ET201 Electrical Circuits

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ET 201
Define and explain characteristics of
sinusoidal wave, phase relationships
and phase shifting
http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
Page 1 of 241
SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATING
WAVEFORMS
(CHAPTER 1.1 ~ 1.4)
Page 2 of 241
Understand Alternating Current

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) IS WHEN THE CURRENT
FLOWS IN ONLY ONE DIRECTION. Constant flow of
electric charge
EX: BATTERY
ALTERNATING CURRENT AC) THE CURRENT

FLOWS IN ONE DIRECTION THEN THE OTHER.
Electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary
cyclically, as opposed to direct current whose direction
remains constant.
EX: OUTLETS
Page 3 of 241
Sources of alternating current

By rotating a magnetic field within a
stationary coil
By rotating a coil in a magnetic field
Page 4 of 241
Generation of Alternating
Current
A voltage supplied by a battery or other
DC source has a certain polarity and
remains constant.
Alternating Current (AC) varies in polarity
and amplitude.
AC is an important part of electrical and
electronic systems.
Page 5 of 241
Faradays and Lenzs Law

involved in generating a.c current
Faradays Laws of electromagnetic
Induction.
Induced electromotive field
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a
voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil
e.m.f, e = -N d
dt
N = Number of turn
= Magnetic Flux
Lenzs law
An electromagnetic field interacting with a conductor will generate
electrical current that induces a counter magnetic field that opposes
the magnetic field generating
the current.
Page 6 of 241
Sine Wave Characteristics

The basis of an AC alternator is a loop of
wire rotated in a magnetic field.
Slip rings and brushes make continuous
electrical connections to the rotating
conductor.
The magnitude and polarity of the
generated voltage is shown on the
following slide.
Page 7 of 241
Page 8 of 241

The sine wave at the
right consists of two,
opposite polarity,
alternations.
Each alternation is
called a half cycle.
Each half cycle has a
maximum value called
the peak value.
Page 9 of 241

Sine waves may represent voltage,
current, or some other parameter.
The period of a sine wave is the time from
any given point on the cycle to the same
point on the following cycle.
The period is measured in time (t), and in
most cases is measured in seconds or
fractions thereof.
Page 10 of 241
Frequency
The frequency of a sine wave is the
number of complete cycles that occur in
one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). One
hertz corresponds to one cycle per
second.
Frequency and period have an inverse
relationship. t = 1/f, and f = 1/t.
Frequency-to-period and period-tofrequency conversions are common in
electronic calculations.
Page 11 of 241
Peak Value
The peak value of a sine wave is the
maximum voltage (or current) it reaches.
Peak voltages occur at two different points
in the cycle.
One peak is positive, the other is negative.
The positive peak occurs at 90 and the
negative peak at 270.
The positive and negative have equal
amplitudes.
Page 12 of 241
Average Values
The average value of any measured
quantity is the sum of all of the
intermediate values.
The average value of a full sine wave is
zero.
The average value of one-half cycle of a
sine wave is:
Vavg = 0.637Vp or Iavg = 0.637Ip
Chapter
6-
Page 13 of 241
13
rms Value
One of the most important characteristics
of a sine wave is its rms or effective value.
The rms value describes the sine wave in
terms of an equivalent dc voltage.
The rms value of a sine wave produces
the same heating effect in a resistance as
an equal value of dc.
The abbreviation rms stands for rootmean-square, and is determined by: Vrms =
0.707Vp or Irms = 0.707Ip
Chapter
6-
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14
Peak-to-Peak Value
Another measurement used to describe sine waves are
their peak-to-peak values.
The peak-to-peak value is the difference between the
two peak values.
Page 15 of 241
Form Factor
Form Factor is defined as the ratio of r.m.s
value to the average value.
Form factor =
r.m.s value
= 0.707 peak value
average value
0.637 peak valur
1.11
Page 16 of 241
Peak Factor
Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak

voltage to r.m.s value.
Page 17 of 241
13.1 Introduction
Alternating waveforms
Alternating signal is a signal that varies with respect to time.
Alternating signal can be categories into ac voltage and ac
current.
This voltage and current have positive and negative value.
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18
13.2
Sinusoidal AC Voltage
Characteristics and Definitions
Voltage and current value is represent by vertical axis and time

represent by horizontal axis.
In the first half, current or voltage will increase into maximum positive
value and come back to zero.
Then in second half, current or voltage will increase into negative
maximum voltage and come back to zero.
One complete waveform is called one cycle.
volts or amperes
units of time
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19
13.2
Defined Polarities and Direction

The voltage polarity and current direction will be for an instant
in time in the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform.
In the figure, a lowercase letter is employed for polarity and
current direction to indicate that the quantity is time dependent;
that is, its magnitude will change with time.
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20
13.2
Defined Polarities and Direction

For a period of time, a voltage has one polarity, while for the
next equal period it reverses. A positive sign is applied if the
voltage is above the axis.
For a current source, the direction in the symbol
corresponds with the positive region of the waveform.
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21
13.2
There are several specification in sinusoidal

waveform:
1. period
2. frequency
3. instantaneous value
4. peak value
5. peak to peak value
6. angular velocity
7. average value
8. effective value
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22
13.2
Period (T)
Period is defines as the amount of time is take to go through
one cycle.
Period for sinusoidal waveform is equal for each cycle.
Cycle
The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
Frequency (f)
Frequency is defines as number of cycles in one seconds.
It can derives as
1
f = Hz
hertz, Hz
T = seconds
(s)
Page 23 of 241 23
13.2
The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different in

the figure above, but they are all bounded by one period of time
and therefore satisfy the definition of a cycle.
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24
13.2
Signal with lower frequency
Signal with higher frequency
Frequency = 1 cycle
Frequency = 21/2 cycles
per second
per second
Frequency = 2 cycles
per second
1 hertz (Hz)
= 1 cycle per second Page
(cps)
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25
13.2
Instantaneous value
Instantaneous value is magnitude value of waveform at
one specific time.
Symbol for instantaneous value of voltage is v(t) and
current is i(t).
v(0.1) 8 V
v(0.6) 0 V
v(1.1) 8 V
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26
13.2
Peak Value
The maximum instantaneous value of a function as measured
from zero-volt level.
For one complete cycle, there are two peak value that is
positive peak value and negative peak value.
Symbol for peak value of voltage is Em or Vm and current is Im .
Peak value, Vm = 8 V
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27
13.2
Peak to peak value

