Try Children as Adults for School Murders

Smarthinking Writer's
Handbook
Chapter 1, Lesson 6
Writing to Argue a Position
Objective
In this lesson, you'll learn
how to develop an argument
designed to convince readers
that your position is logical
and reasonable.
Introduction
You'll write many arguments
in your college career.
Understanding how to create
an academic argument is one
key to success in college
writing assignments. Most of
those arguments will be
written as research papers in
your major discipline; they're
called research papers simply
because you must investigate
issues to form educated

opinions. Other names for
these kinds of arguments
are academic or intellectualar
guments.
Writing these arguments
requires you to take a position
and defend it. You do not
have to convince your
audience that you are
"correct"; it is impossible to
convince all of your readers
that your position is the only

or the right one. Instead, your
primary purpose is to
convince your audience that
your position is valid, logical,
and/or worth considering.
Elements of the Intellectual
Argument
Audience and purpose
Thesis (assertion)
Good reasons and logical
evidence
Counter-arguments
Introduction and
conclusion
Documentation
Audience and Purpose
Before you write an
intellectual argument,
consider your audience and
purpose. If your audience is
your professor, there is a good
chance that s/he knows more

about the subject than you do.
In that case, the purpose of
the argument becomes a test
of your ability to form a
reasonable thesis and to
support and defend it
logically and thoroughly.
However, even if your
professor knows something
about your issue, when you
conduct a good investigation,
you become the subject-area

expert and there's a very good
chance that your argument
will present new materials
and ways of thinking about
your subject.
If your audience is broader
than your professor alone
(possibly including your
classmates, peers, or the
readers of a newspaper
editorial or Internet website),
you'll be arguing your

position to people who
probably know less than you
about the issue. Then, you
really have the opportunity to
influence someone's way of
thinking about your issue
the stakes are higher and the
writing becomes more
exciting.
Thesis (Assertion)
Many times, your
professor will assign the

paper and maybe even the
specific subject. However,
most likely it'll be up to you
to choose the angle that you
want to research on the
topic and the position that
you choose to take. If the
choice of topic is up to
you, find a topic that
interests you. Perhaps your
professor lectured about
something fascinating or
maybe there was an
interesting question in a
textbook. No matter what
subject you pick, be sure
that it's a topic in which you
are genuinely interested and
about which you're willing
to learn more. People who
are engaged in their
research write more
interesting and original
papers.
Choose a topic that'll
allow you to take a side.
Academic arguments seek
to address questions that
people are concerned about.
Research papers that argue
a position do so with
subjects for which there are
no certain answers. In fact,
these arguments are built on
controversial topics where
more than one view, or

position, is possible. Your
position is a stance that
amounts to an attitude or
judgment about some issue.
So, you need to avoid topics
that are simply a matter of
opinion or that just need an
explanation. Instead, focus on
topics where reasoned and
logical argument can support
an informed view. For
example, it would be hard to

build an argument around the
thesis "Roses are the most
beautiful flowers"; in this
sentence, you're simply
stating an opinion, or
preferenceyou can't argue
about that. The sentence "It
takes many years to cultivate
a beautiful garden" also won't
work; this thesis calls for an
explanation of "why." [see
"Exposition: Explaining
Why"]
Write an assertion that
reveals your position. An
academic argument that
argues for a position
requires a special kind of
thesis, often called
anassertion. An assertion is
a statement that often (but
not always) includes a
modal verb such as
"should" or "ought" and

asks the writer to make a
judgment of fact or of
value. Examples of
assertions that argue for
positions are:
1. Capital punishment
should be abolished
because human juries can
make mistakes in their
decisions.
2. People who download
and "share" music on the

Internet are stealing from
performing artists.
3. When children kill other
children, as in recent
slayings in American
public schools, they
should be tried as adults.
Notice that each of the above
assertions takes a clearly
defined position on a
controversial issue. The
writer's intention can't be

mistaken and readers know
that a strong argument must
follow.
Academic arguments can be
written about your college
subjects, as well:
1. Biology or Botany: The
health benefits of radiation
for food far outweigh the
risks.
2. Psychology: Even though
it seems barbaric,
electroshock therapy should
be used in the fight against
emotional illness.
3. Political Science: America
should use its power to stop
genocide anywhere in the
world.
Be certain that your
position is arguable. Your
assertion should be
consistent with available
evidence. You can't build an

intellectual argument on
opinion alone. Therefore,
you must do research to
find support for the
argument, or claim, that
you're making. Then, ask
yourself, "Is this a claim
that I realistically can ask
people to accept?"
Likewise, the assertion
should present a claim that
reasonably can be argued

within the space (page) and
time (due date) limitations
of your assignment.
Sometimes, student writers
go out on a limb with
statements that can't be
supported in a relatively
short essay (6 - 12 pages).
Exercise
In the textbox below, write
two possible assertions about
an issue that you are

researching. Compare them
against the assertions
presented above. Answer the
following questions: Does
each assertion address
something that is
controversial? Does each
assertion clearly state a
position with which others
can disagree? In other words,
is each assertion arguable or
does it represent a thesis that

simply needs a "why" or
"how" explanation
(exposition)?
Good reasons and logical

evidence
Know what kinds of
evidence will be convincing
to your audience. Academic
arguments appeal primarily

to the intellectto logic.
So, you need reasons for
your position and each
reason must be supported
by evidence that defines,
defends, and/or justifies it.
Be sure to define special
terms for your audience.
Let's use the following
assertion as an
example: "When children kill
other children, as in recent

slayings in American public
schools, they should be tried
as adults." What reasons can
we provide for this assertion?
Notice that the claim is
qualified by "as in recent
slayings in American public
schools,"which means that
we're not talking about a child
who finds her father's
handgun and accidentally
shoots her best friend. This

assertion focuses on
purposeful killings, or
murder.
Reasons:
1. When children make a
decision to kill
classmates, they are using
free will, as adults do.
2. Children who kill their
classmates have destroyed
the lives of other children
and have lost the right to

childhood themselves.
3. Children who have
killed their classmates
should not be in a position
to kill again, as they
might be if tried as a
juvenile and released from
custody at age eighteen.
These reasons can be
supported by certain kinds of
logical, non-emotional
evidence that people are

likely to find convincing.
These kinds of evidence are:
4. Facts
5. Examples
6. Statistics, percentages,
or other numbers
7. Expert testimony from
authorities
8. Narrative stories
(anecdotes) from people
with experience in the
issue
Exercise
Look at the following reason
for asserting that children
should be tried as adults when
they murder other
children: "When children
make a decision to kill
classmates, they are using
free will, as adults do." In the
textbox below, list some
evidence that might support
this reason. Where would you

find such evidence? When
you're done, click the
Compare button to view a
sample response.
Remember: to convince your

audience that your position is
logical, you need to provide
good evidence for each of
your reasons.
Counter-arguments
Academic arguments that
assert and defend a position
need to take into account
what people who disagree
would say about the
argument. The disagreements
are called "counterarguments" and your job as a
writer is to find the best
counter-arguments to your
position and address them.

Ask yourself: What bias or
opinions will your audience
have against your assertion
or claim?
Usually, writers address
counter-arguments after
presenting their own reasons.
By addressing the opposing
point of view, you'll earn your
audience's respect and
strengthen your logical
position.
Two possible counterarguments to the above
assertion are:
1. Children who kill, even if
the killing appears to be
premeditated murder, are
not mature enough to have
made an adult decision.
2. There is no way to predict
whether such children will
kill again, so it is better to
give them a second chance.

Can you think of any other
counter-arguments that this
argument should address?
Introduction/ Conclusion
Good arguments will present
an interesting introduction
that tells the reader:
1. What the issue is,
2. Why it is controversial
(background),
3. Why it is important
(background), and
4. What your position
(assertion) is.
The introduction sets up your
argument and reveals your
assertion. However, you
might find it easier to write an
interesting introduction
AFTER you've written your
first or second draft of the
paper. By then, you'll be
much more certain of exactly
what you want to argue and

why.
Good arguments also present
the reader/s with an
interesting conclusion. The
conclusion pulls together the
entire argument, summarizing
and stressing the main points.
More than that, in an
academic argument, the
conclusion offers you a
chance to suggest further
consideration of the problem

or research that people should
do. Sometimes, the
conclusion is a good place to
ask questions for which you
have no answers--this strategy
leaves the reader thinking.
Ask your professor whether
it's okay to ask thoughtprovoking questions at the
end of your paper.
Documentation
Finally, in an argument that is

intended for your college
classes, you'll probably be
asked to document your
sources. Ask your professor
which method s/he prefers for
documentation and then
follow the format precisely.
Summary
You'll write academic or
intellectual essays in most of
your college courses. A good
essay that argues a position

will (1) address a specific
audience and purpose, (2)
have an arguable assertion,
(3) support the assertion with
good reasons and logical
evidence, (4) address counterarguments, and (5) will
provide thought-provoking
and informative introduction
and conclusion.
Handbook
Chapter 1, Lesson 7
Writing to Persuade
Objective
In this lesson, you'll learn to
develop a persuasive
argument that convinces
audiences to share your
beliefs and motivates them to
take action.
What is Persuasion?
Persuasion attempts to move
people to action, to get them
to do something. For more
than two thousand years,
rhetoricians have studied how
to persuade people to act. In
courts of law, lawyers build
cases that they hope will
either convict or release
people on trial. In government
debates, politicians use
language to encourage people

to vote (or not vote!) for
particular people or public
policies. In religious
gatherings, leaders speak to
their congregations to
persuade them to behave in
particular ways toward their
fellow humans. And, of
course, teachers use
persuasion on a daily basis, to
move their students to
become interested in their

subjects and to learn new
concepts and skills.
You, too, have used
persuasion many times in
your life. You may have tried
to persuade a parent to pay
for your schooling, to buy
you a car, or to let you live
away from home. You
probably have persuaded
friends to go to a party with
you or to change a behavior,

such as to quit smoking.
Differences and Distinctions
Persuasive writing is different
from writing an academic
argument such as a research
paper. In academic argument,
you're using logic and reasons
to convince your audience
that your position, written as
an assertion, is logical and
reasonable. In a persuasive
argument, you also must

convince your audience that
your position is reasonable or
credible. But persuasion goes
one step further: you invite
your readers to act or to do
something. [See Writing to
Argue a Position.]
Persuasive arguments are
special kinds of arguments
that, unfortunately, many
students don't learn to write.
Written essays, television and

radio broadcasts, and formal
speeches are common kinds
of persuasion. However,
persuasion isn't limited to
broadcasters or political
leaders; it's important in any
job. Executives, salespeople,
advertising and customer
service representatives, and
skilled trades people like auto
mechanics all need to
persuade people to be
successful.
To move an audience to take
action, you must:
1. Convince them that your
position is reasonable and
2. Engage their human
natures to move them to
action.
Elements of the Persuasive
Argument
1. Audience and purpose

2. A do-able proposal
3. Logical reasons and
evidence
4. Ethical character of the
writer or speaker
5. Emotional appeals
6. Counter-proposals
7. Rhetorical devices, or
style
8. Introduction and
conclusion
Consider your Purpose and
Audience
Before you write a persuasive
argument, consider your
purpose and audience. The
goal of persuasion is to move
people to action. So, if you
are able to make the decision
about whom to persuade, then
choose a group of people who
actually could do something:
e.g., a school board, college

administration or students,
city council, church
congregation. Having selected
your audience, you must
understand them because
that's the only way to move
people to action. You need to
do an audience analysis [See
"Analyzing the Audience"
and "Writing to Persuade."]
Ask yourself:
Who is this audience?

