Basis Math1 ECO

Additional reader for
Mathemati s 1 for E onomi s

2011-2012
Dr. Elleke Janssen
Prefa e
This reader ontains additional literature belonging to the ourse Mathemati s 1 for E onomi s and
is supposed to be used alongside Kaper and Hamers (2000).
Se tions 13 are based on Hamers (2010).
Se tion 4 is a translation of Se tions 8.88.10 of Kaper (1990).
Se tions 68 are loosely based on Se tion 1.4 of Kaper (1990) and on Klein Breteler and Winkel
(1997).
Se tion 10 is based on Se tion 15.1 of Simon and Blume (1994).
Se tion 11 is based on Se tion 6.3 of Norde (2010).
H. Hamers (2010).
Reader Mathemati s:
Add-on to Mathemati s with appli ations in mi ro-
e onomi s . Tilburg: Tilburg University (reader used for Mathemati s 1 for IBA/Wiskunde 1).
B. Kaper (1990). Wiskundige methoden & te hnieken in de e onomie: analyse (in Dut h). S hoonhoven:
A ademi Servi e.
B. Kaper and H. Hamers (2000). Mathemati s with appli ations in mi ro-e onomi s. S hoonhoven:
A ademi Servi e.
R. Klein Breteler and J. Winkel (1997). Analyse voor de bovenbouw van het VWO (in Dut h). Nijmegen: Canisius College (reader used at pre-university edu ation).
H. Norde (2010). Proofs and te hniques.
Tilburg: Tilburg University (reader used for Proofs and
Te hniques).
C. P. Simon and L. Blume (1994). Mathemati s for e onomists. New York: Norton & Company.
Contents
Prefa e
Fun tions of one variable
Power fun tions
Exponential and logarithmi fun tions
15
The Lagrange method
19
4.1
First order ondition Lagrange method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.2
Se ond order ondition Lagrange method
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.3
Lagrange multiplier
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Appli ation: e onomi order quantity
35
Limits
41
Asymptotes
49
Continuity
53
Invertibility of fun tions
61
10 Impli it fun tions
67
11 Integration by parts
73
12 Additional exer ises
77
A Short solutions to exer ises
89
iii
1
1
To des ribe the relation between variables we an use the mathemati al notion of a fun tion. In this
se tion we dis uss the notion of a fun tion of one variable.
We start this paragraph with an example whi h shows how a fun tion an be used to des ribe the
relation between demand and pri e of a good.
Example 1.1: demand fun tion

For almost any good it is the ase that the demand for a good (that is the quantity of the good that
is demanded by the onsumer) is determined by the pri e of the good. In general the demand will
de rease if the pri e in reases, and in rease if the pri e de reases. What the relation between pri e
and demand looks like pre isely we an investigate for example by a questionnaire among onsumers.
If we draw the obtained data in a oordinate system, we obtain a urve like the one in Figure 1.1.
This urve is alled a demand urve. If we want to use the quantitative data of the demand urve
pri e
demand
Figure 1.1:
The demand urve of a good.
for, say, an equilibrium model, then a graphi al relation between pri e and demand is usually not
su ient. In that ase it is useful to des ribe the relation between pri e and demand by a fun tion:
that is a pres ription that al ulates the demand for ea h feasible pri e p. An example of su h a
pres ription is
100
.
p1
1 Based
on Hamers (2010).
Additional reader 2011-2012
This pres ription means that if the pri e p has value 9, then the demand is
100
= 12.5;
91
that if the pri e p has value 5, the demand is

100
= 25,
51
et etera. Ea h time the demand is obtained by applying the pres ription 100/( p1) to the value of
the pri e p. Sin e we do not want to give any meaning to negative values of demand, we restri t
the appli ation of the pres ription to the values of p larger than 1.
If we introdu e the variable D for the demand and we al ulate the demand with the pres ription
then the variables D and p satisfy the equation
100/( p 1),
D=
100
.
p1
We say that `the demand D is a fun tion of the pri e p'.
If the demand
is a fun tion of the pri e
the pres ription by
D ( p ).
without giving the a tual pres ription then we denote
The relation between
and
is then given by the equation
D = D ( p ).
In the above example
100/( p 1) thus stands for
D ( p ).
Fun tion of one variable

A fun tion of the variable
is a pres ription
value, for any feasible value of the variable

The set of feasible values of
The fun tion values

the
and
y ( x ),
whi h al ulates a number, the fun tion
x.
is alled the domain of the fun tion.
y( x ) an be interpreted as the
values of a variable. If we all this variable
y,
then
satisfy the equation
y = y ( x ).
The variable
in
y( x )
is alled the independent or input variable and the variable
is alled the
dependent or output variable.

Fun tions and variables are denoted by letters or ombinations of letters.
denote variables by the letters
so that
y = f ( x )).
x, y
or
and a fun tion by the letter
Maybe you are used to
(hen e
f (x)
instead of
y ( x ),
But in the e onomi theory one often hooses a letter or a ombination of letters
pri e, L for Labour, K (from German `Kapital')

Wage, et etera), or to the pres ription ( MC for Marginal Cost fun tion, AC for
P for Prot fun tion, et etera).
that is lose to the meaning of the variable ( p for

for apital,
Average Cost,
for
y( x ) is a graphi al representation of the fun tion in a oordinate system with

y-axis, build up by points with oordinates ( x, y( x )). It is ommon to
use the horizontal axis for the independent variable x and the verti al axis for the dependent variable
y. See Figure 1.2 for the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = 1x . A point of interse tion of the graph of a
fun tion y ( x ) with the x -axis an be determined by al ulating a zero point of the fun tion y ( x ).
The graph of a fun tion

two axes, the
x-axis
and the
1. Fun tions of one variable
y( x ) =
1
x
x
Figure 1.2:
The graph of the fun tion y( x ) =
1
x
for x > 0 in an ( x, y)- oordinate system.
Root or zero point of a fun tion of one variable
y( x )
A root or zero point of a fun tion
is a solution of the equation
y ( x ) = 0.
x-axis will also be alled an x-inter ept

y-axis is alled the y-inter ept.
An interse tion point of the graph of a fun tion with the

the graph; the interse tion point of a fun tion with the
of
Interse tion point of two graphs

An interse tion point of the graph of a fun tion
z( x )
is a solution of the equation
y( x )
with the graph of another fun tion
y ( x ) = z ( x ).
In Se tions 1 and 3 we dis uss some well known fun tions of one variable, sket h their graphs and
give some properties.
2
1
Power fun tions
In this se tion we start with a review on the onstant, the linear and the quadrati fun tion.
A fun tion that looks like
y( x ) = c,
where
c is a number, is alled a onstant fun tion.
The fun tion
y( x ) = 3 is an example of a onstant
fun tion. Its graph is depi ted in Figure 2.1.
y
y( x ) = 3
3
x
Figure 2.1:
The graph of the fun tion y( x ) = 3.
y( x ) = ax + b,
b are numbers (a 6= 0), is alled a linear fun tion. Figure 2.2 show the graphs of the
y( x ) = 3x + 2 and z( x ) = 2x + 1: two examples of linear fun tions. In order to determine
x-inter ept of the graph of a linear fun tion y( x ) = ax + b we al ulate the zero points of y( x ),
where
and
fun tions
the
y( x ) = 0
ax + b = 0
ax = b
b
x= .
a
Hen e a point with the oordinates

a linear fun tion
1 Based
y( x ) = ax + b
( ba , 0) is the x-inter ept of the
graph of a linear fun tion. Sin e
has only one zero point, the graph has only one
on Hamers (2010).
x-inter ept.
z
y( x ) = 3x + 2
2
1
32
1
2
x
z( x ) = 2x + 1
(a) Graph of y(x) = 3x + 2.

Figure 2.2:
(b) Graph of z(x) = 2x + 1.
Two examples of linear fun tions.
Example 2.1: zero point and point of interse tion

Consider the fun tions y( x ) = 2x + 2 and z( x ) = x 4; see also Figure 2.3 for the graph of these
x-inter ept
z( x )
interse tion point
y( x )
Figure 2.3:
The fun tions y( x ) = 2x + 2 and z( x ) = x 4.
two fun tions. The zero point of y( x ) is the solution of
y( x ) = 0
2x + 2 = 0
2x = 2
x = 1.
Hen e, (1, 0) is the x-inter ept of the graph of y( x ).

A point of interse tion of the graph of y( x ) and the graph of z( x ) is a solution of the equation
2. Power fun tions
y ( x ) = z ( x ),
y( x ) = z( x )
2x + 2 = x 4
3x = 6
x = 2.
Sin e y(2) = z(2) = 2 the point of interse tion is (2, 2).
Exer ise 2.1 (zero point and point of interse tion)

Consider the fun tions y( x ) = 3x + 2 and z( x ) = 5x + 4.
a) Sket h the graphs of y( x ) and z( x ).
b) Determine the x-inter epts of the graph of ea h of these fun tions.
) Determine the point of interse tion of the graphs of these fun tions.
y( x ) = ax2 + bx + c,
a, b and c are numbers (a 6= 0), is alled a quadrati fun tion. The fun tions y( x ) =
x2 + 2x + 3 and z( x ) = 2x2 + 1 are examples of quadrati fun tions; see Figure 2.4 for their
2
graphs. In general the graph of a fun tion of the form y ( x ) = ax + bx + c is a parabola. This
where
y( x ) = x2 + 2x + 3
z( x ) = 2x2 + 1
1
(a) Graph of y(x) = x2 + 2x + 3.

Figure 2.4:
parabola is bent upwards if

The
x-inter epts
a>0
(b) Graph of z(x) = 2x2 + 1.
Two examples of quadrati fun tions.
and downwards if
a < 0.
of the graph of a quadrati fun tion
y( x ) = 2x2 + bx + c
will be determined by
solving the quadrati equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0.
A quadrati equation will be solved using the so alled `quadrati formula' or ` abc-formula' whi h
results in the solutions:
x=
b2 4ac
2a
or
x=
b +
b2 4ac
.
2a
The expression
D,
b2 4ac
is alled the dis riminant of the quadrati equation and denoted by apital
D = b2 4ac.
Sin e the root of a number is only dened for a nonnegative number, the dis riminant in the
formula has to be nonnegative,
equations.
D 0.
abc-
We formulate the following dis riminant riterion for quadrati
Dis riminant riterion for a quadrati equation

For a quadrati equation
if
if
if
D > 0,
D = 0,
D < 0,
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0)
dene
then the quadrati equation has two solutions;
D = b2 4ac.
It holds that:
then the quadrati equation has pre isely one solution;

then the quadrati equation has no solutions.
Example 2.2: zero points of a quadrati fun tion

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 5x + 4. A zero point of y( x ) is a solutions of the equation
x2 + 5x + 4 = 0.
A ording to the abc-formula the solutions are
5 52 4 4 1
5 + 52 4 4 1
x=
= 4 or x =
= 1.
21
21
The x-inter epts of the graph are (4, 0) and (1, 0).
Depending on the form of the quadrati equation, you ould also use fa torization to solve su h an
equation. If a quadrati equation is written like
( x + u)( x + v) = 0,
where
and
are some numbers, it is easy to solve:
( x + u)( x + v) = 0 x + u = 0 or x + v = 0
x = u or x = v.
Rewriting a quadrati equation in the form
( x + u)( x + v) is alled fa torization or fa toring. It is not

u and v. The general
always possible and even if it is possible not always easy to nd the values of
form of a quadrati equation equal to zero is
ax2 + bx + c = 0.
If we rewrite
( x + u)( x + v),
we obtain
( x + u)( x + v) = x2 + xv + ux + uv = x2 + (u + v) x + uv.
2. Power fun tions

Thus, if
a = 1,
u+v = b
we need to nd
and
su h that
uv = c.
and
Note that we always an set
a = 1 by
dividing the general form by
a.
Furthermore, note that you an
always use the quadrati formula to solve a quadrati equation (or to nd that there are no solutions),
while fa torization only works fast if the values of
and
are integers and easy to nd.
Example 2.3: zero points of a quadrati fun tion using fa torization

Re onsider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 5x + 4 of Example 2.2. Let us try to use fa torization to nd
the zero points. Then we need to nd values for u and v su h that
u+v = 5
and
uv = 4.
Some trial and error leads to u = 4 and v = 1 (or u = 1 and v = 4), so nding the zero points of
y( x ) boils down to
y( x ) = 0
x2 + 5x + 4 = 0
( x + 4)( x + 1) = 0
x + 4 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
x = 4 or x = 1.
Exer ise 2.2 (zero points quadrati fun tion)

Determine the zero points of ea h of the following quadrati fun tions:
a) y( x ) = x2 + 7x + 6
b) y( x ) = 4x2 + 2x + 1
Exer ise 2.3 (x-inter epts of graph of quadrati fun tion)

Determine for ea h of the following fun tions the value of p for whi h the quadrati fun tion has
two x-inter epts:
a) y( x ) = x2 + px + 3
b) y( x ) = p2 x2 + 2px + 1
Exer ise 2.4 (graph of quadrati fun tion)

Consider the two fun tions y( x ) = x2 + 4x + 3 and z( x ) = x2 + 6.
a) Sket h the graphs of the fun tions y( x ) and z( x ).
b) Cal ulate the points of interse tion of the graphs of these fun tions.
Exer ise 2.5 (solving equations by fa toring)

Solve the following equations:
a) x2 + x 2 = 0,
b) 2x3 2x2 + x 1 = 0,
) x3 + 2x2 4x 8 = 0,
d) 2x4 2x3 + x2 x = 0.
In the ase of two fun tions not only the points of interse tion are of interest, but it is also questioned
for whi h values of
the fun tion value of the one fun tion is larger or smaller than the fun tion value
of the other fun tion. For answering these questions we have to solve inequalities. We illustrate this
in the following example.
10
Example 2.4: solving inequalities

Consider the fun tions f ( x ) = x2 + 2 and g( x ) = 3x. We want to determine all values of x for
whi h f ( x ) g( x ).
First, we determine the points of interse tions, i.e., we look for a solution of the equation
f ( x ) = g( x )
x2 + 2 = 3x
x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
( x + 1)( x + 2) = 0
x = 1
or
x = 2.
Next we onsider the sign s heme of f ( x ) g( x ). From the sign s heme, depi ted in Figure 2.5, it
f ( x ) g( x )
+ + + 0 0 + + +
0
Figure 2.5:
Sign s heme of f ( x ) g( x ).
readily follows that f ( x ) g( x ) if x 2 and x 1.
Exer ise 2.6 (solving inequalities)

a) Consider the fun tions f ( x ) = 2x + 4 and g( x ) = 2x2 + 3x + 4. Determine all the values of x
for whi h f ( x ) g( x ).
b) Consider the fun tions f ( x ) = x2 + 4x + 3 and g( x ) = x2 + 6. Determine all the values of x
for whi h f ( x ) g( x ).
We pro eed by looking at a fun tion that looks like
y( x ) = x k ,
where
k {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
Figure 2.6 depi ts the graph of
y( x ) = x3 ;
a fun tion of this type is alled a
positive integer power fun tion. By denition we have
x0 = 1.
and for a positive number
k xk
xk = x x . . . x
The number
of the fun tion
denotes `multiply
k-times x
itself ',
(k-times).
is alled the degree. Hen e the degree of the fun tion
y( x ) = 1 (=
y( x ) = x3
is 3 and the degree
x0 ) is 0.
A fun tion that is the sum of multiples of positive integer power fun tions is alled a polynomial
fun tion.
The highest positive integer power in a polynomial fun tion is alled the degree of the
polynomial fun tion. A oe ient is the number in front of
xk
and the oe ient of the term with
the highest positive integer power is alled the leading oe ient of the polynomial fun tion.
Example 2.5: polynomial fun tion

The fun tion y( x ) = 7x5 + 3x4 132 is an example of a polynomial fun tion. This is a fth degree
polynomial fun tion in whi h 7 is the oe ient of x5 , the number 3 the oe ient of x4 and 132
2. Power fun tions
11
y( x ) = x3
Figure 2.6:
The graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x3 .
the onstant term of the polynomial fun tion (also alled the oe ient of x0 ). The term with the
highest positive integer power is x5 , thus the leading oe ient is 7.
Note that onstant fun tions, linear fun tions and quadrati fun tions are polynomial fun tions of
degree 0, 1 and 2 respe tively.
With the help of the positive integer power fun tions a negative integer power fun tion is dened in
the following way
x k =
where
1
,
xk
k {0, 1, 2, . . .}.
The fun tions
y ( x ) = x 1 =
1
x
and
y( x ) = 12x 4 =
12
x4
are examples of negative integer power fun tions; see Figure 2.7 for the graph of
dividing by zero is not allowed the value
x=0
f (x) =
1
x . Sin e
is a non-feasible value of those fun tions.
Finally, a fun tion that looks like

m
y( x ) = x n ,
where
and
are integers (n
power fun tion is dened as

m
xn =
xm
and onsequently
m
1
x n =
.
n
xm
6= 0),
is alled a power fun tion. If
and
are positive integers, the
12
y( x ) =
1
x
x
Figure 2.7:
The graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x 1 (= 1x ).
The fun tions
y( x )
x2 =
3
4
x=
x,
x3 ,
1
=
7 8
x
y( x )
x =
y( x )
x 7
are examples of power fun tions; see Figure 2.8 for the graph of
y( x ) =
y( x ) =
x
Figure 2.8:
The graph of the fun tion y( x ) =
the following properties.
Properties of power fun tions
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
1
= x p
xp
p
q
xp = x q
xp
xq
x p+q
xp
= x pq
xq
( x p )q = x pq
x p y p = ( x y) p
( p, q integers)
x.
x.
Power fun tions have
2. Power fun tions
13
Example 2.6: properties of power fun tions
3
We will determine p su h that ( x5 )4 = x p . A ording to the properties of power fun tions we
subsequently obtain

3
4 ( 1)
20
( 2)
( 5) 1 ( 1)
1
1
= 4 = 4 = 20 = x 3 .
5
3
3
x
x5
x3
x5
The numbers on top of the equality signs refer to the properties of the power fun tions. It follows
2
that p = 20
3 = 6 3 .
Exer ise 2.7 (using properties power fun tions)

a) Determine p if the following expressions are simplied into 2 p :
i) 8
4
ii) 83
iii) 32
1
iv) 64 2
b) Determine p and q if the following expression are simplied into x p yq
i) x2 x5 yy2
ii)
xx 3 y2
2
x 3
y 1
iii) ( x 1 y4 )2
10
iv) x 6 3 x
We nish this se tion with an appli ation in e onomi s.
Example 2.7: break-even point

The break-even point is the point where revenue equals osts. Graphi ally it is the point where the
graph of the revenue fun tion interse ts the graph of the ost fun tion. This example illustrates
how we an al ulate the break-even point.
Consider the revenue fun tion R( x ) = x and the ost fun tion C ( x ) = 3x + 4. Then the break-even
point is the point where R( x ) is equal to C ( x ). Hen e, we have to solve the equation R( x ) = C ( x ),
x = 3x + 4.
Taking the square on both sides we obtain
x2 = 3x + 4 x2 3x 4 = 0.
Applying the ab -formula we get x = 4 and x = 1. Observe that x = 1 is not a solution of the
equation R( x ) = C ( x ), this solution has arisen by taking the square on both sides. Hen e, we an
on lude that x = 4 is the break-even point where R( x ) = C ( x ) = 4.
Exer ise 2.8 (break-even point)

Consider the revenue fun tion R( x ) = px, p > 0 and the ost fun tion C ( x ) = c + vx, c > 0, 0 <
v < p. Determine the break-even point.
14
Exer ise 2.9

Determine a su h that the equation
a
x
=2
3
x
has pre isely one solution.
Exer ise 2.10