The full voltage between positive and negative peaks of the
waveform, that is, the sum of the magnitude of the positive and
negative peaks.
Symbol for peak to peak value of voltage is Ep-p or Vp-p and
current is Ip-p
Peak to peak value, Vp-p = 16 V
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28
13.2
Angular velocity
Angular velocity is the velocity with which the radius vector
rotates about the center.
Symbol of angular speed is and units is
radians/seconds (rad/s)
Horizontal axis of waveform can be represent by time and
angular speed.
2 radian 360
3600
1 radian
57.30 , 3.142
2
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29
13.2
Angular velocity
Degree
Radian
90
(/180) x ( 90) = /2 rad
60
(/180) x ( 60) = /3 rad
30
(/180) x (30) = /6 rad
Radian
Degree
/3
(180 /) x ( /3) = 60
(180 /) x ( ) = 180
3 /2
(180/) x (3 /2) = 270

Page 30 of 241 30
13.2
Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians.
Page 31 of 241
13.2 Sinusoidal AC
Voltage
Characteristics and
Definitions
The sinusoidal wave form
can be derived from the
length of the vertical
projection of a radius vector
rotating in a uniform circular
motion about a fixed point.
Waveform picture with respect

to angular velocity
Page 32 of 241
13.2
Angular velocity
Formula of angular velocity
distance (degrees or radians )

angular degree ,
time (seconds)
t
t
Since () is typically provided in radians/second, the
angle obtained using = t is usually in radians.
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33
13.2
Angular velocity
The time required to complete one cycle is equal to the

period (T) of the sinusoidal waveform.
One cycle in radian is equal to 2 (360o).
or
2f
(rad/s)
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34
13.2
Angular velocity
Demonstrating the effect of on the frequency f and period T.
Page 35 of 241
13.2
Example 13.6
Given = 200 rad/s, determine how long it will take the
sinusoidal waveform to pass through an angle of 90
Solution
90
rad t
/2
t
7.85 ms
200
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36
13.2
Example 13.7
Find the angle through which a sinusoidal waveform of
60 Hz will pass in a period of 5 ms.
Solution
t 2ft 2 60 5 103 1.885 rad
180
108
1.885

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37
13.2
Average value
Average value is average value for all instantaneous value in
half or one complete waveform cycle.
It can be calculate in two ways:
1. Calculate the area under the graph:
Average value = area under the function in a period
period
2. Use integral method
T
1
average _ value v(t )dt
T 0
For a symmetry waveform, area upper section equal to area
under the section, so http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
just take half of the period only. Page 38 of 241
38
13.2
Average value
Example: Calculate the average value of the waveform below.
T
Vm
Solution:
1
average _ value v(t )dt
T 0
Vm
sin d
rad
For a sinus waveform , average value can

be calculate by
Vaverage
Vm
0.637Vmhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
vm
sin d
0
cos o
vm
2vm
0.637vm volt
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39
13.2
Effective value
The most common method of specifying the amount of sine wave of
voltage or current by relating it into dc voltage and current that will
produce the same heat effect.
Effective value is the equivalent dc value of a sinusoidal current or
voltage, which is 1/2 or 0.707 of its peak value.
The equivalent dc value is called rms value or effective value.
The formula of effective value for sine wave waveform is;
1
I rms
I m 0.707 I m
2
1
Erms
Em 0.707 Em
2
I m 2 I rms 1.414 I rms

Em 2 Erms 1.414 Erms
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40
13.2
Example 13.21
The 120 V dc source delivers 3.6 W to the load. Find Em and Im of
the ac source, if the same power is to be delivered to the load.
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41
13.2
Example 13.21 solution

P
3.6
I dc
30 mA
Edc 120
Edc I dc P 3.6 W
Erms
Em
Edc
2
and
I rms
Im
I dc
2
Em 2 Edc 1.414 120 169.7 V

I m 2I dc 1.414 30 42.43 mA
Page 42 of 241
42
13.2

Erms
Em
Edc
2
I rms
Em 2 Erms
Im
I dc
2
I m 2 I rms
1.414 120
1.414 30
169.7 V
42.43 mA
Page 43 of 241
43
13.5
General Format for the

Sinusoidal Voltage or Current
The basic mathematical volts or amperes

format for the sinusoidal
waveform is:
where:
Am : peak value of the
waveform
: angle from the
horizontal axis
Basic sine wave for current or voltage
Page 44 of 241
44
13.5

The general format of a sine wave can also be as:
= t
General format for electrical quantities such as current
and voltage is:
it I m sin t I m sin
et Em sin t Em sin
where: I m and Em is the peak value of current
and voltage while i(t) and v(t) is the instantaneous
value of current and
voltage.
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45
13.5

Example 13.8
Given e(t) = 5 sin, determine e(t) at = 40 and = 0.8.
Solution
For = 40,
et 5 sin 40 3.21 V
For = 0.8
180
144
0.8

et 5 sin 144 2.94 V

Page 46 of 241
46
13.5

Example 13.9
(a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
sinusoidal function v(t) = 10 sin 377t is 4 V.
(b) Determine the time
at which the magnitude
is attained.
Page 47 of 241
47
13.5