Can you realistically
expect them to accept your
claim and proposed action?
What are their values,
beliefs, biases, fears, and
needs?
Write a Do-Able Proposal
To write a persuasive
argument, you must propose
an action that your audience
can accomplish. So, you need

to understand the problem for
which you're proposing a
solution. For example, take
the general problem of
environmentalism. Most
people would agree that we
should take care of the natural
environment and not pollute it
unnecessarily. But what
makes this problem
controversial and arguable is
that most people don't agree

on how to solve
environmental problems. Let's
say that you take the position
that "Our college shouldn't
add to the planet's pollutions
problems." This is an
arguable position that needs
good reasons and strong
evidence to be convincing.
To write a persuasive paper,
however, you must go one
step further and propose a

solution. In what ways should
the college avoid polluting
the environment? Are there
specific actions that the
administrators and/or students
should take to change their
activities that promote
pollution? Your proposal
needs to address the
problem and be reasonable
enough to move people to
action. Let's say that you

propose the following
solution: "To help reduce
pollution, our college should
stop using Styrofoam plates
and cups or disposable plastic
tableware."
This solution offers a clear
and do-able proposal: The
college and its members
(administrators, workers, and
students) can avoid polluting
by changing the types of

eating utensils they use. This
change will have certain
consequences for the entire
college community. Notice
that the proposal doesn't have
to solve all the problems of
environmental pollutionit
merely has to address one
small segment of the problem.
Give Logical Reasons and
Evidence
The lesson "Writing to Argue

a Position" covers the best
ways to convince an
audience. People cannot be
moved to act on your
proposal if they first aren't
convinced that your position
is reasonable. Therefore, you
need facts, examples,
statistics, expert testimony,
and anecdotes to convince
your readers. Ask yourself:
What reasons are likely to

appeal to them?
What sources will be
convincing?
You'll need to learn certain
facts about the college's uses
of disposable tableware. In
numbers, how many tons of
disposable tableware does the
college use annually? How
much does this amount cost
the college (and, therefore,
the students)? How much

would it cost to replace the
disposables with sufficient
permanent plates, bowls,
cups, glasses, and silverware?
Ethical Character of the
Writer or Speaker
To move people to action, you
need to present yourself as a
reliable and honest person.
Your best character and good
will for the audience must
shine through or they will not

trust you or your proposal.
Ask yourself:
How do you present
yourself as an ethical
writer?
How can you present
yourself as a person that
they can trust and respect?
You'll need to think about
what your audience values in
a writer about this subject.
Environmental concerns
easily can be made to seem
trite and unimportant. What
kinds of research will be
important to showing that
you've really considered this
problem? How can you show
that you genuinely care about
the environment and the
college's contribution to it?
How can show that this
proposal isn't just a "pie in the
sky" kind of idea?

Emotional Appeals
To really reach your audience,
you must understand how
they can be moved
emotionally to act on a
proposal. You need to avoid
tugging at heartstrings and
honestly address this
audience's fears, values,
morals, and needs. Your job
isn't to make people feel bad,
but to recognize their possible

feelings about the issue and
give them some constructive
way to address it. Ask
yourself:
What emotional appeals
are likely to move this
audience?
Will they be hostile to any
elements of your proposal?
For this argument, you need
to consider how the use of
disposable tableware really

impacts people's everyday
lives. Does it really matter to
the college community what
kinds of tableware they use?
Will not being able to take
plates out of the cafeteria
cause an emotional response,
such as during exam week
when people are more selfconcerned and less open to
being inconvenienced? Will
college administrators see

themselves as part of an
important environmental
solution or just feel put upon?
How can you help them to
care about this issue?
Counter-Proposals
Just like an academic
argument must consider
counter-arguments, a good
persuasive argument must
consider counter-proposals.
Counter-proposals are
alternate or different
proposals from your own. Ask
yourself:
What biases or
preconceived ideas might
the audience have about my
topic?
How could these biases
lead them to alternate
solutions that might sound
better to them?
It can be challenging to think

of counter-proposals because
we tend to like the solutions
that we've come up with on
our own. Is there some way to
solve the college's pollution
habits other than completely
banning the use of disposable
tableware? Is there a
compromise position between
disposable and nondisposable tableware?
Rhetorical Devices, or Style

Your level of formality and
arrangement of ideas are all
kinds of rhetorical devices
that can help to persuade your
reader/s. Ask yourself:
How formal should you
be in writing to this
audience?
How should you arrange
the reasons to make the best
impression on your readers?
How you state your proposal

and your reasons for it is as
important as whatyou say in a
persuasive argument. Should
you talk conversationally as if
student-to-student or more
formally to address the
college administration's more
formal communication
manner? Should you arrange
your reasons by the strongest
to weakest or weakest to
strongest? Should you address

the problem in a cause
(disposable tableware) and
effect (college's annual
pollution) order that can be
restructured for the proposal:
cause (non-disposable
tableware) and effect (less
annual pollution by the
college)?
Introduction and Conclusion
Finally, you need to consider
your opening and closing

arguments. The introduction
offers the necessary
background information and
the conclusion sums up the
proposal's benefits to the
community. Ask yourself:
How should you lead your
readers into the argument?
How should you conclude
it?
Introducing your proposal
means that your need to state

the problem, your proposed
solution, and possible
implications for that solution.
You may not be able to write
the best introduction until
you've completed a really
strong draft of your argument.
Concluding the argument
means more than just
summarizing the proposal and
your reasons offered for it.
Consider whether your

solution leaves questions that
still need to be addressed.
Future proposals can work
with these.
Exercise
1. Because I'm not a
politician, I won't be using
persuasive arguments.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
2. Logical appeals are
necessary in persuasive
arguments.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
3. People argue about
controversial subjects where
there isn't one certain answer.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
4. Students never have the
chance to persuade people
because they're only students.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
5. I should use emotional
appeals to make people feel
bad about the problem and
then they'll want to fix it.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
6. Ethical appeals are appeals

to the audience's character
and ethics.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
7. How I organize my reasons
and appeals can make a
difference in whether people

accept my proposal.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
8. I should always write my
introduction before writing
my first draft.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
9. If I discuss counterproposals, I just show that my
proposal is weak.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
10. Persuasive argumnet is
the same as academic
argument.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Summary
Persuasion is a valuable
purpose for writing in many
aspects of life. Practicing the
elements of a persuasive
argument will help you to
write powerful arguments
when you need to move

people to solve a problem.
Handbook
Chapter 1, Lesson 8
Writing Short-Answer Tests
Objective
how to prepare for shortanswer essay tests, and how
to answer test questions

thoughtfully.
Introduction
Short-answer writing tests are
becoming more common in
college courses. In recent
years, employers have
demanded better writing and
communications skills from
their workers. To meet this
need, colleges and
universities are incorporating
writing into more courses.

Today, you may have writing
tests in science and
engineering courses, as well
as in English or sociology. In
order to succeed in your
college classes, you must
know how to prepare for and
write short-answer essay
tests.
Preparation Begins Long
Before the Test
Preparation for a short-answer

test really begins long before
the test itself. Because written
tests demand that you think
broadly about the subject of
the course, you can't do well
if you don't know the
material. The key to
preparation is having good
study habits in the course
itself. Pay attention to your
instructor and your reading
assignments. Mark your

textbooks by highlighting key
concepts and vocabulary.
Review your textbooks and
class notes frequently. Careful
and consistent review is more
effective than cramming the
night before the test. Many
short-answer test questions
require a deeper
understanding of the subject
matter than you can gain in
one frantic night.

The following guidelines will
help you with your long-term
preparation:
Read the Syllabus
Carefully
Since written tests focus on
the big picture, it's critical
that you know what the
professor thinks are the
most important themes in
the course. Write down the
goals of the course, and try
to discover any common

themes in the assignments
and lecture topics. Usually,
you can learn what the
professor's main interests
are by looking at the
syllabus; some professors
will spell out the major
themes for the whole
semester in the first
paragraph or page.
Know Your Audience
Your professor is your
audience. How much detail

and support does s/he
expect? How much weight
does he or she put on good
grammar and style? Written
tests are timed writing
assignments, and you want
to spend the bulk of your
time on the things your
professor finds important.
Knowing what your
professor finds important
will help you make better
use of the limited time you

have available to write.
Review Your Notes
At least one week before
the test, you should start
reviewing your notes. This
review will help you
understand the material well
enough to discuss it. Pay
close attention to topics or
themes that relate to each
other because many
professors will ask you to
compare or contrast related

topics in a written test.
Taking the Short-Answer
Essay Test
Your objective during the test
itself is to write clear and
logical answers. Before you
begin writing, you should:
Review the entire test.
o Read the entire test first.
How many questions are
you responsible for
answering?
o If you have choices
among different test
questions, make your
choice quickly based on
your best knowledge and
stick with that choice
throughout the testing
period.
o Determine the point
value of each question.
Divide your test period by
the number of questions

and their point value. If
you have to answer three
questions and one is
worth 50%, whereas the
other two are worth 25%
each, spend more time on
the 50% question.
Answer the easiest
questions first.
By answering the ones that
you know right away, you
can clear your mind of
those obvious answers and

allow your brain to work on
the other, more difficult
questions.
Briefly outline each shortanswer before writing.
Outlines in the form of
simple lists help you to
organize your ideas. Jot
down facts, ideas, or
concepts that will help
answer the question. Select
the ideas that make the best
answer and organize them

quickly. This process will
keep your answers on-track.
If you've followed the steps
above, you're ready to begin
to write. Consider the
following while writing your
answers:
Each short-answer should
start with a thesis sentence
that tells the reader where
you're going with your
answer.
Follow your outline to
stay on track.
Write neatly, using every
other line and one side of
the page, if possible.
Usually, it's fine to cross out
words or sentences, but
draw only one line over the
word or sentencedon't fill
the page with ink.
Provide relevant details to
support your answer.

Review your answer when
you've finished writing. If
you've left out something
important, or if you've
included something that
doesn't make sense, make
the necessary changes.
Proofread and edit
Once you're comfortable
with the content of your
answers, go back through
the answer one more time

and check for poor
grammar, punctuation, and
spelling.
Remember that shortanswer essay tests may
seem like a lot of trouble to
you now, but many students
come to prefer them to
objective tests like
true/false and multiple
choices. Short-answer tests
allow you to show what you
really know about a subject

and provide you with the
chance to shine.
Exercise
In the text box below, practice
writing a short answer to the
following question. The
question is for an English
class and the audience is the
professor, who has just taught
research techniques using the
Internet. Write about four
sentences, with the first

sentence revealing your main
point. When you're finished,
compare your response with
ours.
Question: Many students use
the Internet to search for
information. What are two
advantages and two
disadvantages to Internet
research?
Summary
To succeed on a short-answer
essay test, you need to know
your audience, prepare well
before the test, organize your
thoughts before writing, and
write your answers with
clarity and detail.
Handbook
Chapter 1, Lesson 9
Writing In-Class Essays
Objective
how to prepare for, develop,
and write successful in-class
and standardized test essays.
Introduction
In addition to short-answer
tests, you'll also write in-class

essay tests during your
college career. An in-class
essay test usually involves
writing on a single question
for the entire exam period.
Your answer to the question
may be nearly as long as a
paper you would write at
home.
Spontaneously written essays
often perform what is called a
"gatekeeper" function. Some

schools require students to
write a passing in-class essay
before being released from a
first-year English
requirement. You also may
encounter essay questions in
graduate and professional
school exams. Both the LSAT
and MCAT, tests that
determine whether you will
be accepted to law or medical
school, currently include an

essay component.
Preparing for the In-Class
Essay
Preparation is your key to
success. Here are some tips
on preparing for essay tests:
Know what the grader
expects out of your essay
Some professors stress
content over grammar,
while others stress good
grammar as well as
informative writing.
Developing strong content
lets your professor know
that you can think logically
and provide the details
necessary for supporting
your essay's thesis.
Focusing on readable prose
and correct grammar tells
your professor that you can
write clearly under pressure.
Both goals involve skills
that college administrators

believe are important for
their graduates to possess.
While both are important,
however, your professor may
value one goal over the other.
Since essay tests usually
count for a large percentage
of your grade or may serve to
promote you to the next level
of instruction, you'll need to
learn what your professor
expects from you. If you