The demand of a good is given by q = 60 10p. The xed ost of the produ tion of this good is 25
Euro and the variable osts are 2 Euro per unit. The total revue are TR( p) = pq. Determine the
break even points.
Exer ise 2.11

Solve the inequality
x3 + 2x 3x2 .
Exer ise 2.12

a) Determine the zero points of the quadrati fun tion y( x ) = 2x2 + 12x + 18.
b) Determine the value of p for whi h the quadrati fun tion y( x ) = x2 x + p has two xinter epts.
) Consider the fun tions y1 ( x ) = 41 x2 5x + 6 and y2 ( x ) = 3x + p. Determine all values of p for
whi h the graphs of the two fun tions do not interse t.
Exer ise 2.13

a) Consider the fun tions f ( x ) =
f ( x ) g ( x ).
b) Consider the fun tions f ( x ) =
f ( x ) g ( x ).
Exer ise 2.14
2 x
3+ x
1 x 2
3+ x
and g( x ) = x + 1. Determine all x > 3 su h that

and g( x ) = x + 1. Determine all x > 3 su h that
Consider the fun tions y1 ( x ) = 2x + 3 and y2 ( x ) = x.

a) Cal ulate the points of interse tion of the graphs of these two fun tions.
b) Solve the inequality y1 ( x ) < y2 ( x ).
3
1
y( x ) = ax ,
where
a ( a 6 = 1)
y( x ) =
2x ,
is a positive number, is alled an exponential fun tion with base
y( x ) =
ex ,
y( x ) =
10x and
y( x ) =
x
1
2
y( x ) =
2x
(a) y(x) = 2x .
Figure 3.1:
The fun tions
are examples of exponential fun tions; see
y( x ) =
a.
x
1
2
x
(b) y(x) =
.
Examples of (a) an in reasing exponential fun tion and (b) a de reasing exponential fun tion.
1
2
Figure 3.1 for the graphs of an in reasing and a de reasing exponential fun tion.
For any base
a > 1
the ourse of the graph of the fun tion
y( x ) = ax
is similar to the ourse of
x
the graph of the fun tion 2 : the larger the base, the faster the graph approa hes the
x-axis in
x-dire tion and the steeper the graph is in the positive x-dire tion. The graph of the
x
x
fun tion y ( x ) = (1/2) is the ree tion of the graph of the fun tion y = 2 in the y-axis. For any
0 < a <1 the
x ourse of the graph of the fun tion is similar to the ourse of the graph of the fun tion
1
y( x ) = 2 .
the negative
The exponential fun tion with base

number
e, y ( x ) = e x ,
appears in many e onomi growth models.
is alled the number of Euler and it holds that
ex .
Exponential fun tions have the following properties.
1 Based
on Hamers (2010).
15
e 2.7183.
The
See Figure 3.2 for the graph of
16
y( x ) = ex
x
Figure 3.2:
The graph of the exponential fun tion y( x ) = e x .
Properties of exponential fun tions
(1)
(2)
a x ay = a x +y
a x =
1
ax
(4)
ax
= a x y
ay
( a x )y = a xy
(5)
a0 = 1.
(3)
Example 3.1: properties of exponential fun tions

We will determine the solution of the equation
3 x 92x = 3.
A ording to the properties of an exponential fun tion we will rewrite the left hand side as follows,
using that 9 = 32 at ()
()
( 4)
( 1)
3 x 92x = 3 x (32 )2x = 3 x 34x = 33x .
The numbers on top of the equality signs refer to the properties of exponential fun tions. The right
hand side is equal to 3 = 31 . Hen e, we have a solution if 3x = 1. The required solution is x = 13 .
Exer ise 3.1 (using properties exponential fun tions)

Solve the following equations:
a) 2x = 44x +6
b) 272x = ( 13 ) x +2
2
) ( 14 ) x 1 = 1
Exer ise 3.2 (interse tion fun tions)

Consider the fun tions y1 ( x ) = 3x +2 and y2 ( x ) = 24 + 3x . Determine the point of interse tion of
the graphs of these two fun tions.
3. Exponential and logarithmi fun tions
17
y( x ) = a log( x ),
where
a ( a 6 = 1)
is a positive number, is alled the logarithmi fun tion with base
a.
Meaning of the logarithm with base a
y( x ) = a log x
means: to
Take, e.g., the fun tion
belongs the
y( x ) = 2 log( x ).
2 log(1)
sin e
2 log(2)
sin e
= 0,
= 1,
2 log(8) = 3,
sin e
ay = x.
that satises
Then it holds that:
20 = 1;
21 = 2;
23 = 8.
The logarithmi fun tion with base
is alled the natural logarithm and is denoted by
y( x ) = ln( x ).
The graph of the natural logarithm is displayed in Figure 3.3. From the denition the following relation
y
y( x ) = ln x
x
Figure 3.3:
The graph of the natural logarithm y( x ) = ln x.
between the natural logarithm and the exponential fun tion with base
holds:
Relation between logarithmi and exponential fun tion

(i)
y = ln (ey )
(ii)
x = eln( x )
Corresponding to the ve properties of the exponential fun tions we have ve `ree ted' properties
of the logarithmi fun tions.
logarithm.)
(For onvenien e we have omitted the base in the notation of the
18
Properties of the logarithmi fun tion
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
log( x y)

1
log
x

x
log
y
log ( x y )
(5)
= log( x ) + log(y)
= log( x )
= log( x ) log(y)
= y log( x )
log(1) = 0.
Example 3.2: properties of the logarithmi fun tion

We will solve the equation
ln( x + 1) ln( x + 2) = 1.
We will rewrite the left hand side as

ln( x + 1) ln( x + 2) = ln
x+1
x+2
As ln(e) = 1, a solution of the original equation will be found if

x+1
=e
x+2
x + 1 = e ( x + 2)
x + 1 = ex + 2e
(1 e) x = 2e 1
2e 1
x=
.
1e
Exer ise 3.3 (using properties logarithmi fun tion)

Rewrite ea h of the following expressions in a single logarithm.
a) log( x ) + 2 log(y).
b) log( x ) + log 1y log(z).
Exer ise 3.4 (solving equation)

Solve ea h of the following equations.
a) ln( x + 7) + ln( x + 3) = 0.
b) ( 3 log x )2 + 6 = 5 3 log x.
Exer ise 3.5

Consider the fun tions y1 ( x ) = 2 log( x 2) and y2 ( x ) = 2 2 log( x + 4).
a) Determine all x su h that y1 ( x ) > 3.
b) Determine all x su h that y1 ( x ) < y2 ( x ).
4
1
The Lagrange method
If you want to use the substitution method to solve a onstrained optimization problem, you need to
be able to solve the onstraint
g( x, y) = b
to either
or
y.
Unfortunately this is not always possible.
In this se tion we will dis uss the Lagrange method. This method is general appli able if we onsider
a onstrained optimization problem of the form
optimize
subje t to
4.1
(obje tive fun tion)
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b
( onstraint).
First order ondition Lagrange method
If we an solve
g( x, y) = b
to
y,
resulting in a fun tion
y ( x ),
we an substitute this in the obje tive
fun tion and get a fun tion of one variable and no onstraints:
Z ( x ) = z( x, y( x )).
If this fun tion is to be optimized, and there are no boundary points, the only possible optimum
lo ations are stationary points; we determine stationary points
x0
that satisfy
Z ( x0 ) = zx ( x0 , y( x )) + zy ( x0 , y( x0 ))y ( x0 ) = 0,
where the hain rule is used to dierentiate
Z ( x ).
Hen e, a stationary point
( x0 , y0 )
of the original
problem should satisfy
zx ( x0 , y0 ) + zy ( x0 , y0 )y ( x0 ) = 0.
(4.1)
Now note that we only need the derivative of
y( x )
at
x0 ,
not the fun tion itself. We an determine
this derivative, again using the hain rule, in the following way:
g( x, y( x )) = b
Dierentiate left and right hand side with respe t to
gx ( x, y( x )) + gy ( x, y( x )) y ( x )
gy ( x, y( x ))y ( x )
=0
= gx ( x, y( x ))
y ( x ) =
1 Translated
x.
gx ( x, y( x ))
.
gy ( x, y( x ))
from Se tions 8.88.10 of Kaper (1990), Wiskundige
19
methoden & te hnieken.
20
In order to nd
y ( x0 )
y ( x0 ) =
we substitute
gx ( x0 , y0 )
gy ( x0 , y0 )
( x, y( x )) = ( x0 , y0 ):
gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0.
if
Let us substitute this expression for
y ( x0 )
in (4.1) and we obtain that a stationary point
( x0 , y0 )
should satisfy
zx ( x0 , y0 ) zy ( x0 , y0 )
gx ( x0 , y0 )
=0
gy ( x0 , y0 )
( gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0).
The Fren h mathemati ian Joseph Louis Lagrange (1736-1813) splitted this equation in two separate
equations: one only ontaining the partial derivatives with respe t to
y.
partial derivatives with respe t to
zy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0 gy ( x0 , y0 )
then that same
If we an nd a
and one only ontaining the
su h that
( gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0),
satises
zx ( x0 , y0 ) = 0 gx ( x0 , y0 ).
For, if
zy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0 gy ( x0 , y0 ),
zx ( x0 , y0 ) zy ( x0 , y0 )
subsequently it holds
gx ( x0 , y0 )
=0
gy ( x0 , y0 )
g ( x , y )
zx ( x0 , y0 ) 0 gy ( x0 , y0 ) x 0 0
gy ( x0 , y0 )
zx ( x0 , y0 ) 0 gx ( x0 , y0 )
=0
= 0.
Summarized, this implies that for a stationary point

there is a
( x0 , y0 ) it should hold that, besides g( x0 , y0 ) = b,
su h that
zy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0 gy ( x0 , y0 ),
zx ( x0 , y0 ) = 0 gx ( x0 , y0 ).
This implies that
( x 0 , y 0 , 0 )
is a stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion:
L( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b),
for a stationary point of
L( x, y, )
should satisfy
Lx ( x, y, ) = zx ( x, y) gx ( x, y) = 0
Ly ( x, y, ) = zy ( x, y) gy ( x, y) = 0
L ( x, y, ) = ( g( x, y) b) = 0.
We ould derive the same result in a similar way when stating that
0.
This is shown in Exer ise 4.2.
x is a fun tion of y and gx ( x0 , y0 ) 6=
4. The Lagrange method
21
First order ondition Lagrange

If
( x0 , y0 )
is an optimum lo ation of
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
.
g( x, y) = b
then there exists a
(if
gx ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0
or
stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion
gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0)
su h that
( x 0 , y 0 , 0 )
is a
L( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b).
The variable
is alled the Lagrange multiplier ; see Se tion 4.3 for an elaboration on this variable.
Sin e an optimum lo ation implies a stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion, we start solving the
optimization problem by nding stationary points of the Lagrange fun tion.
Example 4.1: Stationary points Lagrange fun tion

Consider the optimization problem
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y) = 4x 3y
g( x, y) = x2 + y2 = 25.
The Lagrange fun tion is then

L ( x, y, ) = 4x 3y ( x2 + y2 25).
We nd its stationary points by solving

L x ( x, y, ) = 4 2x = 0
L y ( x, y, ) = 3 2y = 0
L ( x, y, ) = ( x2 + y2 25) = 0
Rewriting the rst partial derivative provides us with

2x = 4 x =
4
2
= .
2
Rewriting the se ond partial derivative provides us with

3
2y = 3 y =
.
2
Substituting these expressions for x and y in the third partial derivative we obtain values for :
2
2
2

3
+
25 = 0
2
2 2
2
3
+
= 25
2
16
42
4
2
9
42
9
42
25
42
= 25
= 25
25 = 25 42 = 1002
2 =
25
100
=
q
1
4
1
4
= 12 .
22
Substituting this values for ba k into the expressions for x and y we obtain two stationary points:
( x, y, ) = (4, 3, 21 )
and
( x, y, ) = (4, 3, 12 ).
The Lagrange method is provided in this se tion for optimization problems that annot be solved
using the substitution method. However, also those optimization problems an be solved using the
Lagrange method.
The Lagrange method may be the obvious method to use, but it does provide
more information than the optimum lo ation itself. The Lagrange multiplier tells us a bit about the
robustness of the optimum solution; Se tion 4.3 elaborates on this.
Finally, note that the rst order ondition for the Lagrange fun tion only nds possible optimum
gx (c, d) 6= 0 or gy (c, d) 6= 0. Hen e, also stationary points of

g( x, y) that are feasible, i.e., satisfy g( x, y) = b, ould hold optima. Fortunately, these points do not
often exist, sin e in most ases the stationary points of g ( x, y ) are not feasible, but you should he k
lo ations
( x, y) = (c, d)
for whi h
whether these possible optimum lo ations are present anyway.
Example 4.2: Stationary points onstraint fun tion

Re onsider the optimization problem of Example 4.1:
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y) = 4x 3y
g( x, y) = x2 + y2 = 25.
The onstraint is g( x, y) = x2 + y2 = 25. The only stationary point of g( x, y) is

gx ( x, y) = 2x = 0 x = 0,
and
gy ( x, y) = 2y = 0 y = 0.
Hen e, g( x, y) has a stationary point at ( x, y) = (0, 0). But sin e

g(0, 0) = 02 + 02 = 0 6= 25,
this point is not feasible, hen e this annot be an optimum lo ation. We do not have an extra
possible optimum lo ation in this ase.
Exer ise 4.1

Determine for ea h of the optimization problems below the stationary points of the orresponding
Lagrange fun tion and he k whether there are feasible stationary points of the onstraint.
a) maximize p(K, L ) = KKL
+L
subje t to 4K + L = 8
(K > 0, L > 0).
b) optimize
z( x, y) = 5x2 + 6y2 xy
subje t to x + 2y = 24.
) optimize
r (q, p) = qp
subje t to p2 2p + q2 = 0.
d) optimize
u ( x, y, z) = xyz
subje t to x + 2y + 3z = 36.
23
Exer ise 4.2

optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b.
Let ( x0 , y0 ) be an optimum lo ation su h that gx ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0.

a) Assume that x is a fun tion y su h that g( x (y), y) = b and determine x (y0 ).
b) Substitute x = x (y) in z( x, y); we obtain Z (y) = z( x (y), y). Show that if y0 is a stationary
point of Z (y), it should hold that
zx ( x0 , y0 )
gy ( x0 , y0 )
gx ( x0 , y0 )
+ zy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0.
) Let 0 be a number su h that

zx ( x0 , y0 ) = gx ( x0 , y0 ).
Show that for that same 0 it holds that

zy ( x0 , y0 ) = gy ( x0 , y0 ).
d) Show that ( x0 , y0 , 0 ) is a stationary point of

L ( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b ).
4.2
Se ond order ondition Lagrange method
A ording to the rst order ondition of the Lagrange method an optimum lo ation of the original
problem is a stationary point of the orresponding Lagrange fun tion. However, a stationary does not
need to ontain a optimum lo ation, as we have already seen.
Example 4.3: Stationary point that is no optimum lo ation

optimize
subje t to
r (q, p) = qp
p2
2p + q2 = 0.
In Exer ise 4.1 ) we have determined that (q, p, ) is a stationary point of the orresponding Lagrange
fun tion
L (q, p, ) = qp ( p2 2p + q2 ).
If we want to show that r (q, p) does not have an optimum at (q, p) = (0, 0) we need to draw the
urve that depi ts the onstraint
p2 2p + q2 = 0 ( p 1)2 + q2 = 1.
Note that this is a ir le with radius 1 and entre at ( p, q ) = (1, 0). In this graph we onstru t the
sign s heme of r (q, p) = qp. See Figure 4.1. The ir le depi ts the feasible points of the onstrained
optimization problem. The + and signs show that the obje tive fun tion is positive if either x
and y are both positive or both negative and negative if one of x and y is positive and the other one
is negative.
24
+
Figure 4.1:
-1
Constraint and sign s heme of obje tive fun tion of Example 4.3.
As you an see in Figure 4.1 there are point on the ir le lose to stationary point (q, p) = (0, 0) for
whi h it holds that r (q, p) > r (0, 0) and also points for whi h it holds that r (q, p) < r (0, 0). Hen e,
there is no optimum in the stationary point (q, p) = (0, 0).
In order to determine whether a stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion holds an optimum lo ation
of the optimization problem
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b,
we return to the start of our derivation of the rst order onstraint for the Lagrange method in Se tion
( x0 , y0 ) is an optimum lo ation than it holds that x0 is a stationary point of Z ( x ) = z( x, y( x ))

gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0. The derivative of this fun tion is provided by
4.1. If
if
Z ( x ) = zx ( x, y( x )) zy ( x, y( x ))
If
gx ( x, y( x ))
.
gy ( x, y( x ))
x0 is a stationary point of Z ( x ), we an use the se ond order ondition of un onstrained optimization
to he k whether this stationary point holds a minimum or a maximum.
Using this se ond order
ondition we know that
x0
holds a maximum if
x0
holds a minimum if
The se ond order derivative
Z ( x0 ) < 0,
and,
Z ( x0 ) > 0.
Z ( x ) is determined by dierentiating the expression for Z ( x ).
We again
need the hain rule to do this. In general this will provide a very elaborate expression and we will not
show that. However, we will use this se ond order riterion to determine whether the stationary point
in Example 4.1 hold minima or maxima.
25
Example 4.4: Type optimum of stationary points

Re onsider the optimization problem of Example 4.1:
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y) = 4x 3y
g( x, y) = x2 + y2 = 25.
The points ( x, y) = (4, 3) and ( x, y) = (4, 3) are stationary points and therefore satisfy Z ( x ) = 0,
where
g ( x, y( x ))
2x
Z ( x ) = zx ( x, y( x )) zy ( x, y( x )) x
= 4+3 .
gy ( x, y( x ))
2y
Note that y is a tually a fun tion of x, hen e, a tually we should write

Z (x) = 4 + 3
2x
.
2y( x )
If we dierentiate Z ( x ) we obtain
Z ( x ) = 3
2 2y( x ) 2x 2y ( x )
.
(2y( x ))2
We an substitute y( x ) = y = 3, but we need y ( x ) to determine Z ( x ) for x = 4 and x = 4.

Remember that
2x
x
g ( x, y)
=
= .
y ( x ) = x
gy ( x, y)
2y
y
So, the se ond order derivative of Z ( x ) is

Z ( x ) = 3
4y 4x ( xy
4y2
=3
y+
y2
x2
y
=3
y2 + x 2
.
y3
If x = 4 (and y = 3), we obtain

Z (4) = 3
(3)2 + 42
25
25
= 3
= < 0,
27
9
(3)3
hen e, ( x, y) = (4, 3) holds a maximum with value z(4, 3) = 25.

If x = 4 (and y = 3), we obtain
Z (4) = 3
32 + (4)2
25
25
=
> 0,
= 3
27
9
(3)3
hen e, ( x, y) = (4, 3) holds a minimum with value z(4, 3) = 25.

