We wish to thank our project manager at AFRL, Dr. Rollie Dutton, for his
support and encouragement. Friction stir
processing was conducted at EWI with the
help of Seth Shira.
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Influences of Laser Spot on High-Speed

Welding for Cr-Plated Sheet
Both 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick samples were tested with
a combination of focus and cylindrical lenses at different speeds
ABSTRACT
Focusing on thin sheet high-speed laser welding, this study used 0.19- and 0.21mm-thick, chromium-plated sheet as the research object and studied influences of
the elongated spot length on the thin sheet laser welding speed when adopting butt
joint welding by different focus elongated spot patterns from both theoretical and experimental points of view. It showed from the test result that compared with the normal spot pattern, the welding speed was increased by 41.6% for 0.19-mm-thick,
chromium-plated sheet when the laser power was 1.5 kW and elongated spot length
was 4.3 mm, while the welding speed was increased by 30.5% for 0.21-mm-thick,
chromium-plated sheet upon elongated spot butt joint welding. Furthermore, compared with the normal spot pattern, sagging of the weld joint end face resulted by the
elongated spot would be greatly reduced. Thus, it was clear that the welding speed
for the thin sheet could be increased with the weld joint quality improved when the
suitable elongated spot pattern was adopted.
Introduction
Chromium-plated sheet has a high melting point for the coating and requires a high
welding speed. Due to high resistivity of the
chromium layer, conventional resistance
welding could not guarantee weld quality
and speed. Compared with traditional welding methods, laser welding is a high-energydensity welding process with high welding
speed, high efficiency, small deformation,
and good weld quality.
Cao et al. (Ref. 1) found that the fusion
zone area and width decreased with increasing welding speed, the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) width was very narrow ranging
from 0.2 to 0.5 mm and decreased with increasing welding speed, and the loss of ductility was mainly due to the presence of micropores and aluminum oxides.
Capello and Hong et al. (Refs. 2, 3)
found that preheat treatment before welding and postheat treatment after welding
showed a reduction of microfissures and improved tensile and fatigue properties.
Png et al. (Ref. 4) studied Q-switch
Nd:YAG laser welding of 60 m thin foils of
AISI 304 stainless steel and found that imJ. ZHAN (zhanjian@imech.ac.cn) and M. J.
YANG are with the Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
proved aesthetics, reduced porosity, improved energy efficiency, and absence of

hot cracking/thermal distortion were the
chief benefits observed in laser welding over
resistance seam welding.
Sharma et al. (Ref. 5) evaluated the
size and shape variability of weld zones for
laser welded, advanced high-strength
steels with various combinations of types,
coatings, and thicknesses, as well as researched laser welding for different thickness sheets and studied weld shape by altering laser parameters.
Tan et al. (Ref. 6) studied the effect of
laser parameters on the weld quality and
considered that surface roughness Ra had
an influence on the fraction of energy absorbed, therefore affecting penetration
depth, and also found the higher power
KEYWORDS
Laser Welding
Chromium-Plated Sheet
Elongated Spot
Welding Speed
density produced a stronger weld joint.

Y. Zhao (Ref. 7) found that in a root
opening free, lap joint configuration of 0.4mm-thick, galvanized SAE1004 steel
sheets, severe spatter and porosity were
produced in the welds, and a prescribed
root opening was needed to vent the pressurized zinc vapor and then obtain an acceptable joint. Experiments validated that
the desired high-quality welds can be
achieved using the optimal parameters.
F. Kong (Ref. 8) found that the keyhole
dynamic behavior as well as liquid flow in
the molten pool depended directly on the
behavior of zinc vapor at the faying surface,
an increase in welding speed could cause a
slight reduction in the plasma spectrum intensity and would decrease the depth of
weld penetration, plus the depth of weld
penetration would increase if the zinc coating was removed.
J. P. Coelho (Ref. 9) studied the influence of the dimensions of the laser beam
spot on weld strength and found that the
weld tensile strength could be increased by
defocusing the beam. Getting a line spot
by using a cylindrical lens could overcome
that the maximum laser power available had
a limit, while as the area of the laser spot on
the sample increased, more power was necessary to achieve the critical specific energy
required for a good weld.
Y. Shi (Ref. 10) studied the lap welding
of JSC270CC steel and A6111-T4 aluminum alloys by a dual-beam YAG laser
with the continuous wave (CW) and pulse
wave (PW) modes, and found that the dualbeam laser welding could effectively reduce
or avoid the formation of blowholes in the
welded joints.
As the requirement for welding speed
improved and laser power increased, some
weld defects, such as melt through and
concavity, would be experienced when
laser welding thin sheet, approximately 0.2
mm thick. It would have important, promising applications to carry out research on
high-speed laser welding for thin sheet.
However, at the present time, research in
WELDING RESEARCH
BY J. ZHAN AND M. J. YANG
Fig. 1 Laser welding surface appearance. A Front side; B the back. Laser power density is 6.97 105 W/cm2, welding speed is 45 m/min.
material did not strongly vaporize under the

action of the laser when b had a lower limit,
i.e., a minimum value.
The Formation Mechanism of

Columnar Spot
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of columnar laser spot welding. A Cylindrical lens behind focusing
mirror; B cylindrical mirror in front of focusing mirror.
such field is insufficient.

Based on the characteristics of welding
for thin sheet, this research analyzed and
studied how the quality of the weld jointwould be influenced by the laser space distribution during high-power laser welding.
It did this through adjustment and control
of the laser parameters in the course of a
welding test where the elongated spot pattern was realized, through a combination of
cylindrical and focusing lenses.
Working Principle of
Elongated Spot
Since 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick sheets
were adopted as the test subjects, some defects, such as humping, might occur in the
weld where the density of the laser power
was too high (refer to Fig. 1). With regard
to 0.20-mm-thick sheet, the laser welding
was mainly realized through the adjustment
of input power density and action time of
the laser.
Assume that laser action time was t1 = 2
r/v, wherein r was the laser spot radius and v

was the welding speed, and the thermal conductivity depth of laser was h1 = t1
wherein was the thermal diffusivity coefficient with the laser focusing spot to be 2r
b elongated spot, the power density would
be F2 = P/(r2 + 2r (b 2r)).
The laser action time was t2 = b/v and
thermal conductivity depth h2 = t2,
wherein b was the length of the major axis
of the columnar spot. Assume the major
axis b = 4r, and the ratio of the laser power
density was F2/F1 = /(4 + ) = 0.44, the
laser action time ratio t2/t1 = 2, and the heat
conduction depth ratio h2/h1 = 1.414. The
purpose for focusing the laser beams into an
elongated spot was to increase the laser action time and laser penetration rate under
the premise of maintaining the material
melting and welding speeds. Here, the
columnar spot b needed to meet two conditions. One was that the material should be
melted under the laser action when the
value of b had an upper limit, i.e., reached
the maximum value. The other was that the
Based on the characteristics of cylindrical lens focuses only in one direction, a

cylindrical lens and focusing mirror were
used in combination to change the focal
length of the two lenses as well as their relative positions to generate focused columnar spots of different sizes. The schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
D0 was the diameter of the incident light
beam after passing the collimator lens, f1
the focal length of the focusing lens, f2 the
focal length of the cylindrical lens, and a the
spacing of the two lenses. If the focusing
lens was in front of the cylindrical lens, as
shown in Fig. 2A, then in the x direction, the
combined focal length of the two lenses
could be obtained from equation 1:
f = f1 f2 / (f1 + f2 a)
(1)
The distance from the focus to the cylindrical lens was given by 2:
EFL = f (1 a/f1)
(2)
Put 1 into 2, and we get:

EFL = (f1 a) f2 / (f1 + f2 a)
(3)
In the y direction, the cylindrical lens did

not have focusing effect, and the spot size b
could be obtained according to the triangle
similar relationship by 4:
b = (f1 a)2 D0 / [(f1 + f2 a) f1] (4)
As shown in Fig. 2B, when the focusing
mirror was behind the cylindrical lens, EFL,
the distance from the focal point to the focusing mirror, and the elongated spot
length b could be obtained from 5 and 6, respectively:
Table 1 Laser Parameters

Laser Power
(kW)
1.5
Fiber Diameter
(mm)
0.6
Focal Length of
Focal Length of
Collimating Lens (mm Focusing Lensmm
86
100
EFL =(f2 a) f1 / (f1 + f2 a)
(5)
b = f1 D0 / (f1 + f2 a)
(6)
The value of the minor axis of the elon-
Fig. 3 Laser focused on the workpiece through focusing lens/cylindrical lens.
Laser Welding Experiments

Laser Welding Equipment
Fig. 4 Laser focused through cylindrical lens/focusing lens onto the workpiece.
gated focus spot was calculated by the following equation:

d = d0 f / f3
(7)
Where d0 was the diameter of the fiber,

f3 was the focal length of the collimating
lens, and if the laser spot was a circular focus
spot, f was the focal length of the focus lens.
In this test, the following values were given:
d0 = 0.6, f1 = 100 mm, f2 = 200 mm, f3 = 86
mm, and a = 40 mm, so the diameter of the
elongated focus spot was 0.54 mm, if only
using f1 = 100 mm without the cylindrical
lens, the diameter of the circular focus spot
was 0.70 mm.
Adjustment of b, the value of the
columnar spot length, could be realized by
changing the value of f1, f2, and a. Figure
3 shows the size of a focused spot formed
on the workpiece after going through the
focusing lens/cylindrical lens with the
curve reflecting the change of working distance with the spacing between lenses in
the combination and focal length of the
cylindrical lens. Figure 4 shows the size of
a focused spot formed on the workpiece
after going through the cylindrical lens/focusing lens with the curve reflecting the
change of working distance with the spacing between lenses in the combination and
focal length of the cylindrical lens,
wherein, D0 = 30 mm.
When the focal length of the cylindrical
lens was increased, the focused spot length

of combination lens was decreased, while
the working distance of the laser butt joint
welding was increased. As shown in Fig. 3,
when the laser beams first went through the
focusing lens and then the cylindrical lens,
the lengths of the focusing spot and welding
working distance were reduced as the spacing of the two lenses increased. As shown in
Fig. 4, when the laser beams first passed
through a cylindrical lens and then the focusing lens, the length of the focusing spot
was increased as the spacing of the two
lenses increased, while the welding working
distance was reduced. Compared to Fig. 3,
the change was not significant. In this experiment, a combination consisting of a
cylindrical lens with focal length 200 mm
and focusing lens with focal length 100 mm,
plus the 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick, chromeplated sheets, were used to study the improvement of laser energy distribution with
columnar spot and speed increase of the
laser butt joint welding by prolonging the
time of laser action.
Figure 5 shows the laser welding equipment. For the laser, a continuous YAG
semiconductor laser was used with a maximum power of 2 kW, wavelength of 1064
nm, in addition to a focus lens with a focal
length of 100 mm.
Laser Welding Experiments
A 1.5-kW laser was used for butt joint

welding a 0.19-mm, Cr-plated sheet of a certain base material. The combined cylindrical lens with a focal length of 200 mm and a
focusing lens with focal length of 100 mm
adjusted the spatial distribution of the focusing spot to implement laser welding with
a spot of a different length b Fig. 2. The
parameters of the laser are shown in Table
1 and that of the focusing mirror set in Table
2. The first parameter applied to a focusing
laser beam through cylindrical lens/focusing
lens on the workpiece, and the second parameter applied to focusing a laser beam
through the focusing lens/cylindrical lens on
the workpiece.
Three different focusing crafts were
used. First was a focusing lens with a focal
length of 100 mm to directly focus the
laser beam on the workpiece surface. The
Table 2 Parameters of the Combination of Lens