"clutch" or "grip" when asked
to write spontaneously,
practice writing essays under
time constraints in your dorm
or home. If you're weak in
grammar, spend time learning
to edit and proofread under
time constraints.
Know the ground rules
Don't be caught off guard
when you walk into your
class or exam room. Take

time before the test to ask
your instructor what type of
question/s you'll be asked.
Also ask about the ground
rules: How long should the
finished essay be? Should I
use a pen or a pencil? Will I
be writing in a blue book or
on individual sheets of
paper? Can I use my writing
handbook or notes? Can I
use a laptop computer?
Knowing the answers to

these questions will help
you to be prepared and
tackle the exam with
confidence.
Practice makes perfect
Before the important test,
practice writing sample
essays under the same time
constraints that you'll have
for the in-class essay. This
practice will help you learn
how much you can write in
the time allowed, and it'll

teach you to use your time
wisely. If the exam tests
your semester's class
content, prepare by
rereading your class notes.
Start at least the week
before the exam and read all
of your notes each night.
Two nights before the test,
begin asking yourself
practice questions that seem
pertinent to the professor's
focus. Write a few practice

essays. This kind of
studying allows you to
really know, to own, the
material and will help you
to write a stronger essay
under pressure.
Warm up your muscles
Athletes have to warm up
before practice and games,
and so do writers. Free
writing is one method of
warm up that really can be
helpful. It is the process of

writing as much as you
know about a subject
without focusing on
grammar or structure. Ten
to twenty minutes before
your essay, sit down and
free write, just letting your
words flow--the more the
better.
Writing the In-Class Essay
Reflect
Before the professor hands

you the assignment, take a
few minutes to reflect on
what is expected of you and
your essay. What skills is
the grader hoping to find in
your writing? Is this essay
testing both your ideas and
your ability to express them
well?
Materials
Make sure that all materials
are ready and available. If
you're using a test booklet,

do you have to buy it, or is
it provided for you? Are
you supposed to use a pen
or a pencil? If you are
allowed to use a dictionary,
a thesaurus, or a writing
handbook, do you have
them? Take advantage of
whatever resources your
professor or grader will
allow so that you can do
your best.
Read the question/s

carefully
Before you begin writing,
take time to read the
question/s or assignment
thoroughly. Underline any
key phrases or concepts that
come to your attention.
Circle any words that you
don't understand and ask
your professor to explain
them if necessary. If you're
confused, go to the next
step of outlining. In the

process of listing basic
ideas, your mind probably
will unravel the confusion.
Determine your thesis
All essays need a thesis, or
a main point. Read your
question and determine
what your main point will
be. In an essay exam, often
you can turn the test
question into a statement of
your point. For the
following sample question,

think about possible thesis
statements and what they
mean for your essay: How
did the Crusades affect the
economy in Europe?
o You could write: The
Crusades affected the
European economy in
four essential ways. In
this case, your essay
would require a brief
introduction, four body
paragraphs, and a brief

conclusion.
o Or, you could
write: Europe's economy
was influenced
significantly by the
Crusades. Here, the thesis
does not indicate how
many paragraphs your
essay will require, but it
does guide your reasoning
by directing you to look at
the significant, or most
outstanding, economic
changes that Europe
encountered.
Outline
Outlining your answer
before you begin writing is
perhaps the single most
important step for writing
good in-class essays. Your
outline does not need to be
any more formal than a
simple list of the major
points you want to make

and the supporting details
that you'll include. This
kind of outline jogs your
memory before and during
your writing process.
Not only does the outline give
you confidence as you move
through the essay, but it helps
you focus on the necessary
details. Following your
outline is like driving with a
map: You can concentrate on

where you're going instead of
stopping frequently to puzzle
over the next direction.
Writing the essay
o Begin your essay with a
brief introduction
paragraph and the thesis
that you distilled from the
question.
For an in-class essay,
a traditional, simple
structure is fine. Use

one paragraph for each
main point, so if you
have three main points,
your essay will have
five paragraphs,
including the
introduction and
conclusion. Since time
is limited, don't waste it
trying to be creative
with your paragraph
structure.
For a five-paragraph essay,

the first paragraph is your
introduction. It contains your
thesis statement, usually as
the final sentence of the
paragraph.
The second, third, and fourth
paragraphs are the body of
your essay. Each paragraph
should begin with a topic
sentence that supports your
thesis. The remaining
sentences should provide

details that define, defend,
and/or justify the topic
sentence.
Your final paragraph should
be the conclusion, which
summarizes your main points
and thesis. Readers appreciate
a conclusion in an essay test
because it shows that you
know how to close an essay
properly.
Keep it simple
When you're writing the
essay, don't try to be
poetic or dramatic.
Instead, write clearly and
keep it simple. Write as
though you're talking to
your professor about the
question you're
answering.
Write neatly
If you're handwriting the
essay instead of using a
computer, be sure to write

legibly. Write using every
other line on one side of
the page, enabling you to
add details when you
review the first draft. For
essay tests, most
professors accept neat
cross-outs and arrows that
direct the reader to the
back of the page if you
need to add or change
information. If you are
able to use the computer,

make sure that it's okay to
use your spelling and
grammar checker for aid.
In either case, don't plan
to rewrite! You won't have
time and your professor
doesn't expect you to do
this.
Re-read the essay when
you're done
It can be tempting to hand
in the essay immediately
after you finish writing

the last paragraph, but
don't do it! Use all of the
time that you're given. If
you finish early, take time
to re-read and proof the
essay. Ask yourself the
following questions:
Looking at Content
Is my thesis in the first
paragraph?
Does my essay support
and prove my thesis

statement?
Do I have three or more
main body paragraphs?
Does each paragraph
have a topic sentence that
supports the thesis?
Does each paragraph
support the topic
sentence?
Does the conclusion tie
everything together and
appropriately end the

essay?
Are my facts accurate?
Proofreading
Is my handwriting
legible?
Are there any spelling
errors?
Have I misused any
words?
Are there any sentence
fragments, run-ons, or
serious punctuation
errors?
Exercise
Test your knowledge. Without
looking back on the material
in this section, answer the
following True or False
questions. After you are done,
click enter and see how you
did.
1. Every professor expects the

same things in an in-class
essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
2. I should practice writing
timed essays before the in-
class essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
3. I should take a nap about
10 to 20 minutes before I start
writing the essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
4. It is wise to freewrite
before taking the essay to
warm my brain up.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
5. I should not use any books
or notes even if my professor
lets me.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
6. I should make an outline
before I start to write.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
7. The thesis statement is the
first thing I should write.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
8. I should write simple, clear

sentences for an in-class
essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
9. When I am finished, I
should immediately turn in
the essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
10. If I do not like what I
have written, I should re-write
the essay.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Summary
Writing in-class essays can be
challenging. However, if you
take time to prepare and
practice writing them, as well
as to organize your time

wisely, you can write
successful spontaneous
essays.
Handbook
Chapter 1, Lesson 10
Writing About Literature
Objective
how to read literary piece

closely, to identify some
literary elements, and to write
an academic essay about a
literary work.
Thinking about Literature
Being able to write about a
work of literature such as a
novel, short story, or poem is
the key to success in many
college English courses.
Before you can write about a
work of literature, you must

learn to read it well and to
analyze it.
1. Close reading:
It is best to read a piece of
literature at least twice. The
first time you read it, focus
on the story or idea being
presented.
The second time you read
it, think about the
characters' development and
the author's writing

techniques.
2. Highlight important
passages in the text and take
good notes to help you
remember what you read.
3. You might be asked to
write about the piece of
literature in several ways:
Explication: Most often
used with poetry but
sometimes with prose or
drama, explication is a
detailed, line-by-line,
explanation of a passage.
This type of essay requires
close attention to language:
e.g., special meanings of
words, figurative language,
irony, symbolism, rhythm,
sound, and irony.
Analysis: Whereas an
explication will examine
certain passages in great
depth, an analysis usually
looks only at one element of

a piece of literature, such as
plot or character
development, and then
relates that element to the
entire work.
Comparison and Contrast:
Sometimes you will be
asked to write about more
than one work. In this case,
usually you will write about
the similarities or
differences within and
between works. So, you

might be comparing two
poems about the same
theme by different authors
or contrasting the plots of
two different stories by one
author.
Some Elements for
Understanding Literature
Author: Who is the
author? What kind of
person is s/he? Reading a
brief biographical sketch of

the author will give you
valuable insight. Was the
author male or female? Rich
or poor? A member of a
minority group in society?
Understanding the author
can help you to understand
his/her writing better.
Historical Context: What
was life like when the
author wrote the piece? For
example, consider Mark
Twain's book Tom Sawyer.

American society in Twain's
day was divided over the
issue of slavery and racial
relations. On the surface,
Tom Sawyer is about two
boys who take a boat ride
on the Mississippi River.
However, understanding the
racial concerns of Twain's
day suggests that a major
theme of the book is his
opposition to racism in
America.
Structure: While reading
through the work, look at
the plot or main point. Does
it have a definite beginning,
middle, and end? What is
the major conflict? Which
characters are most
important? Are there any
subplots (that is, secondary
stories about minor
characters)?
Literary Techniques:
Different writers use
different literary techniques.
Usually, the writer chooses
a specific technique in order
to bring important themes to
the reader's attention. Look
for the following literary
techniques as you read a
work:
o Irony - Irony is an
implied discrepancy
between what is said and
what is meant. There are

three kinds of irony
commonly found in
literary works:
1. Verbal irony is when
an author says one thing
and means something
else. Saying, "That's
great" when someone
has made a mistake is
verbal irony.
2. Dramatic irony is
when an audience
perceives something
that a character in the
literature does not know.
If the reader already
knows that a character
in a story has a fatal
illness, but the character
does not know this and
says, "I feel fine: never
felt better," the
statement shows
dramatic irony.
3. Irony of situation is a
discrepancy between the

expected result and
actual results. In the
famous "Road Runner"
cartoons, the coyote
always comes up with
new schemes to catch
the Road Runner, but
none of them ever work.
Even though the viewer
knows he will fail, the
coyote is always
surprised and
disappointed: this is an
example of irony of
situation.
o Foreshadowing Authors foreshadow with
hints or suggestions of
things to come. For
example, if a character
drops a vase and it
shatters on the floor, and a
few scenes later the
character's husband says
he is divorcing her, then
the breaking of the vase

foreshadows the breaking
of the marriage. Often it's
easier to see
foreshadowing after a
second reading of the
work.
o Metaphor - A type of
figurative language,
metaphor is using a
quality or an attribute of a
thing or person to
describe the thing or
person itself. For

example, saying that the
tennis star Andre Agassi is
"on fire" doesn't really
mean that he's really on
fire. Rather, the metaphor
emphasizes how well
Agassi is playing at that
moment.
o Symbolism - Authors
use images to stand for
moods or ideas. One of
the most common
examples of symbolism is
the use of color to suggest
the qualities or personality
of a character. For
example, a character
dressed all in black is
likely to be a villain, since
the color black
symbolizes evil or bad
intentions. Think of Darth
Vader in the movie Star
Wars and you'll get the
idea!
o Imagery - Imagery is
language that calls to
mind one or more of the
five senses: sight, taste,
smell, hearing, or touch.
The phrase "Her lips
tasted like wine," for
example, uses the
sensation of taste to
describe a quality of a
person.
o Rhythm and sound - In
poetry, words are either
stressed or unstressed,
making the poem sound
choppy, smooth, fast, or
slow. Many examples of
rhythm and sound can be
found in a nursery rhyme:
Little Boy Blue / come
blow your horn / the
cow's in the meadow / the
sheep's in the corn. Read
these lines aloud and hear
the stressed syllables,
which form the rhythm, or
beat, of the rhyme.