Example 13.9 - solution
Vm 10 V; 377 rad/s
vt Vm sin t V
Hence,
vt 10 sin 377t V
When v(t) = 4 V,
4 10 sin 377t
4
sin 377t sin 0.4
10
1 sin 1 0.4 23.58
2 180 23.58 156.42

Page 48 of 241
48
13.5

Example 13.9 solution (contd)

(a)
But is in radian, so must be calculate in radian:
1 377t 23.58 0.412 rad

2 156.42 2.73 rad
(b)
Given, t
, so t
0.412
t1
1.09 ms
377
2.73
t2
7.24 ms
377
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49
13.6 Phase Relationship

Phase angle
Phase angle is a shifted angle waveform from reference
origin.
Phase angle is been represent by symbol or
Units is degree or radian
Two waveform is called in phase if its have a same
phase degree or different phase is zero
Two waveform is called out of phase if its have a
different phase.
Page 50 of 241

The unshifted sinusoidal waveform is
represented by the expression:
a Am sin t
t
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51

Sinusoidal waveform which is shifted to the
right or left of 0 is represented by the
expression:
a Am sint
where is the angle (in degrees or radians) that
the waveform has been shifted.
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52

If the wave form passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going (increasing with the time)
slope before 0:
a Am sint
a Am sint
t
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53

If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis
with a positive-going slope after 0:
a Am sint
t
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54
sin t 90 sin t cos t

2
sin t cos t 90 cos t

2Page
55 of 241
55

The terms leading and lagging are used to
indicate the relationship between two sinusoidal
waveforms of the same frequency f or angular
velocity ) plotted on the same set of axes.
The cosine curve is said to lead the sine curve
by 90.
The sine curve is said to lag the cosine curve
by 90.
90 is referred to as the phase angle between
the two waveforms.
Page 56 of 241
56

+ cos
cos (-90o)
Note:
sin (- ) = - sin
cos(- ) = cos
sin (+90o)
- sin
+ sin
Start at + sin position;
- cos
cos sin 90
sin cos 90
sin sin 180
cos sin 270 sin 90

Page 57 of 241
57

If a sinusoidal expression should appear as
e Em sin t
the negative sign is associated with the sine
portion of the expression, not the peak value Em ,
i.e.
e Em sin t e Em sin t
And, since;
sin t sin t 180
Em sin t Em sin t 180

Page 58 of 241
58

Example 13.2
Determine the phase relationship between the following waveforms
(a) v 10 sin t 30
i 5 sin t 70
v 10 sin t 20
(b) i 15 sin t 60
v 3 sin t 10
(c) i 2 cos t 10
v 2 sin t 10
(d) i sin t 30
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59

(a) v 10 sin t 30
i 5 sin t 70
i leads v by 40
or
v lags i by 40
Page 60 of 241
60

v 10 sin t 20
(b) i 15 sin t 60
i leads v by 80
or
v lags i by 80
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61

v 3 sin t 10
(c) i 2 cos t 10
i leads v by 110
or
v lags i by 110
Page 62 of 241
62

v 2 sin t 10
(d) i sin t 30
OR
v leads i by 160 i leads v by 200
Or
i lags v by 160
Or
v lags i by 200
Page 63 of 241
63
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ET 201
- Identify common oscilloscope controls
- Use an oscilloscope to measure the
amplitude of a waveform
- Use an oscilloscope to measure the
period and frequency of a waveform
Page 64 of 241
OSCILLOSCOPE TO
MEASURE WAVEFORMS
(CHAPTER 1.7)
Page 65 of 241
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are
commonly used to
observe the
exact wave
shape of an
electrical signal.
Type of electronic
test instrument that
allows observation
of constantly
varying
signal voltages
Page 66 of 241
Page 67 of 241
Focus control
This control adjusts CRT focus to obtain
the sharpest, most-detailed trace. I
Intensity control
This adjusts trace brightness. Slow traces
on CRT 'scopes need less, and fast ones,
especially if they don't repeat very often.
Page 68 of 241
ET 201 ~ ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
COMPLEX NUMBER SYSTEM
Define and explain complex number
Rectangular form
Polar form
Mathematical operations
(CHAPTER 2)
Page 69 of 241
COMPLEX
NUMBERS
Page 70 of 241
2. Complex Numbers
A complex number
represents a point in
a two-dimensional
plane located with
reference to two
distinct axes.
This point can also
determine a radius
vector drawn from the
origin to the point.
The horizontal axis is

called the real axis,
while the vertical axis
is called the
imaginary ( j Page
) axis.
71 of 241
3
2.1 Rectangular Form

The format for the
rectangular form is
The letter C was

chosen from the
word complex
The bold face (C)
notation is for any
number with
magnitude and
direction.
The italic notation is

for magnitude only.
Page 72 of 241

Example 14.13(a)
Sketch the complex number C = 3 + j4 in the
complex plane
Solution
Page 73 of 241

Example 14.13(b)
Sketch the complex number C = 0 j6 in the
complex plane
Solution
Page 74 of 241

Example 14.13(c)
Sketch the complex number C = -10 j20 in
the complex plane
Solution
Page 75 of 241
2.2 Polar Form

The format for the
polar form is
Where:
Z : magnitude only
q : angle measured
counterclockwise
(CCW) from the
positive real axis.
Angles measured in
the clockwise direction
from the positive real
axis must have a
negative sign
Page 76
of 241
8
associated with
them.
2.2 Polar Form
C Zq Zq 180
Page 77 of 241
2.2 Polar Form

Example 14.14(a)
C 530
Counterclockwise (CCW)
Page 78 of 241
10
2.2 Polar Form

Example 14.14(b)
C 7 120
Clockwise (CW)
Page 79 of 241
11
2.2 Polar Form
C Zq Zq 180
Example 14.14(c)
C 4.260
4.260 180
4.2240
Page 80 of 241
12
14.9 Conversion Between Forms