No.
a (mm)
f (mm)
EFL (mm)
b (mm)
1
2
20
40
71
77
64
46
10.7
4.3
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Laser welding equipment used in the

study.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 6 Surface appearance of weld from laser butt joint welding.
maximum speed of butt joint welding was

18.5 m/min and a weld width of 1 mm.
The appearance of the weld surface is
shown in Fig. 6A and B, wherein A is the
front side of the weld and B the back. Second was a cylindrical lens/focus lens to
aim the laser beam onto the workpiece.
The parameters of the combination lens
is shown in No. 1, Table 2. The maximum
speed of butt joint welding was 23.1
m/min, weld width 0.85 mm, and the
width of HAZ 0.25 mm. The weld surface
appearance is shown in Fig. 6C and D,
wherein C was the front side and D the
back. Third was the focusing lens/cylin-
drical lens to aim the laser beam on the

workpiece. The parameters for the combination lens is shown in No. 2, Table 2.
The maximum butt joint welding speed
was 26.2 m/min with weld width 0.65 mm.
The weld surface appearance is shown in
Fig. 6E and F, where E was the front side
and F the back.
With respect to no application of cylindrical lens, the welding speed could be increased by 41.6% when the columnar spot
length was 5.4 mm, while the columnar spot
length was 10.7 mm, the welding speed
could be increased by 24.8%. Therefore,
compared to the ordinary laser spot weld-
Table 3 Parameters and Experimental Results for Combination of Lens

No.
f2
(mm)
a
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
1000
500
200
200
200
30
30
40
30
20
b
Welding Speed
(mm)
(m/min)
2.2
2.6
4.3
5.4
10.7
19.3
20.8
26.2
24.6
23.1
Remarks
Focusing mirror close to the welding workpiece

Cylindrical lens close to the welding workpiece
ing, the columnar spot could have a higher

welding speed.
Results and Analysis

Influence of Columnar Spot on
Welding Speed when Cylindrical Lens
with Various Focal Lengths is
Combined with a Focusing Mirror
Welding a chrome-plated sheet was

carried out the same as in the laser welding experiments section using a laser with
a power of 1.5 kW. Laser parameters are
shown in Table 1. The focal length of the
focusing lens with f1 = 100 mm, plus cylindrical lens with focal lengths of 200, 500,
and 1000 mm, were combined with a 100mm focusing lens, respectively, and the
parameters as well as welding test results
are shown in Table 3.
Just like in that sections experiment,
when only 100-mm focusing lens was used,
the 1.5-kW laser welding speed was 18.5
m/min, indicating that the welding speed
could be increased through a cylindrical
lens. Maximum welding speed was obtained with a columnar spot of 4.3 mm.
Laser Welding Experiment on the
0.21-mm Sheet
Fig. 7 A cross-sectional view of the weld.
Fig. 8 The end face depression contrast. A Ordinary spot; B columnar spot.
columnar spot mode, the degree of protuberance or recesses on the weld (see 2 and
4 in Fig. 7) was significantly smaller than
that on the weld without using a cylindrical
lens (see 1 and 3 in Fig. 7). This was because
with columnar spot mode, the beam energy
became uniform and the formation of weld
pool during the welding process became
stable without material strongly vaporizing
or impact, improving the weld quality. It
could be seen that columnar spot reduced
the projections and recesses of the welds,
reducing weld defects, as also reported by
A. Haboudou (Ref. 11), who found that
dual spot welding would significantly reduce the porosity rate because dual spot
welding had a stabilizing effect on the weld
pool.
Weld End-Face Experiment
When comparing the end surface depression by ordinary light and columnar
light spots, it was found that the depression by ordinary spot laser welding measures 0.8 mm in length, as shown in Fig.
8A, while the depression left by columnar
spot laser welding was almost invisible.
Use of a columnar spot in laser welding
could reduce or eliminate the depression
on the end face of the weld and improve
weld quality.
Tensile Test and Cupping Test
A tensile test was carried out on the

welded 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick, chrome-
Table 4 Columnar Spot Contrast Test on 0.21-mm-Thick Chrome Plate

No.
f2 (mm)
a (mm)
Welding Speed (m/min)
Remarks
1
2
200
200
40
30
23.1
20.0

WELDING RESEARCH
Butt joint welding experiments were

made using a 200-mm cylindrical lens and
a 100-mm focusing lens, respectively,
welding base material 0.21 mm in thickness, and laser power of 1.5 kW. The relationship between welding speed and parameters of the lens combination were
obtained, as shown in Table 4.
When a cylindrical lens was not used,
after focusing at a focal length of 100 mm,
the maximal speed of laser welding was
16.918.5 m/min, averaged at 17.7 m/min.
When a cylindrical lens with a focal length
of 200 mm was used, if parameter 1 in
Table 4 was used, the columnar spot was
4.3 mm, and the maximum welding speed
was 23.1 m/min. Compared to a circular
spot, which was not used, the welding
speed was increased by 30.5%. If parameter 2 was used, the maximum welding
speed was 20.0 m/min. Compared to the
circular spot, the welding speed was increased by 13.0%.
In the working principle of elongated
spot and formation mechanism of columnar
spot sections, the effect of cylindrical lens
increasing butt joint welding speed (41.6%)
for 0.19-mm sheet through a test was made.
It was found that without increasing laser
power, the thinner the welded base material, the more obvious the effect of the
columnar spot.
In Fig. 7, laser parameters for No. 14
were as follows:
1. Focusing mirror with focal length of
100 mm, workpiece thickness of 0.21 mm
100 mm was put close to the workpiece
and combined with a cylindrical lens with
focal length of 200 mm, workpiece with
thickness of 0.21 mm
100 mm, workpiece thickness of 0.19 mm
100 mm was put close to the workpiece and
combined with a cylindrical lens with focal
length of 200 mm, workpiece with thickness
of 0.19 mm.
After etching the weld structure, it was
observed after laser welding that the depression value of parameters 1 and 3 in Fig.
7 was about 10% of the sheet thickness (in
Fig. 7, thickness of specimens 1 and 2 was
0.21 mm; that of 3 and 4 was 0.19 mm). With
4. When the laser input power remained

the same, the thinner the welding base material, the greater the contribution of
columnar spot to welding speed.
5. Through cross-section corrosion of
the weld, it was found that after improving
the beam mode of the columnar spot, raised
or sunken welds were significantly reduced.
Compare the result with weld ports depression, and we found that welding with cylindrical lens basically eliminates end face depression and improves weld quality.
6. Through a weld tensile test, none of
the breaks found occurred in the weld
area, indicating that the weld strength was
higher than the base material. Compared
to the result with a cupping test, it was
found that use of the cylindrical lens improved the cupping value, i.e., the quality
of welds.
References
Fig. 9 Tensile test rig.
Fig. 10 Tensile test results in blocks.
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 5 Cupping Test Results

No.
Welding Speed
m/min
Weld Cupping Value

(mm)
Thickness
mm
1
2
3
4
17.7
23.1
18.5
21.6
5.39
5.59
5.11
5.76
0.21
0.21
0.19
0.19
plated sheets under different laser parameters for laser butt joint welding to test the
yield strength of the weld joints. The tensile
test rig (5 kN) is shown in Fig. 9 and the tensile specimens in Fig. 10. All the fractures
were plastic fractures at locations other
than the welds.
The tensile test in Fig. 10 indicated the
tensile strength of the weld exceeded that of
the base material. An Erichsen cup test was
used for reflecting the plastic properties of
the weld. Table 5 shows the cupping test results of various laser parameters with weld
test blocks of which No. 14 was defined in
Fig. 7 of the laser welding experiment on the
0.21-mm sheet section. From the cupping
test results, it could be seen that the cupping
values of welds were greater after using
columnar spot. Compared with laser welds
using an ordinary spot, in the cases of 0.19
and 0.21 mm, the cupping values of laser
welds resultant from using a columnar spot
were found to have increased by 12.7 and
3.7%, respectively. The cupping value was
the pressed depth value of a spherical punch
when the first crack appeared on the specimen by pressing the test specimen with the
weld, which reflected the plastic properties
of the material. After going through a cylindrical lens, the beam pattern of the columnar spot was improved, and the laser energy
concentrated at the center of the weld was
reduced, thus reducing weld defects and enhancing weld quality.
Conclusion
In previous work, the relationship between laser spot mode and welding speed in
high-speed welding was investigated. By
metallographic analysis of the shape of the
molten weld pool, tensile test, and cupping
test, the influence of laser parameters on
weld quality was studied. The following conclusions were reached:
1. For 0.19-mm-thick, chrome-plated
sheet, the laser beam was passed through
the focus lens/cylindrical lens (speed 26.2
m/min) and cylindrical lens/focus lens
(speed 23.1 m/min). Compared to not using
a cylindrical lens (speed 18.5 m/min), the
welding speed was increased by 41.6 and
24.8%, respectively.
2. In the case of 0.19-mm-thick, chromeplated sheet, maximum welding speed (26.2
m/min) was obtained when the columnar
spot was 4.3 mm, at laser input of 1.5 kW.
3. For butt joint welding experiments on
0.21-mm-thick, chrome-plated sheet, with
the laser power at 1.5 kW, the maximum
welding speed was 17.7 m/min when the
cylindrical lens was not used and 23.1 m/min
when a combination of cylindrical lenses
were used, reflecting an increase of 30.5%.
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welding speed on butt joint quality of Ti6Al4V
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Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Deposits:

Effects of Shielding Gas and
Postweld Heat Treatment
Detailed are the results as CO2 content in the shielding gas increased,
plus the postweld heat treatment utilized in this work
ABSTRACT
Welding supermartensitic stainless steel plays a crucial role in structural components, influencing their toughness and resistance to sulfide stress cracking. Postweld heat treatment (PWHT) adjusts the final properties of the weldments, bearing
on microstructural evolution. The objective of this work was to study the effects of
different shielding gas mixtures and PWHT on supermartensitic stainless steel allweld-metal properties. Three all-weld-metal test coupons were prepared according
to standard ANSI/AWS A5.22:95, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding and Stainless Steel Flux Cored Rods for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding, using a 1.2-mm-diameter tubular, metal-cored wire under Ar-5% He, Ar-2%
CO2, and Ar-18% CO2 gas shielding mixtures in the flat position with a nominal
heat input of 1 kJ mm1. The PWHT used was 650C for 15 min. All-weld metal
chemical composition analysis, metallurgical characterization, hardness and tensile property measurements, and Charpy V-notch tests were carried out. It was
found that as CO2 increased in the shielding gas C, O, and N contents increased as
well as mechanical properties varied; hardness and ultimate tensile strength increased, and toughness decreased. The PWHT improved toughness. Technological
property of the consumable was also studied.
Introduction
Over the years, 13% Cr steel has been
widely accepted in the oil country tubular
goods (OCTG) segment because of its
good corrosion resistance. The use of
13% Cr steel is recognized as a standard
countermeasure to corrosion attack initiated by carbon dioxide in oil and gas
welds. However, conventional type 12
13% Cr steel has not been utilized so
much in line pipe because of its relatively
S. ZAPPA (zappasebastian@hotmail.com) is
with the Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering, University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos
Aires, Argentina. H. G. SVOBODA is with the
Materials and Structures Laboratory, Faculty of
Engineering, Intecin, University of Buenos Aires,
Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E. S. SURIAN
is with the Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engineering, University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos
Aires and Deytema, Regional Faculty of San
Nicols, National Technological University, San
Nicols, Argentina.
bad weldability, which requires preheating prior to welding and postweld heat
treatment (PWHT) (Ref. 1).
Recently, supermartensitic stainless
steels (SMSS) have been developed as an
attractive technical alternative to highstrength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels mainly
in applications related to the oil and gas
industry (Refs. 2, 3). Welding these materials plays a crucial role in structural components, influencing their weldability,
toughness, and resistance to sulfide stress
KEYWORDS
Supermartensitic Stainless
Steel
Shielding Gas
Postweld Heat Treatment
(PWHT)
Mechanical Properties
cracking. The SMSS were developed

based on classic martensitic stainless steels
(1114% Cr), reducing C content to enhance weldability, toughness, and corrosion resistance, plus adding Ni to promote
a free ferrite structure and Mo (Refs. 4, 5),
which also improves corrosion resistance
(Refs. 6, 7).
For welding these materials, gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) using SMSS metalcored wires has been recognized as a suitable technological option, and its use has
recently been improved (Ref. 5). This type
of consumable presents several advantages such as low slag generation and high
deposition rate (Ref. 8). Shielding gases
employed for welding this type of material
usually are inert gas mixes (Ar-He) or Arrich mixtures. The type of shielding gas
can affect the chemical composition of the
weld metal, principally O, N, and C contents (Ref. 9).
Usually, PWHT is necessary to adjust
the properties of weldments in SMSS. In
these cases, the heat treatment times typically vary between 5 and 30 min. In this
respect, it has been reported that the
aforementioned short PWHT provides an
improvement in sulfide stress cracking
(SSC) resistance (Ref. 7). In certain grades
of SMSS, these treatments provide a decrease of hardness and residual stress
along with increased toughness, while
grades with higher Mo content are less
sensitive to PWHT (Refs. 7, 10).
Different PWHTs lead to microstructural modifications producing different
combinations of phases present in SMSS
weld deposits (tempered and untempered
martensite, austenite, carbides, etc.) with
each microstructural pattern affecting
toughness in a specific way.
The objective of this work was to systematically study the effects of different
shielding gas mixtures and PWHT (650C
15 min) on the all-weld-metal properties obWELDING JOURNAL 297-s
WELDING RESEARCH
BY S. ZAPPA, H. G. SVOBODA, AND E. S. SURIAN
Fig. 1 Surface appearance of welded samples for the three gases.
Fig. 2 Last weld bead for the different shielding gases.
WELDING RESEARCH
Stainless Steel Flux Cored Rods for Gas

Tungsten Arc Welding, using a tubular
metal-core wire of 1.2 mm diameter with
three different shielding gases. In all
cases, the welding position was flat, and
the preheating and interpass temperatures were 100C. Gas flow was 18 L/min
and stickout 20 mm. After welding, the
three coupons were X-rayed following
ANSI B31.3-96, Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping.
A PWHT at 650C for 15 min was applied to the different samples in an induction heating furnace. This PWHT
Fig. 3 Inclusions volume fraction vs. oxidation condition was chosen according to the
recommendations of the consumable
potential of the shielding gas.
manufacturer and previous studies (Refs.
12, 13). From each welded coupon, transversal sections for macro and microstructained with a SMSS metal-cored wire used
ture studies, chemical composition
with the semiautomatic welding process.
determination, and hardness measurements were extracted. To study the operExperimental Procedure
ability of the consumable, width and
penetration of the last bead were measThe oxidation potential (OP) of a
ured as well as the spatter level as a funcshielding gas is related to O2 and CO2 contion of the shielding gas used.
tents of the mentioned gas, according to
On the cross sections of each coupon,
the following equation (Ref. 11):
chemical composition by optical emission
spectrometry (OES) was determined, exOP = O2 + 0.5 CO2
cept the C, O, N, and S contents, which
were analyzed using a LecoTM. The incluTable 1 shows the chemical composisionary levels and critical temperatures
tion of shielding gases used and their rewere determined. The microstructural
spective OP, the samples identification,
characterization was performed by light
and welding parameters utilized. Three
microscopy (LM), scanning electron miall-weld-metal coupons were welded accroscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction
cording to the standard ANSI/AWS
(XRD). The delta ferrite fraction present
A5.22-95, Specification for Stainless Steel
in each deposit was measured through
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and
quantitative metallography according to
ASTM E562-99, Standard Test Method for

Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic
Manual Point Count, and the retained
austenite contents were determined using
a peak comparison method from the XRD
patterns (Ref. 14).
In addition, Vickers hardness HV1 was
measured. From each coupon, 1 longitudinal tensile specimen was machined according to (Ref. 15), and 15 Charpy
V-notch (CVN) impact specimens were
machined according to ASTM E23-05,
Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials. Tensile
and impact CVN samples were tested in
the as-welded (AW) and PWHT conditions. Tensile property was measured at
room temperature, and CVN impact tests
were performed at 20, 0, 20, 40,
and 60C.

According to ANSI B31.3-96, all
coupons were approved as they presented
very low defect levels.
Figure 1 shows the surface appearance
of samples HA, CA, and AA welded under
each shielding gas used. It can be seen that
there was a clear increase in the amount
of spatter as the CO2 content in the shielding gas increased. This could be associated
with an increased partial pressure of CO2
in the arc atmosphere.
For the welding parameters used, the
metal transfer occurred in a mixed globular/spray mode. The change from a
transfer mode to another one is characterized by a transition current, which depends on the shielding gas and increases
with its CO2 content. In the gas atmosphere, the presence of this gas limits the
electromagnetic forces that control spray
transfer mode (Ref. 16). In this sense,
when using a gas mixture with higher
amounts of CO2, the globular to spray
transfer mode transition current increases, then increasing the level of spatter associated with the globular transfer
mode.
Figure 2 shows the images of the last
bead for HA, CA, and AA specimens. In
these figures, it can be seen that as CO2
content increased in the shielding gas, the
geometry of the bead changed, decreasing
the ratio width/penetration as is shown in
Table 2.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Shielding Gases Used, Samples Identification and Welding Parameters
As
Welded
Heat
Treated
Shielding
Gas
CO2
(%)
Ar
(%)
He
(%)
OP
Tension
(V)
Current
(A)
Welding Rate
(mm/s)
Heat Input
(kJ/mm)
HA
CA
AA
HP
CP
AP
Ar + 5% He
Ar + 2% CO2
Ar + 18% CO2
0
2
18
70
98
82
5
0
0
0
1
9
25
25
26
226
230
232
5
6
6
1.1
1.0
1.0
Fig. 4 LM and SEM in the coupon AP.
The increase of CO2 content in the

shielding gas produced a higher O content
in the deposits. One way to demonstrate
the increase of this last element is through
the determination of inclusionary levels.
Some authors (Ref. 25) reported that the
sizes of the inclusions are the order of microns. Table 4 shows that quantity, average
diameter, and volume fraction of inclusions in the AW sample increased with the
CO2 content in the shielding gas.
Figure 3 presents the effect of the
shielding gas on the inclusion volume fraction (IVF) of the deposits, showing the
tendency mentioned. These differences in
the inclusionary level may affect, among
other properties, the toughness and corrosion resistance of the deposits (Refs. 17,
18, 25, 26).
In all cases, in the AW samples, the microstructure consisted of a martensitic matrix with small amounts of delta ferrite and
retained austenite. The literature (Refs. 6,