Author's Style - Every
author has a personal
writing style. Style can
include the author's
repeated use of certain
literary techniques, the use
of regional dialects or
patterns of speech, the use
of special words, the
conscious choice of subject
matter, or even deliberate
errors in grammar. Style is a
set of traits that make an

author's writing
recognizable as uniquely his
or hersa kind of literary
fingerprint. If you read
many works by one author,
you may begin to recognize
his or her unique style.
Setting - Setting is the
place and time in which a
story or poem takes place.
While reading, take note of
how the setting factors in
the work's outcome. As you

read, think about how the
story might be different if
the setting were altered.
Mood and Tone - Mood is
an emotional effect created
by the author. For example,
in a horror novel, the author
will use bleak images and
cramped or claustrophobic
settings to create a mood of
fear. Tone is the author's
attitude toward the subject.
A writer may present ideas

in a serious, sad, loving,
nostalgic, critical, or
comical tone.
Character Development Knowing the characters in a
story is very important.
Since all action takes place
through the characters, it's
necessary to understand
each character's role in the
development of the plot and
the character's reason for
existence.
Theme - Theme is the
general idea or insight the
author is trying to express.
To return to Mark
Twain's Tom Sawyer, many
readers believe that the
novel's theme is that racism
is evil.
There are many other kinds of
literary elements that you can
address in a paper about
literature. Your professor will

have a list and your textbook
may have them in a glossary.
Other issues that you can
think about regarding literary
works are:
What is the author trying
to say? Is it important?
What are the author's
values or beliefs? What
does s/he think about life,
humans, nature, God, or
culture?
What is your response to
the work as art?
What is your reaction to
the ideas in the work? Are
they truthful or relevant?
Guidelines for Writing About
Literature
Now that you've analyzed the
work carefully, you're ready
to write. Writing about
literary works is a special
kind of academic essay. [see

"Writing to Argue a
Position."] The following
guidelines are helpful when
writing about a novel, story,
or poem:
Finding Meaning: For
most literature classes, your
professor will ask you to
explicate, analyze, or
compare/contrast the work.
Closely read the piece of
literature. Review your
notes on the work and

identify the elements that
you found most interesting
or significant.
Develop a Thesis: The
thesis is a one- or twosentence statement that
introduces the key point or
idea of your paper. In a
literature paper, try to
develop a thesis based upon
the most striking element of
a work. Make sure that
you're able to support your

thesis with examples and
evidence from the literary
work.
Organization: Your thesis
will provide you with
general guidance on
organization. If you are
going to compare two
poems, then you can look at
each poem separately,
requiring a "block" type of
organization, or you can
look at all of the similar

elements in the poem,
requiring a "switch" type of
organization. There are
other strategies for
organizing a literature
paper. One strategy is a
"chronological" approach,
where you examine the
literary elements in the
order in which they appear
in the story. Another
strategy is a "topical"
method, where you

explicate or analyze
according to such elements
as the author's use of
metaphor, symbolism, or
theme.
Provide Details: When
you're writing about
literature, include detailed
examples to illustrate your
points. Make your points
clear by showing dialogue,
explaining imagery, and
using significant quotations

or paraphrases of passages.
When you write about
literature, you are arguing
for a particular way of
looking at it; no argument
succeeds without adequate
support.
Write Using the Present
Tense: When you write
about any literary work, use
the present tense,
sometimes called
the historic present. Even

though an author might
write a story or poem in the
past tense, when you read
the work, the action
happens for you in the
present, the ''right now'' of
your reading. You must
write in that same "right
now" sense.
Give Yourself Time
Between the First and Next
Drafts: As with all
academic writing, your

objectivity and thinking
about a draft become clearer
when you let it sit for a day
or two before coming back
to it. Then, once you've
been away from it, reread
your paper and doublecheck important sections
from the literary work for
accuracy and validity of
your points.
Revise: All academic
papers need more than one

draft. None of us is able to
say everything well in one
shot; most literature
professors rewrite their
essays up to 30 times!
Edit and Proofread: Edit
your paper for clarity,
concision of ideas, and
correctness of such things
as passages and quotations.
Proof carefully for
grammar, punctuation, and
spelling errors.
Exercise (Under
Construction)
Read the attached short essay
that contrasts two poems: "A
Quest for Dignity
Unfulfilled." After reading
this essay, answer the
following questions. When
you are finished, click on our
answers to compare them:
1. What is the author's thesis,
or major point, for the essay?
What metaphors and symbols

does the writer use?
How does the historical

context of each poem
influence the essay?

[McKay's poem is written
before the Civil War and
Dunbar's after, which allows
the writer to contrast the quest
for freedom both before and
after American slaves were
freed.]
Summary
You've learned some of the

basic elements of reading
literature closely, identifying
literary elements, and writing
about literature in academic
essays.
Handbook
Film and Television Analysis

Objective:
Certain scenes from films and
television shows stay in our
memories vividly. Have you
ever wondered why? This
chapter will help you
understand the strategies
producers and directors use as
they connect viewers with the
production.
Genres:
To best analyze a film or

television show, first identify
and understand its genre.
There are several genres
including:
Action: A production that
emphasizes high-energy
sequences
Adventure: Similar to
action films, a high-tension
story that often chronicles
new experiences
Comedy: A light-hearted
film that is meant to cause
laughter
Documentary: A factbased story about a life or
an event
Drama: A serious story
that describes a realistic
circumstance
Horror: A frightening
story designed to scare,
often coupled with science
fiction
Musical: A film that uses
music and choreography to
tell its story
Romance: A production
centered on two people
falling in love
Science Fiction: A story
highlighting futuristic
experiences and characters
Basing an analysis on a
work's genre is helpful
because each genre

emphasizes different
techniques. In an action or
horror film, for example,
strong special effects are a
strength; the same effects are
likely to be a distraction and a
weakness in a drama.
Also, it is important to
understand that some genres
may be combined. For
instance, a film or television
show that has romantic and

comedic elements is
aromantic comedy. If a film
has elements of a
documentary and a drama, the
genre is a docudrama. Use the
qualities of the component
genres to help you analyze
this kind of film and
television show.
Film Analysis
Because there is much to
think about when analyzing

visual media, watch the piece
several times, focusing on a
different aspect every time. A
few things to consider in the
first viewing are:
Directing: Directors are
responsible for the entire
project, but their roles are
most prominent in
production (filming) and
post-production (editing,
adding special effects, etc.)
Because directors are so

intimately involved, the
resulting film or show
reflects a lot of the
director's style or "touch."
Learn more about the
director to help you analyze
his or her work. What is the
director's style? How does
this director relate to the
actors? Does the director
serve any other roles in the
film (i.e., producer,
choreographer, etc.)?
Learning about the director
can make it easier to
understand the film's style.
Storyline or plot: Many
writers analyze a film's
storyline (plot) because this
is what most viewers
remember about the film.
Analyzing a plot is similar
to analyzing the plot in a
work of literature, since
most works follow the same
progression of a novel (see

below.)
Plot consists of:

Exposition: This section
provides the background
information about the story
and/or introduces the
characters. During the
opening credits, sometimes

a narrator provides
background information for
the story, while other times
a flashback scene can fill in
the viewers. What does this
background information tell
viewers about the characters
or storyline? Why is it
essential to have this
background information?
Rising Action: This part
of the plot is where the real
story begins; here,

complications arise in the
lives of the characters, and
these complications build to
the climax. Why do the
complications make viewers
want to continue watching?
Climax: The climax is the
highest part of the plot; it is
likely the part where
viewers are on the edge of
their seats, wondering what
is going to happen to the
characters. How do the

filmmakers create the high
tension of the climax? What
camera angles, music,
sound effects, special
effects, character dialogue,
or other strategies are used
to heighten the tension?
Falling Action: When the
action begins to fall, the
storyline is coming to an
end. Filmmakers want to
keep the viewers interested;
what strategies or
techniques do they use to
make individuals continue
watching?
Resolution: While the
word "resolution" hints that
all is well or "resolved," the
resolution of a plot is not
always a happy ending. For
instance, a character that
viewers get to bond with
might suffer a setback in
life. Also, the resolution
may leave the viewers not

knowing what happened to
a particular character or
something that this
character knew and loved. A
resolution is simply the end
of the crisis or conflict that
led to the story's climax.
Screenwriters and
filmmakers use many
different strategies to end a
story, so when analyzing a
film, think about why the
screenwriter or filmmaker
ended the film in this way.
There are many other
components of films to
analyze, including:
Camera Angles: When
watching a film, examine
the camera angles. Are you,
the viewer, looking up,
looking down, or looking
straight at a scene? How
does this affect the viewing
of the scene? For example,

if a camera appears to be
sitting on the ground,
pointed up at a tall man, this
man becomes even taller
and more powerful. Had the
camera been mounted on a
tripod and at eye-level of
the man, he would not look
as intimidating. Why would
a director want to make a
character seem bigger?
A camera's movements may

also be significant. For
example, when a camera
begins with a wide shot and
then zooms in to the
characters, the director
shows the scene's setting
but then draws attention to
the characters. If a woman
is peering into a man's
house and that element is
important to the
understanding of the story,
the camera shot may begin

outside and move inside to
where the man sits. The
way a camera moves plays
a role in the story, too,
whether the motion is sharp,
choppy, smooth, and so on.
In essence, the camera can
begin to become its own
"character."
Lighting: Lighting can
help to tell the story.
Filmmakers play on human
emotions, including a
natural fear of the dark. If a
stalker is hunting in broad
daylight, it is not nearly as
frightening as if the hunt
occurred at night. The
lighting of such a scene
might focus solely on the
individual being stalked and
leave the stalker in
shadows, letting us see only
the whites of his eyes, for
example.
Lighting might also be

symbolic, as well. If
someone is remembering a
time in his life when he felt
happy, the lighting might be
brighter, and if he is
depressed, the lighting may
be dimmed to present an
atmosphere of uncertainty
or sadness. Changes from
full-color to black-andwhite filming can indicate a
flashback.
Acting: Whether the
actors are world-famous or
hardly known is irrelevant,
but their performance is
important. In what ways do
the actors make their
characters come alive?
What, in particular, allows
them to make their
characters come alive? How
do they use their voices and
gestures to create the scene?
How does the character (not

the actor) fit into his or her
role in the storyline? How
does the actor's portrayal of
the character affect the way
viewers understand the
story? Consider the
character of Charlie Brown:
what would change if he
were played as a depressed
quitter and cynic instead of
a determined kid who just
can't win?
Symbols: Like literature,

films also include symbols.
(See Writing About
Literature for more
information about symbols.)
In film, symbols take a wide
variety of sounds and
shapes. A song might be
symbolic of the character's
life at the moment. An item,
such as the Ring in The
Lord of the Rings, may also
have symbolic meaning. By
looking closely at the sights

and sounds in the film, you
will likely notice at least a
few symbols.
Sound Effects: Some may
think that sound effects are
not very important outside
of cartoons, but sound
effects play a significant
role in almost every visual
production. Many sounds
heard in a film (a door slam,
a football sack, a cheering
crowd, etc.) are added in