1. Rectangular to Polar
Page 81 of 241
13

2. Polar to Rectangular
Page 82 of 241
14

Example 14.15
Convert C = 4 + j4 to polar form
Solution
Z 3 4 5
3
q tan 53.13
3
1
C 553.13
Page 83 of 241
15

Example 14.16
Convert C = 1045 to rectangular form
Solution
X 10 cos 45 7.07
Y 10 sin 45 7.07
C 7.07 j 7.07
Page 84 of 241
16

Example 14.17
Convert C = - 6 + j3 to polar form
Solution
Z 6 3 6.71
2
3
q 180 tan
6
1
153.43
C 6.71153.43
Page 85 of 241
17

Example 14.18
Convert C = 10 230 to rectangular form
Solution
X 10 cos 230 6.43
Y 10 sin 230 7.66
C 6.43 j 7.66
Page 86 of 241
18
2.4 Mathematical Operations with

Complex Numbers
Complex numbers lend themselves readily to
the basic mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
A few basic rules and definitions must be
understood before considering these
operations:
Page 87 of 241
19

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
The conjugate or complex conjugate of
a complex number can be found by simply
changing the sign of the imaginary part in
the rectangular form or by using the
negative of the angle of the polar form
Page 88 of 241
20

Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
In rectangular form, the

conjugate of:
C = 2 + j3
is
2 j3
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Complex Numbers
Complex Conjugate
In polar form, the
conjugate of:
C = 2 30o
is 2 30o
Page 90 of 241
22

Complex Numbers
Reciprocal
The reciprocal of a complex number is 1
divided by the complex number.
In rectangular form, the reciprocal of:
C X jY
is
1
X jY
In polar form, the reciprocal of:

1
is
C Zq
Zq
Page 91 of 241
23

Complex Numbers
Addition
To add two or more complex numbers, simply

add the real and imaginary parts separately.
Page 92 of 241
24

Complex Numbers
Example 14.19(a)
C1 2 j 4;
C2 3 j1
Find C1 + C2.
Solution
C1 C2 2 3 j 4 1
5 j5
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25

Complex Numbers
Example 14.19(b)
C1 3 j 6;
C2 6 j3
Find C1 + C2
Solution
C1 C2 3 6 j 6 3
3 j9
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Complex Numbers
Subtraction
In subtraction, the real and imaginary parts are
again considered separately .
NOTE
Addition or subtraction cannot be performed in polar form
unless the complex numbers have the same angle or
unless they differ only
by multiples of 180
Page 95 of 241
27

Complex Numbers
Example 14.20(a)
C1 4 j 6;
C2 1 j 4
Find C1 - C2
Solution
C1 C2 4 1 j 6 4
3 j2
Page 96 of 241
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Complex Numbers
Example 14.20(b)
C1 3 j3;
C2 2 j5
Find C1 - C2
Solution
C1 C2 3 2 j 3 5
5 j2
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29

Complex Numbers
Example 14.21(a)
245 345 545
NOTE
by multiples of 180
Page 98 of 241
30

Complex Numbers
Example 14.21(b)
20 4180 60
NOTE
by multiples of 180
Page 99 of 241
31

Complex Numbers
Multiplication
To multiply two complex numbers in rectangular
form, multiply the real and imaginary parts of one
in turn by the real and imaginary parts of the
other.
In rectangular form:
In polar form:
Page 100 of 241
32

Complex Numbers
Example 14.22(a)
C1 2 j3;
C2 5 j10
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2 2 j35 j10
20 j35
Page 101 of 241
33

Complex Numbers
Example 14.22(b)
C1 2 j3; C2 4 j 6
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2 2 j34 j 6
26 26180
Page 102 of 241
34

Complex Numbers
Example 14.23(a)
C1 520 ;
C2 1030
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2 5 1020 30
5050
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35
14.10
Mathematical Operations with

Complex Numbers
Example 14.23(b)
C1 2 40 ;
C2 7120
Find C1C2.
Solution
C1 C2 2 7 40 120
1480
Page 104 of 241
36
14.10
Mathematical Operations with

Complex Numbers
Division
To divide two complex numbers in rectangular
form, multiply the numerator and denominator
by the conjugate of the denominator and the
resulting real and imaginary parts collected.
In rectangular form:
In polar form:
Page 105 of 241
37

Complex Numbers
Example 14.24(a)
C1 1 j 4;
C2 4 j5
C1
C2
Find
Solution
C1 1 j 4 4 j5 1 j 44 j5
C2 4 j5 4 j5 4 j54 j5
24 j11
0.59 j 0.27
16 25
Page 106 of 241
38

Complex Numbers
Example 14.24(b)
C1 4 j8; C2 6 j1
Find
C1
C2
Solution
C1 4 j8 6 j1 4 j86 j1
C2
6 j1 6 j1 6 j16 j1
16 j52
0.43 j1.41
36 1
Page 107 of 241
39

Complex Numbers
Example 14.25(a)
C1 1510 ; C2 27
Find
C1
C2
Solution
C1 1510 15
10
7
C2
27
2
7.33
Page 108 of 241
40

Complex Numbers
Example 14.25(b)
C1 8120 ; C2 16 50
C1
C2
Find
Solution
C1
8120
8
120
50
C2 16 50 16
0.5170
Page 109 of 241
41