7, 27) reports for this type of steel that retained austenite contents in the AW condition may vary between 2 and 30%, and
that this phase cannot be identified
through the microscopy techniques used
in this work (Refs. 12, 17, 26). Samples
submitted to PWHT presented a darkening of the martensitic structure associated
with the carbide and/or carbonitride precipitates mainly in the grain boundary.
Table 2 Relationships Width/Penetration

for the HA, CA, and AA Samples
Sample
Relationship
Width/Penetration
HA
CA
AA
2.7
2.2
1.9
Table 3 Chemical Composition

Sample
C
(ppm)
Mn
(%)
Si
(%)
S
(%)
Cr
(%)
Ni
(%)
Mo
(%)
Cu
(%)
V
(%)
O
(ppm)
N
(ppm)
HA
CA
AA
Specif.
140
150
180
<100
1.72
1.75
1.57
1.8
0.44
0.45
0.42
0.4
0.015
0.014
0.016
NI
11.8
11.7
11.7
12.5
6.2
6.2
6.1
6.7
2.69
2.66
2.47
2.5
0.48
0.48
0.41
0.5
0.09
0.09
0.09
NI
380
440
710
NI
50
60
140
<100
NI: not informed
WELDING RESEARCH
Table 3 shows the results of the chemical

composition of all-weld-metal coupons.
Carbon contents, fluctuating between 140
and 180 ppm, were higher than expected for
this consumable. The value reported by the
manufacturer was less than 100 ppm (Refs.
13, 17).
In general, the measured values of the
rest of the analyzed elements were below
the nominal values with the exception of
Si and Mo, according to the product data
sheet (Ref. 13). In the SMSS, to achieve
good toughness and appropriate hardness
values, it is necessary to have low C, N, O,
and S contents (Refs. 18, 19). The C content controls the martensite hardness and
toughness; it is the more influential element on MS temperature. The precipitated carbides influence corrosion
resistance and hydrogen damage (Ref. 20),
among others. Also, the presence of N and
Mo has a great influence on the sequence
of carbides and carbides/nitrides precipitation (Ref. 21).
Regarding the O content present in the
weld metal, in all cases it exceeded 300 ppm,
the limit beyond which, according to the literature (Ref. 17), the absorbed energy falls
brusquely. The variation observed in the
chemical composition of the all-weld metal
corresponds, among other things, to the
metallic elements oxidation process occurring in the electric arc. The greater O content in the shielding gas, the higher
oxidation potential of the gaseous atmosphere, and the greater the effect of oxidation mentioned above (Ref. 22). The high
interstitial elements contents in the deposits
are associated with a high content of O and
C in the atmosphere of the arc from the decomposition of CO2 in the shielding gas
(Ref. 23). These variations were small but
could have affected certain properties. In
this sense, Ni, Cu, and Mn are elements that
stabilize the austenite, so that higher contents of these elements could result in an increase of retained austenite in the
microstructure (Refs. 16, 24).
Also, Mo and Cr could affect the delta
ferrite fraction as they both stabilize this
phase. Toughness and, to a lesser extent,
tensile property and corrosion resistance,
could be affected by these small variations in chemical composition, mainly in
the coupons welded under a high OP gas
mixture.
Fig. 6 Relationship between the austenite content and oxidation potential of the shielding gas.
Fig. 5 Different morphologies of ferrite in the HA coupon.
Table 4 Inclusionary Analysis
WELDING RESEARCH
Sample
IT
Area
(m2)
ID
(incl/ m2)
IAD
(m)
IVF
(incl/m3)
OP
O Content
HA
CA
AA
5
14
32
1695
1695
1695
0.003
0.008
0.019
1.14
1.26
1.40
0.002
0.007
0.019
0
1
9
380
440
710
IT: inclusions total; ID: inclusions density; IAD: inclusions average diameter; IVF: inclusions volume
fraction; OP (oxygen potential) = O2 + 0.5 CO2
Figure 4 shows the microstructure of

the coupon AP obtained by LM and SEM,
respectively. In this figure the following
identification was used: M, martensite; F,
ferrite; and Pr, precipitates. Similar microstructures were found in the rest of the
coupons.
In the literature (Ref. 17), there are reported several ferrite morphologies found
in SMSS deposits. Two types of ferrite
could be identified based on their location
and morphology. Most common was ferrite with morphology very similar to that
of ferrite found in duplex stainless steel
weld metals. The presence of this ferrite is
a consequence of incomplete ferrite-toaustenite transformation in weld metals
solidifying as ferrite and was most common for more highly alloyed weld metals
(Ref. 17). Another ferrite morphology,
similar to that seen in austenitic stainless
steel weld metals, was found in weld metals higher in Ni, solidifying as a mixture of
ferrite and austenite (Ref. 17). This ferrite
was located in the last solidifying interdendritic regions.
Figure 5 shows the different ferrite
morphology for the HA coupon. These
different morphologies of ferrite in the microstructure show different solidification
modes generated simultaneously in the
deposits.
The critical temperatures AC1, AC3,
and MS were determined by dilatometry
with a heating rate of 1C/min in the HA
and AA coupons. Table 5 shows the results
obtained. The coupon welded with high
CO2 content in the shielding gas (AA) had

a higher austenite transformation starting
temperature regarding the coupon welded
under Ar + 5% He (HA). Marshall and
Farrar (Ref. 28) indicated that the actual
AC1 temperature for a low-grade stainless
steel is around 650C while high-grade alloys are around 630C.
The use of equations for the selection
of PWHT temperature should be carefully
considered and the results be verified experimentally to prevent undesired hardening of the structure due to the fact that
partial austenitizing can generate fresh
martensite (Ref. 5). The PWHT is usually
recommended in SMSS deposits for improving both toughness and ductility; tensile strength is reduced by only 10 to 20%
(Ref. 29). Ni has a strong effect on decreasing AC1 and Mo the contrary effect.
In this sense, the small variations of certain elements observed in the chemical
composition of these samples could have
led to changes in critical temperatures.
The different types of ferrite were
quantified for the three coupons in AW
conditions through 20 measurements on a
grid of 660 points. Table 6 shows these results. There were no significant variations
in the measured ferrite contents, indicating no shielding gas important influence
on these values. Table 7 shows the retained
austenite content.
From a microstructural point of view,
the objective of PWHT is to temper the
martensite and increase the stable retained austenite at room temperature re-
sulting in softening and improving both

toughness and corrosion resistance of the
deposit (Refs. 2, 3, 19, 30, 31). The literature reports (Refs. 5, 32) that a PWHT at
650C for 5 min is the heat treatment commonly used in manufacturing SMSS pipe
when using duplex and superduplex stainless steel consumables; longer heat treatment can cause sigma phase to form in
these weld metals. During the PWHT, in
these steels, the tempering of martensite
is generally followed by a softening associated with incoherent carbide precipitation, achieving the maximum softening
with the M23C6 carbide precipitation at
about 500C (Ref. 32).
In alloys without Ni, the PWHT is performed at about 700C to obtain a high reaction rate and maximum softening (Ref.
32). The presence of Ni reduces the critical transformation temperature AC1. This
temperature, for a given steel, depends on
the chemical composition, heating rate,
and in alloys with high Ni contents can be
as low as 500550C (Refs. 32, 33). In this
work, heat treatment was carried out at
650C for 15 min, which seemed to be adequate for matching filler metals but not
appropriate for duplex or superduplex
ones. This temperature/time parameter
did not generate changes that could have
been observed by LM and SEM. Only differences in the austenite content in the microstructure could be established by X-ray
diffraction.
As mentioned above, in alloys with
high contents of Ni, the AC1 temperature
may be around 550C. At this temperature, the kinetics of carbide formation is
very slow and, it is normal that austenite
precipitates (Ref. 32). In this way, through
a diffusion mechanism, the austenite
formed during PWHT will have a different chemical composition from the austenite retained during the welding process
(Refs. 32, 34). In this instance, the martensitic matrix and retained austenite produced during welding will have identical
chemical composition while the new
austenite formed during PWHT will be
Fig. 8 Effect of O content on the CVN absorbed energy in AW and

PWHT conditions.
Fig. 9 The CVN at 20C vs. austenite content.
Fig. 10 Hardness vs. CVN in AW and PWHT conditions at 20C.
richer in N, C, and Ni. This degree of enrichment determines the stability of

austenite formed during the heat
treatment.
If PWHT is performed at temperatures
slightly above AC1, the enriched austenite
is stable at room temperature (Refs. 32,
34). If PWHT is carried out at temperatures well above AC1, the austenite formed
during PWHT will be transformed to
fresh martensite during cooling (Ref.
32). If PWHT is carried out below AC1
temperature, the austenite content will decrease with respect to that of the AW sample because part of it will transform to
fresh martensite after cooling to room
temperature.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between austenite content and OP of the
shielding gas for both AW and PWHT
conditions. The contents of retained
austenite increased with increasing CO2 in
the shielding gas in AW samples. This increase could be related to higher C and N
content generated using higher amounts
of CO2 in the shielding gas as both elements are strong promoters of austenite.
Also, it has been reported (Ref. 35)
that the austenite contents are strongly

controlled by the MS temperature. Retained austenite levels, at room temperature, are higher when MS decreases (Ref.
35). As seen previously, increasing the OP
in the shielding gas slightly decreased the
transformation temperature of austenite
to martensite during cooling. This slight
decrease in the MS temperature generated
a higher retained austenite content at
room temperature, in accord with what
was reported elsewhere (Ref. 35).
When applying PWHT, retained
austenite content increased for low OP,
while for high OP retained austenite values decreased. The higher OP, the higher
critical temperature measured. The HA
coupon (AC1 = 590C) showed low
austenite values in the AW condition and

application of PWHT, at a temperature
slightly above AC1, then generated higher
amounts of retained austenite. On the
other hand, the AA coupon (AC1 =
660C) had a higher content of austenite
in the AW condition and applying PWHT,
which was slightly below the critical temperature, generated lower retained
austenite content regarding the AW sample. In conclusion, applying a PWHT at
650C for 15 min to this type of material,
austenite content can decrease or increase
depending on the PWHT temperature location regarding the AC1 critical temperature of the material.
Table 8 presents the values of hardness,
tension property, and toughness deter-
Table 5 Critical Temperatures for Samples H and A

Sample
Heating Rate
(C/min)
AC1
(C)
AC3
(C)
MS
(C)
HA
590
670
125
AA
660
710
115
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 7 Influence of OP on hardness, ultimate tensile, and yield strengths.
Table 6 Ferrite Content