post-production, after the
film is shot. How do these
sound effects help viewers
better understand what is
happening in the story?
Special Effects: Special
effects push viewers to
accept the extraordinary, but
these effects must follow
the laws of science to be
realistic. There are many
types of special effects-
freezing a scene and

rotating the camera around
a character, or placing us in
a computer generated
universe, just to name a
few. When looking at the
special effects, see how they
adhere to the laws of
science. Also, are they
effective or ineffective in
the film? What reason(s) are
there to support that claim?
Music: Usually, the music
in a film or television show

works into the storyline so
well that the audience does
not pay attention to it.
However, the music helps to
promote a particular aura. If
the music is slow, it makes
the viewers feel calm, but if
it offers tension like the
music inJaws, the viewers
know to expect something
terrible. When watching the
film, pay careful attention
to the music. Is it
instrumental, or does it have
a chorus and verses? How
does the music help to set
the stage in the movie or
television show?
In musicals, music plays a
more prominent role, as the
actors will break into song
at various points during the
show. Usually, these songs
provide important
information: how the

character feels about a
situation, background
information about what is
happening in the character's
life or elsewhere, and so on.
Determining the reason why
a particular piece of music
is inserted into that section
of the film is especially
important for a musical.
Comparison to a Literary
Work: Some filmmakers
have chosen to develop

famous novels or other
stories into films or
television shows.
Comparing the film to the
print version is good
analysis topic. In addition to
focusing on the similarities
and differences between the
novel and the film, think
about why the filmmakers
had to make these changes.
Which version, the film or
the printed one, is better and

why?
Summary
Being aware of the strategies
that filmmakers use offers
insights as to why certain
productions receive rave
reviews while others barely
receive a nod. The
information presented in this
chapter will help you identify
the techniques used to
produce films and shows,

understand why they were
used and how they affect the
final piece, and analyze an
audience's reaction to a given
work.
Handbook
Writing Scientific or
Technical Reports
Objective
In this lesson, you will learn
how to write one kind of
scientific report--a lab report.
The skills that you learn can
be used in writing many kinds
of science, social science, or
technical reports.
Using Observations to Write a
Science Report
The purpose of a scientific lab
report is to accurately convey

the details and results of an
experiment to your reader/s,
who may need to repeat the
experiment in order to verify
your results. [See "Writing
About Observations" for
more basic information about
observation writing.]
Consider the following
sample chemistry experiment.
Your job is to titrate (that is,
add in carefully measured

amounts) one solution into
another. At each step of the
process, you observe and
record the results in your lab
notebook. After the
experiment is finished, you'll
need to write a report that
describes your measurements
and what you observed.
Finally, you'll report any
conclusions to be drawn from
the experiment.
Note that this process requires
several steps. You must:
Be prepared for the
experiment by doing any
required reading and
gathering of materials
Understand your goal for
the experiment
Take very good notes
during the experiment, and
Write about your

observations in an
acceptable format.
Preparation
Knowing what you're going
to do in the experiment is
where everything begins.
After all, how can you know
what to do and how to write
about it if you don't have the
slightest clue what's going
on? To get ready, follow these
guidelines:
Read your lab assignment
in advance and know what
you'll be doing.
If you're not sure what
you'll be doing or you don't
understand the material, the
equipment, or the
experiment, find the
answers to your questions
before you go to the lab.
Record in your notebook
all the theories, equations,

and principles that you
should know in order to
understand the experiment.
You can use these later to
explain what happened.
Record what you think
will happen in the
experiment before you go to
the lab, and write why you
are making these
predictions. Such
predictions are
called hypotheses.
Observations Made Easy
If you're prepared for the
experiment, you've done half
the work already. A lot of
students go to lab not
knowing what they are going
to do, not understanding any
of the principles behind the
experiment, and not having a
clue as to what they think will
happen. These students end
up cramming lots of details in

their notebooks-details that
they won't understand when
they look at their notes
several days later.
By contrast, your notebook
will already be prepared.
Now, all you have to do is
perform the experiment and
record what actually happens.
Writing About Your
Observations
Most scientific and lab

reports use a standard format
to present information;
however, there are some
variations. Make sure that you
check with your professor
before you record information
and use the format s/he
prefers.
The Introduction
(Statement of the Problem)
Your report should have an
introduction that states the

problem and the purpose of
the experiment. The
introduction should
highlight:
o Any relevant
background information,
o Experiments or research
that set the context for the
experiment, and
o The "question," or
hypothesis, for the
experiment.
Don't skimp on this section:
the more pertinent
information that you write,
the more you demonstrate
that you know what the
experiment is about. The
Introduction certainly may be
more than one paragraph in
length.
Methods and Materials
(Procedure)
In this section, you must

describe the experimental
procedure itself. The
reader/s need to know:
o The research design,
o Methods and materials,
such as the subjects and
how they were selected,
o The equipment,
o Whether you did
laboratory or field
research, and
o The steps taken in the

experiment.
In a chemistry lab, for
example, you would include
the chemicals, or reagents,
used in the experiment and
the equipment, or tools, that
you used. Be precise as you
discuss what you used and
what you did to perform the
procedure. For example, don't
tell the reader that you mixed
10 grams of sodium chloride

into the mixture if you
actually mixed 10.5 grams of
sodium chloride. Stick to the
precision that your equipment
is capable of recording-no
more, no less.
Usually, the methods and
materials section is written in
the past tense because you've
already performed the
experiment. Its purpose is to
relate the experimental

process step-by-step so that
the reader can duplicate your
experiment using the same
methods and equipment.
The Results (Data
Presentation)
This section reports on the
findings of the experiment,
or the data. Don't include
explanations in this section.
Visual aids such as graphs,
charts, tables, and diagrams
make the data presentation

stronger. Or, depending on
your professor's
instructions, you can write a
simple narrative account of
what happened. This section
also may include a sample
calculation (if any data
reduction is involved) for
one representative set from
the data.
The Discussion
(Conclusions)
In this final section, you'll

summarize the findings of
your experiment and offer
some tentative conclusions.
You've already
told whathappened; now
you'll tell why it happened.
You'll discuss whether your
original hypothesis was or
was not confirmed by the
experiment and speculate
(make an educated guess) as
to why. In addition, you'll
share with the reader the

meaning, or implications, of
the experiment and describe
any follow-on experiments
that might confirm or
extend the results.
The Discussion section is a
very important section of the
report because it shows that
you understand the
experiment beyond simply
being able to complete it. This
is where the preparations

before the experiment really
pay off. Professors and
professional colleagues
reward people who can use
writing to explain, analyze,
and interpret results.
Exercise
Test your knowledge. Answer
the following True/False
questions and then click
"Enter" to see if your answers
are correct.
1. Writing lab reports is a type
of observation writing.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
2. Description and precise
language are the primary
tools of science writers.

Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
3. There is only one format
for writing scientific
observations.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
4. You shouldn't read
anything about the
experiment until the last
minute.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
5. Preparing for the
experiment saves time in the
writing stage.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
6. A short introduction is best
when writing about
observations.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
7. Never include graphs or
charts in a lab report.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
8. It's important to share your
conclusions about why
something happened during
the experiment.
Top of Form
True
False
Bottom of Form
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Summary
Knowing how to use details
to write observations will
help when you write scientific
observations. This skill is
crucial to success in most
science, social science, and
technical courses, and in
many professional careers as
well. The steps you take to
write about observations in a
science course or lab can be
applied to other disciplines.

Handbook
Resume Writing
Objective
how to develop a one-to-two
page resume that will attract
an employer's attention to
help you get a job interview

What is a resume?
A resume is a one-to-two
page document that
summarizes your skills,
qualifications, job experience,
and education. Just as sales
people use brochures to
advertise a product, you'll use
your resume to advertise
yourself to potential
employers.
New technologies and

characteristics of the job
market have changed the way
in which potential employers
read and use resumes. Studies
show that hiring managers
spend an average of 6 seconds
scanning the hundreds - even
thousands - of resumes they
receive. Moreover, many
companies use Applicant
Tracking Systems (ATS) into
which they scan applicant

resumes and search for
candidates using keywords.
Employers no longer look for
the traditional statement of
"Objectives". Instead, they
look for elements of your
background that make you a
good fit for the company and
the job. Construct your
resume with these new
conditions in mind.
Employers expect to see the

following things in resumes:
Contact Information
Skills, Abilities, and
Accomplishments
Education
Work Experience
Interests and Activities
(Optional)
Steps Before Writing
Take time to assess your

skills, qualifications, and
experiences before you start
to write your resume. Getting
the right job means applying
for the right job. How do you
know what kind of job is the
right one for you?
There are a variety of tools
available to help you
understand yourself and your
working preferences better.
For example, you can buy a

book such as the wellknown What Color Is Your
Parachute? written by Dick
Bolles and published by Ten
Speed Press. Books like this
one offer you a series of
questions, charts, and prompts
to get you thinking about your
ideal job situation. Another
tool is the Myer's Briggs Type
Indicator test available on the
Internet and in bookstores.

When you know what kind of
work is best for you and how
your experiences and skills
factor into your decision, you
can develop an eye-catching
and powerful resume.
Making lists is also helpful.
List all of the schools you've
attended, the jobs you've held,
and your volunteer
experiences. For each, record
the dates you were there, any

degrees or certificates that
you earned, the skills that
you've gained, and, most
importantly, your most salient
accomplishments. Your prewriting will save you effort
and energy later in the writing
process. The following items
will help you to flesh out your
list:
Unique Selling
Proposition: What makes

you stand out from other
applicants? How do your
particular skills, qualities,
and accomplishments make
you an employee who adds
value to a company?
Skills and Abilities:
o Computer skills and
programs in which you
are literate
o Technical or mechanical
skills
o Courses you have
attended beyond general
college course
o Writing or other
communication abilities
o Languages that you
speak or can read
o Supervisory skills
o Personal attributes that
make you a unique or
particularly good worker

Accomplishments:
drawing from your list of
skills and abilities, list
accomplishments that
demonstrate your
application of those skills
and abilities
Schools attended, courses
taken, and grades
Work experiences, paid or
unpaid
Exercise
1. In the text box, list at least
ten skills that you've
developed that are applicable
to the type of job you want.
2. Note which of these skills

you may use in that job. Can
you think of anything else to
add to the list now? If so, add
them to the list, and then rank

all the skills according to
importance on a scale of 1 to
5 (1 = most important; 5 =
least important).
3. Take a look at your skills
list. What particular
accomplishments can you
name in order to demonstrate
your use of the skills you've
listed? Try to add 1-2
accomplishments for each

skill.
4. At the bottom of your list,
write the five most important
personal attributes that you
possess. What will each
attribute contribute to the job?
Writing and Targeting Your
Resume
Good resumes are targeted to
one employer and one type of
job. General resumes may

reveal that you have had lots
of experiences, but they don't
give a sense of focus to a
particular employer's need for
filling a particular job.
Therefore, it is helpful to
write a lengthy base resume
that records your work
experiences, skills, and
abilities. From that base, you
can pull the most important
information to target a
particular job. Add your new
skills and abilities to the base
resume monthly, if necessary,
and then you'll have all the
information necessary when
you need to target a new
resume to a new potential
employer.
Whether you're writing a
general resume or one for a
particular job, your resume
should have a central purpose

or focus. For a general
resume, the purpose is to
showcase the unique set of
abilities, skills, qualifications,
characteristics, and
accomplishments and
demonstrate how they can
contribute to a business's
bottom line. For a resume you
are developing in order to
apply for a particular job, the
purpose is to show the

particular abilities, skills,
qualifications, characteristics,
and accomplishments that fit
the requirements for the job
and demonstrate how they
will contribute to the
particular company's bottom
line.
Everything you write in your
resume will contribute to that
purpose or focus. The purpose
of your resume will guide you

as you select what elements
of your experience and skill
set to include, as well as the
words you use in order to
describe them.
Build your resume:
Contact Information
Give your full name,
mailing address, telephone
number, and e-mail address
at the top of the resume.
Use your cover letter to

indicate how and where you
can be reached and when is
the best time. [see "Writing
a Cover and Thank-You
Letter"]
o Avoid using nicknames
o In addition to your
college address, include a
permanent address (a post
office box or your parent's
address will be fine)
o Include the area code of

your phone number
o Make sure your e-mail
address is written
correctly
o Note: avoid cutesy email addresses like
flowergirl35 or hotdude.
The best e-mail address
will include your first and
last name, perhaps with a
dot in between them.
Summary
o Objectives are no longer
standard in resumes.
Instead, employers look
for some sort of summary
that combines your
relevant skills and
connects them to what the
employer is looking for.
This can be labeled in one
of several ways:
Profile
Qualifications
Summary
Core Competencies
Key Skills
Key Proficiencies
Areas of Expertise
o However you label it,
your summary of relevant
skills should appear
directly below your
contact information. It's

the most important part of
the resume, because it is
what the hiring manager
will see first - and
remember, the typical
resume gets perused in
about six seconds!
o If you're applying for
several different types of
jobs, you should target
resumes and write an
appropriate summary to
match each job. Your

summary:
Should be consistent
with the job skills and
qualifications that you
include on your resume
and
If a response to an
advertised position,
should be consistent
with the job title and
general qualifications
listed in that ad.