We an summarize the above in the se ond order riterion for the Lagrange method.
26
Se ond order riterion Lagrange

If
( x0 , y0 , )
is a stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion
L( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b),
and
gy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0,
than
Z ( x ) = z( x, y( x ))
has a minimum in
( x0 , y0 )
if
Z ( x0 ) > 0,
and a maximum in
( x0 , y0 )
if
Z ( x0 ) < 0.
Note that
Z ( x ) = zx ( x, y( x )) + zy ( x, y( x ))y( x ),
where
y ( x ) =
If we nd that
gx ( x, y( x ))
.
gy ( x, y( x ))
gy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0,
gx ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0 we an onstru t an analogous se ond order

where x is a fun tion of y, as you an see in the box below.
but
riterion for the Lagrange method,
Se ond order riterion Lagrange (alternative version)

If
( x0 , y0 , )
is a stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion
L( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b),
and
gx ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0,
than
Z ( x ) = z ( x ( y ), y )
has a minimum in
Z (y0 ) > 0,
and a maximum in
( x0 , y0 )
if
Z (y0 ) < 0.
Note that
Z (y) = zx ( x (y), y) x (y) + zy ( x (y), y),

where
x (y) =
gy ( x (y), y)
gx ( x (y), y)
( x0 , y0 )
if
27
Exer ise 4.3

Re onsider the optimization problems of Exer ise 4.1a) ) (these are provided below). Solve these
optimization problems using the stationary points found in Exer ise 4.1.
a) maximize p(K, L ) = KKL
+L
subje t to 4K + L = 8
(K > 0, L > 0).
b) optimize
z( x, y) = 5x2 + 6y2 xy
subje t to x + 2y = 24.
) optimize
r (q, p) = qp
2
subje t to p 2p + q2 = 0.
In one of the optimization problems in the exer ise above we had to deal with non-negativity onstraints. We rst solved the problem without the non-negativity onstraints and he ked afterwards
whether the optimum lo ation satises these onstraints. This pro edure might not always lead to
the orre t solution, as will be shown in the next example.
Example 4.5: Boundary optima

Consider the maximization problem
maximize
subje t to
z( x, y) = x2 + y
g( x, y) = x + y = 1
( x 0, y 0).
The orresponding Lagrange fun tion is

L ( x, y, ) = x2 + y ( x + y 1),
and its stationary points are determined by

L x ( x, y, ) = 2x = 0 = 2x
L y ( x, y, ) = 1 = 0 = 1
L ( x, y, ) = ( x + y 1) = 0 x + y = 1
Combining the rst and se ond partial derivative we obtain that

2x = 1 x = 12 ,
and substituting this in the third partial derivative we nd that

1
2
+ y = 1 y = 12 .
Hen e, the only stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion is

( x, y, ) = ( 12 , 12 , 1).
Now let us he k whether this holds a maximum using the se ond order onstraint. The rst order
derivative of Z ( x ) = z( x, y( x )) is
Z ( x ) = 2x 1
1
= 2x.
1
Sin e it does not depend on y, determining the se ond order derivative is easy; it is
Z ( x ) = 2.
Hen e, Z ( 12 ) = 2 > 0, whi h implies that ( x, y) = ( 12 , 12 ) holds a minimum. However, we are

only interested in maxima, so ignoring the non-negativity onstraints provides us with no maximum
lo ation.
28
y
k=
5
4
k=1
k=
3
4
1
2
k=
1
4
Figure 4.2:
1
2
Constraint g( x, y) (the thi k line) and level urves of z( x, y) of Example 4.5.
Let us draw some level urves of the fun tion z( x, y) = x2 + y (for values k = 12 , k = 34 , k = 1
and k = 54 ) and the onstraint x + y = 1 in an ( x, y) oordinate system; see Figure 4.2 for the
result. In Figure 4.2 we an see that the boundary points ( x, y) = (1, 0) and ( x, y) = (0, 1) both
hold maximum lo ations, both with value 1. So the optima of this maximization problem are
a maximum in ( x, y) = (0, 1) with value z(0, 1) = 1, and,

a maximum in ( x, y) = (1, 0) with value z(1, 0) = 1.
What to do if we have to deal with boundary points and the Lagrange method? In some ases you
an use the graphi al method, as was the ase in Example 4.5. However, drawing level urves of the
obje tive fun tion an be umbersome and that also holds for depi ting the onstraint.
If we know that the set of feasible values of
and
satises two onditions, we an nd global
minima and maxima in another way. The set of feasible values ontains all
and
that are in the
domain and satisfy the onstraint. The two onditions on this set are:
(i) The values of
and
annot be ome arbitrarily small or arbitrarily large;
(ii) The border points are boundary points; they an be obtained.
If these two onstraints are satised, we all the set of feasible values ompa t.
In that ase we
know that there should be a global minimum and a global maximum . The only possible lo ations are
boundary points, stationary points of the Lagrange fun tion and feasible points at whi h both partial
derivatives of the onstraint are zero. Hen e, we need to nd the value of the obje tive fun tion at
these points; the largest one(s) is(are) global maxima and the smallest one(s) is(are) global minima.
If you also en ounter values that are neither largest nor smallest and you annot use the se ond
riterion, i.e., these values do not belong to stationary points, or the graphi al method, it is un lear
wether these are minima or maxima. This is summarized in the box below.
2 A ording to the extreme value theorem of Weierstrass; see, e.g., the Wikipedia web site on this topi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_value_theorem.
29
Compa tness riterion Lagrange

If the set of feasible values of
(i) The values of
and
and
satisfy
annot be ome arbitrarily small or arbitrarily large;
(ii) The border points are boundary points; they an be obtained,

then the obje tive fun tion must have a minimum and a maximum. These are determined
by onsidering the values of the obje tive fun tion at possible optimum lo ations.
Example 4.6: Boundary optima, ontinued

Re onsider the maximization problem of Example 4.5:
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
x+y
= x2 + y
=1
( x 0, y 0).
In this maximization problem we have two feasible boundary points, determined by x = 0 or y = 0

and the onstraint. If
x = 0,
then
0 + y = 1 y = 1.
y = 0,
then
x + 0 = 1 x = 1.
If
Hen e ( x, y) = (1, 0) and ( x, y) = (0, 1) are possible optimum lo ations. Also the stationary point
of the Lagrange fun tion ould be an optimum lo ation, hen e ( x, y) = ( 12 , 21 ) is a possible optimum
lo ation as well (see Example 4.5). Furthermore, possible optimum lo ations are determined by
stationary points of g( x, y) = x + y. However, sin e
gx ( x, y) = 1 6= 0
and
gy ( x, y) = 1 6= 0,
g( x, y) does not have stationary points and no new possible optimum lo ations arise.
Sin e x 0 and x + y = 1, we know that

x = 1 y 0 1 y y 1.
Also, y 0, hen e 0 y 1, so, y annot be ome arbitrarily large or small and it an obtain
the border points (0 and 1), hen e, y satises the two onditions. Sin e analogously it holds that
0 x 1 ( he k it yourself), also x satises the two onditions and we an use that there must be
a minimum and a maximum.
Let us now nd the values of the obje tive fun tion at our possible optimum lo ations:
possible optimum lo ation
( x, y) = (0, 1)
( x, y) = ( 12 , 12 )
( x, y) = (1, 0)
value obje tive fun tion

z(0, 1) = 02 + 1 = 1
z( 12 , 12 ) =
2
1
2
+ 12 =
z(1, 0) = 12 + 0 = 1
3
4
Hen e, we have maxima at ( x, y) = (1, 0) and ( x, y) = (0, 1) with value z(1, 0) = z(0, 1) = 1. The
stationary point ( x, y) = ( 12 , 12 ) ontains a minimum, but sin e this is a maximization problem, it is
of no interest.
30
Exer ise 4.4

Che k whether the sets of feasible values below, des ribed by a onstraint and a domain, satisfy
onditions (i) and (ii). Also determine the boundary point(s), if there are any.
a) Constraint: 5x + 7y = 35, domain: x 0, y 0.
b) Constraint: 5x + 7y = 35, domain: x > 0, y > 0.
) Constraint: xy = 1, domain: x 0, y 0.
d) Constraint: x y = 3, domain: x 0, y 0.
e) Constraint: x y = 3, domain: x 0, 0 y 10.
f) Constraint: x2 + y2 = 16, domain: x 0, y 0.
g) Constraint: x2 + y2 = 16, domain: all x and y.
The Lagrange method is summarized in the box below
Lagrange method
Consider a onstrained optimization problem
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b,
possibly with a domain for the values of
and
y.
The Lagrange method for solving this
problem onsists of two steps:
Step 1: Find possible optimum lo ations:

a) Stationary points of the Lagrange fun tion
b) Feasible boundary points
) Feasible stationary points of the onstraint
Step 2:
Determine whether the optimum lo ations hold minima or maxima, using the se ond
order riterion for Lagrange or the ompa tness riterion for Lagrange.
Exer ise 4.5

Use the Lagrange method to solve the minimal ost problems listed below.
c(k, l ) = 3k + 4l
a) minimize

2
3
1
subje t to
= 21 81
(k > 0, l > 0).
4 k+ 4 l
b)
minimize
c(k, l ) = 3k + 2l
subje t to
k 4 l 4 = 28
1 3
(k > 0, l > 0).
Exer ise 4.6

Use the Lagrange method to solve the optimization problems below.
a) optimize
z( x, y) = x + y2
subje t to x2 + y2 = 1.
b) optimize
z( x, y) = x2 y
subje t to
x + y = 0.
) optimize
z( x, y) = x2 y
subje t to x2 + y = 0.
31
Exer ise 4.7

The advertising budget of 25 (1000 $) has to be divided over radio and television ommer ials. If
we spend x to radio ommer ials and y to television ommer ials the revenues (in 1000 $) will be
R( x, y) =
200x
100y
+
.
5+x
10 + y
Answer the following questions.

a) What is the budget onstraint?
b) What is the domain for the values of x and y?
) Determine the onstrained optimization problem.
d) Solve the onstrained optimization problem using the Lagrange method.
We only onsidered equality onstraints.
g( x, y) b
However, also onstraints of the type
g( x, y) b
or
exist. In order to solve these types of problems in general one needs the Karush-Kuhn-
Tu ker onditions.
If both the obje tive fun tion and the onstraint(s) are linear fun tions, this is
alled a linear programming problem and the simplex method an be applied. We will not elaborate
on these methods. If you need to solve these kind of onstrained optimization problems, we refer to
existing literature.
4.3
Lagrange multiplier
In ea h (e onomi ) problem there is parameter (or exogenous variable).
Its value is determined
from outside the model (for example by the market) and annot be hosen at random. Also in the
onstrained optimization problem,
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b,
we have su h a parameter, namely
b.
If e onomi ir umstan es hange, the value of
well. We are interested in the ee t of the hange of

for example, if
is in reased by 1 unit?
Example 4.7: Marginal in rease in utility

Let us onsider the utility maximization problem
maximize
subje t to
u (l, q ) =
1
3
50l + 2q = b
ln(l ) +
2
3
ln(q )
(0 < l < 1, q > 0).
The orresponding Lagrange fun tion is

L (l, q, ) =
1
3
ln(l ) +
2
3
ln(q ) (50l + 2q b ),
and its stationary points are determined by

L l (l, q, ) =
L q (l, q, ) =
1
3l 50 = 0
2
3q 2 = 0
L (l, q, ) = (50l + 2q b ) = 0 50l + 2q = b.
Solving the rst partial derivative in l results in

1
3l
= 50 1 = 150l l =
1
150 .
b an hange as
on the value of the optimum. What happens,
32
Solving the se ond partial derivative in q results in

2
3q
2
6
= 2 2 = 6q q =
1
3 .
Substituting these expressions for l en q in the third partial derivative provides us with
50
1
150
+2
1
3
1
3
2
3
3
3
= b.
Substituting
1
b=
1
b
= b 1
ba k in the expression for l and q gives us

l=
q=
1
1
= 150
b
150b 1
1
1
= 3 b.
3b 1
Hen e, the stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion, depending on b, is

1 b, 1 b, 1 ).
(l, q, ) = ( 150
3
b
1
If we assume that (l, q ) = ( 150
b, 13 b ) is a maximum lo ation, the value of the maximum equals
1
u ( 150
b, 13 b ) =
1
3
b
ln( 150
)+
2
3
ln( 3b ).
If we want to know the approximate hange in the optimum value of u when b hanges, we an use
that
u
1
d
1
db u ( 150 b, 3 b ) b,
1 b, 1 b ) with respe t to b.
hen e, we need the derivative of u ( 150
3
d
1
1
db u ( 150 b, 3 b )
1
3
150
3150 b
1/150b
1
1
2
1
150 + 3 1/3b 3
2 3
1
2
3
33 b = 3b + 3b = 3b
= 1b ,
whi h is exa tly the value of the Lagrange multiplier in the stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion.
This implies that if b in reases with 1 (b = 1), the value of the obje tive fun tion in the maximum
in reases with approximately 1 . For example, if b = 60 and hanges to b = 61, the utility will
1 .
in rease by approximately 60
We will show that for the general onstrained optimization problem
optimize
subje t to
z( x, y)
g( x, y) = b,
the following holds.
Property of the Lagrange multiplier

Let
( x0 , y0 )
be an optimum lo ation and
be the value of the orresponding Lagrange
multiplier. Then it holds that
0 is the marginal hange of the optimal value when the value of b hanges.
This implies that if
b = 1,
the hange in the optimal value is approximately
0 .
33
The Lagrange multiplier is also named shadow pri e in ase of, for example, a produ tion maximization
problem with a budget onstraint. Then in reasing the budget by 1 unit will lead to an in rease in
produ tion by approximately
units. It will provide you with an insight on how large the return on
investment will be without redoing all al ulations.

Now let us show that indeed the property we found in Example 4.7 holds in general.
( x 0 , y 0 , 0 )
is a
stationary point of the Lagrange fun tion
L( x, y, ) = z( x, y) ( g( x, y) b)
if it satises
zx ( x, y) gx ( x, y) = 0
zy ( x, y) gy ( x, y) = 0
g( x, y) b = 0.
We an regard the variables
Z (b) = z( x (b), y(b))

derivative of Z ( b ):
also
x, y
and
as fun tions of
is a fun tion of
b.
b.
By substituting
x = x ( b)
and
y = y ( b)
Using the hain rule of dierentiation we obtain the
Z (b) = zx ( x, y) x (b) + zy ( x, y)y (b).

Using the rst two equations above,
zx = gx
and
zy = gy ,
we obtain that

Z (b) = gx ( x, y) x (b) + gy ( x, y)y (b) = gx ( x, y) x (b) + gy ( x, y)y (b) .
From the third equation above we know that
g( x (b), y(b)) = b,
and if we dierentiate both the left and right hand side with respe t to
gx ( x, y) x (b) + gy ( x, y)y (b)
we obtain
= 1.
Substituting this ba k in the last expression for
Z ( b)
gives us
Z (b) = 1 = .
Hen e, the marginal hange in the value of the obje tive fun tion in an optimum lo ation with respe t
to
does equal
Exer ise 4.8

Re onsider Exer ise 4.7.
a) What happens to the revenues (approximately) if the advertising budget is in reased by 1?
b) In this time of risis the advertising budget is de reased by 2. What happens to the revenues
(approximately)?
) What advertising budget do you approximately need to earn 210 (1000 $)?
Exer ise 4.9

Re onsider Exer ise 4.3a).
a) The onstraint hanges to 4K + L = 8.18. What happens to the maximal output (approximately)?
b) The onstraint hanges to 4K + L = 7.91. What happens to the maximal output (approximately)?
) What budget do you approximately need to obtain a produ tion of 1?
This se tion dis usses an appli ation of (un onstrained) optimization within inventory management.
We will start with an example.
Example 5.1: Toys4us

The toy shop Toys4us sells, amongst others, a Lego set alled Es her. The owner of the shop knows
exa tly how mu h she sells, namely 5 sets ea h day. She orders the sets from a wholesaler, that
delivers them overnight. If she orders, she has a xed ost of 55 euros per order and a variable ost
of 20 euros per set ordered. Sin e she has a xed ost, she wants to order as many sets as possible,
but she needs to store them in her shop as well. The osts of storing these extra items are alled
holding osts en they are 2 euros per set per year. So if she stores a lot of sets, it will ost her a lot
of money, sin e she annot spend the money invested in sto k in something else. How many items
should she order?
Let us determine the annual ost for the shop owner. We have three types of osts: the xed
ordering osts, the variable ordering osts and the holding osts. The variable ordering osts are
simply the number of sets ordered multiplied with 20. If we onsider a year to have 275 working days,
that number of sets sold is 5 275 = 1375, so the variable ordering osts are 1375 20 = 27500 euros.
The xed ordering osts depend on the number of times we order and that depends on the order
size; let us all that q. The number of orders during a year is the total demand in that year divided
by the order size:
1375
.
q
The xed ordering osts are now easily determined by multiplying the number of orders by 55:
55
1375
75625
=
.
q
q
The holding osts are probably the most di ult to determine. We know that the demand is
onstant, so the inventory level de lines at a onstant rate, see also Figure 5.1, that depi ts the
inventory level I depending on time t. We see that the replenishment y le, the time between two
q
subsequent orders in years, is the order divided by the total demand in a year:
.
1375
E.g., if the shop owner would order 55 sets, the length of the replenishment y le is 55/1375 = 0.04
year, so 0.04 275 = 11 working days. Furthermore, we see that the average inventory level is q/2, so
the annual holding osts are the holding osts per set per year multiplied by the average inventory
q
level: 2 = q.
2
Hen e the total osts depending on q (denoted by C (q )) of the shop owner are:
C (q ) = 27500 +
75625
+ q = 27500 + 75625q 1 + q.
q
35
36
I
q
q/2
q/1375
Figure 5.1:
2q/1375
3q/1375
The inventory level I as a fun tion of time t.
The optimal order quantity is that order quantity that minimizes C (q ). Therefore we need to nd
the stationary points (C (q ) = 0) and determine whi h of these points hold a minimum.
C (q ) = 75625q 2 + 1 = 0
75625
=1
q2
75625 = q2
q = 275.
Sin e we annot order a negative amount, the only solution that ould hold a minimum is q = 275.
We now need to he k whether this holds a minimum, using the se ond order riterion:
C (q ) = 151250q 3 ,
C (275) =
151250
20796875
2
275
> 0.
Hen e, q = 275 holds a minimum and the annual osts are C (275) = 28050. Note that the selling
pri e should be at least 28050/1375 = 20.4 euros to make a prot.
In Example 5.1 we have determined the order quantity that minimizes the annual osts. This quantity
is alled the e onomi order quantity (EOQ for short). We have used some simplifying assumptions,
whi h we will not dis uss here (if you are interested, read any textbook on inventory management).
Let us determine the EOQ in a more general setting. Therefore we need to introdu e some variables:
D:
K:
c:
h:
q:
demand per time period;

xed osts per order;
variable osts per order;
holding osts per unit per time period;
number of units ordered.
The number of orders per time period is the demand during that time period divided by the number
of units ordered
D
.
q
5. Appli ation: e onomi order quantity
37
The xed ordering osts per time period are therefore
D
KD
=
.
q
q
The variable ordering osts per time period are
D c = cD.
The average inventory level is
q/2 (see also Example 5.1), hen e the holding osts per time period are
q
hq
h = .
2
2
De total osts, denoted by
C ( q),
are the sum of the xed ordering osts, the variable ordering osts
and the holding osts:
C ( q) =
KD
hq
hq
+ cD +
= KDq1 + aD + .
q
2
2
If we want to nd the minimum, we rst need to nd the stationary points:
C (q) = KDq2 +
h
KD h
=
+
2
2
q2
KD
h
=
2
2
q
KD =
hq2
2
2KD
= q2
h
r
q=
2KD
.
h
Sin e the order quantity annot by negative,
q=
2KD/h. Now let us use the se ond order riterion
to he k whether this is a minimum:
C (q) = 2KDq3 =
2KD
.
q3
K > 0 (xed ordering

osts are positive), D > 0 (we do have demand) and q > 0, we know
C (q) > 0, hen e q = 2KD/h holds a minimum. Note that the variable ordering osts do not
Sin e
that
play a role in determining the optimal order quantity. One an reason that this is obvious: we need
to buy the items we want to sell anyway, so the osts of buying these items (the pri e we pay the
wholesaler per unit) is set if we know what the demand is, hen e it is just a onstant in our ost
fun tion.
38
E onomi order quantity