Complex Numbers
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Reciprocal
z1 z 2 ( x1 x2 ) j( y1 y2 )
z1 z2 ( x1 x2 ) j( y1 y2 )
z1 z 2 r1r2 1 2
z1
r1
1 2
z2
r2
1
1

z
r
Complex conjugate z x jy r re
Page 110 of 241
Eulers identityhttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
e j cos j sin
42
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
ET 201
Define series impedances and analyze
series AC circuits using circuit
techniques.
Page 111 of 241
14.3 Response of Basic R, L and C Elements

to a Sinusoidal Voltage or Current (review)
FIG. 15.46 Reviewing the

frequency response of the basic
Pageelements.
112 of 241
SERIES
AC CIRCUITS
(CHAPTER 15)
Page 113 of 241
15.3 Series Impedances

The overall properties of series AC circuits are
the same as those for DC circuits.
For instance, the total impedance of a system is
the sum of the individual impedances:
[]
Page 114 of 241

Example 15.7
Draw the impedance diagram
and find the total impedance.
Solution
ZT Z1 Z
R 0 X L 90
R jX
4 j8
Z T 8 . 94 63 . 34
Page 115 of 241

Example 15.8
Draw the impedance diagram
and find the total impedance.
Solution
ZT Z1 Z 2 Z 3
R 0 X L 90 X C 90
R jX
jX
6 j 10 j 12
6 j2
Z T 6 . 32 18 . 43
Page 116 of 241
15.3 Series AC Circuit

In a series AC configuration having two
impedances, the current I is the same through
each element (as it was for the series DC circuit)
The current is determined by Ohms Law:
ZT Z1 Z
V 1 ??, V 2 ??
Page 117 of 241
15.3 Series Configuration

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law can be applied in the
same manner as it is employed for a DC circuit.
The power to the circuit can be determined by:
Where
E, I : effective values (Erms, Irms)
T : phase angle between E and I
Page 118 of 241
14.5 Power Factor

P E rms I rms cos T
Power
factor
F p cos T
For a purely resistive load;

F P cos T 1
T 0
Hence;
P E rms I rms cos T E rms I rms
For purely inductive or purely capacitive load;

T 90
Hence;
F P cos T 0
P E rms I rms cos T 0

Page 119 of 241
14.5 Power Factor

Power factor can be lagging or leading.
Defined by the current through the load.
Lagging power factor:

Current lags voltage
Inductive circuit
Leading power factor:
Current leads voltage
Capacitive circuit
Page 120 of 241
10

R-L
1. Phasor Notation
Apply phasor notation
Series R-L circuit

e 141 . 4 sin t
E 100 V 0
Page 121 of 241
11

R-L
2. ZT
ZT Z1 Z 2
( 3 0 ) ( 4 90 )
3 j4
Z T 5 53 . 13
Impedance diagram:
Page 122 of 241
12

R-L
3. I
E
ZT
100 V 0
5 53 . 13
I 20 A 53 . 13
Page 123 of 241
13

R-L
4. VR and VL
Ohms Law:
VR IZ R
( 20 A 53 . 13 )( 3 0 )
V R 60 53 . 13 V
VL IZ L
( 20 A 53 . 13 )( 4 90 )
V L 80 36 . 87
V
Page 124 of 241
14

R-L
Kirchhoffs voltage law:
V E VR VL 0
E VR VL
Or;
In rectangular form,
V R 60 V 53 . 13
V L 80 V 36 . 87
36 j 48 V;
64 j 48 V
E VR VL
( 36 j 48 ) ( 64 j 48 ) 100 j 0
100 V 0http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
Page 125 of 241
15

R-L
Phasor diagram:
E 100 V 0
I 20 A 53 . 13
V R 60 53 . 13 V
V L 80 36 . 87
I is in phase with the VR and lags the VL by 90o.

Ihttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
lags E by 53.13o.
Page 126 of 241
16

R-L
The total power delivered to the circuit is
Power:
PT EI cos T
(100 )( 20 ) cos 53 . 13
1200 W
Where
E, I : effective values;
T : phase angle between E and I
Or;
PT I R 20
2
3 1200 W
Page 127 of 241
17

R-L
Power factor:
F p cos T
cos 53 . 13
F p 0 .6
lagging
P EI cos
cos
P
EI
I R
EI
IR
E
R
E I
R
ZT
F P cos T
R
ZT
Page 128 of 241
18

R-C
1. Phasor Notation
Apply phasor notation
Series R-C circuit
i 7 . 07 sin t 53 . 13
A
I 5 53 . 13
Page 129 of 241
19

R-C
2. ZT
Impedance diagram:
ZT Z1 Z
( 6 0 ) ( 8 90 )
6 j8
Z T 10 53 . 13
Page 130 of 241
20

R-C
3. E
E IZ
( 5 53 . 13 )( 10 53 . 13 )
E 50 0 V
Page 131 of 241
21

R-C
4. VR and VC
Ohms Law:
VR IZ R
( 5 53 . 13 )( 6 0 )
V R 30 53 . 13 V
VC IZ C
( 5 53 . 13 )( 8 90 )
V C 40 36 . 87
V
Page 132 of 241
22

R-C
Or;
V E VR VC 0
E V R VC
Page 133 of 241
23

R-C
Phasor diagram:
I 5 53 . 13
E 50 0 V
V R 30 53 . 13 V
V C 40 36 . 87
I is in phase with the VR and leads the VC by 90o.

Ihttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
leads E by 53.13o.
Page 134 of 241
24

R-C
Time domain:
e 70 . 7 sin t V
E 50 0 V
V R 30 53 . 13 V
V C 40 36 . 87
V
56 . 56 sin t 36 . 87 V
v R 42 . 42 sin t 53 . 13
vC
Page 135 of 241
25

R-C
Power:
P EI cos T
( 50 )( 5 ) cos 53 . 13
150 W
Or;
P I R 5 6 150 W
2
Page 136 of 241
26

R-C
Power factor:
F p cos T
cos 53 . 13
F p 0 .6
Or;
leading
F P cos T
FP
6
10
R
ZT
0 . 6 leading
Page 137 of 241
27

R-L-C
1. Phasor Notation
TIME DOMAIN
PHASOR DOMAIN
Page 138 of 241
28

R-L-C
Impedance diagram:
2. ZT
ZT Z1 Z 2 Z3
R 0 X L 90 X C 90
3 j7 j3
3 j4
Z T 5 53 . 13
Page 139 of 241
29

R-L-C
3. I
E
ZT
50 0
5 53 . 13
I 10 53 . 13
Page 140 of 241
30

R-L-C
4. VR , VL and VC
Ohms Law:
V R IZ
(10 53 . 13 )( 3 0 )
V R 30 53 . 13 V
V L IZ
V L 70 36 . 87
V C IZ
(10 53 . 13 )( 7 90 )
(10 53 . 13 )( 3 90 )
V C 30 143 . 13
Page 141 of 241
V
31

R-L-C
Or;
V E VR VL VC 0
E V R V L VC
Page 142 of 241
32

R-L-C
Phasor diagram:
E 50 0 V
I 10 53 . 13
V R 30 53 . 13 V
V L 70 36 . 87
V C 30 143 . 13
I is in phase with the VR , lags the VL by 90o, leads the VC by 90o

I http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
lags E by 53.13o.
Page 143 of 241
33

R-L-C
Time domain:
Page 144 of 241
34

R-L-C
Power:
PT EI cos T ( 50 )( 10 ) cos 53 . 13
Or;
PT I R 10
2
300 W
3 300 W
Power factor:
F p cos T cos 53 . 13
F p 0 .6
lagging
Page 145 of 241
35
15.4 Voltage Divider Rule

The basic format for the VDR in AC circuits is
exactly the same as that for the DC circuits.
Vx
ZT
Where
Vx : voltage across one or more elements in a series that
have total impedance Zx
E : total voltage appearing across the series circuit.
ZT : total impedance of the series circuit.
Page 146 of 241
36

Example 15.11(a)
Calculate I, VR, VL and VC in phasor form.
Page 147 of 241
37

Example 15.11(a) - Solution
Combined the Rs, Ls and Cs.
R T R1 R 2
6 4 10
RT
LT
CT
10
0.1 H
100 mF
ve
202sin377t
L T L1 L 2
0 . 05 0 . 05 0 . 1 H
1
CT
1
C1
1
C2
CT
C 1C 2
C1 C 2
200 200
200 200
100 m F
Page 148 of 241
38

Example 15.11(a) Solution (contd)
Find the reactances.
X
37 . 7
CT
1
377 (100 10
XL
XC
10
37.7
26.53
VE
200 V
L T 377 ( 0 . 1 )
RT
26 . 53
)
1. Transform the circuit into phasor domain.

e 20
2 sin 377 t V
E 20 0 V
I
Page 149 of 241
39

2. Determine the total impedance.
Z T R T jX
jX
10 j 37 . 7 j 26 . 53
10 j 11 . 17
Z T 15 48 . 16
RT
XL
XC
10
37.7
26.53
V
E
200 V
3. Calculate I.
I
E
ZT
20 0
15 48 . 16
I 1.33 48 . 16
Page 150 of 241
40

4. Calculate VR, VL and VC
V R IZ
RT
XL
XC
10
37.7
26.53
VE
200 V
(1 . 33 48 . 16 )( 10 0 )
V R 13 . 3 48 . 16
V L IZ
V
V L 50 . 14 41 . 84
(1 . 33 48 . 16 )( 37 . 7 90 )
V C IZ
V C 35 . 28 138 . 16
(1 . 33 48 . 16 http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
)( 26 . 53 90 )
Page 151 of 241
41

Example 15.11(b)
Calculate the total power factor.
Solution
I 1.33 48 . 16
E 20 0 V
Angle between E and I is
48 . 16
F p cos T cos 48 . 16
F p 0 . 667
lagging
Page 152 of 241
42

Example 15.11(c)
Calculate the average power delivered to the circuit.
Solution
I 1.33 48 . 16
PT EI cos T ( 20 )( 1 . 33 ) cos 48 . 16
E 20 0 V
PT 17 . 74 W
Page 153 of 241
43

Example 15.11(d)
Draw the phasor diagram.
Solution
E 20 0 V
I 1.33 48 . 16
V R 13 . 3 48 . 16
V L 50 . 14 41 . 84
V
V
V C 35 . 28 138 . 16
V
Page 154 of 241
44

Example 15.11(e)
Obtain the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC and show

that it equals the input voltage E.
Solution
V R 13 . 3 48 . 16
V L 50 . 14 41 . 84
V 8 . 894 j 9 . 933 V
V 37 . 355 j 33 . 446 V
V C 35 . 28 138 . 16
V 26 . 284 j 23 . 534 V
E V R V L VC
8 . 894 37 . 355 26 . 284 j 9 . 933 j 33 . 446 j 23 . 534
E 19 . 965 j 0 . 021 20 j 0 20 0 V
Page 155 of 241
45

Example 15.11(f)
Find VR and VC using voltage divider rule.