Sample
Ferrite
Measured (%)
Table 7 Retained Austenite
HA
CA
AA
Sample
HA
CA
AA
HP
CP
AP
8.5
10.8
9.3
Retained Austenite
Measured (%)
20
28
30
15
Table 8 Mechanical Properties

Sample
HA
CA
AA
HP
CP
AP
Hardness
(HV1)
339
345
357
318
331
337
UTS
(MPa)
YS
(MPa)
E
(%)
AR
(%)
20
1134
1174
1189
1052
1142
1159
920
955
980
875
925
950
17
15
12
19
15
13
45
40
33
53
40
37
41
37
26
63
59
40
CVN (J)/(C)
0 20 40 60
33
36
24
51
48
35
31
34
21
45
45
34
29
33
19
43
43
32
28
32
18
43
38
32
UTS: ultimate tensile strength; YS: yield strength; E: elongation to fracture; AR: area reduction
WELDING RESEARCH
mined on the all-weld-metal coupon for

the different conditions studied. Figure 7
shows the influence of OP on hardness, ultimate tensile strength, and yield strength
for the AW and PWHT samples. It can be
seen that as the gas OP increased, hardness increased; this fact can be related to
the augmentation of C and N in the deposits as the OP increased (Ref. 18).
It is known (Refs. 3638) that C content
controls the martensite hardness. The
higher C content the higher measured hardness. The literature also reports (Refs. 39,
40) that N is a promoter of carbonitrides
that generates a hardening of the structure
in these materials. Then, higher both C and
N contents will produce higher hardness.
The tensile and yield strengths showed the
same behavior that hardness did. The application of PWHT resulted in lower values
of hardness, tensile strength, and yield
strength in all cases. As mentioned above,
the PWHT employed generated martensite
tempering and in some cases higher austenite content at room temperature; these two
facts produced lower values of mechanical
properties.
It was not possible to establish a relationship between austenite contents and the
tensile properties and hardness. The absorbed energy values obtained were in the
order of these reported in the literature
(Refs. 17, 37, 41, 42). In the AW samples,
the biggest value was achieved in sample
HA (no CO2 in the shielding gas) with 41 J
at 20C. The effect of OP on the toughness
of these materials was clearly seen: The
higher CO2 in the shielding gas, the lower
toughness for both AW and heat-treated
samples. According to the literature (Ref.
17), O content strongly influences the
toughness values of the SMSS.
Figure 8 shows the relationship between
toughness results at 20C and the O content
in all welded metal coupon in both AW and

PWHT samples. This figure shows clearly
that the toughness decreased when the O
content increased for all coupons. The same
trends could be determined for all test temperature. In all cases, the absorbed energy
values achieved after PWHT improved for
all temperatures, resulting over 50% higher
to those obtained in AW samples. The
PWHT applied, as discussed above, produced martensite tempering and, according
to the location of PWHT temperature with
respect to AC1 temperature, generated
lower or higher austenite content in the microstructure (Ref. 43) regarding the microstructure in AW condition. The
microstructure of PWHT samples consisted
of tempered martensite, delta ferrite, and
austenite fractions.
It is known (Ref. 43) that higher stable
austenite content at room temperature increases the absorbed energy in the CVN impact test. It was not possible to establish a
direct relationship between austenite content and toughness. However, according to
Fig. 9, it can be seen that as the austenite
content increased, toughness tended to increase. A low R2 could be indicating that
austenite content is not the only factor influencing toughness.
Figure 10 shows the relationship between the hardness and toughness in AW
and PWHT conditions at 20C.
Conclusions
As CO2 content in the shielding gas increased, the following occurred:
1) Higher spatter and a lower widthpenetration relationship in the last bead
were obtained.
2) In the all-weld metal, C, O, and N
contents increased. Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, and Mo
contents decreased.
3) Inclusionary levels increased.

4) The microstructure, in all cases, was
constituted by a martensitic matrix with
delta ferrite and retained austenite. The
austenite content increased.
5) Hardness and tensile property
slightly augmented.
6) Toughness decreased.
Regarding the PWHT used in this
work, the following took place:
1) The microstructure did not show differences with the PWHT.
2) Hardness and tensile properties decreased slightly in comparison to the AW
values.
3) Toughness was improved in all samples. In most cases, the absorbed energy
increased in more than 50% compared to
the AW samples.
4) The best toughness was achieved for
those samples welded under inert gas protection and submitted to heat treatment.
In those cases where toughness is not a
requirement, it is possible to use CO2 gas
shielding, especially lower cost Ar/20 CO2.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to ESAB-Sweden for the consumable donation and Leco chemical analysis;
Conarco-ESAB Argentina for performing
chemical analysis; Air Liquide Argentina
for donating welding gases; the Latin
American Welding Foundation, Argentina, for welding and mechanical testing facilities; the Scanning Electron
Microscopy Laboratory of Inti-Mechanics,
Argentina, for SEM analysis facilities; and
APUEMFI, Argentina, along with ANPCyT, Argentina, for financial support.
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WELDING RESEARCH
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Effect of Tempering Pass on HSLA-80

Steel HAZ Microstructures
Continuous cooling transformation diagrams devised from a simulated thermal
cycle were applied over a high-temperature, modified Nb-bearing
steel microstructure
BY A. CRUZ-CRESPO, D. BEZERRA DE ARAUJO, AND A. SCOTTI
ABSTRACT
WELDING RESEARCH
The alloying system and thermal history of the hot rolling process applied to highstrength low-alloy steels (HSLA) leads to a very particular behavior of these materials under welding thermal cycles. In this work, microstructures and hardness of a graincoarsened heat-affected zone (HAZ) were analyzed from API 5L X80 Nb
microalloyed steel specimens after undergoing simulated thermal cycles to represent
both first and tempering passes. The first thermal cycle for each sample reached the
peak temperature of 1350C, while the second was of 950C. Using the different cooling curves imposed by the simulator, a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram was raised for both conditions. The predominant microstructure for the first
thermal cycle was granular bainitic ferrite at low cooling rates, but it changed into
bainitic ferrite as cooling rate increases, reaching some presence of martensite at the
highest cooling rates. The microstructure in the second thermal cycle is quasi-polygonal ferrite at low cooling rates and bainitic ferrite at the fastest cooling rates. However, the hardness did not exceed 300 HV in any case and the hardness measured was
even lower in the simulated tempering pass specimens. These results indicate that this
steel has high weldability and no special techniques, such as preheating, need to be
employed to prevent cold cracking. However, the study suggests the need for future
work on aging of precipitates in this grain-refined region due to the tempering pass.
Introduction
Microalloyed steels of high strength
and low alloy (HSLA) have an excellent
combination of properties (high yield
strength, toughness, and weldability) due
to their unique characteristics of small
grain sizes achieved through very low contents of alloy elements and thermomechanical treatment. Thus, Almeida et al.
(Ref. 1), who is also supported by other
authors such as Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2),
refers to the tendency of increasing application of HSLA steels where weight reduction is required (through wall thickness reduction), while ensuring high
weldability, which is required for field
welding. The trend in the development of
these steels for piping (API 5L X-60, X-80,
X-100 steel, according to the classification
of the American Petroleum Institute) is
A. CRUZ-CRESPO, D. BEZERRA DE
ARAUJO,
and
A.
SCOTTI
(ascotti@mecanica.ufu.br) are with the Center
for Research and Development of Welding
Processes, Federal University of Uberlandia,
Brazil.
closely linked to industrial demand for increasing the diameters and work pressure
in pipelines.
The continuous improvement in the
properties of the HSLA steels has been
achieved by the presence of a very low content of alloying elements, such as Nb, Ti,
and V, and a thermomechanically controlled treatment during rolling, which
(both) contributes to a decrease in grain
size. Other important factors, as reported
by Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2), are the formation of desired microstructures and
precipitates (acicular ferrite and bainite,
which may also appear with retained
KEYWORDS
High-Strength Low-Alloy
(HSLA)
Nb-Microalloyed Steel
Thermal Cycle
Simulation
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
Tempering Pass
martensite/austenite (MA) constituents).

On the other hand, since welding
processes are employed in applications
using steels from the API 5L class, it is evident that the influence of the thermal cycles
on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) microstructures is of vital importance, especially in the region of coarsened grains. This
has resulted in a large number of papers focused on the study of this area. Das (Ref. 3)
suggested that the refinement of the microstructure near the weld interface is very
effective in improving the HAZ toughness
of microalloyed steels, which is achieved by
delaying the austenite grain growth, with
the transformation to acicular ferrite and
formation of precipitates or inclusions
within the austenite grains. For his part,
Moeinifar et al. (Ref. 4) addressed the effect of thermal cycling in X-80 steel, showing that the heat input in the submerged arc
welding (SAW) process (leading to different thermal cycles) has a significant influence on the microstructure and hardness of
the coarse-grain HAZ. With similar results,
Mohandas et al. (Ref. 5) provided a comparative study of the behavior of HAZ microstructure and properties for three steels
of different compositions with the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW), and gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) processes, relating the
process energy input to the microstructure
and properties of the HAZ.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) obtained, in a comparative study of two HSLA steels with and
without niobium, based on the physical simulation of thermal cycles in a Gleeble simulator, a microstructure with grain boundary
ferrite, acicular ferrite, and degenerate
pearlite at low cooling rates applied in the
no Nb steel specimens, while bainite is
formed at fast cooling rates. For the specimens of the Nb-bearing steel, the referred
authors obtained granular bainite as a dominant microstructure over a wide range of
cooling rates, with martensite appearing at
very fast cooling rates. Although for cooling
rates slower than 32C/s, the initial transformation temperature decreases by about
20C in the presence of niobium. Zhang et
al. (Ref. 7), in another article, addressed the
effect of niobium on the microstructure, on

the coarse-grained HAZ properties, and on
the starting transformation temperature
under the effect of different energy inputs.
Shome (Ref. 8), while also using simulation,
established that the peak temperature
makes the austenitic grain size increase linearly, influencing the HAZ structure and
properties.
While it is true that the effects of the
chemical composition and welding energy
on the resulting microstructure of the
coarse region of the microalloyed steel
HAZ have been relatively well studied,
specialized literature shows little or no
data regarding the effect of the tempering pass on the coarse region. The main
reason for this is that the coarse-grained
region is always of concern in studies on
weldability of structural steels, as a region
susceptible to loss of toughness and as
being a facilitator of hydrogen cracking.
The microstructure refined by the tempering pass technique is usually quite
beneficial for reducing hardenability and
increasing toughness. In addition to not
being known in detail, the microstructure
resulting in the refined region can be expected for steels with higher contents of
Nb to present aging of the precipitates.
Therefore, the objective of this study was
to evaluate the microstructural formation
of a tempering pass on the coarse-grained
region of the HAZ of Nb microalloyed
HSLA-80 steel, through simulating welding thermal cycles from a first pass followed by a tempering pass.
Materials and Methods