Let
be xed ordering osts per order,
per unit per time period and
C ( q) =
q=
be the variable holding osts,
be holding osts
KD
hq
+ cD + .
q
2
The e onomi order quantity
be demand per time period. Then the total osts are
is
2KD
.
h
Example 5.2: Toys4us ( ontinued)

Re onsider Example 5.1. Let us use the formula to nd the e onomi order quantity. The variables
are
D = 1375 sets per year;
K = 55 euros;
c = 20 euros;
h = 2 euros per set per year.
The e onomi order quantity is
q=
2KD
=
h
2 55 1375
= 275.
2
The total osts are

55 1375
2 275
C (275) =
+ 20 1375 +
= 28050.
275
Example 5.3: e onomi order quantity

A retailer sells a produ t for whi h the demand is 300 units a week, the xed ordering osts are 3.75
dollar, the variable ordering osts are 12.50 dollar and the holding osts are 0.10 dollar per unit per
week. We now have that
D = 300
K = 3.75
a = 12.50
h = 0.10.

q=
2KD
=
h
2 3.75 300
= 150
0.10
and the total osts per week are

C (150) = 300 12.50 + 3.75
300
150
+ 0.10
= 3765.
150
2
Note that the minimum selling pri e should be
3765
= 12.55 dollar.
300
5. Appli ation: e onomi order quantity
39
Example 5.4: e onomi order quantity (dierent units)

A retailer sells a produ t for whi h the demand is 100 units a week, the xed ordering osts are 40
dollar, the variable ordering osts are 5 dollar and the holding osts are 20 dollar ent per unit per
month. Note that the demand is given in weeks, while the holding osts are given in months. Let us
use that a month has 4 weeks to determine that the monthly demand is 400 units. Furthermore, the
xed and variable ordering osts are provided in dollars, the holding osts in ents, so let us onvert
that to dollars. We now have that
D = 400
K = 40
a=5
h = 0.20.

q=
2KD
=
h
2 40 400
= 400
0.20
and the total osts per month are

C (150) = 400 5 + 40
400
400
+ 0.20
= 2080.
400
2
Note that the minimum selling pri e should be
2080
= 5.20 dollars.
400
Exer ise 5.1 (e onomi order quantity)

Consider Example 5.4.
a) Determine the values of D, K , a and h onsidering weeks instead of months and ents instead
of dollars.
b) Determine the e onomi order quantity and the total osts belonging to that quantity.
) Determine the minimum selling pri e.
Exer ise 5.2 (e onomi order quantity)

A shop owner sells a shirt for 12.95 euro; every day he sells 7 shirts. If he orders it, he has to pay 9
euros per shirt and 2.24 for administration osts. The ost of storing the shirts is 1 ent per shirt
per day.
a) Determine the e onomi order quantity.
b) Determine the total osts belonging to the quantity determined in a).
) Is it protable for the shop owner to sell the shirts?
Exer ise 5.3 (minimum selling pri e)

Let K be xed ordering osts per order, c be the variable holding osts, h be holding osts per unit
per time period, D be demand per time period and p be the selling pri e.
a) Determine the total revenues as a fun tion of p and D.
b) Determine the total osts using the e onomi order quantity as a fun tion of K , c, h and D.
) Determine the minimum selling pri e (the pri e su h that it is protable to sell the produ t) as
a fun tion of K , c, h and D.
6
1
Limits
In this se tion we onsider the limit of a fun tion without dening this notion mathemati ally. When
knowing the limit of a fun tion we an say something about the behavior of a fun tion when the input
variable be omes very large or very small. We an also use this notion for investigating the behavior
of a fun tion in a point at whi h it is not dened. Both uses will be dis ussed in the example below.
Example 6.1: graphi al representation of limits of a fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) =
1
+ 1; see Figure 6.1 for the graph of this fun tion. If x gets very
2x
10
8
6
4
2
6 4 2
2
10
4
6
8
Figure 6.1:
The graph of f ( x ) =
1
+ 1.
2x
large, then f ( x ) gets lose to 1 and the larger x is, the loser f ( x ) gets to 1 (without ever rea hing
it). Also if x gets very small, then f ( x ) gets lose to 1 and the smaller x is, the loser f ( x ) gets to
1 (again, without ever rea hing it). These observations an be translated to limits of f ( x ).
1 Loosely
based on Kaper (1990) and Klein Breteler and Winkel (1997).
41
42
If x be omes arbitrarily large then f ( x ) be omes arbitrarily lose to 1, or, mathemati ally (remember
that denotes innity):
lim f ( x ) = 1.
We an also say that f ( x ) goes to 1 if x goes to , or, the limit of f ( x ) for x going to is 1.
If x be omes arbitrarily small then f ( x ) be omes arbitrarily lose to 1, or, mathemati ally:
lim f ( x ) = 1.
We an also say that f ( x ) goes to 1 if x goes to , or, the limit of f ( x ) for x going to is 1.
There is also something happening for x lose to 2. Note that the fun tion is not dened at x = 2
(dividing by zero is not allowed). For x < 2 and getting lose to 2, we see that f ( x ) be omes larger
and larger and if x gets arbitrarily lose to 2, f ( x ) gets arbitrarily large. Mathemati ally, we an
write this as
lim f ( x ) = .
x 2
We an also say that f ( x ) goes to if x in reases to 2, or, the limit of f ( x ) for x in reasing to 2
is .
If we approa h x = 2 from the right, then f ( x ) gets smaller and smaller and, assuming that x > 2,
for x getting arbitrarily lose to 2, f ( x ) gets arbitrarily small. Mathemati ally, we an write this as
lim f ( x ) = .
x 2
We an also say that f ( x ) goes to if x de reases to 2, or, the limit of f ( x ) for x de reasing to
2 is .
Sin e lim f ( x ) 6= lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) does not exist.
x 2
x 2
x 2
The notion of a limit is already given in the example above. The formal denition is pretty di ult
and it does not belong to the s ope of this ourse. A more informal denition is given below.
One-sided limits of a fun tion:

Limit from below (left):
lim f ( x ) = ,
x c
where
f (x)
is the limit of
f ( x ),
gets arbitrarily lose to
whi h implies that, for
x < c,
when
c,
x > c,
when
c,
Limit from above (right):
lim f ( x ) = ,
x c
where
f (x)
is the limit of
f ( x ),
whi h implies that, for
6. Limits
43
Using the one-sided limits the limit an be dened.
The limit of a fun tion:
f (x)
Let
be a fun tion. If
lim f ( x ),
x c
is
lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = ;
x c
x c
then the limit of a fun tion, denoted by
lim f ( x ) = .
x c
Note that a fun tion does not need to be dened in the point for whi h we want to know the limit,
but it needs to be dened for all points lose to that point. If we onsider Example 6.1, then
not dened in
x = 2,
f (x)
is
but we ould onsider the (one-sided) limits of the fun tion in that point.
Example 6.2: limit of a fun tion

Consider the fun tion
f (x) =
2x 1
1
if x 6= 2,
if x = 2.
The one-sided limits of f ( x ) for x going to 2 are

lim f ( x ) = lim 2x 1 = 3,
x 2
x 2
lim f ( x ) = lim 2x 1 = 3.
x 2
x 2
Hen e, the limit is lim f ( x ) = 3.

x 2
Example 6.3: limit of a fun tion does not always exist

f (x) =
x
x+1
if x < 1,
if x 1.
The one-sided limits of f ( x ) for x going to 1 are

lim f ( x ) = lim x = 1,
x 1
x 1
lim f ( x ) = lim x + 1 = 2.
x 1
x 1
Hen e, lim f ( x ) does not exist, sin e the two one-sided limits are not equal.
x 2
Note that in the two examples above we simply determined the limit by substituting
x by the number x
needs to go to. If this is possible to do, then this is the easiest way to determine a limit. Unfortunately,
this is not always possible, sin e it might lead to dividing by zero, sin e it would imply that we need
to ll in
or sin e we have a fun tion that is not dened for a ertain value of
an use the standard limits below.
x.
Therefore we
44
Consider the quotient of two fun tions
If
f (c) 6= 0
lim
x c
and
f (x)
=
g( x )
Whether it is
If
g ( c ) = 0,
lim f ( x ) 6=
x c
lim
x c
or
and
and
g ( x ):
f (x)
.
g( x )
then
and
f (x)
lim
x c
f (x)
= .
g( x )
depends on the signs of
lim g( x ) = ,
x c
f (c)
and
g( x )
for
lose to
c.
then
f (x)
= 0.
g( x )
Furthermore, we an onsider the fun tions
ax
and
a log( x ). Figure 6.2 shows the graphs of these
(a) ax , with a > 1.
(b) ax , with a < 1.
( )
a log( x ),
Figure 6.2:
with
a > 1.
(d)
lim a x = 0
if
a > 1,
lim a x = 0
if
a < 1,
lim a log( x ) =
if
a > 1,
lim a log( x ) =
if
a < 1.
x
x
x 0
with
a < 1.
Graphs of exponential ((a) and (b)) and logarithmi (( ) and (d)) fun tions.
fun tions. If you onsider the graphs, the following limits appear:
x 0
a log( x ),
6. Limits
45
lim a log( x ),
Note that we an use
sin e
x 0
a log( x ) is only dened for
x 0.
See also the remarks at
the end of this se tion.
Example 6.4: limit of exponential fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = e x . Then,
lim e x = 0,
sin e e > 1. We an use that lim a x = 0, with a = e.

x
Example 6.5: limit of another exponential fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = e x . Then,
lim e x = lim e1
sin e e1 < 1.
x
= 0,
Example 6.6: limit of a logarithmi fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = ln( x ). Then,
lim ln( x ) = lim e log( x ) = ,
x 0
x 0
sin e e > 1.
Besides these standard limits, we an also use the four properties of limits below.
Limit properties
Consider two fun tions
onstant
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
a.
Note that
f (x)
a,
and
and
g( x )
for whi h
annot be
lim f ( x ) =
x c
lim a = a,
lim ( f ( x ) + g( x )) = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x ) = + m,
x c
x c

lim ( f ( x ) g( x )) = lim f ( x ) lim g( x ) = m,
x c
lim
x c
f (x)
g( x )
x c
x c
limx c f ( x )
= ,
limx c g( x )
m
if
lim g( x ) = m
x c
for these properties to hold.
x c
x c
and
m 6 = 0.
and a
46
Example 6.7: sum of two limits

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = 2x3 ( x 3)2 . Sin e
lim 2x3 = 2
x 1
and
we know that
lim ( x 3)2 = 4,
x 1
lim f ( x ) = 2 4 = 2.
x 1
Example 6.8: nd limit by rewriting

Consider f ( x ) =
x2 4
and we are interested in lim f ( x ). If we substitute x = 2, then both the
x2
x 2
numerator and denominator will be zero, so we do not know what happens with this fun tion when
x gets lose to 2. Simply al ulating some values lose to 2 leads to f (1.9) = 3.9, f (2.1) = 4.1,
f (1.99) = 3.99 and (2.01) = 4.01. So the f ( x ) appears to go to 4 if x goes to 2. Also see the graph
of the fun tion in Figure 6.3. Now, let us determine the limit mathemati ally.
y
8
6
4
2
2
Figure 6.3:
4
Graph of f ( x ) =
x2 4
.
x2
x2 4
( x 2)( x + 2)
= lim
= lim ( x + 2)
x2
x 2 x 2
x 2
x 2
lim
Now we an substitute x = 2 without a problem:

lim x + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4.
x 2
So, by rewriting we an solve this problem.
f ( x ) and g( x ). If we want to determine the limit of this

f (c) = g(c) = 0, we annot nd this limit using the properties and
Consider a fun tion that is the quotient of

fun tion at a point
and see that
standard limits above. Hen e, we need to rewrite this fun tion until we obtain a quotient for whi h
the denominator and/or the numerator are unequal to zero. A useful tri k in rewriting is the following
produ t:
a2 b2 = ( a b)( a + b).
Note that we also used it in the example above, with
a=x
and
b = 2.
6. Limits
47
A nal remark: note that in some examples we take the two one-sided limits to determine the limit,
and in some ases we simply take the limit dire tly. In prin iple you should always take the two onesided limits, but you might see that in some ases it is not needed. Some rules of thumb to de ide
whether or not you need to use the two one-sided limits are given below. Suppose that you need to
determine the limit
lim f ( x ).
x c
When the fun tion pres ription hanges at
When
f (x)
When
c =
When
f (x)
goes to
if
x c,
x = c,
you should use two one-sided limits.
you should use two one-sided limits.
you an use the limit (sin e you are already approa hing from one side).
is only dened for
x>c
you an use the limit (sin e you only an approa h from
is only dened for
x<c
you an use the limit (sin e you only an approa h from
above).
When
f (x)
below).
If you are not sure, you should use two one-sided limits.
Exer ise 6.1 (Limits)

Determine the
following limits:
a) lim 3x 11.
e) lim
x 9
x2 + 1
.
x 1 x 3
x
) lim .
x 0 x
x
d) lim .
x 0
x2
b) lim

a) Determine lim f ( x ).
x2 1
1 x2
if x < 0
if x 0
x2 + 1
1 x2
if x < 0
if x 0
x 0
b) Determine lim f ( x ).
x 0
) Determine lim f ( x ).
x 0

a) Determine lim f ( x ).
x 0
b) Determine lim f ( x ).
x 0
) Determine lim f ( x ).
x 0
x2
x
f) lim .
x 0
x2
x7
.
g) lim
x 5
5x
7x
h) lim
.
x 5
5x
x 0
48

Determine the following limits:
x3 7x2
a) lim
.
2
2x
x2 + 3x 10
b) lim
. [Hint: rewrite numerator to (2x + 10)(. . .).
2x + 10
x 5
x x
) lim .
x 0
x
x3
d) lim .
x 0 x
x 0

Determine the following limits:
5x 3
.
x 7x
x4 + 3x3 + 5
b) lim
.
x
3x4 9
a) lim
3 3x2
.
x x x2
) lim
x+3 x
d) lim
.
x 5 x
x3 5
.
x 1000x2 100x
3x
f) lim 2
.
x x 5
e)
lim
Exer ise 6.6 (Derivative using denition)

Using the denition of the derivative (the derivative is the limit of x going to zero of the dieren e
quotient), determine the derivatives of the following fun tions:
a) y( x ) = 2x2 + 3x 1.
b) y( x ) = x2 x.
1
.
x

d) y( x ) = x. [Hint: Use that ( a b)( a + b ) = a b.
) y( x ) =
Exer ise 6.7 (S alar produ t rule)

Consider a fun tion f ( x ) = cy( x ). Using the denition of the derivative (the derivative is the limit of
x going to zero of the dieren e quotient), show that f ( x ) = cy ( x ); so, prove the s alar produ t
rule.
7
1
Asymptotes
Example 7.1: graphi al representation of asymptotes of a fun tion

Re onsider the fun tion f ( x ) =
1
+ 1 from Example 6.1; the graph of this fun tion is depi ted
2x
x=2
8
4
y=1
4
8
Figure 7.1:
Horizontal and verti al asymptote of f ( x ) =
1
+ 1.
2x
in Figure 7.1. The fun tion appears to get very lose to the dashed line y = 1 if x . This line
is alled a horizontal asymptote of the fun tion f ( x ). If x 2, then the fun tion gets arbitrarily
lose to the line x = 2; this line is alled a verti al asymptote.
Asymptotes are lines to whi h a fun tion gets arbitrarily lose.
linear asymptotes:
verti al and horizontal asymptotes.
We will only onsider two types of
Maybe you know of the existen e of slant
(oblique) asymptotes (in Dut h: s huine asymptoten), but we will not dis uss those.
If you an draw the graph of a fun tion, then you will qui kly see whether these asymptotes exist and
also get an idea about the expression that des ribes the asymptotes.
draw a fun tion easily. So how to nd the asymptotes?
1 Loosely
based on Klein Breteler and Winkel (1997).
49
However, you annot always
50
Verti al asymptotes:
Verti al asymptotes an only o ur at pla es where a fun tion is not dened, while it is dened for
neighbor points. In Example 7.1 there is a verti al asymptote at
x = 2:
a point at whi h the fun tion
is not dened. However, su h a point does not automati ally leads to a verti al asymptote. Consider
x = 2,
Example 6.8, at whi h the fun tion is not dened for
but we do not see a verti al asymptote
at that point. A verti al asymptote o urs when at least one one-sided limit of
in order to nd verti al asymptotes of
(1) nd points
f (x)
f (x)
you need to
equals
So,
at whi h the fun tion is not dened, and
(2) he k whether
lim f ( x ) =
x c
and/or
lim f ( x ) = .
x c
Horizontal asymptotes:
x, so we need
f ( x ) for x
Horizontal asymptotes o ur for very large or very small
to he k what happens to
f (x)
and for
if
and what happens if
horizontal asymptote exists.
x .
If
x ,
then no
Example 7.2: nding verti al and horizontal asymptotes

1
Re onsider the fun tion f ( x ) =

+ 1 of Example 7.1. We will show that indeed a verti al
2x
asymptote exists at x = 2 and a horizontal asymptote exists at y = 1.
First, let us onsider the verti al asymptote, hen e, we have to onsider the points at whi h f ( x ) is
not dened. Note that we divide by 2 x, hen e the fun tion is not dened for 2 x = 0, so it is
not dened for x = 2. Let us now onsider the two one-sided limits at x = 2:
1
1
+ 1 = lim
+ lim 1 = + + 1 =
2x
x 2 2 x
x 2
1
1
lim
+ 1 = lim
+ lim 1 = + 1 = .
x 2 2 x
x 2 2 x
x 2
lim
x 2
Note that x 2 > 0 for x < 2, hen e the limit from below is positive and that x 2 < 0 for x > 2,
hen e the limit from above is negative. Sin e at least one of the one-sided limits is , we have a
verti al asymptote at x = 2. In fa t, in this example, both one-sided limits are .
Now let us onsider the horizontal asymptote, hen e, we have to onsider the limits for x :
1
1
+ 1 = lim
+ lim 1 = lim
x 2 x
x
x
x 2 x
lim
limx
limx 2x
1
x
+ lim 1 =
x
1
x
2
x
1
1
+ 1 = lim
+ lim 1 = lim
x 2 x
x 2 x
x
x
+ lim 1 =
x
0
+1 = 1
0+1
lim
limx 1x
limx 2x 1
+ lim 1
1
x
2
x
+ lim 1
x
0
+ 1 = 1.
0+1
So, both limit al ulations provide us a horizontal asymptote at y = 1.
7. Asymptotes
51
Exer ise 7.1 (Asymptotes)

Determine the asymptotes of the following fun tions:
a) f ( x ) =
b) f ( x ) =
) f ( x ) =
d) f ( x ) =
e) f ( x ) =
f) f ( x ) =
3
.
x
3x 5
.
4 2x
2
x +3
.
( x 1)2
x2 + 3
.
x
2
x + 2x
.
x
x2 + 2x + 3
.
x
Exer ise 7.2 (Limits and asymptotes)

3x2
.
x x2
a) Determine lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ).

x 0
x 0
x 0
x 1
x 1
x 1
b) Determine lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ).