RT
Solution
Z T 15 48 . 16
VR
VC
ZR
10 0
XC
26.53
I
ZC
26 . 53 90
15 48 . 16
V R 13 . 3 48 . 16
( 20 0 )
15 48 . 16
ZT
10
37.7
VE
200 V
ZT
XL
( 20 0 )
V C 35 . 37 138 . 16
Page 156 of 241
46
15.6 Summaries of Series AC Circuits

For a series AC circuits with reactive elements:
The total impedance will be frequency dependent.
The impedance of any one element can be

greater than the total impedance of the network.
The inductive and capacitive reactances are
always in direct opposition on an impedance
diagram.
Depending on the frequency applied, the same
circuit can be either predominantly inductive or
predominantly capacitive.
Page 157 of 241
47

(continued)
At lower frequencies, the capacitive elements
will usually have the most impact on the total
impedance.
At high frequencies, the inductive elements will
usually have the most impact on the total
impedance.
The magnitude of the voltage across any one
element can be greater than the applied voltage.
Page 158 of 241
48

(continued)
The magnitude of the voltage across an element
as compared to the other elements of the circuit
is directly related to the magnitude of its
impedance; that is, the larger the impedance of
an element , the larger the magnitude of the
voltage across the element.
The voltages across an inductor or capacitor are

always in direct opposition on a phasor diagram.
Page 159 of 241
49

(continued)
The current is always in phase with the voltage
across the resistive elements, lags the voltage
across all the inductive elements by 90, and
leads the voltage across the capacitive elements
by 90.
The larger the resistive element of a circuit
compared to the net reactive impedance, the
closer the power factor is to unity.
Page 160 of 241
50
BAKISS HIYANA BT ABU BAKAR

JKE,POLISAS
1
Page 161 of 241
1.
2.
Explain AC circuit concept and their

analysis using AC circuit law.
Apply the knowledge of AC circuit in solving
problem related to AC electrical circuit.
Page 162 of 241
Resonance
phenomenon & its
functions
Effect of changing
the frequency
RESONANCE
Understand
resonance in series
and parallel
circuits
Graph of
impedance vs
frequency
Resonance
frequency equation
Determine Q, BW,
D
Page 163 of 241
Page 164 of 241
Resonance is a condition in RLC circuit in which the capacitive and

inductive reactance are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a
purely resistive impedance.
Z = R + j(
; note:
=0
XL = XC
5
Page 165 of 241
Current
will be maximum & offering minimum

impedance.
Page 166 of 241
Current
will be minimum & offering maximum

impedance.
Page 167 of 241
Resonance
circuit serves as stable frequency
source.
Resonance
The frequency set by the tank

circuit is solely dependent upon
the value of L & C
circuit serves as filter.

Acting as a short
of frequency
filter to strain
certain
frequencies out
of a mix of
others
Page 168 of 241
series RLC circuits reactance changes as

you change the voltage sources frequency.
Its total impedance also changes.
Page 169 of 241
At
low frequencies, Xc > XL and the circuit is

primarily capacitive.
At high frequencies, XL > Xc and the circuit is
primarily inductive.
10
Page 170 of 241
Reactance
change as you change the voltage

sources frequency.
At low frequencies, XL < Xc and the circuit is
primarily inductive.
At high frequencies, Xc< XL and the circuit is
primarily capacitive.
11
Page 171 of 241
A series RLC circuit contains both inductive reactance (XL)

and capacitive reactance (Xc).
Since XL and Xc have opposite phase angles, they tend to
cancel each other out and the circuits total reactance is
smaller that either individual reactance:
XT < XL & XT < Xc
12
Page 172 of 241
The
smaller reactance dominates, since a smaller

reactance results in a larger branch current.
13
Page 173 of 241
14
Page 174 of 241
15
Page 175 of 241
SERIES CIRCUIT:
(a)
Q factor:
Q is the ratio of power stored to power dissipated in the circuit

reactance and resistance.
Q is the ratio of its resonant frequency to its bandwidth.

IF;
16
Page 176 of 241
PARALLEL CIRCUIT:
(a) Quality factor: the ratio of the circulating branch currents to the supply
current .
17
Page 177 of 241
(b)
Frequency bandwidth, B = f2 f1:

The difference between the two half-power frequencies.
Bandwidth, f is measured between the 70.7% amplitude points

of series resonant circuit.
18
Page 178 of 241
Lower
cut-off frequency, (L):
Upper
cut-off frequency, (H):
19
Page 179 of 241
BW = fc/Q
Where:
fc = resonant frquency
Q = quality factor
20
Page 180 of 241
Parallel resonant response varies with Q.
21
Page 181 of 241
In Figure above, the 100% current point is 50 mA. The 70.7% level is 0707(50
mA)=35.4 mA.
The upper and lower band edges read from the curve are 291 Hz for fl and 355 Hz
for fh. The bandwidth is 64 Hz, and the half power points are 32 Hz of the center
resonant frequency
BW = f = fh-fl = 355-291 = 64
fl = fc - f/2 = 323-32 = 291
fh = fc + f/2 = 323+32 = 355
Since BW = fc/Q:
Q = fc/BW = (323 Hz)/(64 Hz) = 5
22
Page 182 of 241
(c) The dissipation factor, D:

-
The ratio of the power loss in a dielectric material to the total

power transmitted through the dielectric.
23
Page 183 of 241
CHARACTERISTIC
SERIES CIRCUIT
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Resonant frequency,
fr
Quality factor,Q
Bandwidth, BW
Half power
frequency,
fL & f H
&
24
Page 184 of 241
A series resonance network consisting of a resistor of 30, a capacitor

of 2uF and an inductor of 20mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 9 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the current at resonance, the
voltage across the inductor and capacitor at resonance, the quality
factor and the bandwidth of the circuit. Also sketch the corresponding
current waveform for all frequencies.
25
Page 185 of 241
Resonant Frequency, r
Circuit Current at Resonance, Im
Inductive Reactance at Resonance, XL
Voltages across the inductor and the

capacitor, VL, VC
Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW
The upper and lower -3dB frequency

points, H and L
Current Waveform
26
Page 186 of 241
A series circuit consists of a resistance of 4, an inductance of 500mH and

a variable capacitance connected across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
the capacitance require to give series resonance and the voltages
generated across both the inductor and the capacitor.
Solution:
Voltages across the inductor and the capacitor, VL, VC
27
Page 187 of 241
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60, a capacitor of