Your summary should
include the keywords
employers will be using
to search for the best
applicants. Read more
about keywords below.
Exercise
Think about a job that you'd
like to have. Write a summary
statement that corresponds to
that job in the text box below.
Rewrite as necessary. If you

don't have a job in mind yet,
you could practice this step
using the job advertisements
from an online job board.
Education
This category should follow
the summary statement. Use
reverse chronology, listing
most recent schools first.

Put information about each
institution in an order that
will be coincide with what
employers want to know
first. The best order is name
of degree and major, school,
city & state, and any other
information, like GPA,
minor, and relevant
coursework. You can leave
off dates for education.
Example:
BA, U.S. History, Morefield

State University, Columbus,
Ohio
GPA: 4.0
Minor: English
President's List, 4
years
Related Course
Work: Writing for the
Professional
Audience, Technical
Writing I and
II, Business
Communication
Skills and Abilities
Use brief bulleted statements
to highlight special skills that
make you a strong candidate
for the position. If the
advertisement calls for
someone with teaching
experience and you have been
teaching swimming and
sailing at a summer camp for
the past two summers, you

have some teaching skills that
should be mentioned
specifically. If the job
requires computer skills,
briefly list all of the programs
that you are able to use. Note
that if your work experience
is more pertinent to the job
than your special skills and
abilities, you should reverse
the position of these two
categories. Once again,

including relevant keywords
is critical.
Work Experience
List your work experience
in reverse chronological
order. If you do not have a
lot of paid work experience,
it's fine to include volunteer
and internship experiences
under this category. The
important thing is to
identify those positions that
helped you develop and use

skills that a potential
employer might find useful.
o The best order for
employers and ATS
systems is company
name, job title, then dates.
o Provide a summary of
your accomplishments in
that position using active
language. Begin your
statements with active
verbs (present tense for

current positions and past
tense for previous
positions) and avoid using
"I" in these statements.
For example, say
something like: Wrote
computer code for a
biology software program.
o Note the difference
between writing about
duties and writing about
accomplishments. It will
interest your employer

less that you had
responsibility for
developing budgets than
that you developed a
particular budget for a
particular program. Focus
on accomplishments
rather than
responsibilities.
Interests and Activities
(Optional)
This section now tends to
be discouraged by many
resume experts, but if you
have just graduated and you
don't have a lot of job
experience, this section
helps employers know more
about you. You might
include (1) social or civic
activities, (2) interests or
hobbies that relate to the
position that you're
applying for, and (3)
activities that provide
information about your

dedication to a task, ability
to work hard, or other
positive personal
characteristics. Provide
brief explanations of each
activity if you have room.
Examples:
1996 - 1999
Football Team: First
team member of the
college's Division I
football team.
Practiced an average
of 20 hours per week
and participated in all
games throughout the
season.
1992 - present
Junior President of
Rotary Club:
Organized and
developed activities
for the Rotary Club in
Creekwater, NM.
References
It is no longer standard to
write "References Available
Upon Request" at the
bottom of your resume. In
fact, doing so may make
you look inexperienced.
Nevertheless, you should
have ready a list of
references for your potential
employer for when they ask
for it. This list should
include the full name of

each reference, his/her title,
telephone number/s, and a
brief statement describing
how you know the person.
References can be current
and past professors,
employers, or colleagues.
They cannot be family
members.
Note: Don't offer someone as
a reference until you have
checked with him/her to make

sure it is okay to do so.
What to leave out of your
resume:
o Your age, sex, marital
status, pets, and hobbies
o Your photograph - this
is not necessary and will
interfere with processing
by ATS software.
o "Salary negotiable" employers already know
salary is negotiable.
Leave discussion of salary
expectations for the
interview.
o Cliched phrases: salary
negotiable, problem
solving skills, hard
working, proactive, detailoriented, self-starter, team
player - what you want to
do is demonstrate that you
have these qualities by
describing specific
accomplishments in your
outline of skills and job
experience.
o Fancy fonts and
excessive formatting these make the resume
more difficult to read and
may interfere with
processing by an ATS.
o Overused templates avoid Microsoft
templates. If you find a
template online that you

like, tweak it so that it is
unique to you.
o Irrelevant jobs and
activities - include jobs
from the last ten years,
plus any earlier jobs that
are relevant to the
position for which you are
applying. Leave others
out. Do not list activities
that do not relate to the
position.
o Spelling and
punctuation errors - don't
rely on your word
processor's spell checker.
Have a friend look over
your resume, and then
check it again yourself.
Keywords
o Most employers now
scan resumes into ATS
software, creating a
searchable database they

can use to identify
candidates using keyword
searches. That means
including the right
keywords in your resume
is essential. Here are some
tips for getting keywords
right.
Use keywords from
the job description in
your summary, skills,
and accomplishments.
Research the company
and the industry to
uncover other relevant
keywords the
prospective employer
may use to search for
qualified candidates.
Research keywords on
websites for companies
in the same industry, job
boards, and other
sources of job
descriptions.
Use the LinkedIn
skills box to identify
commonly-used skill
titles. When you type in
the box, skills with the
words you type will
appear in a dropdown
box.
Use variants of
keywords. In one part of
your resume, you might

use "Customer
Relationship
Management", for
example, while in
another, you might use
"CRM". This maximizes
the opportunities for
your resume to turn up
in a database search.
Software names and
course titles are also
common keywords.
Find places in your
resume to use keywords
in contexts that link
them to your specific
accomplishments.
Formatting - you'll want
to be thoughtful about
formatting. Resumes should
be formatted for both
reading ease and ATS
compatibility. Moreover,
most resumes are now

submitted electronically,
either through e-mail or
online application forms.
o Develop both a text and
a printable (document)
form of your resume.
Many employers will
specify the format in
which they want your
resume, but in the event
that an employer does
not specify, you can

send both a text version
in the bottom of your email (following a cover
letter) and attach a
document form of your
resume to the e-mail
You can save the text
version of your
document as a .txt file.
In Word, choose "Save
as...", click the
dropdown box, and
scroll down to .txt.

To see how your
resume will look as
plain text and adjust
accordingly, view your
document in NotePad.
You can replace bullet
points with asterisks.
When asked to submit
your resume through an
online form, cutting and
pasting from a spell-
checked .txt file is safer

and more reliable than
typing your information
into the online form.
You'll avoid spelling
and grammar errors and
make sure you include
those valuable
keywords.
When you save your
resume in document
form, use .doc ("Save
as..." and scroll down to
Word 97-2003
Document). Some
employers may still be
using the earlier version
of Word, and all
processors can open a
.doc file.
Saving your document
as a .pdf file is another
option. The advantage
of .pdf files is that they
retain formatting across
platforms.
For the document form of
your resume, chose
formatting that will make
your resume easy to read.
Use bullets freely. Use your
computer's ability to change
fonts and size, and to bold,
italicize, or underline in
limited and consistent ways
that will make your resume
both attractive and easy to
read.
Name your resume using
your first and last name and
the word "resume".
Example:
Jeffrey_Rogers_Resume.do
c. This protocol simplifies
organization for your
potential employer.
When sending a resume,
include a cover letter in the
body of the e-mail. For
more on cover letters, see

"Writing a Cover and
Thank-You Letter".
In the e-mail subject line,
include the job reference
number, the job title, and
your name.
Even in the document
version of your resume,
avoid formatting that is
ATS-unfriendly: lines,
tables, graphics, fancy
bullets, text boxes, and

logos.
Put your contact
information in the header,
so that it appears on every
page of your resume.
Keep your resume to 2
pages if your work
experience is 10 years or
longer; keep it to a single
page if you have less than
10 years of work
experience.
Handbook
Writing a Cover and ThankYou Letter
Objective
how to write strong cover
letters to enclose with your
resume and thank you letters

to send after interviews.
Introduction
Along with your resume, the
cover letter and thank you
letter represent your best
chance to communicate with
prospective employers. These
letters set you apart from
other candidates.
The Cover Letter
A cover letter is a one-page
letter sent with a resume. You

should include a cover letter
every time you submit a
resume.
A cover letter gives you an
extra opportunity to show the
employer who you are and
how your talents match the
job that needs to be filled.
Although your resume also
answers that question, it does
so in a very rigid format. The
cover letter allows you to tell

the potential employer things
about your experiences and
abilities in a targeted way.
Your cover letter should
explain precisely why you fit
the qualifications of a specific
position.
Even if you send your resume
via e-mail, write and attach a
cover letter. Not sending one
is a sign of laziness or
inexperience in the job search

process, neither of which is
helpful in getting an
interview. Note: in some
cases, it may be acceptable to
write your cover letter in the
body of the email with which
you send your resume. Look
for cues in the job
description.
Writing a Good Cover Letter
The following tips will help
you write an effective cover

letter:
Identify your purpose for
writing the letter and
maintain a focus on that
purpose throughout the
letter.
Your purpose will be shaped
by your desired outcome for
the letter (getting an
interview, learning about
job opportunities at the
company, getting on a
recruiter's radar) as well as

by the qualities and
experiences that would
make you a unique and
valuable asset.
Research the company
It is easier to write both a
targeted cover letter and
resume if you know
something about the
company or institution that
is hiring. Researching the
company can be as simple
as going to a web site,

where you will find out
more about the company's
products or services, the
founders or primary
executives, its financial
stability, and the hiring
official(s). Often, it is
acceptable to telephone the
company and ask for the
human resources division
where someone can give
you information about the
job and the hiring process.