) Determine lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ).
x
d) Determine the asymptotes of f ( x ).
Exer ise 7.3 (Asymptotes and domain)

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = x
2
.
x+1
a) Determine the domain of this fun tion.

b) This fun tion has one verti al asymptote; determine it.
Exer ise 7.4 (Asymptotes and domain)

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = 2x
2
.
3x
a) Determine the domain of this fun tion.

b) This fun tion has one verti al asymptote; determine it.
8
1
Continuity
The limit of a fun tion

where
f (x)
f ( x ) tells us something about the behavior of f ( x ) lose to c. In many ases

c it holds that lim f ( x ) = f (c). If this is the ase, the fun tion does not
is dened in
jump in that point and it is alled
x c
ontinuous
in
x = c.
See also Figure 8.1. The left graph shows
(a) Continuous in c.
Figure 8.1:
(b) Dis ontinuous in c.
Examples of (a) a fun tion ontinuous in c and (b) a fun tion dis ontinuous in c.
a fun tion that is ontinuous in
c,
while the right graph shows a fun tion that is not ontinuous in
Continuity in a point
Consider a fun tion
f ( x ); f ( x )
is alled ontinuous in
x=c
if
lim f ( x ) = f (c).
x c
A fun tion that is not ontinuous, is alled

dened in
1 Loosely
dis ontinuous.
c.
based on Kaper (1990) and Klein Breteler and Winkel (1997).
53
Note that
f (x)
needs to be
c.
54
Example 8.1: ontinuity in a point

Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = 2x 1. It is ontinuous at x = 3, sin e
lim 2x 1 = 5 = f (3).
x 3
Example 8.2: ontinuity only dened if fun tion dened

2x 6
. We annot say anything about ontinuity in the points x = 3
x2 9
and x = 3, sin e f ( x ) is not dened at these points.
Example 8.3: (dis) ontinuity in a point

2x 6
x2 9
f (x) =
1
3
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
if x = 3, x = 3.
We will show that f ( x ) is ontinuous in x = 3 and dis ontinuous in x = 3. Let us rst onsider
x = 3:
lim
x 3
and
2( x 3)
2
2
2
1
2x 6
= lim
= lim
=
= = ,
3+3
6
3
x 3 ( x 3)( x + 3)
x 3 x + 3
x2 9
f (3) =
1
.
3
Hen e, f ( x ) is ontinuous in x = 3. Now onsider x = 3:

2( x 3)
2x 6
2
= lim
= lim
= ,
2
(
x
3
)(
x
+
3
)
x
+
3
x 3
x 3 x 9
x 3
2
2x 6
2( x 3)
= lim
= .
lim
= lim
x 3 x2 9
x 3 x + 3
x 3 ( x 3)( x + 3)
lim
So, lim f ( x ) does not exist and hen e, it annot be ontinuous in x = 3.

x 3
Example 8.4: dis ontinuity in a point

x2 9
f (x) =
2x 6
1
if x 6= 3,
if x = 3.
Determine whether f ( x ) is ontinuous in x = 3:

x2 9
( x 3)( x + 3)
x+3
3+3
= lim
= lim
=
= 3.
2( x 3)
2
x 3 2x 6
x 3
x 3 2
lim f ( x ) = lim
x 3
Sin e f (3) = 1, lim f ( x ) 6= f (3) and therefore, f ( x ) is dis ontinuous at x = 3.

x 3
8. Continuity
55
Examples 8.3 and 8.4 display two reasons why
lim f ( x )
x c
f (x)
an be dis ontinuous in a point
c:
does not exist (Example 8.3),
lim f ( x ) = ,
x c
but
f (c) 6=
(Example 8.4).
Just like we have properties of the limits of fun tions, we also have ontinuity properties.
Properties of ontinuity
Let
f (x)
and
g( x )
(1)
f ( x ) + g( x )
(2)
f ( x ) g( x )
(3)
f (x)
g( x )
be fun tions that are ontinuous in

is ontinuous in
is ontinuous in
is ontinuous in
x = c.
Then
x = c,
x = c,
x = c,
if
g ( c ) 6 = 0.
Example 8.5: properties of ontinuity

Consider the fun tions
f ( x ) = 2x 1
2x 6
x2 9
g( x ) =
1
and
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
if x = 3, x = 3.
In Examples 8.1 and 8.3 we have seen that both fun tions are ontinuous in x = 3. Furthermore,
f (3) 6= 0, so, using the properties of ontinuity, we know that
2x 1 + 2x 6
x2 9
u(x) =
2x 1 + 1
3
and
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
if x = 3, x = 3,
(2x 1)(2x 6)
v( x ) =
x2 9
1 (2x 1)
3
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
2x 6
2 9)(2x 1)
(
x
w( x) =
1/3
2x 1
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
if x = 3, x = 3,
if x = 3, x = 3,
are also ontinuous.
Using the denition of ontinuity in a point, we an also dene ontinuity of a fun tion on an interval
and ontinuity of a fun tion.
56
Continuity of a fun tion (on an interval)

Consider a fun tion
cD
in
[ a, b]
f (x)
with a domain
D. f ( x )
is alled ontinuous on
[ a, b]
if for every
it holds that
lim f ( x ) = f (c).
x c
So,
f (x)
needs to be ontinuous in every point in the interval at whi h it is dened.
A fun tion
f (x)
is alled ontinuous if for every
cD
it holds that
lim f ( x ) = f (c).
x c
So,
f (x)
needs to be ontinuous in every point of the domain to be alled ontinuous.
Example 8.6: ontinuity of a fun tion

Re onsider f ( x ) = 2x 1. Sin e
lim 2x 1 = 2c 1
xc
and
f (c) = 2c 1,
we know that lim f ( x ) = f (c) for all c in the domain of f ( x ), hen e we an state that f ( x ) is
xc
ontinuous.
Example 8.6 shows that
are ontinuous:
2x 1
is ontinuous. A tually, all elementary fun tions we have onsidered
Constant fun tion:
Linear fun tion:
Quadrati fun tion:
Power fun tion:
Exponential fun tion:
f (x) = ax ,
Logarithmi fun tion:
f ( x ) = a log( x ).
f ( x ) = c,
f ( x ) = ax + b,
f ( x ) = ax2 + bx + c,
f (x) = xk ,
Also sums, produ ts, quotients and omposites of these elementary fun tions are ontinuous. Hen e,
when he king for ontinuity, we only need to he k points at whi h the fun tion pres ription hanges.
Remember that we annot say that a fun tion is ontinuous or dis ontinuous at points at whi h a
fun tion is not dened.
Example 8.7: ontinuity of a fun tion using properties

3x2 2
. Sin e it is the quotient of a quadrati and a linear fun tion,
5x 3
also f ( x ) is ontinuous. Remember that we an only determine whether a fun tion is ontinuous or
not for the values of x in the domain. In this example the domain onsists of all values ex ept for
x = 35 , so this point does not reate problems for the ontinuity of f ( x ).
8. Continuity
57
Example 8.8: ontinuity of a fun tion with hanges in pres ription

Re onsider the fun tion (see also Example 8.3)
2x 6
x2 9
f (x) =
1
3
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3,
if x = 3, x = 3.
Sin e the domain of this fun tion onsists of all values, we should he k ontinuity for all values. For
x 6= 3, x 6= 3 f ( x ) is the quotient of two ontinuous fun tions, hen e, f ( x ) is ontinuous. We only
need to onsider the points at whi h the fun tion pres ription hanges, so we need to he k x = 3
and x = 3. In Example 3 we have shown that f ( x ) is ontinuous at x = 3, but not at x = 3.
Be ause f ( x ) is dis ontinuous at x = 3, f ( x ) is not ontinuous.
Example 8.9: ontinuity of another fun tion with hanges in pres ription
f (x) =
ex
x2 + 1
if x < 0,
if x 0.
Sin e e x and x2 + 1 are ontinuous, f ( x ) is ontinuous for all x 6= 0. We only need to he k for
ontinuity in x = 0:
lim f ( x ) = lim e x = e0 = 1,
x 0
x 0
x 0
x 0
lim f ( x ) = lim x2 + 1 = 02 + 1 = 1,
hen e
lim f ( x ) = 1.
x 0
Sin e f (0) = 02 + 1 = 1, lim f ( x ) = f (0) = 1, hen e f ( x ) is also ontinuous in x = 0, so f ( x ) is

x 0
ontinuous.
Example 8.10: ontinuity of a third fun tion with hanges in pres ription
g( x ) =
x2 1
x2 + 1
if x 0,
if x > 0.
Sin e x2 1 and x2 + 1 are ontinuous, g( x ) is ontinuous for all x 6= 0. We only need to he k for
ontinuity in x = 0:
lim g( x ) = lim x2 1 = 02 1 = 1,
x 0
x 0
x 0
x 0
lim g( x ) = lim x2 + 1 = 02 + 1 = 1.
Hen e lim g( x ) does not exist and therefore g( x ) is not ontinuous in x = 0, so g( x ) is not
x 0
ontinuous.
Figure 8.2 shows the graphs of the fun tions
graph of the ontinuous fun tion ( f
( x ))
f (x)
of Example 8.9 and
g( x )
of Example 8.10. The
an be drawn without lifting the pen from the paper, while
58
(a) Graph of f (x) of Example 8.9.

Figure 8.2:
(b) Graph of g(x) of Example 8.10.
The graphs of the fun tions of Examples 8.9 and 8.10.
the graph of the dis ontinuous fun tion ( g
( x ))
annot: it jumps at
x = 0.
Being able to draw the
graph without lifting your pen is a sloppy way of stating ontinuity, whi h is also not always orre t.
Consider
1
,
x
whi h is a ontinuous fun tion, but annot be drawn without lifting your pen, sin e it is
not dened at
say that
f (x)
x = 0.
However, when a fun tion
f (x)
is dened for all real numbers, we an indeed
is ontinuous if you an draw its graph without lifting your pen.
Exer ise 8.1 (Continuity in a point)

if x 6= 0;
if x = 0.
Is f ( x ) ontinuous in x = 0?
Consider f ( x )
1
x
89

x2
2
x+ 2
a) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in
2?
b) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in 2?
if x
2 x 2;
if 2 < x < 2.

a) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in 3?
b) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in 3?
x 3
x 2 9
61
1
6
if x 6= 3, x 6= 3;
if x = 3;
if x = 3.
8. Continuity
59
Exer ise 8.4 (Continuity of a fun tion)

p 13 x if x < 3;
1 x2 if x 3.
Find all values of p for whi h f ( x ) is ontinuous.

7
.
x7
a) Determine the domain of f ( x ).

b) Is f ( x ) ontinuous?
Exer ise 8.6 (Continuity of afun tion)

7
x7
7
b) Is f ( x ) ontinuous?
if x 6= 7;
if x = 7.

if x 1;
1 3x
ax2 + bx + 1 if x > 1.
We know that f ( x ) is ontinuous and f ( x ) goes through the point ( x, y) = (2, 11). Determine a
and b.

if x 4;
if 0 x < 4.
Find all values of a su h that f ( x ) is ontinuous.
xa
7
x+a

(
x 2 +7x + a
x +4
if 5 x < 4;
2bx
if 4 x 0.
Find all values of a and b su h that f ( x ) is ontinuous. [Hint: nd a su h that lim f ( x ) does not
equal .
x 4
In Se tion 2.8 of Kaper and Hamers (2000) the on ept of the inverse fun tion and its derivative
are introdu ed. There is also an example, titled non-invertible fun tion, that shows that an inverse
does not always exist. In this se tion we dis uss when an inverse does exist. First, let us repeat the
example mentioned before.
Example 9.1: non-invertible fun tion

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 . Its graph is depi ted in Figure 9.1. Kaper and Hamers (2000)
y
Figure 9.1:
y x
The graph of y( x ) = x2 .
state that a fun tion has an inverse if y = y( x ) has exa tly one solution. In Figure 9.1 one an
readily see that it has two solutions and also solving it leads to two solutions:
y = x2
x= y
x=
y x = y.
So, indeed this fun tion has no inverse.
y = y( x ) leads to two solutions be ause y( x ) has

x in reases
to 0 and y ( x ) de reases on that interval as. The input
x = y and on this interval ([0, y ]), y( x ) in reases to y again.
Consider again Figure 9.1. We see that solving

the value
variable
So
y( x )
x = y ,
at
then
in reases further to
is rst de reasing and then in reasing.
In general there are two possibilities for a fun tion

values of
x.
Let
and
b, a < b,
f (x)
to have the same fun tion value for dierent
be two real numbers with
61
f ( a ) = f ( b).
This is possible if
62
f ( x ) = f ( a)
f (x)
for all
between
and
b;
is both de reasing and in reasing on the interval
See also Figure 9.2. If a fun tion
y( x ) is either stri tly in reasing or stri tly de reasing on its
f ( a ) = f ( b)
f ( a ) = f ( b)
( a, b).
(a) Constant fun tion on [ a, b].

Figure 9.2:
then there is exa tly one solution to
domain,
(b) In reasing and de reasing on [ a, b].

Non-invertible fun tions.
y = y( x )
for every
x.
In Se tion 3.1 of Kaper and Hamers
(2000) it is mentioned that a fun tion that is either stri tly in reasing or stri tly de reasing is alled
stri tly monotoni .
Monotoni ity riterion for invertibility

The following two onje tures hold:
(i) If a fun tion
y( x )
is stri tly monotoni on an interval, then it has an inverse on that
interval.
(ii) If a fun tion
y( x )
is not monotoni on an interval, then it has no inverse on that
interval.
Example 9.2: non-invertible fun tion, ontinued

Re onsider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 and remember that has no inverse. Let us investigate its monotoni ity. For that we have to onsider the sign s heme of the derivative of this fun tion; that
derivative is
y ( x ) = 2x.
If y ( x ) > 0 or if y ( x ) < 0 for all x then it holds that y( x ) is monotoni . Note that y ( x ) = 0 for
x = 0, thus the sign s heme of this derivative is:
9. Invertibility of fun tions
63
y ( x )
0 + + +
Hen e, y( x ) is stri tly de reasing if x < 0 and stri tly in reasing if x > 0, so it is not monotoni ,
hen e it has no inverse.
Example 9.3: monotoni ity riterion (i) with expli it inverse fun tion
Consider the fun tion y( x ) = e x . Its derivative is y ( x ) = e x . Sin e e x > 0 for every x, e x > 0
for every x and thus y ( x ) = e x < 0 for every x. Hen e, y( x ) is stri tly monotoni on its domain
and therefore y( x ) has an inverse. That inverse fun tion an be determined by solving y = e x :
y
ln(y)
ln(y)
=
=
=
e x

ln e x = x
x
Hen e, the inverse fun tion is x (y) = ln(y).
Example 9.4: monotoni ity riterion (i) without expli it inverse fun tion
Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x3 + x. Its derivative is y ( x ) = 3x2 + 1. Sin e x2 0 for every x,
we know that y ( x ) = 3x2 + 1 > 0 for every x. Hen e, y( x ) is stri tly monotoni on its domain and
therefore y( x ) has an inverse. However, due to the fun tional form we do not su eed in rewriting
this equation to the form
x (y) = something solely depending on y.
Example 9.5: monotoni ity riterion (ii)

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x3 + 18x2 + 27x + 36. Its derivative is y ( x ) = 3x2 + 36x + 27. We
annot see dire tly whether or not y ( x ) is monotoni , so we try to nd the zero points of y ( x ) and
set up a sign s heme.
3x2 + 36x + 27
2
x + 18x + 9
( x + 3)( x + 6)
=
=
=
0
0
0
Hen e, for y ( x ) = 0 to hold we need x = 3 or x = 6. The belonging sign s heme:

y ( x )
x
+ + + 0 0 + + +
6
So, y( x ) is both in reasing and de reasing, hen e it is not monotoni and thus it has no inverse.
64
Note that the riterion does not over all ases; what about fun tions that are monotoni on an
interval, but not stri tly monotoni ? We will onsider that in the following two examples.
Example 9.6: monotoni fun tion and invertibility (1)

y( x ) =
1
x2 2x + 1
if 0 x < 1,
if x 1.
Note that the domain of this fun tion is x 0, so we only onsider non-negative x if we investigate
whether or not this fun tion is invertible. The derivative of this fun tion is
y ( x ) =
0
2x 2
if 0 x < 1,
if x 1.
Note that y ( x ) 0 for all x 0, sin e y ( x ) = 0 for 0 x < 1, y (1) = 0 and y ( x ) = 2x 2 > 0
for x > 1. Hen e, y( x ) is in reasing for all x in the domain, and therefore it is monotoni (but not
stri tly monotoni ).
But y( x ) is a onstant fun tion between 0 and 1 and therefore it has no inverse (see also Figure
9.2(a)).

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 with x 0. In Example 9.2 we have already seen that y ( x ) =
2x 0 for x 0. So y( x ) is monotoni on its domain, but not stri tly monotoni , sin e y (0) = 0.
But sin e x = 0 is a single point at whi h y ( x ) = 0, the fun tion y( x ) is invertible; its inverse is
determined by
=
=
x2
x.
Note that the solution x = y is not valid, sin e x 0. Hen e, the inverse is x (y) = y.
y( x ) be a monotoni fun tion that only has single, non- onse utive points for whi h y ( x ) = 0,
then it is invertible. If it does not have single, non- onse utive points, that is, if y ( x ) = 0 for
a x b, with a < b, then y( x ) is not invertible.
So, let

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = 51 x5 6x3 + 81x. Its derivative is
y ( x ) = x4 18x2 + 81 = ( x2 9)( x2 9) = ( x2 9)2 .
Note that y ( x ) 0 for all x and that y ( x ) = 0 only if x2 = 9, thus if x = 3 or if x = 3. Hen e,

y ( x ) is monotoni and has two single, non- onse utive points for whi h y ( x ) = 0. Hen e, we
know that y( x ) is invertible. Due to the fun tional form, we will not su eed in rewriting y( x ) to its
inverse, but nonetheless, that inverse does exist.
9. Invertibility of fun tions
65
Example 9.9: fun tion with a non- onse utive domain

Consider the fun tion y( x ) =
x
; its graph is depi ted in Figure 9.3. Note that the domain of
x2 4
6
7
- 32
Figure 9.3:
8
3
Graph of y( x ) =
x
.
x2 4
this fun tions ontains all x ex ept x = 2 and x = 2. Its derivative is

y ( x ) =
1( x2 4) x (2x )
x2 4
= 2
.
2
2
( x 4)
( x 4)2
Sin e the denominator is positive for all x in the domain and the numerator is negative for all x
in the domain, hen e f ( x ) is stri tly de reasing on ( , 2), (2, 2), (2, ), hen e it is stri tly
monotoni . However,

y 23 = y 83 = 67 ,
so this fun tion is not invertible.