120uF and an inductor of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply
voltage which has a constant output of 100 volts at all frequencies.
Calculate, the resonant frequency, the quality factor and the bandwidth of
the circuit, the circuit current at resonance and current magnification.
28
Page 188 of 241
Inductive Reactance at Resonance,

XL
Quality factor, Q
The upper and lower -3dB frequency

points, H and L
Circuit Current at Resonance, IT

At resonance the dynamic
impedance of the circuit is equal to
R
Current Magnification, Imag
Bandwidth, BW
We can check this value by
calculating the current flowing
through the inductor (or capacitor)
at resonance.
29
Page 189 of 241
For resonance to occur in any circuit it must have at least

one inductor and one capacitor.
Resonance is the result of oscillations in a circuit as stored

energy is passed from the inductor to the capacitor.
Resonance occurs when XL = XC and the imaginary part of the

transfer function is zero.
At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the

resistance value as Z = R.
30
Page 190 of 241
LOGO
CHAPTER 5 : THREE PHASE

SYSTEM
Objectives:
Know basic principles of 3 system
List advantages and application of 3
system compared to 1 system
Know 3 e.m.f generation
Identify star & delta connection
Determine VPH, IPH, VL,IL & power in
3 system
Page 191 of 241
INTRODUCTION
3 system is a combination of three 1
system
In 3 system balanced system, power
comes from 3 AC generator
3 generators have 3 coils fixed at 120 to
each other rotating in magnetic field.
3 system are use for transmission and
distribution of electricity and also in industry
Page 192 of 241
ADVANTAGES OF 3 SYSTEM
vs 1 SYSTEM
Weight less than 1 circuit of same power
rating
Have wide range of voltages
Smaller in size &higher power factor thus
more efficient
Steady torque output and ability to self start
Inherent benefits for high power transmission
Produce constant amount of power in the
load
Page 193 of 241
GENERATION OF 3
SUPPLY
There are two ways to generate 3 supply.
Moving magnetic field while coil is permanent.
Moving coil while magnetic field is permanent.
Page 194 of 241
GENERATION OF 3 SUPPLY
Generation for R phase (same as single phase generation)
Page 195 of 241
Generation for Y phase (coil rotate 120 so that it will equal with R
phase, thus Y lags R by 120)
Page 196 of 241
Generation for B phase (coil rotate 240 so that it will equal with R
phase, thus B lags R by 240)
Page 197 of 241
Phasor diagram for 3 phase system
Page 198 of 241
CONNECTION IN 3 system
Physically 3 system
consist of
three different coils.
Each phase coils have 2
terminal and required 2
conductor as connection
So 6 conductors will be used
as
in 3 connection
This kind of connection is
difficult and will cost more.
To overcome this problem,
3
supply usually connected in
DELTA or STAR connection
Page 199 of 241
a) STAR/ WYE Connection
Physical connection
Conventional representation
diagram
Page 200 of 241
b) DELTA Connection
Physical connection
Conventional representation
diagram
Page 201 of 241
REVIEW
Two ways to generate AC rotating coil,
permanent magnet field or vice versa.
Each voltage separed by 120
IN equal to zero when load is balanced.
Page 202 of 241
CALCULATION
STAR CONNECTION
DELTA CONNECTION
Relationship between VL and Vph
Relationship between IL and Iph
Page 203 of 241
FORMULA USE IN THREE PHASE

CALCULATION
Page 204 of 241
EXERCISE
Page 205 of 241
Page 206 of 241
Page 207 of 241
ET201 Electrical Circuits

TRANSFORMER
c
Page 208 of 241
TOPICS COVERED:
Transformer Basics
Transformer Construction
Transformer Operating Principles
Transformer Symbols And
Testing
Step
Step--up And Step
Step--down
Transformer

Page 209 of 241
TOPICS COVERED:
Transformer
Transformer-- Isolation Device
Transformer Current Calculation and
Efficiency
Transformer Rating
Power Losses
Impedance Matching
Transformer Application

Page 210 of 241

-

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Page 211 of 241
-

Page 212 of 241

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ET201 Electrical Circuits

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ET201 Electrical Circuits

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ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

Understand Alternating Current

ALTERNATING CURRENT AC) THE CURRENT

Sources of alternating current

Faradays and Lenzs Law

voltage (emf) to be "induced" in the coil

Sine Wave Characteristics

Sine Wave Characteristics

Sine Wave Characteristics

Sine Wave Characteristics

Peak factor is defined as the ratio of peak

Voltage and current value is represent by vertical axis and time

Defined Polarities and Direction

Defined Polarities and Direction

There are several specification in sinusoidal

The cycles within T1, T2, and T3 may appear different in

Signal with lower frequency

Signal with higher frequency

Peak to peak value

(/180) x ( 90) = /2 rad

(/180) x ( 60) = /3 rad

(/180) x (30) = /6 rad

(180/) x (3 /2) = 270

Plotting a sine wave versus (a) degrees and (b) radians.

Waveform picture with respect

distance (degrees or radians )

The time required to complete one cycle is equal to the

For a sinus waveform , average value can

I m 2 I rms 1.414 I rms

Example 13.21 solution

Em 2 Edc 1.414 120 169.7 V

Example 13.21 solution

General Format for the

The basic mathematical volts or amperes

Basic sine wave for current or voltage

General Format for the

The general format of a sine wave can also be as:

General Format for the

et 5 sin 144 2.94 V

General Format for the

General Format for the

Example 13.9 - solution

2 180 23.58 156.42

General Format for the

Example 13.9 solution (contd)

But is in radian, so must be calculate in radian:

1 377t 23.58 0.412 rad

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

sin t 90 sin t cos t

sin t cos t 90 cos t

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship

Start at + sin position;

cos sin 270 sin 90

13.6 Phase Relationship

sin t sin t 180

Em sin t Em sin t 180

13.6 Phase Relationship

13.6 Phase Relationship