The methodology approach of this work
was the imposition of thermal cycles repre-
senting welding with

different
energies
through simulation on
samples of a microalloyed steel of high
strength (HSLA), Type
API 5L X80, composition being reported in
Table 1. The coarsegrained region of the
HAZ was initially simulated, assuming a peak
temperature of 1350C
and cooling rates ranging from 3 to 130C/s.
Half of the specimens
that underwent this
simulation were heated
again to 950C to simu- Fig. 3 Cooling and heating curves experienced by the specimens to simulate the various thermal cycles imposed by the second bead on the region of
late the effect of heat the coarse-grain HAZ of the precedent bead (peak temperature = 950C) for
treatment that is car- different diameters of the central part of the specimens: d = 10 mm (8/5 =
ried out by a second 3.7C/s); d = 9 mm (8/5 = 5.3C/s); d = 8 mm (8/5 = 15.5C/s); d = 7 mm
bead over the region of (8/5 = 52.2C/s); d = 6 mm (8/5 = 95.2C/s); d = 5 mm (8/5 = 151.5C/s).
the
coarse-grained
HAZ (CGHAZ) of a
precedent bead (tempering pass).
austenite at relatively low temperatures
As shown in Fig. 1, the base metal has a
(probably composed of bainite and MA mimicrostructure with high prevalence of
croconstituent). This microstructure patpolygonal ferrite. Alongside the polygonal
tern coincides with that reported by Jingferrite, dark-etching regions are present, reHong et al. (Ref. 2), Cizek et al. (Ref. 9), and
sulting from transformations of the residual
Bott et al. (Ref. 10), who deal with the char-
Table 1 Chemical Composition of the Nb Microalloyed Steel (API 5L X-80), in % Mass

C
Mn
Si
Mo
Ni
Cr
Cu
0.04
1.71
0.25
0.009
0.004
0.006
0.156
0.202
0.214
V
0.003
Nb
0.100
Ti
0.009
Al
0.018
N
0.005
B
0.0001
V + Nb + Ti
0.112
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Cooling and heating curves experienced by the specimens to simulate the various thermal cycles of the first pass in the region of the coarse grain
HAZ (peak temperature = 1350C) for different diameters of the central part
of the specimens: d = 10 mm (8/5 = 3.4C/s); d = 9 mm (8/5 = 3.8C/s); d
= 8 mm (8/5 = 5.4C/s); d = 7 mm (8/5 = 13.9C/s); d = 6 mm (8/5 =
51C/s); d = 5 mm (8/5 = 126.6C/s).
Fig. 1 HSLA microstructure of the Nb microalloyed steel (API 5L X-80).
WELDING RESEARCH
A1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 =3.4 C/s
A2 peak = 950 and 8/5 =3.7 C/s
B1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 = 3.8 C/s)
B2 peak = 950 and 8/5 = 5.3 C/s
C1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 = 5.4 C/s
C2 peak = 950 and 8/5 = 15.5 C/s
D1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 = 13.9 C/s
D2 peak = 950 and 8/5 = 52.2 C/s
E1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 = 51.0 C/s
E2 peak = 950 and 8/5 = 95.2 C/s
F1 peak = 1350 and 8/5 = 126.6 C/s
F2 peak = 950 and 8/5 = 151.1 C/s
Fig. 4 Corresponding microstructures for the first cycle (A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, F1 ) and second cycle (A2, B2, C2, D2, E2, F2) with different cooling rates (different specimen diameters), where q = quasi-polygonal ferrite, B = granular bainitic ferrite, Bo = bainitic ferrite, W = Widmanstatten ferrite, M =
martensite [microconstituent nomenclatures based on Krauss and Thompson (Ref. 18)].
acterization of steels of similar composition

to the present work. Those authors stated
the existence of MA microconstituent associated with the ferritic grain boundaries,
which were revealed only under electron
microscopy. Other authors, such as
Almeida et al. (Ref. 1), Gorni and Mei (Ref.
11), and Shanmugam et al. (Ref. 12), report
having found, by means of electron microscopy, some presence of bainite together
with ferrite in steels with compositions relatively similar to those shown in Table 1.
These authors associate this fact with
the synergistic effect that presents itself
for particular relations of microalloying
elements. An important group of authors,
such as Mishra (Pathak) et al. (Ref. 13)
and Moon et al. (Ref. 14), also confirmed
the phases and microconstituents already
mentioned in the microstructure of steels
of similar composition to that in the present study, together with the presence of
niobium-rich precipitates associated with
the grain boundaries, which undoubtedly
contribute to the high mechanical resistance of these steels.
The simulating of the thermal cycling
was performed using a simple equipment
design (described in Vilarinho and Araujo
(Ref. 15)) based on the Joule effect, which
Fig. 6 CCT diagrams resulting from the first thermal cycle (simulating the coarse-grain HAZ region):
The martensite starting temperature (Ms 465C) is
a predicted value, calculated from Andrewss equation Ms(C) = 539 423 C 30.4 Mn 17.7 Ni
12.1 Cr 7.5 Mo, employed by Zhang et al. (Ref. 7).
enables rapid heating of specimens and allows for natural cooling of the specimens
with the aid of aluminum heat sinks that
also function as support and electrical
contact. An electronic controlling device
disconnects the power source when the
preregulated temperature at the center of
the test pieces is reached. The thermocouple placed in the center of the sample
also records the cooling, which due to the
small dimensions of the sensor (Type K,
diameter 0.5 mm) and the characteristics
of continuous natural cooling can detect
the starting and finishing points of the
metallurgical transformations.
The specimens were cylindrical, 150
mm long, with 10 mm diameter at the extremes. In the central part, along a 10-mm
length, different diameters (510 mm)
were machined, allowing for variances in
the cooling rate over a wide range. These
geometric measures were determined by
the finite element method (Ansys) for the
desired cooling rates. One disadvantage of
this technique is that in order to obtain
very fast cooling rates, the specimen diameter has to be small, and likewise the
material volume from which the thermal

cycle is measured. This characteristic
makes the sensitivity of the method lower
to detect activation energy for the starting
and finishing of transformations. Crosssections of the specimens under different
cooling rates were cut in the central region
for metallographic analysis (2% Nital
etching) and microhardness (10 indentations with a load of 500 g and a load application time of 10 s).
To determine the starting and finishing
points of the transformations, a differential analysis has been used, as described by
Zachrisson (Ref. 16). This analysis consists of performing a regression of a part
of the experimental cooling curves (the
curve that best fits is the exponential type
Treg = aebt + cedt, where a, b, c, and d are
coefficients obtained by regression analysis and where t is the time) and extrapolate it so as to include temperatures
below transformation. The difference between the thermal cycle experimental
curve (T = f(t)) and the regression curve
in the region where deviation is perceived
(D(T)i = Ti Tregi) is plotted in relation
Fig. 7 CCT diagrams resulting from the second

thermal cycle (simulating the refinement of the coarsened-grain region of the HAZ-tempering pass): The
martensite starting temperature (Ms 465C) is a
predicted value, calculated from Andrewss equation
Ms(C) = 539 423 C 30.4 Mn 17.7 Ni 12.1
Cr 7.5 Mo, employed by Zhang et al. (Ref. 7).
to temperature, thereby obtaining the

temperatures of the transformations. A
similar technique was successfully applied
by Alexandrov and Lippold (Ref. 17), but
rather than using determined exponential
equations as reference thermal cycles,
they used calculated (analytic formulas or
numerical modeling) ones for generating
the references.

Thermal Cycles of the Coarse-Grain
Region of the HAZ during the First and
Tempering Passes
The curves of thermal cycles to simulate the effect of the first bead (peak temperatures 1350C) are shown in Fig. 2.
Analogously, the thermal cycles to simulate the effect of a second weld pass (peak
temperature of 950C), that is, the overheating of a region affected by the heat of
the precedent pass (coarse-grain region
of the HAZ, in this case), are shown in
Fig. 3. Inflections in the curves shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 are observed (more distinct
Table 2 Resulting Cooling Rates between 800 and 500C (8/5) that the Specimens Experienced after Heating up to 1350 and 950C, to
Simulate a First Pass and the Subsequent Effect of a Tempering Pass, Respectively, under Different Simulated Heat Inputs
Specimen center diameters (mm)
Cooling rate (8/5) from first

pass CGHAZ simulation
Cooling rate (8/5) from tempering

pass simulation on the CGHAZ
5
6
7
8
9
10
126.6C/s
51C/s
13.9C/s
5.4C/s
3.8C/s
3.4C/s
151.5C/s
92.2C/s
52.2C/s
15.5C/s
5.3C/s
3.7C/s
Note: Cooling rates after heating up to 1350C to simulate a first pass and then heating the same specimen to 950C to simulate the effect of a subsequent tempering
pass.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 5 Microhardness after both the first and second thermal cycles as a function of the cooling rate
between 800 and 500C.
for slower cooling rates, justified mainly