That knowledge can help
you to shape both your
cover letter and your
resume.
Write your letter to the
hiring official in charge of
the job
A cover letter is always
most effective when it's
addressed directly to the
person who will make the
final hiring decision. To
make a good first

impression on this person is
valuable. By writing
directly to the hiring
official, your application
might jump to the top of a
very big pile. Do not
address your letter to "Sir or
Madam" or "To whom it
may concern". If you aren't
sure who will be making the
hiring decision, try to find
out using Google or the
company website. In the

event that you cannot
determine who is making
the hiring decision, leave
out the greeting.
Write your letter in a
formal letter style
It's important to speak in a
clear and formal style when
writing a cover letter.
Because you will be
targeting the letter to the
company's needs, you can
avoid writing a letter that

sounds as if it were copied
from a business textbook or
as if it's being used for
every job to which you're
applying. Personalize your
letter to fit the specific
position for which you are
applying, and reveal by
your words that you are
motivated, enthusiastic, and
focused-in other words, the
perfect match for the
position.
Use the terms and phrases
the employer uses in the job
advertisement
If the job advertisement
says that the employer is
looking for someone with
"at least one-year
experience in computer
programming", you should
restate this requirement in
your cover letter: "I have
two and a half years of
experience in computer
programming." Follow up
this statement by explaining
how you have met and/or
exceeded that experience.
Of course, honesty and
integrity are crucial. You'll
want to speak only to your
genuine skills and
experiences and show how
they match the employer's
needs.
Avoid overuse of "I"
You want to convey the

impression that the letter is
about what the company
wants. Refer to what that is,
and explain how you fulfill
those needs. The idea is to
convey very quickly how
you can contribute to the
company's bottom line.
Be brief
Most employers will
receive hundreds of
resumes and cover letters.
Since they will not have

time to read long cover
letters, make your letter as
brief as possible, while still
making the points you want
to make. The entire letter,
with your letterhead, the
company's address,
salutation (greeting), and
signature block, should be
no more than 3-4 brief
paragraphs, covering 1/2 to
3/4 of a page.
Don't repeat your resume

Instead, select a one or two
relevant high points from
your resume and use them
to help demonstrate that you
are a good fit for the
position.
Be active
Express your interest in the
job and don't be shy about
highlighting your skills and
experiences that make you a
good match. Close by
telling the employer that

you look forward to hearing
from him/her. However, you
should not stop there. Tell
the employer that you'll call
or e-mail in one week or ten
days to see where the
company is in the hiring
process. Then, make the
call. This proactive stance
sets you apart from other
applicants who simply wait
to hear from the employer-it
demonstrates your
dependability and
independence.
Be polite and avoid
sounding desperate.
Do not demand a positive
response. Instead, express
your interest in the
opportunity. You may also
add, "I look forward to your
response" to help prompt a
reply from the employer.
Proofread carefully.
Spelling, grammar, and
typographical errors in
cover letters and resumes
are an easy excuse for
employers to dismiss you
immediately as a potential
employee. Have another
person read your documents
before you send them and
read them aloud yourself,
listening and looking for
readability and clarity.
A sample outline for an

effective cover letter
Paragraph 1: Express your
interest in the position, using
the position name in the job
advertisement. Mention
where you saw the ad.
Paragraph 2: Mention 1-2
accomplishments that
demonstrate your suitability
for the job and distinguish
you from other applicants.
Paragraph 3: Address your

desired outcome from the
letter (an interview, a
discussion with the employer
about their hiring plans or job
opportunities, etc.). Say what
you will do to follow up and
express your willingness to
supply any additional
information the employer
may need. Thank the
employer for considering
your letter or application.

Sample Cover Letter
Sam Smith
10 Water Way
Waterville, Washington 11111
May 10, 2000
Don Blackman, Graphics Director
The Graphics Place
1323 Main Street
Burkes, Montana 33333
Dear Mr. Blackman,
I am writing in reference to your advertisement for a graphic artist/designer in yesterday's Montana Morning
Post. My enclosed resume will show that I have the qualifications and skills that are necessary for success in
this position.
My former position, in which I was promoted twice, required that I develop and use experience in
Photoshop, Drumbeat, Illustrator and Freehand. In this position, my specialty was exploring the potential of
visual communication in all its contemporary forms and I have won three awards for my work in this area. If
you are looking for someone dedicated to fresh approaches in the communicative arts, please look at my
resume attached to this e-mail.
I am available for an interview at any time. I may be reached at home at 555-555-5555 or via e-mail at
bloa@aolb.com.However, I will be happy to call you next Thursday to see whether you have received and
reviewed my application. At that time, I would be delighted to set up an interview appointment or to answer
any questions that you might have.
I look forward to meeting with you to discuss the position further.
Thank you,
Sam Smith
Attachment: Resume
Exercise
Using the sample cover letter

above, use the text box below
to write a cover letter for a
job in which you are
interested. If you are not
currently seeking
employment but you want to
practice writing a cover letter
anyway, use a job
advertisement from your local
newspaper. When you're
finished, compare your letter
with the example.
The Thank You Letter

You should write a follow-up
letter to a prospective
employer within twenty-four
(24) hours of your interview
for the position. This letter is
a very important part of the
interviewing process. Many
people fail to send a thank

you letter, making those who
do stand out in contrast!
By sending a thank you to the
employer, you are letting
him/her know that you are
still interested in the job. In
addition, it is a chance for you
to remind the interviewer of
your interview and skills.
Finally, the letter gives you an
opportunity to tell him/her
things that you may have

forgotten to say in the
interview or things that you
wish you had said better.
Writing a Good Thank You
Letter
Send the letter as soon as
possible.
Do not delayget it in the
mail or email. You never
know how quickly the
employer will be looking to
hire.
Type the letter in standard
business format.
The letter should use the
same formal tone and
format as your cover letter.
Send it directly to the
person who interviewed you
for the position.
Develop a thank you letter
with the standard
components.
o In your first paragraph,

express your appreciation
for the interview. Include
any elements of the
interview that come to
mind (e.g., touring the
facilities or meeting
potential co-workers).
Include the names of the
people who interviewed
you and the position title
for which you
interviewed.
o Include specifics details

about the interview to
refresh the interviewer's
mind about who you are.
Include any comments or
a part of the conversation
that would make you
stand out from others.
o Drive home any main
points that you think
would be helpful. Reemphasize your most
important skills and show
the interviewer why you

are the right fit for the
organization.
o Briefly add any relevant
information that you
forgot to include in your
resume or interview.
o Let the employer know
that you want to continue
your discussion about the
position. Be proactive and
tell him/her when you will
call to follow-up the

interview. Then call as
promised, as you did prior
to receiving the interview.
Sample Thank You Letter
Joe Smith
56 Clear Lane Hamilton, Texas 11111
August 10, 2000
Jamie Wilson
Director of Publications
Tom's Publishing Company
10 Trial Way
Hamilton, Texas 11111
Dear Mr. Wilson,
I enjoyed speaking with you this afternoon about the Publication Assistant position. I believe my passion for
editing and talent in the marketing and graphic arts field mesh well with Tom's Publishing business goals and
objectives.
During our meeting, you said that you want someone to step in and take over the editorial aspects of the
company in an organized manner. I am a very organized and methodical individual who can easily learn the
latest developmental software programs for the medical/nursing industry. I am also very interested in
learning more graphic design. These kinds of responsibilities certainly will put my creative efforts to the test!
As you suggested in my interview, I logged on to your web site and downloaded the "Writing Better Test
Questions" demo. I found it both interesting and easy to follow. The step-by-step examples, guidelines, and
Educator Tips give great insights into what is expected on an exam.
Once again, thank you for meeting with me. I look forward to continuing our discussion and will call you on
Friday to see where you are in the interviewing process. In the meantime, please feel free to contact me at
any time. I can be reached at home at 555-555-5555 or via e-mail at aolb@bloa.com.
Sincerely,
Joe Smith
Exercise
Using the example thank you
letter as a guide, write a
follow-up letter in the text
box below. You may use the
experience of a past interview
to guide your writing.
Compare your letter with the
sample when you are
finished.
Summary
You've learned why cover and
thank you letters are
important to the job search
process and how to write
effective ones.
Handbook
Writing Short Stories 1:
Short Story as Genre
Objective
In this lesson, youll learn
what a short story is, the
difference between a simple
narrative and a short story,
and the sub-genres of short
stories. Youll also learn the
elements of a short story, and
youll practice using those

elements.
What is a short story?
Scholars, critics, academics
and writers are still debating
this question today. However,
there is one aspect of the
short story that they all agree
on: the short story is more
than just a short novel. It is a
genre in and of itself, and
should be read and written
with different expectations

than the novel. With that in
mind, there are essentially
two types of short narratives:
the short story and the simple
narrative. In a simple
narrative, the focus is on the
plot, the what happens
next. However, in a short
story, though there is a
narrative, there is also
meaning that lies below the
surface story, or a symbolic

substructure. This symbolic
substructure is where the real
meaning of the short story is,
and everything in the story
points to it.
Conflict, Crisis and
Resolution
For a story to be successful,
there must be a conflict.
What makes short stories
interesting is trouble.
Trouble, or conflict, is what

keeps readers reading your
story. Conflict comes in
many forms, but the main
thing to remember is that the
central character must yearn
for something, must want
something intensely.
According to Janet Burroway,
What the central character
wants doesnt have to be
violent or spectacular; its the
intensity of the wanting that

counts. Think about it this
waythe most dangerous
things in life are not
necessarily the most
spectacular. The same is true
of short stories.
There are many different
conflicts, but in a nutshell,
conflict can be broken down
in the following way:
Human against human
Human against nature

Human against society
Human against machine
Human against God
Human against self
Once conflict has been
established, and this is usually
at the very beginning of the
story, it is then developed
through the story. Then the
conflict must come to a crisis,
either internal or external.

After the crisis, there either is
aresolution, or, as many
modern and contemporary
stories end, the reader is left
to decide the resolution. In
the short story (as opposed to
the simple narrative) this
crisis is often called
the epiphany, where the main
character comes to an
understanding, changes
his/her view, or has a chance

for change but either doesnt
recognize the chance or
chooses not to take it. In such
a case, the epiphany is the
readers, because the reader
comes to understand or see
something that the character
is unable to. The key is that
there is change, or a chance
for change, or reversal. A
reversal of some sorts is
necessary to all story

structure. The conflict cant
go on in a short story; there
must be an end in sight, either
for the characters or for the
reader.
So, a short story begins in
the middle, with the conflict
and tension established first.
The sooner you get your
characters into some sort of
conflict, the better. Because a
short story is by its nature

short, you dont have the
luxury of a novelist in
providing background
information or describing
scenery.
Exercise
This exercise will give you an
opportunity to practice
conflict, crisis and resolution
in a very short space.
In the text box below, try
writing a story in exactly 100

words. Because this is so
brief, you will want to create
your conflict right away.
Also, remember that your
resolution can be implied.
How did you do? Did you

establish your conflict in the
first sentence or two? Were
you able to write a complete

story in 100 words? Can your
conflict fall into one of the 6
categories of conflict above?
Was your crisis internal or
external? Was there a
resolution, or did you leave it
up to the reader to decide?
Symbolism
A symbol is an object or
event that represents
something other than its self.
Most symbols in short stories

become symbolic in the story
itself, and they dont have this
meaning outside of the story.
But do writers intentionally
place symbols into their
stories? The answer is no.
So, while symbols and
symbolic substructures are
important if you are writing
short stories (as opposed to
simple narratives), the
confusing part is that you

dont want to intentionally put
them in. So how do they get
into your story? The masters
of the short story form say
that they write stories from
the place they dream, and that
the symbols and symbolic
substructures exist only
because of the nature of the
human mind, where meaning
is below the surface.
Following are quotes from

masters of the short story on
symbolism:
Ernest Hemingway: I know
what I am writing about but I
never throw in symbols
consciously. Sometimes I
find out what Im supposed to
mean when I read the books
on my work. I guess
somewhere some of the same
ideas must be in me. I
certainly do have crazy

ideas.
Katherine Ann Porter:
Symbolism happens of its
own self and it comes out of
something so deep in your
consciousness and your own
experience that I dont think
most writers are at all
conscious of their use of
symbols. I never am until I
see them.
Flannery OConnor: I really

didnt know what a symbol
was until I started reading
about them. It seemed I was
going to have to know about
them if I was going to be a
respectable literary person.
So, your goal is to strive to do
is to let the story tell itself, as
opposed to trying to tell the
story. When you do this,
symbolism occurs naturally,
because of the nature of

structure and the nature of the
conscious and subconscious
mind. According to Julie
Cameron, writing is about:
getting something down,
not about thinking something
up Another way to think of
it is that writing is the art of
taking dictation, not giving it.
When I listen to what I hear
and simply jot that down, the
flow of ideas is not mine to

generate but to transcribe.
When, on the other hand, I
struggle to write, it is because
I am trying to speak on the
page rather than listen there.
Thus, the writing process is
inherently and by definition
symbolic. In the structuring
of events, the creation of
character and atmosphere, the
choice of object, detail, and
language, you are selecting

and arranging toward the goal
that these elements should
signify more than their mute
material existence.
How, then, do you know if
symbolism is present in your
story, and if that symbolic
substructure is working? One
of the best ways to discover if
your writing has symbols and
symbolic substructures is to
have others read your stories.