In Example 9.9 we have seen that if the domain is non- onse utive ( f
one needs to be areful in applying the monotoni ity riterion.
(x)
is not dened for
x = 2),
Exer ise 9.1 (existen e of inverse)

Determine whether the following fun tions have an inverse and if so, try to give an expli it expression.
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
y( x )
= x2 10x + 24.
= x2 10x + 24 for x <= 5.
= x2 10x + 25.
= x2 10x + 25 for x <= 5.
= x ln( x ). [Hint: what is the domain of this fun tion?
3
= ex .
= x3 + 6x2 12x + 18.
= 2x3 8x2 + 8x 2.
66
Exer ise 9.2 (derivative of inverse fun tion)

Determine for ea h of the fun tions in Exer ise 9.1 for whi h the inverse exists the derivative of the
inverse at the following values of y:
For parts a) and b) at y = 13.
For parts ) and d) at y = 9.
For parts e) and f) at y = e.
For part g) at y = 18.
For part h) at y = 2.
10
1
Impli it fun tions
This se tion dis usses the notion of impli it fun tions and how one an use them.
Example 10.1: expli it level urve of a fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y) = 9x2 + y2 for x 0, y 0. We are interested in its level urve with
value zero, so in the solution of 9x2 + y2 = 0. We an rewrite this equation to y( x ) =`something
depending solely on x':
9x2 + y2 = 0
y2 = 9x2
y = 9x2 = 3x
y = 3x,
sin e x 0, y 0.
Example 10.2: impli it level urve of a fun tion

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y) = 2x2 3xy + y5 . We are again interested in its level urve with
value zero, so in the ( x, y) that satisfy 2x2 3xy + y5 = 0. If we now try to rewrite it to the form
y( x ) =`something depending solely on x', we will not su eed. However, for xed values of x we
still an nd solutions:
x=0
x=1
x=2
y5 = 0
2 3y + y5 = 0
5
8 6y + y = 0
y = 0,
y 1.7979
y = 1,
(solved numeri ally).
So, 2x2 3xy + y5 = 0 des ribes a relation between x and y, but we annot nd an expli it expression.
Therefore, we say that 2x2 3xy + y5 = 0 denes the impli it fun tion y( x ).
In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 we see the same situation: we have an equation with two variables that
denes a relationship between
and
y.
In the rst example we are able to write
as a fun tion of
expli itly; in the se ond example we are not so fortunate. However, the relationship between
still exists, and there is an impli it fun tion
lo ally, a value of
for every value of
x.
y( x )
that depends on
x,
and
whi h will give us, at least
Unfortunately, we do not have an expli it expression for
this fun tion. Su h an impli it fun tion does not always exists, as we will see in the following example.
1 Based
on Simon and Blume (1994).
67
68
Example 10.3: impli it fun tion does not always exist

Consider the level urve of the fun tion f ( x, y) = x2 + 4y2 with value 4, so we are interested in
( x, y) for whi h x2 + 4y2 = 4. Figure 10.1 shows the graph of this fun tion. Consider this equation
y
1
(0, 1)
(4, 0)
x
1
Figure 10.1:
Graph of level urve of f ( x, y) = x2 + 4y2 at value f ( x, y) = 4.
near the point ( x, y) = (0, 1). If we in rease x a little, y is de reased a little. On the other hand, if
we de rease x a little, y is de reased a little. We an even nd an expli it expression in this ase:
x2 + 4y2 = 4
4y2 = 4 x2
y2 = 1 14 x2
q
y = 1 14 x2
near (0, 1)
1 14 x2 .
Now onsider x2 + 4y2 = 4 near (4, 0). We annot in rease x, be ause then we annot nd a value
for y su h that x2 + 4y2 = 4. On the other hand, if we de rease x a little, y has two possible values.
Hen e, at ( x, y) = (4, 0), x2 + 4y2 = 4 does not impli itly dene a fun tion y( x ). If you onsider the
graph of the fun tion, then you an also see that this is the ase for the point ( x, y) = (4, 0).
In the example above we nd two points at whi h an equation did not impli itly denes a fun tion
y ( x ),
be ause the tangent line to the urve is verti al at these points. Remember that the slope of
a tangent line to a level urve is determined by
slope( x,y) =
f x ( x, y)
.
f y ( x, y)
. We an only have that an innitely

f y ( x, y) = 0. Hen e, at these points an equation f ( x, y) = k annot
y( x ). This leads to the impli it fun tion theorem, stated below.
If a tangent line is verti al, it means that its slope is

steep slope at points at whi h
impli itly dene a fun tion
Impli it fun tion theorem (2 variables)

Consider a ontinuous fun tion
zy ( x0 , y0 ) 6= 0,
z( x, y) near a point (x0 , y0 ),

y( x ) su h that
there is a fun tion
(a)
z( x, y( x )) = k
(b)
y ( x0 ) = y0 ,
( )
y ( x0 ) =
for
near
zx ( x0 , y0 )
.
zy ( x0 , y0 )
x0 ,
for whi h
z ( x 0 , y 0 ) = k.
If
10. Impli it fun tions
69
Note that you have already seen ( ) before; in Se tion 2.10 of Kaper and Hamers it is shown that
the slope of the tangent line at a level urve at
( x, y)
is
zx ( x, y)
.
zy ( x, y)
You ould also derive ( ) from
(a) and (b):
z( x, y( x )) = k
zx ( x, y( x )) + zy ( x, y( x ))y ( x )
derivative
w.r.t.
rewrite
y ( x ) = . . .
using the hain rule
=0
y ( x ) =
to
zx ( x, y( x ))
zy ( x, y( x ))
substitute x = x0
and
y ( x0 ) = y0
y ( x0 ) =
z ( x , y )
x 0 0 .
z y ( x0 , y0 )
Now let us use this theorem.
Example 10.4: no impli it fun tion

Re onsider Example 3, where we dene the equation f ( x, y) = x2 + 4y2 = 4. The partial derivative
with respe t to y is
f y ( x, y) = 8y.
Sin e f y (4, 0) = 0 and f y (4, 0) = 0, x2 + 4y2 = 4 does not dene an impli it fun tion y( x ) at
(4, 0) and (4, 0).
Example 10.5: impli it fun tion theorem

Re onsider f ( x, y) = 2x2 3xy + y5 = 0 from the se ond example, around the point ( x, y) = (1, 1).
Note that it is ontinuous and that indeed f (1, 1) = 0. Its partial derivatives are
f x ( x, y) = 4x 3y
and
f y ( x, y) = 3x + 5y4 .
Sin e f y (1, 1) = 2 6= 0, we know that an impli it fun tion y( x ) exists for whi h
(a)
(b)
( )
f ( x, y( x )) = 0 for x near 1,
y(1) = 1,
z (1, 1)
1
y (1) = x
= .
zy (1, 1)
2
Let use now see how we an use this information. We do know that (1, 1) is a solution of f ( x, y) = 0.
But what happens to y if x de reases to 0.8? Remember the property of the dierential:
y y ( x )x.
We an use this property to estimate the new value of y. The hange is estimated to be
y y (1)x = 0.5 0.2 = 0.1.
So y will be approximately equal to 1 + 0.1 = 1.1.
70
Example 10.6: impli it fun tion theorem

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y) = e xy6 + x2 y2 near the point ( x, y) = (2, 3). Note that f (2, 3) =
4. The partial derivatives of this fun tion are
f x ( x, y) = ye xy6 + 2x
f x (2, 3) = 3 e0 + 2 2 = 7,
f y ( x, y) = xe xy6 2y
f y (2, 3) = 2 e0 2 3 = 4.
Sin e f ( x, y) is ontinuous and f y (2, 3) 6= 0, we know that an impli it fun tion y( x ) exists su h that
(a)
(b)
( )
f ( x, y( x )) = 4 for x near 2,
y(2) = 3,
7
z (2, 3)
= .
y (2) = x
zy (2, 3)
4
If x hanges to 2.2, we an again use the property of the dierential to estimate the value y should
have for whi h it still holds (approximately) that f (2, 3) = 4. The estimated hange in y is
y y (2)x = 1.75 0.2 = 0.35,
so the new value of y is approximately 3 + 0.35 = 3.35.

We an also use the property of the dierential to estimate the value x should have when y de reases
to 2.79. With y = 0.21 we have
y y (2)x
0.21
7
4
4
7
x 0.21
= 0.12.
So x needs to be approximately 2 0.12 = 1.88.

Note that we also an estimate the new value of
zx ( x, y)x + zy ( x, y)y).
using the property of the total dierential (z
to more than two variables. Below it is stated for ase with the three variables.
Impli it fun tion theorem (3 variables)

Consider a ontinuous fun tion
If
f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 6= 0,
However, the impli it fun tion theorem is stronger, sin e we an expand it
f ( x, y, z) near a point (x0 , y0 , z0 ), for whi h f ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) = k.

z( x, y) su h that
there is a fun tion
(a)
f ( x, y, z( x, y)) = k
(b)
z ( x 0 , y 0 ) = z0 ,
( )
zx ( x0 , y0 ) =
for
( x, y)
f x ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
near
and
( x0 , y0 ),
zy ( x0 , y0 ) =
f y ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
f z ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
We on lude this se tion with two examples in whi h this theorem is used.
10. Impli it fun tions
71
Example 10.7: impli it fun tion theorem with three variables

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = x2 y2 + z2 + 5xyz at the point ( x, y, z) = (1, 2, 3). Note that
f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and that f (1, 2, 3) = 36. The partial derivatives of f ( x, y, z) are
f x ( x, y, z) = 2x + 5yz
f x (1, 2, 3) = 32,
f y ( x, y, z)
f z ( x, y, z)
f y (1, 2, 3) = 11,
= 2y + 5xz
= 2z + 5xy
f z (1, 2, 3) = 16.
Sin e f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (1, 2, 3) 6= 0, we know that an impli it fun tion z( x, y) exists
su h that
(a) f ( x, y, z( x, y)) = 36 for ( x, y) near (1, 2),
(b) z(1, 2) = 3,
f y (1, 2, 3)
f (1, 2, 3)
11
( ) zx (1, 2) = x
= 2 and zy (1, 2) =
= .
f z (1, 2, 3)
f z (1, 2, 3)
16
Using the property of the total dierential we an estimate the value of z when x hanges to 1.1
and y hanges to 1.84 (so x = 0.1 and y = 0.16):
z zx (1, 2)x + zy (1, 2)y = (2) 0.1 +
11
16 ) (0.16)
= 0.09.
Hen e, z be omes approximately 3 0.09 = 2.91.
Example 10.8: impli it fun tion theorem with three variables

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = x2 y3 z + e3z9 at the point ( x, y, z) = (2, 1, 3). Note that
f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and that f (2, 1, 3) = 13. The partial derivatives of f ( x, y, z) are
f x ( x, y, z) = 2xy3 z
f y ( x, y, z) = 3x2 y2 z
f z ( x, y, z) = x2 y3 + 3e3z9
f x (2, 1, 3) = 12,
f y (2, 1, 3) = 36,
f z (2, 1, 3) = 7.
Sin e f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (2, 1, 3) 6= 0, we know that an impli it fun tion z( x, y) exists
su h that
(a) f ( x, y, z( x, y)) = 13 for ( x, y) near (2, 1),
(b) z(2, 1) = 3,
f y (2, 1, 3)
f (2, 1, 3)
12
36
( ) zx (2, 1) = x
=
and zy (2, 1) =
= .
f z (2, 1, 3)
7
f z (2, 1, 3)
7
Using the property of the total dierential we an estimate the value of z when x hanges to 2.14
and y hanges to 1.07 (x = 0.14 and y = 0.07):
z zx (2, 1)x + zy (2, 1)y =
12
7
(0.14) +
36
7
Hen e, z be omes approximately 3 0.6 = 2.4.
(0.07) = 0.6.
We ould also use the property of the total dierential to estimate the hange in y that is needed
to obtain a z-value of 3.12 when x = 1.72. Sin e z = 0.12 and x = 0.28 we have
36
7
z zx (2, 1)x + zy (2, 1)y

36
0.12 12
7 0.28 + 7 y = 0.48 +
y 0.12 0.48 = 0.36

7
y 0.36 36
= 0.07.
So y needs to be approximately 1 + 0.07 = 1.07.
36
7
72
Exer ise 10.1 (impli it fun tion theorem)

Consider f ( x, y) = x2 xy3 + y5 about the point ( x0 , y0 ) = (5, 2).
a) Does the impli it fun tion y( x ) exists?
b) How does y hange (approximately) if x be omes 4.8?

Consider f ( x, y) = x5 2xy y3 + 13 about the point ( x0 , y0 ) = (3, 2).
b) Estimate the value of y for x = 3.18.
Consider f ( x, y) = x2 + 5 ln(y2 + 1) xy about the point ( x0 , y0 ) = (2, 0).


Consider the fun tion f ( x, y) = y2 + xy 6x2 at value 0.
a) Solve y if you know that x = 0.
b) Solve y for x = 2.
) Show that y = 3x or y = 2x (so y( x ) does not exist in general).
d) Use the impli it and the expli it form to ompute y ( x ) for ( x, y) = (2, 4).

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = x2 y2 + z2 e xyz at ( x, y, z) = (5, 6, 0).
a) Does f ( x, y, z) = 12 dene an impli it fun tion z( x, y)?
b) Determine zx (5, 6) and zy (5, 6).
) If x de reases to 4.4 and y in reases to 6.5, estimate the orresponding hange in z.

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = x2 y2 + z3 .
a) If x = 6 and y = 3, nd a value of z for whi h f ( x, y, z) = 0.
b) Does f ( x, y, z) = 0 dene z as a fun tion of x and y near ( x, y) = (6, 3)?
) If so, ompute zx (6, 3) and zy (6, 3).
d) If x in reases to 6.2 and y de reases to 2.9, estimate the orresponding hange in z.

Consider the equation x3 + 3y2 + 4xz2 3z2 y = 1, where z 0. Does this equation dene z as a
fun tion if x and y. . .
a) . . . in a neighborhood of ( x, y) = (1, 1)?
b) . . . in a neighborhood of ( x, y) = (1, 0)?
) . . . in a neighborhood of ( x, y) = (0.5, 0)? If so, ompute zx (0.5, 0) and zy (0.5, 0).

Consider 3xyz2 + x2 yz = 30 as dening z as an impli it fun tion of x and y around the point
( x, y, z) = (2, 3, 1).
a) Show that z( x, y) does exist.
b) If x remains at 2 and y in reases to 3.2, use the Impli it Fun tion Theorem to estimate the
orresponding z.
) Use the abc-formula to solve 3xyz2 + x2 yz = 30 for z as an expli it fun tion of x and y. Use
approximation by dierentials on this expli it formula to estimate z when x = 2 and y = 3.2.
11
Integration by parts
R3
xe x dx, you have to nd an anti-derivative of the fun tion f ( x ) = xe x .

x
x
provided, e.g., F ( x ) = xe e , you ould he k by dierentiating that it is
When you want to determine

If an anti-derivative is
indeed an anti-derivative:
F ( x ) = 1 e x + x e x e x = (1 + x 1)e x = xe x .
But how do we nd su h an anti-derivative? The same holds for the integral
he k that
G ( x ) = x ln( x ) x
is an anti-derivative of
g( x ) = ln( x ),
R2
1
ln( x ) dx;
you an
but it is not yet lear how to
determine it. For that we need an integration te hnique alled integration by parts and is based upon
the produ t rule for dierentiation.
Let
and
be dierentiable fun tions and let
a, b
be numbers su h that
a < b.
A ording to the
produ t rule we have that
( f g ) ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x ).
So
f g
is a primitive fun tion of the fun tion
h ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x ).
the following:
Z b
a
f ( x ) g( x )dx +
Z b
a
f ( x ) g ( x )dx
=
=
Z b
a
( f ( x ) g( x ) + f ( x ) g ( x ))dx
Z b
a
h( x )dx
b
= [ f g] xx =
=a
b
= [ f ( x ) g( x )] xx =
= a.
Rewriting this a little provides us
Z b
a
f ( x ) g( x )dx =
b
[ f ( x ) g( x )]xx =
=a
Z b
a
f ( x ) g ( x )dx.
This last relation is known as integration by parts.
1 Based
on Norde (2010).
73
We use this to derive
74
Let
and
Z b
a
be fun tions dened on the interval
b
f ( x ) g( x ) dx = [ f ( x ) g( x )]xx =
=a
We ould use this te hnique to determine
1. the fun tion
h( x )
2. the integral of
an be written as
Rb
a
Z b
a
It holds that
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx.
h( x ) dx
f g
[ a, b].
if
and
is easier to determine than the integral of
f g.
Using integration by parts

To determine
Rb
a
h( x ) dx.
1. Find fun tions
f (x)
g( x )
and
su h that
f (x)
2. Write down the fun tions
en
h ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ).
g ( x ).
3. Use integration by parts to determine the integral.
Let us now onsider some examples to show how it works.
Example 11.1: integration by parts (1)

By means of integration by parts we ompute the integral
Z 3
0
xe x dx.
We hoose f ( x ) = e x and g( x ) = x; then it holds that

f (x) = ex
and
g ( x ) = 1.
So we an regard the fun tion to be integrated as g( x ) f ( x ). We subsequently have:

Z 3
0
xe x dx
Z 3
3
[ xe x ] xx =
=0
3
(3e3 0e0 ) [ e x ] xx =
=0
1 e x dx
3e3 (e3 e0 ) = 2e3 + 1.
When applying integration by parts it is important to hoose the right fun tions for
and
g,
but that
is not always easy. In some ases it is a matter of trial and error to nd the right fun tions and that
11. Integration by parts
75
implies that you do not always hoose the right fun tions immediately. It is important to keep in mind
f ( x ) g ( x )
f ( x ) g( x )). In the
here that the hoi e should be su h that the omputation of the integral of the fun tion
an be done dire tly (or better: is easier than the omputation of the integral of
next example you will see what happens when we do not hoose the right fun tions.
Example 11.2: integration by parts (1, ontinued)

Let us again try to ompute
Z 1
0
xe x dx
but now using f ( x ) = x and g( x ) = e x . Then it holds that

g ( x ) = e x .
and
f ( x ) = 12 x2
If we use integration by parts, we obtain

Z 3
0
xe x dx =
i x =3
1 x2 e x
2
x =0
Z 3
0
1 2 x
2x e
dx.
It seems that we only have reated an integral that is more di ult and therefore we need to rethink
our hoi e of f and g at this instant.
Example 11.3: integration by parts (2)

Let us determine the integral of the other example mentioned in the introdu tion of this se tion
Z 2
1
ln( x )dx =
Z 2
1
1 ln( x )dx.
Note that by multiplying ln( x ) by 1 we have not hanged the fun tion, but we do see a produ t
now and that is what we need to use integration by parts. We hoose f ( ( x ) = 1 and g( x ) = ln( x ).
Then
f (x) = x
and
g ( x ) =
1
.
x
Using integration by parts we nd

Z 2
1
1 ln( x ) dx
Z 2
2
[ x ln( x )] xx =
=1
2
[ x ln( x )] xx =
=1
=
=
2
2 ln(2) 1 ln(1) [ x ] xx =
=1
Z 2
1
1
x
dx
1 dx
2 ln(2) 0 (2 1) = 2 ln(2) 1.
In the nal example we see that sometimes we need to apply integration by parts more than on e to
ompute an integral.
76
Example 11.4: repeated integration by parts

By means of integration by parts we ompute the integral
Z 3
0
x2 e x dx.
We hoose f ( x ) = e x and g( x ) = x2 ; then it holds that

f (x) = ex
and
g ( x ) = 2x.
So we an regard the fun tion to be integrated as g( x ) f ( x ). We subsequently have:

Z 3
0
x2 e x dx
=
=
()
=
=
x2 e x
i x =3
x =0
Z 3
0
2x e x dx
Z 3
(9e3 0e0 )
2xe x dx
0

Z 3
3
x x =3
x
9e [2xe ] x =0
2 e dx
0

3
9e3 (6e3 0e0 ) [2e x ] xx =
=0

9e3 6e3 (2e3 2e0 ) = 9e3 6e3 + 2e3 2 = 5e3 2.
Note that at () we use integration by parts again, but now with f ( x ) = e x and g( x ) = 2x (thus
f ( x ) = e x and g ( x ) = 2).
Exer ise 11.1

Compute
the integrals below using integration by parts.
R
a) 01 xe x dx.
R
b) 01 x3 e x dx.
R 2
) 1e x ln( x ) dx.
R
d) 14 lnx(2x ) dx.
Exer ise 11.2
How often do you need integration by parts to determine
R1
0
x k e x dx?
Exer ise 11.3

Compute
R the integrals below using integration by parts.
a) 08 x x + 1 dx.
R
b) 02 xe x (1+1x )2 dx.
R
3
) 04 x 2 dx. [Hint: what is the derivative of 9 + x2 ?
9+ x
R
2
2
d) 01 x3 e x dx. [Hint: what is the derivative of e x ?
Exer ise 11.4
Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = (4 x2 )e x . Determine the area that is en losed by the graph of f ( x )
and the x-axis.
12
Additional exer ises
This se tion ontains additional exer ises, grouped by week.
Week 1
Exer ise 12.1 (dieren e quotient)
The dieren e quotient of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 5x + 3 in x = a at a hange of x = 3 is equal
to 3. Determine a.
Exer ise 12.2 (dieren e quotient)

The average in rease of the demand q ( p) = p2 + 4p + 7 in p = 3 at a hange of p is equal to
1
2 . Determine p.
Exer ise 12.3 (slope of line)

Determine the slope of the line that interse ts the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 5x + 6 in the
points (1, y(1)) and (3, y(3)).