because of a larger metal volume in the
region of temperature measurements
and a not high enough dynamic response
from the thermocouple 0.5-mm wires).
These are characteristics of the activation
energy for the start and finish of the
transformation in ferritic steels. The
cooling rates (8/5) in the range of temperatures from 800 to 500C are summarized in Table 2 and also reported in the
captions of the thermal cycle plots.
As seen, the cooling rates become
proportionately faster for the thermal
cycle with peak temperature of 950C
compared to the first cycle with peak
temperature of 1350C. Such behavior is
typical of simulations as in the present
work (less heat to dissipate), but that
should also be observed in an actual
welding setting.
Influence of the First and Second
Thermal Cycles on the Microstructure of
the Coarse Region HAZ
WELDING RESEARCH
The difference in behavior of the transformations during cooling of the specimens with different cooling rates leads to
variations in the microstructure of some
with regard to others. (The microstructure
identification in this work was based on a
nomenclature for ferritic microconstituents taken from the Atlas for Bainitic
Microstructures, developed by the Iron and
Steel Institute of Japan Bainite Committee and described by Krauss and Thompson (Ref. 18).) It is important to mention
that microconstituent nomenclature for
carbon steel HAZ is still not standardized,
but a discussion in this direction or any
proposal of microstructure nomenclature
is out of focus for this paper. Figure 4
shows, side by side, the microstructures of
the specimens under different thermal cycles, at 1350C (simulating the first pass)
on the left, and 950C (simulating the tempering pass) on the right. In relation to the
original microstructure of steel (Fig. 1),
one perceives greater grain sizes in the region heated to 1350C (Fig. 4, left). The
grain growth for this type of steel resulting
from a range of peak temperatures has
been studied by Kuziak et al. (Ref. 19) and
Shome (Ref. 8), for whom up to a temperature of about 1100C the austenite grain
practically does not grow, but then increases almost linearly at a high rate. This
phenomenon could be motivated by the
dissolution of the precipitates rich in Nb as
a function of the elapsed time at temperatures above 1100C. In contrast, Ivanov et
al. (Ref. 20) show a gradual growth of the
grain at peak temperature.
Figure 4A1 and Fig. 4B1 show the microstructure of the coarse-region HAZ
with slow cooling (3.4 and 3.8C/s), characterized by the predominant presence of
granular bainitic ferrite (B). This result is

consistent with those reported by Zhang et
al. (Refs. 6, 7), Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11),
and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), who obtained
CCT diagrams for steels with relatively
similar compositions to that of the present
work, where the transformation from
austenite to bainite is predominant. And
for the cooling rate of 5.4C/s, shown on
the microstructure (Fig. 4C1), alongside
the granular bainitic ferrite (B) there is
the presence of bainitic ferrite of type Bo
and Widmansttten ferrite (W). For even
faster cooling rates (13.9 to 51.0C/s), the
presence of bainitic ferrite of type Bo is
even more visible (Fig. 4D1 and E1). In
the case of 4D1, there is still some granular bainitic ferrite B. Whenever a peak
temperature above the dissolution of the
niobium-rich precipitates is reached,
which, according to Zhang et al. (Ref. 6)
and Moeinifar et al. (Ref. 4), is less than
1200C, this element (Nb), in solid solution for such cooling rates, obstructs the
kinetics of ferrite grain formation. This
happens because solute drags at the
austenite grain boundary, thereby promoting the formation of bainitic ferrite
type Bo. In the particular case of the cooling rate of 126.6C/s, Fig. 4F1 shows the
presence of martensite (M) mixed with
bainitic ferrite type Bo. The presence of
bainitic ferrite (Bo) with martensite
(M) in the microstructure at faster cooling rates is consistent with that reported by
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) and Ivanov et al. (Ref.
20), who show a CCT diagram (obtained
for a steel composition relatively similar to
the present study) with martensitic transformation at lower temperatures when the
cooling rate exceeds 50C/s.
According to the manifestation of a
large number of authors, among them Shi
and Han (Ref. 21), transformation of
austenite to bainite takes place during the
cooling process experienced by the different specimens (different cooling rates).
This occurs through a migration of carbon
into the interior of the austenite grains,
thereby stabilizing the austenite and favoring martensite transformation at lower
temperatures, which leads to the appearance of MA microconstituent. These authors show that to the extent that t8/5 increases (with decreasing cooling rate) the
MA fraction increases.
The microstructures corresponding to
the coarse region HAZ after undergoing a
second thermal cycle with different cooling
rates are shown to the right in Fig. 4. The
peak temperature reached the normalization temperature (grain refinement) for the
steel under study, considering the high heating rates. In all cases, there is a tendency toward the formation of a finer microstructure as compared to the first heat cycle, as
would be expected by the thermal history
imposed (even considering starting the
transformation from coarse grains, the

comparison with Fig. 1 shows the grains will
be as fine as those of the base metal, suggesting the action of restriction to grain
growth
of
Nb
carbonitrides).
If one compares the microstructure of
Fig. 4A2, corresponding to the slowest
cooling rate of the second thermal cycle,
with that of Fig. 1, corresponding to the
base metal, a high similarity is noted. This
microstructure is characterized by a high
predominance of quasi-polygonal ferrite
(q). In such cases, the most notable difference is that, in the base metal (Fig. 1),
the grains have a certain orientation due
to the effect of the controlled thermomechanical rolling process and the ferrite
grain boundaries are smooth and continuous, in that for the lowest cooling rate in
the second cycle (Fig. 4A2) the grains
present irregular grain boundaries.
The presence of quasipolygonal ferrite
(q) is noted in the microstructure after
the second cycle at low cooling rates
Fig. 4A2, B2, and C2. In the particular
case of 4C2 (cooling rates of 15.5C/s)
alongside the quasipolygonal ferrite (q)
is the presence of granular bainitic ferrite
(B). For faster cooling rates (52.2C/s),
the microstructure is granular bainitic ferrite (B) mixed with bainitic ferrite type
Bo Fig. 4D2. And for cooling rates of
95.2 and 151.2C/s, the microstructure is
predominantly bainitic ferrite (Bo)
Fig. 4E2 and 4F2. The fact that no martensite appears in the microstructure (Fig.
4F2), despite a faster cooling rate
(151.5C/s) than in the first cycle
(126.6C/s), is explained, according to
Shome and Mohanty (Ref. 22), as the reduction of austenite grain size in the sample under the second thermal cycle, which
reduces the hardenability.
The Influence of the First and Second
Thermal Cycles on the Microhardness of
the Coarse-Region HAZ
The microhardness values obtained for

the HAZ grain-coarsened region, corresponding to different cooling rates between 800 and 500C during the thermal
cycles simulating the first bead and the
tempering pass, are shown in Fig. 5. It becomes evident that, in general, the microhardness tends to increase with an increase in the cooling rate, which is
explained mainly by the modifications undergone in the microstructure, which are
covered in detail in the previous section.
(The effect of grain sizes on hardness, i.e.,
a faster cooling rate would lead to smaller
grains, which, in turn, usually present
greater hardness, cannot be neglected in
this analysis, yet with less significance,
considering the fact that the found hardness for the tempering pass is lower than
that of the first pass, although the temper-
nance of granular bainitic ferrite (B) in

the microstructure of the coarse-grained
region of the HAZ, obtained microhardness values near the maximum range for
this already mentioned microconstituent
(around 240 HV). The difference between
the microhardness values for granular
bainitic ferrite (B) obtained by these authors and those obtained in the present
work is related to the higher carbon content in the steel for the aforementioned
work.
For the highest cooling rates (51.0C/s
and 126.6C/s) during the first thermal
cycle, the growth of the microhardness
(Fig. 5) is undoubtedly linked to the high
presence of bainitic ferrite (Bo) (Fig.
4E1), bainitic ferrite (Bo), and martensite
(M) Fig. 4F1. Such an increase in the
microhardness together with an increase
in the cooling rate could also be related to
increasing the volume fraction of the MA
microconstituent. As such, Moeinifar et
al. (Ref. 4) concluded that increasing the
cooling rate increases the fraction of the
MA microconstituent, which, in this case,
plays a governing role on the hardness
progress in the region of the coarse grain
in the HAZ.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) state that martensite (M) presents microhardness values
of 320 to 340 HV, which were not reached
in this work, even for the highest cooling
rate (126.6C/s) during the first thermal
cycle Fig. 5. Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20) declared the presence of martensite for high
cooling rates, obtaining a microhardness
value of around 325 HV at 50C/s, when
the peak temperature is 1350C. Such a
high value in microhardness obtained by
the above authors, in relation to this work,
is primarily related to the higher carbon
content (0.06%) compared to that reported in Table 1.
From Fig. 5, the second thermal cycle
(simulated tempering pass) also leads to
an increased microhardness as the cooling
rate is faster, consistent with the modifications undergone in the microstructure
(Fig. 4A2F2). Such an increase in the microhardness could also be related to the
possible increase in the volume fraction of
the MA microconstituent. When comparing microhardness as a function of cooling
rate between conditions after the first
cycle and after the second cycle, it is clear
that there is regularity in behavior between the two conditions, but lower values
for the second thermal cycle (the difference becomes more evident as the cooling
rate increases). The parabolic character
obtained for the microhardness, both after
the first thermal cycle and the second, is
completely coincident with results obtained by Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11). The
decrease in microhardness is a general indication that the second thermal cycle has
a positive effect on the coarse-grained
HAZ region. This confirms the reduction

of hardenability due to the finer granularity achieved in the recrystallization zone of
the coarse HAZ under the second cycle.
Obtaining Continuous Cooling
Transformation (CCT) Curves for the First
and Second Thermal Cycles of the
Coarse-Region HAZ
After thermal cycling of Figs. 2 and 3,

the continuous cooling transformation diagrams referring to the first and the second thermal cycles were obtained, as seen
in Figs. 6 and 7. In Fig. 6, it can be seen
that the changes during the first thermal
cycle occur at temperatures lower than
those reported by several authors for API
X80 steels, amongst them Zhang and Farrar (Ref. 23), Zhao et al. (Ref. 24), Stalheim et al. (Ref. 25), Cizek et al. (Ref. 26),
Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2), and Liu et al.
(Ref. 27). However, these authors have
worked with diagrams related to thermal
treatment processes, from which it follows
that the heating is slower and with longer
elapsed time in the austenitic region. This
drop in temperature of phase transformation in the case of thermal cycles of the
HAZ has been reported by Zhang et al.
(Ref. 6). Zhang et al. also showed that as
one increases the cooling rate there is a
further decrease in the transformation
temperature, due to lower elapsed times
above 900C, limiting the diffusive
processes of phase transformation. According to Zhang et al. (Ref. 6), and Gorni
and Mei (Ref. 11), as the cooling rate between 800 and 500C grows there is also
an improvement in the stability of the
austenite, which lowers the transformation temperature.
In total agreement with the CCT diagram of Fig. 6, the curves of Fig. 2 suggest
that diffusional transformations (austenite to bainite) take place for any cooling
rate (manifested by sensitive variation of
latent heat, causing deflection in the
recorded thermal cycle). As observed in
Fig. 2, deflections were not observed only
in the curve of the fastest cooling rate.
Latent heat of austenite to martensite
transformation is not well divulged in
current literature. Radaj (Ref. 28, p. 292)
cites other sources to say that the latent
heat of the austenite-pearlite transformation is 92 J/g and the latent heat of the
austenite-martensite transformation is
83 J/g for a 1.2% C. Even considering the
higher content of C and no data provided
for austenite-bainite transformation, the
differences in the figure are not remarkable to eliminate the deflection. In addition, Alexandrov and Lippold (Ref. 17)
detected this transformation measuring
in-situ weld metal continuous cooling
transformation. Thus, the main reason
for not detecting the latent heat of an
austenite to martensite transformation in
WELDING RESEARCH
ing grain size is smaller.) Such behavior