A line interse ts the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 7 in the points ( a, y( a)) and (b, y(b )). The
slope of this line is equal to 5 and b a = 3. Determine a and b.

The slope of the tangent line at the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + 3x + 4 at the point ( x0 , y( x0 ))
is equal to the slope of the line through the points (0, 4) and (2, 14). Determine x0 .
Exer ise 12.6

Determine the tangent line at the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = 2x2 + 2 that interse ts the x-axis in
x = 1.
77
78
Exer ise 12.7 (derivative)

The line y = 92 + 6x is a tangent line of graph of the fun tion y = x3 + 3x2 18x + 12. Determine
the oordinates of the point where the line is tangent to the graph.
Exer ise 12.8

Determine all p su h that the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x3 + px2 + 3x + 2 + p has two horizontal
tangent lines.
Exer ise 12.9

The line y = 6x + 7 is a tangent line of the graph of the fun tion y( x ) = x4 + 2x + a. Determine a.
Week 2
Exer ise 12.10 (dieren e quotient and derivative)
2
Consider the fun tion y( x ) = 2xx+1 .

a) Cal ulate the dieren e quotient in x = 2 and x = 3.
b) Determine the number the dieren e quotient approa hes if x 0 in x = 2.
Exer ise 12.11 (derivative and tangent line)
a) Determine the derivative of the fun tion y( x )

= x2 + 2 in the point x = 1.
b) Determine the points at the graph of y( x ) = x2 + 2 in whi h the tangent line is horizontal.
Exer ise 12.12 (minimum fun tion)

Consider the minimum fun tion z( x, y) = min{ x, 2y}.
a) Cal ulate the fun tion values in the points (1, 2), (3, 2), (5, 2) and (4, 2).
b) Determine all ( x, y) su h that z( x, y) = 10.
Exer ise 12.13 (partial dierentiation with the dierentiation rules)

Determine all ( x, y) su h that the partial derivatives of the following fun tions are both equal to
zero.
a) z( x, y) = 2x2 + 5xy + 4y2 .
b) z( x, y) = x3 y3 + 9xy.
Exer ise 12.14

Consider the fun tion z( x, y) = ax2 + 2xy + y2 + 3x. Determine all a su h that zx (1, 1) =
zy (1, 1) = 0.
12. Additional exer ises
79
Week 3
Exer ise 12.15 (tangent line)

Determine the tangent line in (1, y(1)) at the graph of the following fun tions:
1
1
a) y( x ) = x 2 x 3 .
x
b) y( x ) = 2 .
Exer ise 12.16 (derivative and tangent line)
a) Determine the derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 e x in the point x = 1.
b) Determine the points at the graph of y( x ) = x2 e x in whi h the tangent line is horizontal.

a) Determine the derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = e x ln( x + 12 ) in x = 0.
b) Determine the interse tion point of y( x ) = e x ln( x + 21 ) with the x-axis.

Determine all points su h that the derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = 4x ln( x + 1) is equal to 0.

a) Determine the derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = x2 e x in the point x = 1.
b) Determine the points at the graph of y( x ) = x2 e x in whi h the tangent line is horizontal.

2
a) Determine the derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = e x ln(2x + 12 ) in x = 0.

2
b) Determine the interse tion point of y( x ) = e x ln(2x + 12 ) with the x-axis.
Exer ise 12.21 (higher order derivative)

a)
b)
)
d)
e)
Determine the
Determine the
Determine the
Determine the
Determine the
third order derivative of x3 .

fourth order derivative of x4 .
fth order derivative of x5 .
n-th order derivative of x n , with n = 1, 2, 3, ....
n + 1-th order derivative of x n , with n = 1, 2, 3, ....
Exer ise 12.22 (higher order derivative)

2
Consider the fun tion y( x ) = e x . Show that y ( x ) 6= y ( x ) for all x.
Exer ise 12.23

Cal ulate the 26-th order derivative of the fun tion y( x ) = e4x + x19 30.
Exer ise 12.24

Determine the partial derivative to x in the point (2, 1) of the fun tion z( x, y) = xe xy + ln( x + y2 )
80
Exer ise 12.25

Determine the se ond order derivative zxy ( x, y) of the fun tion

1
z( x, y) = (1 + x ) ln 1 +
x
2

3
y3 + y y e1 y + x2 y.
Exer ise 12.26

The pres ription of the fun tion Z (t) is obtained by repla ing the variable x by the fun tion x (t) = ln t
and the variable y by the fun tion y(t) = e2t into
z( x, y) = 3x2 y + xy.
Determine the derivative of Z (t) at t = 4.
Exer ise 12.27

The fun tion
des ription of the fun tion Z ( x ) is obtained by repla ing the variable y by the fun tion
y( x ) = 4x + x into
z( x, y) = ln( x2 + y5 ).
Determine the derivative of Z ( x ) at x = 1.
Week 4
Exer ise 12.28
Consider f ( x ) = 3x3 + 3x2 3x 3. Find all optima (type, lo ation, value) of f ( x ).
Exer ise 12.29

Consider f ( x ) = ax3 + x2 + bx + 1. Find the values of a and b su h that x = 10 holds a maximum
and x = 6 holds a minimum.
Exer ise 12.30

Consider the fun tion z( x, y) = ln( x2 + x2 y2 + y2 + 1). Find all optima (type, lo ation, value) of
z( x, y).
81
Week 5
Exer ise 12.31
Consider the following onstrained optimization problem:
optimize
su h that
x 2 + y2
ax + y = 10.
Find all values of a for whi h x = 12 holds a maximum.
Exer ise 12.32

optimize
su h that
y2 e x
e x + ey = 5
x 0, y 0.
Solve it using the Lagrange method.
Exer ise 12.33

maximize
su h that
x
x3 xy + y = 25
x 0, y 0.
Solve it using the Lagrange method.
Exer ise 12.34

optimize
su h that
x+y
x 2 + y2 = 4
a) Solve it using the Lagrange method.

b) If the onstraint hanges to x2 + y2 = 4.5, what happens approximately to the values of the
optima?
Week 6
Exer ise 12.35
Determine for the fun tion (y( x ) = ( x + ln( x ))3 with how mu h x approximately should be hanged
at x = 1 to obtain a fun tion value being one higher.
82
Exer ise 12.36

Consider the utility fun tion U ( x, y) = x2 y + y at the point ( x, y) = (5, 7).
a) Determine by using the total dierential the approximate hange in utility if x in reases with 1
unit and y de reases with 2 units.
b) Determine both the partial elasti ities at ( x, y) = (5, 7).
) What is the approximate per entage hange in y if x de reases with 1% and the utility remains
un hanged?
d) Determine the MRS xy at ( x, y) = (5, 7).
e) Determine the tangent line to the level urve of U ( x, y) through ( x, y) = (5, 7).
Exer ise 12.37
The derivative of a fun tion y( x ) is given by y ( x ) = x2 x + 1. Determine with how mu h the

fun tion value approximately in reases if the variable x in reases with 0.5 to 3.5.
Exer ise 12.38
Determine the pri e elasti ity of the supply fun tion S ( p) = p 3 + 2 at p = 8.
Exer ise 12.39
Consider the produ tion fun tion Q( L, K ) = K 4 L 2 with K apital and L labor. At input levels of
100 units of labor and 10000 units of apital, ompute with whi h per entage the amount of labor
has to in rease su h that the output in reases with two per ent, while keeping the input of apital
at 10000 units.
Week 7
Exer ise 12.40
A ele troni s shop sells, amongst others, 20 mp3 players per week. The ost at the wholesaler is 40
euros per mp3 player and 11.25 euros per order. The holding osts are 0.50 euros per mp3 player
per week.
b) Determine the weekly ost belonging to the e onomi order quantity determined in a).
Exer ise 12.41

A shop sells a produ t that has a daily demand of 50 items. The xed and variable ordering osts
are 12.25 euros and 15 euros respe tively. The holding osts are 3.65 euros per item per year (a
year has 365 days).
b) Determine the annual ost belonging to the e onomi order quantity determined in a).
83
Exer ise 12.42

Consider a produ t that has a weekly demand of 50 items. The selling pri e is 4 euros. The holding
osts per item per week are 2 ents.
a) Determine the xed ordering osts su h that the e onomi order quantity is 15.
b) Determine the variable ordering osts su h that the weekly prot (total revenues-total osts) is
19.60 euros.
Week 8
Exer ise 12.43
x3 + x2
.
x2 1
b) Determine lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ).

x 1
x 1
x 1
) Determine lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ).

x 1
x 1
x 1
d) Determine the horizontal and verti al asymptotes of f ( x ).
Exer ise 12.44

Determine the following limits. Note that you sometimes need to use a2 b2 = ( a + b )( a b ) and
( a b ) = (b a):
3x 1
x2
a)
lim
.
e)
lim
.
x 5 x + 5
x 4 4
x 2
x x2
xx
b) lim
.
f)
lim
.
x 7 x 7
x 2x2 + 5
4x
7x
lim
.
)
g)
lim
.
x x2+ 1
x 7 2x2 12x 14
2
x x
x 81
d) lim
.
.
h) lim
x
x 0
x 9 3 x
Exer ise 12.45

Determine the horizontal and verti al asymptotes for ea h of the following fun tions.
5 5x
a) f ( x ) =
.
2x + 3
x1
b) f ( x ) = 2
.
x 1
2
x +x
) f ( x ) =
.
x1
2
x x+3
d) f ( x ) =
.
x2 1
x2 + 3x
e) f ( x ) =
.
x2
5
2
x 4x + 3
f) f ( x ) = 4
.
x + x2 + 1
Exer ise 12.46

1
+ x2 1.
1x
a) Determine its verti al asymptote(s).

b) This fun tion does not have a horizontal asymptote. Explain why.
84
Week 9
Exer ise 12.47
3
x + x2
2
Consider the fun tion g( x ) =
x1 1
2
Is g( x ) ontinuous?
if x 6= 1, x 6= 1
if x = 1 x = 1
Exer ise 12.48

Che k whether the following fun tions are ontinuous.
a)
b)
)
f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
3x2

18 ln( x2
+ 7x
+ 1)
.
2 7x 13
x
1 + x 1 if x 1,
3x2 1
if x < 1.
81 x4
if x 0, x 6= 3,
x2 2x 3
27
if x = 3.
d)
e)
f)
f (x) =
f (x) =
f (x) =
81 x4
if x < 1, x > 3,
x2 2x 3
9x
if 1 x 3.
x3 2x2
if x > 0,
x2
ex
3
if x 0.
3x x + 1
if x > 1,
x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 3 if x 1.
Exer ise 12.49

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x3 + 6x2 15x 13.
a) Find all x for whi h y( x ) is in reasing.
b) Find all x for whi h y( x ) is stri tly on ave.
) Find the stationary points of y( x ). Determine whether they are minimum or maximum lo ations
using on avity and/or onvexity.
Exer ise 12.50
2x
.
x3
a) Find the stationary point(s) of f ( x ).
b) Determine the values of x for whi h f ( x ) is stri tly in reasing and the values of x for whi h it is
stri tly de reasing. [Hint: slope an also hange at a point at whi h f ( x ) is not dened.
) Determine the ine tion point(s) of f ( x ).
d) Determine the values of x for whi h f ( x ) is on ave and the values of x for whi h it is onvex.
[Hint: on avity/ onvexity an also hange at a point at whi h f ( x ) is not dened.
e) Use onvexity/ on avity of f ( x ) to determine whether the stationary point(s) hold a minimum
or a maximum.
Exer ise 12.51

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y) = 5x2 + 10y2 + 4x 2y 8xy.
a) Determine whether this fun tion is onvex or on ave.
b) Determine the stationary point(s) of f ( x, y).
) Determine whether these stationary point(s) hold minima or maxima using the onvexity/ on avity
of f ( x, y).
85
Week 10
Exer ise 12.52
Consider y( x ) = x5 + x3 + x 13.
a) Show that y( x ) has an inverse. Can you nd an expli it expression?
b) Show that x (29) = 2.
) Determine x (29).
Exer ise 12.53

Determine whether the following fun tions have an inverse and if so, try to give an expli it expression.
a)
b)
)
f ( x ) = e3x , where x 0.
6
f ( x ) = e x .
f ( x ) = x + 1, where x 1.
d)
e)
f)
f ( x ) = x2 + 8x + 16.
f ( x ) = x2 + 8x + 16, where x 4.
f ( x ) = x5 + x3 + x + 1.
Exer ise 12.54

Determine for ea h of the fun tions in Exer ise 12.53 for whi h the inverse exists the derivative of
the inverse at y = 1.
Exer ise 12.55

Consider f ( x, y, z) = x2 y2 z2 xyz at the point ( x, y, z) = (1, 2, 4).
a) Show that the impli it dened z( x, y) does exist.
) Estimate the value of z when x = 1.1 and y = 2.2.
Exer ise 12.56

Consider f ( x, y) = e xy2 y3 + x2 about the point ( x0 , y0 ) = (2, 1).
Exer ise 12.57

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = ln(( x 1)2 (y + 3)2 + 1) xyz + z3 at ( x, y, z) = (1, 3, 2).
a) Does f ( x, y, z) = 8 dene an impli it fun tion z( x, y)?
) If x de reases to 0.85 and y in reases to 2.7, estimate the orresponding hange in z.
Week 11
Exer ise 12.58
Consider the fun tions f ( x ) = 2x 23 and g( x ) = 4x + 13.
a) Determine
Z 15
20
f ( x )dx .
b) Determine the area en losed by g( x ), the x-axis and the y-axis.

) Determine the area en losed by f ( x ), g( x ) and the x-axis.
86
Exer ise 12.59

a) Determine
Z 2
1
e2x +
3
x2
+ 2dx .
b) Determine the area between the graphs of y = x + 3 and y = 2x .
Exer ise 12.60

Consider the fun tion y( x ) = x2 + a. Determine the value of a su h that the area en losed by the
graph of y( x ) and the x-axis equals 36.
Week 12
Exer ise 12.61
Consider the fun tion f ( x ) = xe x . Determine the area en losed by the graph of this fun tion, the
x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 1.
Exer ise 12.62

Consider the fun tion ( f ( x ) = ( x 2)( x 1)e x . Determine the area en losed by the graph of this
fun tion and the x-axis.
Exer ise 12.63

Consider the fun tions f ( x ) = (2x + 1)e2x and g( x ) = ( x2 2)e2x . Determine the area en losed by
the graphs of these fun tions.
Week 13
Exer ise 12.64
A fun tion f ( x, y) is homogeneous of degree 3 and its partial derivatives at ( x, y) = (3, 1) are
f x (3, 1) = 4 and f y (3, 1) = 15. Determine f (6, 2).
Exer ise 12.65

A fun tion f ( x, y) is homogeneous of degree k and its partial derivatives are f x ( x, y) = 2x +
3x 2
y
+y
and f y = yx2 + x. Determine k.
Exer ise 12.66

Consider a fun tion f ( x, y) that is homogeneous of degree 4. The partial elasti ity with respe t to
3x3 + 4xy
x is x = 3
. Determine the partial elasti ities x and y at ( x, y) = (2, 1).
x + 2x2 y y3
87
Exer ise 12.67

Consider a homogeneous utility fun tion U ( x, y). We know that U (2, 3) = 5 and U (8, 12) = 10.
Furthermore, starting from ( x0 , y0 ), de reasing x with 1% and in reasing y with 3%, leads to an
in rease in the utility of approximately 1%. Determine x and y at ( x0 , y0 ).
Exam preparation
Exer ise 12.68 (midterm 5 06-07)
a) Solve the following optimization problem:
maximize z( x, y) = x + 2y
subje t to
x2 + 3y2 = 21
x 0, y 0.
b) Consider the fun tion z( x, y) = 2y2 e42x . The urrent levels of x and y are equal to 2. Cal ulate
(using partial elasti ities) by how many per ent the value of y needs to in rease, leaving x
onstant, in order the in rease the z-value with 3 per ent.
Exer ise 12.69 (new topi )

Consider the fun tion f ( x, y, z) = x2 z2 + yz3 at ( x, y, z) = (4, 2, 1).
a) Show that f ( x, y, z) = 17 denes the impli it fun tion z( x, y) about the point ( x, y, z) = (4, 2, 1).
) Estimate the value of z if x in reases to 4.1 and y de reases to 1.8.
Exer ise 12.70 (new topi )

x6
x2 36
1
12
a) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in x = 6?
b) Is f ( x ) ontinuous in x = 6?
) Is f ( x ) ontinuous?
if x 6= 6, x 6= 6,
if x = 6, x = 6.
d) Find the horizontal and verti al asymptotes of f ( x ).
Exer ise 12.71Z (resit 06-07)

a) Cal ulate
e3x +
2
x3
dx.
b) Determine the area between the x-axis, the lines x = 0 and x = 4 and the graph of f ( x ) =
x2 5x + 6.
Exer ise 12.72 (resit 06-07)

a) Determine (if possible) the degree of homogeneity of the fun tion
x3 + 3xy2
z( x, y) = xy + p
.
x 2 + y2
b) From a homogeneous fun tion f ( x, y) it is known that z(2, 5) = 3, z(6, 8) = 20 and z(8, 20) = 48.
Cal ulate z(3, 4).
Short solutions to exer ises

No exer ises in this se tion.
Power fun tions

Exer ise 2.1
a)
z( x ) = 5x + 4
y( x ) = 3x + 2
b) x-inter ept y( x ) : 32 , x-inter ept z( x ) : 45 ;

) ( x, y) = ( 41 , 2 34 ).
Exer ise 2.2
a) x = 6, x = 1;
b) no zero points;
Exer ise 2.3
a) p > 12, p < 12;

b) no interse tion point for any p.
Exer ise 2.4
a)
y
y( x ) = x2 + 4x + 3
x
z( x ) = x2 + 6
b) (1 12 10, 2 21 10), (1 + 12 10, 2 21 + 10).
89
90
Solutions
Exer ise 2.5
a)
b)
)
d)
x
x
x
x
= 1, x = 2;
= 1;
= 2, x = 2;
= 0, x = 1.
Exer ise 2.6
a) 1/2 x 0
;
b) x 1 1/2 10, x 1 + 1/2 10.
Exer ise 2.7
ai)
aii)
aiii)
aiv)
bi)
bii)
biii)
biv)
p = 3;
p = 4;
p = 2 12 ;
p = 3;
p = 7, q = 3 ;
p = 2, q = 3;
p = 2, q = 8;
p = 2, q = 0.
Exer ise 2.8
x=
c
pv .
Exer ise 2.9
a = 3 or a = 0.
Exer ise 2.10
p =4+
1
20
600 or p = 4
1
20
600.
Exer ise 2.11
x 0, 1 x 2.
Exer ise 2.12
a) x = 3;
b) p > 41 ;
) p < 58.
Exer ise 2.13
a) 3 < x 21
b) x > 3.
1
2
5, x 21 +
1
2
5;
Exer ise 2.14
a) (3, 3);
b) x > 3.

Exer ise 3.1
a) x = 12/7;
b) x = 2/5;
) x = 1, x = 1.
Exer ise 3.2
(1, 27).
Exer ise 3.3
a) log( xy2 );
b) log( x/(yz));
Exer ise 3.4
a) x = 5 + 12 20;
b) x = 9, x = 27;
Solutions
91
Exer ise 3.5
a) x > 10;
b) 2 < x < 1 + 12 52.
The Lagrange method

Exer ise 4.1
a) (K, L, ) = ( 43 , 83 , 19 ). No stationary points of onstraint.

b) ( x, y, ) = (6,
9, 51). No
stationary points of
onstraint.
) (q, p, ) = ( 21 3, 23 , 12 3), (q, p, ) = ( 21 3, 32 , 21 3) and (q, p, ) = (0, 0, 0). No feasible stationary points of
onstraint.
d) ( x, y, z, ) = (12, 6, 4, 24),( x, y, z, ) = (36, 0, 0, 0), ( x, y, z, ) = (0, 18, 0, 0) and ( x, y, z, ) = (0, 0, 12, 0). No stationary points of onstraint.
Exer ise 4.2
g ( x ,y )
a) x (y0 ) = gy ( x0 ,y0 ) .
x 0 0
b) Z (y) = zx ( x (y), y) x (y) + zy ( x (y), y).
g ( x ,y )
) 0 gx ( x0 , y0 ) gy ( x0 ,y0 ) + zy ( x0 , y0 ) = 0.
x 0 0
d) Determine the stationary points of L( x, y, ) and show that they satisfy the onditions of part ) and the onstraint.
Exer ise 4.3
a) Maximum at (K, L) = ( 34 , 83 ) with value p( 34 , 83 ) = 89 .

9) with value z(6, 9) =612).
b) Minimum at ( x, y) = (6,
) Maximum at (q, p) = ( 21
3, 32 ) with value r ( 21 3, 32 ) = 34 3.
Maximum at (q, p) = ( 21 3, 32 ) with value r ( 21 3, 32 ) = 43 3.

No optimum at (0, 0).
Exer ise 4.4
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Satises
Satises
Satises
Satises
Satises
Satises
Satises
onditions (i) and (ii). Boundary points ( x, y) = (7, 0) and ( x, y) = (0, 5).
ondition (i). No boundary points.
no onditions. No boundary points.
no onditions. Boundary point ( x, y) = (3, 0).
onditions (i) and (ii). No boundary points (these are determined by the domain).
Exer ise 4.5
a) Minimum at (k, l ) = (32,

2) with
value c(32, 2) =104).
b) Minimum at (k, l ) = (7 2, 28 2) with value c(7 2, 28 2) = 77 2).
Exer ise 4.6
a) (Global) minimum at ( x, y) = (1, 0) with value z(

1, 0) = 1). (Lo al)
minimum at ( x, y) = (1, 0) with value
z(1, 0) = 1) and (global maximum at ( x, y) = ( 12 , 12 3) with value z( 12 , 12 3) = 1 14 .
b) No optima.
) (Global) maximum at ( x, y) = (0, 0) with value z(0, 0) = 0.
Exer ise 4.7
a) x + y = 25.
b) x 0, y 0.
200y
) maximize R( x, y) = 200x
5+ x + 10+ y
subje t to x + y = 25
x 0, y 0.
d) Maximum at ( x, y) = (15, 10) ( = 52 ) with value R(15, 10) = 200 (boundary points provide minima).
Exer ise 4.8
a) In reased by 2.5.
b) De reased by 5.
) In reased by 4.
92
Solutions
Exer ise 4.9
a) In reased by 0.02.
b) De reased by 0.01.
) Budget of 9.

Exer ise 5.1
a) D = 100, K = 4000, a = 500, h = 20.

b) q = 400 and C(q ) = 102000 ents per week.
) At least 520 ents.
Exer ise 5.1
a) q = 56.
b) 63.56 dollar per day.
) Yes.
Exer ise 5.3
a) pD .
b) cD +
r 2hKD.
) c +
2hK
.
D
Limits
Exer ise 6.1
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
4.
1.
1.
1.
1.
Does not exist.

.
.
Exer ise 6.2
a) 1.
b) 1.
) Does not exist.
Exer ise 6.3
a) 1.
b) 1.
) 1.
Exer ise 6.4
a)
b)
)
d)
27 .
27 .
1.
0.
Exer ise 6.5
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
5
7.
1
3.
3.
1.
.
0.
Solutions
93
Exer ise 6.6
a) y( x ) = 2x2 + 3x 1, y( x + x ) = 2x2 + 4xx + 2x2 + 3x + 3x 1
y( x + x ) y( x )
4xx + 2x2 + 3x
= lim
= 4x + 3.
x
x
x 0
b) y( x ) = x2 x, y( x + x ) = x2 + 2xx + x2 x x
y( x + x ) y( x )
2xx + x2 x
lim
= lim
= 2x 1.
x
x
x 0
x 0
1
1
) y( x ) = x , y( x + x ) = x+x
x
x (xx++x
y( x + x ) y( x )
1
x ( x + x )
x )
lim
= lim
= ... = 2.
x
x
x
x
0
x 0
d) y( x ) = x, y( x + x ) = x + x
x + x x
( x + x x)( x + x + x )
1
y( x + x ) y( x )
= lim
= lim
= ... = .
lim
x
x
x 0
x 0
x 0
2 x
x ( x + x + x)
lim
x 0
Exer ise 6.7
y( x + x ) y( x )
.
x
f ( x + x ) f ( x )
cy( x + x ) cy( x )
c( y( x + x ) y( x ))
y( x + x ) y( x )
lim
= lim
= lim
= lim c
x
x
x
x
x 0
x 0
x 0
x 0
y( x + x ) y( x )
= lim c lim
= cy ( x ).
x
x 0
x 0
f ( x ) = cy( x ), f ( x + x ) = cy( x + x ), and y ( x ) = lim
x 0
Asymptotes
Exer ise 7.1
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
Verti al asymptote at x = 0. Horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

Verti al asymptote at x = 2. Horizontal asymptote at y = 23 .
Verti al asymptote at x = 0. No horizontal asymptotes.
No horizontal or verti al asymptotes.
Verti al asymptote at x = 0. No horizontal asymptotes.
Exer ise 7.2
a)
b)
)
d)
0, 0 and 0.
+ , and does not exist.
3 and 3.
Exer ise 7.3
a) All x su h that x > 1.

b) Verti al asymptote at x = 1.
Exer ise 7.4
a) All x su h that x > 3.

b) Verti al asymptote at x = 3.
Continuity
Exer ise 8.1
No, lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 0
Exer ise 8.2
a) Yes, sin e lim = f ( 2) = 0.

x 2
b) No, sin e lim

does not exist.
x 2
Exer ise 8.3
a) No, sin e lim does not exist.

x 3
b) Yes, sin e lim = f (3) = 16 .

x 3
94
Solutions
Exer ise 8.4
p = 7.
Exer ise 8.5
a) All values ex ept for x = 7.

b) Yes.
Exer ise 8.6
a) x an have all values.

b) No, it is dis ontinuous at x = 7.
Exer ise 8.7
a=
8
3
and b = 31 .
Exer ise 8.8
a = 3 and a = 3.
Exer ise 8.9
a = 12 and b = 81 .

Exer ise 9.1
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Does
Does
Does
Does
Does
Does
Does
Does
not exist.
exist. No expli it form.
not exist.
exist. x (y) = 5 y, y 0.
not exist.
p
exist. x (y) = 3 ln(y), y > 0.
exist. No expli it form.
not exist.
Exer ise 9.2
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Inverse does not

x (13) = 1 .
2 14
Inverse does not
x (9) = 61 .
Inverse does not
1
x ( e ) = 3e
.
1
x (18) = 12
.
Inverse does not
exist.
exist.
exist.
exist.
Impli it fun tions

Exer ise 10.1
a) Yes, sin e f ( x, y) is ontinuous and f y (5, 2) = 20 6= 0.

b) y be omes approximately 2.02.
Exer ise 10.2

Exer ise 10.3

Exer ise 10.4
a)
b)
)
d)
y = 0.
y = 6 = 4.
Use that y2 + xy 6x2 = (y + 3x )(y 2x ).
Expli it and impli it: y (2) = 2.
Solutions
95
Exer ise 10.5
a) Yes, sin e f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (5, 6, 0) = 30 6= 0.

b) zx (5, 6) = 13 and zy (5, 6) = 52 .
) z be omes approximately 25 .
Exer ise 10.6
a)
b)
)
d)
z = 3.
Yes, sin e f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z ( x, y, z) = 27 6= 0.
zx (6, 3) = 49 and zy (6, 3) = 29 .
z be omes approximately 28
9 .
Exer ise 10.7
Write f ( x, y, z) = x3 + 3y2 + 4xz2 3z2 y.

a) f (1, 1, z) = 1 an be rewritten to z2 + 3 = 0, whi h has no solution. Hen e, no su h z dened.
b) f (1, 0, z) = 1 is solved to z = 0. Sin e f z (1, 0, 0) = 0, the impli it fun tion theorem annot be applied, hen e no
su h z dened.
) f (0.5, 0, z) = 1 leads to z = 47 . Hen e,

f z (0.5, 0, 47 ) = 7 6 = 0, so su h a z( x, y) exists.
5
zx (0.5, 0) =
and zy (0.5, 0) = 3167 .
2 7
Exer ise 10.8
Write f ( x, y, z) = 3xyz2 + x2 yz.

a) f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (2, 3, 1) = 48 6= 0.
b) z be omes approximately 23
24 .
) Solving (3xy)z2 + ( x2 y)z 30 = 0 leads to z =
that z( x, y) =
yx2 +
Exer ise 11.1
a) 1.
b) 6 2e.
) 34 e4 + 14 .
d) 34 14 ln(4).
Exer ise 11.2
k times.
Exer ise 11.3
7
a) 79 15
.
b) 13 e2 1.
) 14 23 .
d) 12 .
Exer ise 11.4
2e2 + 6e 2 .
Additional exer ises

Exer ise 12.1
a = 15
6 .
Exer ise 12.2
p = 2.5.
Exer ise 12.3
9.
yx2
y3 x4 + 360yx
; using that ( x, y, z) = (2, 3, 1) we have
6yx
y3 x4 + 360yx
. zy (2, 3) = 245 , so z be omes approximately
6yx
23
24 .
96
Solutions
Exer ise 12.4
a = 1,b = 4.
Exer ise 12.5
x0 = 1.
Exer ise 12.6
y = 4( 1
2) x 4( 1
2 ) , y = 4( 1 +
2) x 4( 1 +
Exer ise 12.7
(4, 68).
Exer ise 12.8
p < 3, p > 3.
Exer ise 12.9
a = 10.
Exer ise 12.10

52 4
27
5
11
a)
b)
3
12
25 .
55 .
Exer ise 12.11
a) 13 .
b) x = 0.
Exer ise 12.12
a) z(1, 2) = 1, z(3, 2) = 3, z(5, 2) = 4, z(4, 2) = 4.

b) {( x, y) | x = 10, y 5 and x 10, y = 5}.
Exer ise 12.13
a) (0, 0).
b) (0, 0), (3, 3).
Exer ise 12.14
a = 21 .
Exer ise 12.15
a) y = 56 x + 16 .
b) y = 12 (ln 2) x + ( 21 + 12 ln 2).
Exer ise 12.16
a) 3e.
b) x = 0, x = 2.
Exer ise 12.17
a) 2 + ln 21 .
b) x = 12 .
Exer ise 12.18
x = 0.
Exer ise 12.19
a) e1 .
b) x = 0, x = 2.
Exer ise 12.20
a) 4.
b) x = 14 .
Exer ise 12.21
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
6.
24.
120.
n! = n ( n 1) ( n 2) ... 1.
0.
2) .
Solutions
97
Exer ise 12.22
p.m.
Exer ise 12.23
42 6e4x .
Exer ise 12.24
3e2 + 13 .
Exer ise 12.25
2x.
Exer ise 12.26

e8
Z ( 4) =
(6 ln 4 + 1) + 2e8 ln 4(3 ln 4 + 1).
Exer ise 12.27
Z ( 1) =
2
1 + 55
55 9
.
1 + 55 2
Exer ise 12.28
Maximum at x = 1 with value y(1) = 2. Minimum at x =
1
3
with value y( 13 ) = 11
9 .
Exer ise 12.29
a = 16 , b = 30.
Exer ise 12.30
Minimum at ( x, y) = (0, 0) with value z(0, 0) = 0.

Exer ise 12.31
a = 23 .
Exer ise 12.32
(Boundary) minimum at ( x, y) = (0, ln(4)) with value (ln(4))2; maximum at ( x, y) = (ln

5
3
ln
10
3
2
; boundary minimum at ( x, y) = (ln(4), 0) with value 0.
5
3
, ln
10
3
) with value
Exer ise 12.33
Maximum at ( x, y) = (5, 1) with value 5.

Exer ise 12.34
a) Minimum at ( x, y) =( 2, 2) with value 2 2; maximum at ( x, y)

= ( 2, 2) with value
2 2.
b) Minimum: = 41 2, so minimum value be omes approximately 2 18 2; maximum: = 14 2, so maximum
value be omes approximately 2 18 2.
Exer ise 12.35
x = 16 .
Exer ise 12.36
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
18.
x =
25
13 ,
y = 1.
Approximately
MRS xy = 35
13 .
266
35
x
+
13
13 .
Exer ise 12.37
y = 9.
Exer ise 12.38
p = 16 .
Exer ise 12.39
4.
Exer ise 12.40
a) q = 30.
b) C(30) = 815.
) 40.75.
25
13 %.
98
Solutions
Exer ise 12.41
a) q = 350.
b) C(350) = 275027.50.
) 15.07 euros.
Exer ise 12.42
a) 4.5 ents.
b) 3.60 euros.
Exer ise 12.43
a) All x ex ept for x = 1, x = 1.

b) lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = 21 .
x 1
x 1
x 1
) lim f ( x ) = , lim f ( x ) = and lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 1
x 1
x 1
d) No horizontal asymptotes; verti al asymptote at x = 1.

Exer ise 12.44
a) 75 .
b) + .
) 0.
d) .
e) 41 .
f) 21 .
g) 161 .
h) 108.
Exer ise 12.45
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
f)
Horizontal asymptote at y = 52 , verti al asymptote at x = 32 .

Horizontal asymptote at y = 0, verti al asymptote at x = 1.
No horizontal asymptotes, verti al asymptote at x = 1.
Horizontal asymptote at y = 1, verti al asymptotes at x = 1, x = 1.
No horizontal asymptotes, verti al asymptote at x = 2.
No horizontal asymptotes, no verti al asymptotes.
Exer ise 12.46
a) Verti al asymptote at x = 1.
b) The domain is 1 x 1, so x annot go to .
Exer ise 12.47
Continuous at x = 1, not ontinuous at x = 1, ontinuous at all x 6= 1, x 6= 1, hen e g( x ) not ontinuous.

Exer ise 12.48
a) Yes.
b) No, dis . in x = 1.
) Yes.
d) No, dis . in x = 1.
e) Yes.
f) Yes.
Exer ise 12.49
a) x 5, x 1.
b) x < 2.
) x = 5, maximum, be ause onvex. x = 1, minimum be ause on ave.
Exer ise 12.50
a)
b)
)
d)
e)
x = 3.
Stri tly in reasing: x > 3; stri tly de reasing 0 < x < 3, x < 0.
x = 4.
Con ave: x 4, x < 0; onvex 0 < x 4.
Stationary point holds minimum.
Exer ise 12.51
a) Convex.
b) ( x, y) = ( 178 , 343 ).
) Stationary point holds minimum.
Exer ise 12.52
a) y ( x ) > 0 for all x. No expli it expression.

b) y(2) = 29, so x (29) = 2.
1
) x (y) = 93
.
Exer ise 12.53q
a) x (y) = 13 ln(y).
b) Does not exist.
) x (y) = y2 1.
d) Does not exist.
e) x (y) = y 4, where y 0.
f) Exists, but no expli it form.
Solutions
99
Exer ise 12.54
a) x (1) = 0.
b) x (y) does not exist.
) x (1) = 2.
d) x (y) does not exist.
Exer ise 12.55
a) f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (1, 2, 4) = 34 6= 0.

b) zx (1, 2) = 4 and zy (1, 2) = 2.
) z is approximately 3.2.
Exer ise 12.56
a) Yes, f ( x, y) is ontinuous and f y (2, 1) = 1 6= 0.

Exer ise 12.57
a) Yes, f ( x, y, z) is ontinuous and f z (1, 3, 2) = 15 6= 0.

b) zx (1, 3) = 52 , zy (1, 3) = 152 .
) z in reases with approximately 0.1.
Exer ise 12.58
a) 60.
b) 169
4 .
) 138.
Exer ise 12.59
a)
b)
1 2
+ 12 e 4
2e
3
2
ln(2).
2
+ 72 .
Exer ise 12.60
a = 9.
Exer ise 12.61
2 2e 1 .
Exer ise 12.62
3e e2 .
Exer ise 12.63
3 6
4e
+ 54 e 2 .
Exer ise 12.64
72.
Exer ise 12.65
k = 2.
Exer ise 12.66
x =
32
15
and y =
28
15 .
Exer ise 12.67
x =
1
8
and y = 38 .
Exer ise 12.68
a) Maximum at ( x, y) = (3, 2) with value 7.

b) 1.5%.
Exer ise 12.69
a) f ( x, y, z) ontinuous and f z (4, 2, 1) 6= 0.

b) zx (4, 2) = 2 and zy (4, 2) = 14 .
) z is approximately 0.85.
e) x (1) = 12 .
f) x (1) = 1 (x (1) = 0).
100
Solutions
Exer ise 12.70
a) No, lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 6
b) Yes, lim f ( x ) =
x 6
1
12
= f ( 6 ).
) No, sin e dis ontinuous in x = 6.

d) Horizontal asymptote at y = 0, verti al asymptote at x = 6.
Exer ise 12.71
a) 1 + 13 e3 .
b) 5 23 .
Exer ise 12.72
a) Homogeneous of degree 2.
b) z(3, 4) = 5.

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Additional reader for

Mathemati s 1 for E onomi s

Dr. Elleke Janssen

Add-on to Mathemati s with appli ations in mi ro-

H. Norde (2010). Proofs and te hniques.

Tilburg: Tilburg University (reader used for Proofs and

Fun tions of one variable

Power fun tions

Exponential and logarithmi fun tions

The Lagrange method

First order ondition Lagrange method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Se ond order ondition Lagrange method

Appli ation: e onomi order quantity

Invertibility of fun tions

10 Impli it fun tions

12 Additional exer ises

A Short solutions to exer ises

Fun tions of one variable

Example 1.1: demand fun tion

The demand urve of a good.

Additional reader 2011-2012

that if the pri e p has value 5, the demand is

We say that `the demand D is a fun tion of the pri e p'.

is a fun tion of the pri e

the pres ription by

without giving the a tual pres ription then we denote

The relation between

is then given by the equation

100/( p 1) thus stands for

Fun tion of one variable

value, for any feasible value of the variable

The fun tion values

whi h al ulates a number, the fun tion

is alled the domain of the fun tion.

values of a variable. If we all this variable

satisfy the equation

is alled the independent or input variable and the variable

dependent or output variable.

and a fun tion by the letter

Maybe you are used to

pri e, L for Labour, K (from German `Kapital')

that is lose to the meaning of the variable ( p for

y( x ) is a graphi al representation of the fun tion in a oordinate system with

The graph of a fun tion

1. Fun tions of one variable

The graph of the fun tion y( x ) =

for x > 0 in an ( x, y)- oordinate system.

Root or zero point of a fun tion of one variable

A root or zero point of a fun tion

is a solution of the equation

x-axis will also be alled an x-inter ept

An interse tion point of the graph of a fun tion with the

Interse tion point of two graphs

is a solution of the equation

with the graph of another fun tion

Power fun tions

c is a number, is alled a onstant fun tion.

The fun tion

fun tion. Its graph is depi ted in Figure 2.1.

The graph of the fun tion y( x ) = 3.

A fun tion that looks like

Hen e a point with the oordinates

( ba , 0) is the x-inter ept of the

Add-on to Mathemati s with appli ations in mi ro-

are integers and easy to nd.

positive integer power fun tion. By denition we have

polynomial fun tion. A oe ient is the number in front of

and the oe ient of the term with

power fun tion is dened as