has been reported by a large number of authors for steels of similar composition to
that used in the present work, including
such authors as Zhang et al. (Ref. 6),
Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11), Cizek et al. (Ref.
9), and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), which is obviously also justified based on the changes
in the microstructure. In the particular
case of Gorni and Meis work, one obtains
the behavior of the Vickers hardness as a
function of cooling rate on a logarithmic
scale, showing that a steel of lower carbon
content (0.04%) hardness is practically
constant for low values of cooling rate,
growing for faster cooling rates, acquiring
a parabolic character, similar to that
shown in Fig. 5 of this work.
The microhardness of the base metal
(218 5 HV0.5) is slightly superior to that
obtained after the thermal cycles simulating the first pass with slow cooling rate
(208 3 HV0.5, 211 3 HV0.5, 206 4
HV0.5, 213 3 HV0.5, corresponding to
3.4, 3.8, 5.4, and 13.9C/s, respectively
Fig. 5). This fact is more associated with
the elapsed time at high temperatures,
above the dissolution temperature of the
Nb-rich precipitates, than with the cooling
rates between 800 and 500C. After a sufficient elapsed time at high temperatures
for dissolution to occur, the cooling rate is
such that it prevents the diffusive process
and the reprecipitation on the grain
boundary, which make a significant hardening effect. The loss of the hardening effect of the precipitates is not fully compensated for by the hardening effect of the
transformation, which takes place upon
cooling due to the thermal cycle.
Interestingly, the particular case of
specimen microhardness under the cooling rate of 5.4C/s during the first thermal
cycle, which although statistically similar
to the specimens with slower rates, is
slightly lower in terms of its average value.
If observed in detail in the microstructure
of Fig. 4A1, B1, and C1, one can perceive
that, alongside the granular bainitic ferrite
(B), bainitic ferrite (Bo), and Widmansttten ferrite (W) microstructures
appeared in the form of coarse plates for
the lowest cooling rate (5.4C/s), causing a
softening. However, it is appropriate to reiterate that the softening of the metal is
not significant from the point of view of
the statistical value variability.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) suggest that the
hardness of the granular bainitic ferrite
(B) ranges between 210 and 240 HV, so
the microhardness values obtained for
specimens with slower cooling rates (3.4,
3.8, 5.4, and 13.9C/s) in the first heat
cycle (Fig. 5) fully correspond to the presence of granular bainitic ferrite (B) observed for these specimens in Fig. 4A1,
B1, C1, and D1. For their part, Moeinifar
et al. (Ref. 4), who reported the predomi-
WELDING RESEARCH
the cooling curves might be the limitation

of the simulation (low metal volume in
the region of temperature measurements
and not too fast dynamic response from
the thermocouple).
Upon analysis of microstructure resulting from transformations (Fig.
4A1F1), the presence of bainite is declared in all specimens (coarse HAZ during the first thermal cycle). This result is
also coincident with those reported by
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6), Gorni and Mei
(Ref. 11), and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), who
obtained CCT diagrams for steels of relatively similar composition to the present work, where the transformation from
austenite to bainite was predominant.
The presence of martensite (M), (Fig.
4F1) evidenced by hardness close to 300
HV and by the martensite starting temperature line in Fig. 6, may be possible if
together with bainitic ferrite (Bo) in the
microstructure, the curve deflection is
still present. This is consistent with that
reported by Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11) and
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) for steels similar to
the one in this work. From these authors,
the martensitic transformation defined is
based either on the microstructure and
hardness, in the case of Zhang et al. (Ref.
6), or established in calculated (predicted) CCT diagrams, as in the case of
Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11) at a constant
temperature. For their part, Ivanov et al.
(Ref. 20) also obtained a CCT diagram
that shows the martensitic transformation temperature for high cooling rates,
without declaring how they define this
temperature. Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) and
Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20) show the martensitic transformation as being possible
when the cooling rate exceeds 50C/s,
which is in line with the present work. If
one compares the CCT diagram representing the coarse-grain HAZ as for the
first pass (Fig. 6) with that obtained according to the second thermal tempering
pass cycle (Fig. 7), one can see that in this
last mentioned there also appears a
transformation of austenite to ferrite
curve at low cooling rates, which obviously occurs with a higher level of diffusion. Data from Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11)
coincide with this result, which states the
ferrite transformation at low cooling
rates, below 0.5C/s. The difference in
cooling rates at which this transformation occurred in the referred work and in
this present work may be linked to a high
retention in the austenite region, which
undoubtedly increases the stability of
this phase. Also, Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20)
agree with the possible occurrence of
ferrite transformation, while reporting a
CCT diagram where this transformation
is reflected even at cooling rates above
50C/s, which could be associated primarily with higher carbon content (0.06%)
in relation to that of the present work

(0.04%).
Bainitic transformation for the second
thermal cycle (tempering pass) (Fig. 7) occurs at higher temperatures than in the
first Fig. 6. The foregoing is also related
to the elapsed time in the austenitic region. In the first cycle, there is more time
spent in the austenitic region than in the
second due to a higher peak temperature
(1350C for the first cycle and 950C for
the second) leading to increased solubility
and slow transformation temperatures
during cooling. The presence of martensite in the tempering pass would not be
possible within the cooling range under investigation (Fig. 7), which agrees with the
microstructures obtained Fig. 4.
It is important to point out that Andrewss equation for MS temperature prediction used in Figs. 6 and 7 was not developed for steels with such a low-C
content. However, Capdevila (Ref. 29)
points out that although the relationship
between the martensite start transformation temperature and steel composition
has been investigated previously by several researchers (for instance, Grange and
Stewart, 1946; Payson and Savage, 1944;
and Kung and Rayment, 1978), it was the
study by Andrews (1965) that has proved
to be the most reliable, because it considered the largest number of samples. Sourmaila and Garcia-Mateo (Ref. 30) show a
comparison between their proposed neutral network model results and the predictions from Andrews and concluded that
the neural network model performs at
least equally as well as the thermodynamic
approach. Applying Sourmaila and Garcia-Mateos model for the steel of this
work, a very similar MS temperature was
found, i.e., 460C.
General Discussion
Considering the different behaviors
between metallurgical characteristics (microstructure and hardness) when applied
to a first cycle peak temperature of 1350C
and a second cycle on the coarse-grained
zone formed (peak temperature of
900C), this can be explained by the theory
and supported by results from other authors, demonstrating the validity of the applied simulation. The possibility of working with natural cooling in the region of
study and application of the technique of
differential analysis made it possible to
draw up CCT diagrams for different thermal experiences undergone by the steel,
similar to what happens in welding.
The CCT diagrams show that for the
microstructure of the coarse-grained
HAZ zone, either the primary formation
(simulating the first pass) or recrystallization (simulating a second pass or tempering pass) are mainly granular bainitic fer-
rite (B) or bainitic ferrite (Bo). There is

a perceived improvement in properties of
the coarse HAZ region when tempered by
reducing the grain size and decrease in
hardness (the hardenability is lower),
showing that the steel in question also has
high weldability. From the standpoint of
hardness, which according to Ivanov et al.
(Ref. 20) has a direct relationship with the
mechanical properties for HSLA steels,
only a very high cooling rate, greater than
100C/s, puts the union at risk due to hydrogen-assisted cold cracking initiated in
the HAZ. That is, the material could be
welded by a very large range of processes
and parameters, and no preheating procedure is needed.
Continuous cooling transformation
diagrams could be obtained for other regions of the HAZ (including HAZ in the
bead metal recrystallized by precedent
passes), facilitating the programming of
sequences of passes to optimize the joint
properties. On the other hand, although
it was not verified in the work, carbonitride precipitates or the forming of microconstituent MA could happen, especially in HAZ regions in which the
temperature was below the dissolution
temperatures for Nb-bearing precipitates. These microconstituents can deteriorate properties of the HAZ, especially
concerning toughness. This means that,
despite the high weldability demonstrated by this study for this steel, further
investigation on all regions of the HAZ is
advised and possible with the same experimental approach.
Conclusions
1. The system used to evaluate the effect
of thermal cycling on the microstructure
formation of the HAZ of a HSLA steel
(simulator and method of differential analysis of cooling curve) was effective and practical, sensitive enough to produce CCT diagrams of different regions of the HAZ.
2. For the CCT diagrams of the original
HAZ (the first heat cycle) of the steel under
study, the microstructure is predominantly
granular bainitic ferrite (B) at low cooling
rates, but is transformed into bainitic ferrite
(Bo), to the extent that increases in the
cooling rate made it finer. Even for very
high cooling rates, the microstructure is predominantly bainitic ferrite (Bo) with the
presence of martensite. In all cases, the microhardness is less than 300 HV, qualifying
the steel studied as of good weldability.
3. From the point of view of the basic microstructure, the CCT diagram shows that
the recrystallized region (simulating the
temperature for a second pass) further improved the weldability of the material under
study, by refining the grain while reducing
the hardness, even though not significantly
altering the type of microstructure.
The authors thank engineers Lucia

Basilio P. de Souza and Ivy Jorge Franco
for their support in performing the thermal simulation of the specimens. They
also are pleased to thank the Brazilian
agency CAPES, which, by means of project No. 059/2009, financially supported
the experimental work and enabled interaction between the researchers involved.
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