It is always interesting and
enlightening for a reader to
find symbolic meaning in
your story, to learn that the
depth of your consciousness
and experience points to
meaning beyond the
narrative. Very often writers
dont even know that they are
there until someone points
them out to them! For more
on symbolism and how

symbols naturally evolve,
read the section on symbols
in Chapter 1, Lesson
17, Writing Poetry.
Another way to know if
symbolism is present and
working in your story is
through re-visioning your
story (see Chapter 1, Lesson
16, Writing Short Stories 2:
Techniques: Editing and
Revising), LINK to the lesson

seeing your story new, and
seeing what was always there
but not obvious (even to you)
at first. This is why it is so
helpful to set your work aside
for a period of time and then
go back to it. You will be
amazed sometimes at what
winks back at you from the
page.
Also, reading classic and
contemporary short stories

rich with symbolism will help
you to understand what
symbolism is, how writers use
it, and how it enriches the
story beyond the simple
narrative. There is certainly
nothing wrong with simple
narrative, but the works that
withstand the test of time, the
works that speak to us and
stay with us long after we put
the story down, have

symbolic substructures that
the reader identifies with
(sometimes subconsciously).
A good place to start is by
reading some of the short
story writers that are
considered masters of the
form such as Eudora Welty,
Flannery OConnor, Franz
Kafka, Grace Paley, Anton
Chekhov, Katherine
Mansfield, Williams Carlos

Williams, Kate Chopin, Edgar
Allen Poe, Guy de
Maupassant, Donald
Barthelme, William Faulkner,
William Gass, Vladimir
Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges,
Joyce Carol Oates, Robert
Coover, Ernest Hemingway,
Ralph Ellison, Amy Tan, and
Imamu Amiri Baraka (Leroi
Jones).
Structure and Form

Structure and form are the
overall design or arrangement
of material. Like poetry, the
form of a short story
contributes significantly to a
storys effect and to your
readers response. For
example, a story that is 1500
words may have a more
concentrated, and poetic,
impact than a story that is
15,000 words. The sheer

shortness of the story lends
a strong emotional and
intellectual effect that lingers
with the reader long after she
has put the story down.
But length is not the only
aspect of form that you can
use to comment on the
content of your story. There
are many devices that you can
use in order to enhance
meaning and emphasize

symbolism and theme.
Following are some of these
devices:
Framing. Framing in the
short story is similar to a
frame around a picture. It
holds the picture together,
but is separate from the
internal image. Frames take
many different forms, but
some of the most common
are different time periods,
different characters, or
sometimes seemingly
unrelated events. The idea
of the frame is to
surround the story with
the frame in order to add
meaning. With a story that
is framed, you want to have
the complete story inside
of the frame, with the frame
adding complexity and
reader revelation.
Diary entries or notes.
Telling a story by a series of

diary entries or notes. As is
common in stories of this
mode, the reader must
question what, if anything
took place, which can be a
comment on reality or
perception of reality.
Collage. A collage is an
assortment of disparate
fragments pasted together
and transposed into an
artistic composition.
Collages suggest rather than

tell, and can have the effect
of fragmentation,
disconnection and
isolation. This is an
experimental form of
fiction, but can be very
successful if there are the
symbolic and thematic
threads that tie the
fragments together.
Non-linear plot. Events
not in sequence, or not
having a beginning, middle

and end arranged according
to chronological or clock
time. This technique can
comment on the idea of
time itself and the effects it
has on man.
Anti-story. Plots are
truncated, distorted, or
abandoned. This technique
can comment on the idea
that the universe is not
rational or coherent, but
rather a meaningless
puzzle.
Lyricism. Breaking parts
of the prose into poetic
form. This can comment on
the poetic nature of life, the
short story form, the
character, etc.
There are many more aspects
of structure that you can use
in your storiesand
contemporary writers
certainly are inventing new

ones. One thing to keep in
mind: If you decide to use the
disconnected or incongruous
techniques, remember that
they are only apparently
disconnected or incongruous.
In actuality, the disconnection
creates coherence.
Like the form of the whole,
the structure of sentences
themselves can also comment
on content. Short, choppy

sentences can convey the
emotion or action of the
character, but can also convey
the choppiness of the
contemporary world.
Conversely, long, lingering
sentences and paragraphs can
convey not only drawn-out
action or emotion, but also
the nature of the lost or
wandering modern man. Like
symbolism, these techniques

cannot be forced upon the
story. However, you can
consciously use these
techniques in revision to
emphasize your point and
comment on theme.
Exercise
Take your 100-word story that
you wrote above. Now, see if
you can rewrite the story in
the form of a diary entry. Try
to keep the new story at 100

words.
Short Story Sub-Genres

To understand the
development of the short
story means to get a grasp on
what has come before. Just as
other art forms such as
painting, sculpture, and music
study the masters to

understand their own work, so
it is extremely beneficial for a
writer to study the short story
in its various stages.
Understanding the short story
as a genre also opens the
doors for you as a writer. By
reading the short story in all
of its forms, you come to
understand that there is no
formula that is right, no
cut-and-dried way to tell your

story.
Following are some of
the short story sub-genres and
some of the writers who write
in these non-traditional
forms.
Magical realism is a subgenre characterized by
fantastic detail, mythology,
parable and poetry. They
are often elusive, and
operate in a world that is at

the same time both real and
unreal. Gabriel Garcia
Marquez is considered to be
one of the leaders in this
sub-genre, and his stories
include Eva is Inside Her
Cat, A Very Old Man
With Enormous Wings,
and Eyes of a Blue Dog.
The lyric short
story concentrates on
internal changes, moods,
and feelings, using a variety

of structural patterns
depending on the shape of
the emotion itself, relies for
the most part on the open
ending, and is expressed in
the condensed, evocative,
often figurative language of
the poem. The essential of
storytelling are present, but
it is not plot development
that arouses interest. Many
of Jean Toomers stories can
be considered lyric short

stories. Toomers
book Cane is a collection of
lyric short stories and
poetry.
Short-shorts or flash
fictions are classified as
having less than 2000
words. The brevity of this
form allows for a
concentrated emotional and
intellectual impact. Franz
Kafkas Before the Law is
an example of such a story.

Metafiction is fiction
about fiction, where art is
an artifice in which the real
and fictional worlds are
inseparable. John Barth is
considered one of the
forerunners in this subgenre. His most famous
book Lost in the
Funhouse is a cycle of short
stories focusing on
metafiction.
Summary
In this lesson, youve learned
the difference between short
stories and simple narratives
and the elements that make up
short stories. By reading the
masters of the genre and
practicing, you will learn to
develop your own style and
unique way of telling your
story.
Works Referenced
Creative and Critical
Approaches to the Short
Story. Noel Harold Kaylor,
Jr., Ed., 1997.
The New Short
Theories, Charles E. May,
Ed., 1994.
Short Story
Theories. Charles E. May,
Ed., 1976.
Story to Anti-Story. Dr.
Mary Rohrberger, 1979.

Writing Fiction: A Guide to a
Narrative Craft. Janet
Burroway, 1992.
Dramatic Technique in
Fiction. Robert Bahr, 1998.
The Right to Write: An
Invitation and Initiation into
the Writing Life. Julie
Cameron, 1998.
The Norton Introduction to
Fiction. Jerome Beaty, 1996.
Handbook
Writing Short Stories 2:
Techniques
Objective
In this lesson, youll learn the
techniques that short story
writers use and learn how to
develop your own craft. To
understand what a short story

is and the different types of
short stories, you can refer
to Chapter 1, Lesson
Short Story as Genre.
Rhythm and Voice
Because the short story is
brief, every word is extremely
important. Along the same
lines, the rhythm of the prose
is also extremely important.
This is also sometimes called

your voice, how you say
what you say. There are
many techniques to
developing rhythm, but one
way to work on it is through
sentence length. Let your
sentence structure imitate
your action. For instance, if
your character is taking a
long, leisurely walk, try
writing in long, leisurely
sentences. Ultimately,
however, you dont want the
structure of your sentences to
distract from the action. Find
a balance where the rhythm of
your words works in tandem
with the action and feelings of
your characters. Because
poetry focuses on rhythm
also, for more information on
rhythm readChapter 1, Lesson
17, Writing Poetry.
There are basically two

methods of treating time in
fiction: summary and
scene. Summary covers a
longer period of time in a
short space, and a scenedeals
with a short period of time at
length. Summary helps give
background information or
leap moments or years, but
a scene is where significant
things happen in moments
and cannot be summarized.

Think of scenes as similar to
a camera zooming in on
something. Every detail,
every gesture, every word is
looked at close-up and with
extreme care. Because short
stories are full of conflict and
confrontation and turning
points and crises (Writing
Short Stories 1: Short Story as
Genre. ), they require scenes.
You must look very closely at

actions and words and subtle
facial expressions in short
stories, and this cant be done
in summary. Short stories are
about moments, and the
scenes that show those
moments are powerful for
writers and readers.
Exercise
To practice summary and
scene, think about something
that happened to you today.

First write a summary of the
incident in two or three
sentences. Then write the
same incident as if you are
zooming in on it. Write every
detail, every gesture, every
word, and every action that
happened in a two or three
minute span.
Tense
As far as tense goes, present
tense and past tense are the
two basic tenses used in short
fiction. It is generally more
effective to stay in one tense
all the way through a story,
though if there is a thematic
reason for jumping from tense
to tense, doing so can be

successful. Flashbacks are
one way to show past events
in the narrative time of the
story, which is when the
ongoing story flashes back in
time and the reader sees a
scene or scenes that help him
to understand the ongoing
story. Remember, when you
do use flashbacks, give the
reader a smooth transition
into the past and then back

into the present story time.
Though flashbacks are very
useful, dialogue, narration, or
a detail may tell the reader all
he/she needs to know, so see
if your flashback can be told
through the present story.
Too many flashbacks often
bog the story down.
Viewpoint
Someone must tell your
story. This someone is

called the narrator. There are
three basic viewpoints
through which stories are
told: third person, second
person, and first
person. Person refers to the
basic mode of a piece of
fiction. In the third person,
all the characters will be
referred to as he, she, or they.
There are different ways to
use omniscience with the

third person, but one of the
most effective is limited
omniscience, which is when
the reader knows the thoughts
of only one character. In
the first person, the character
telling the story will refer to
himself or herself as I and to
the other characters
as he, she, or they.
The second
person (considered a very

experimental form) is the
basic mode of the story only
when a character is referred to
as you. When anomniscient
narrator (or all-knowing,
when all of the characters
thoughts are known)
addresses the reader as you,
this does not alter the basic
viewpoint of the piece from
third to second person. Only
when you become an actor

in the drama is the story
written in second person.
In choosing a point of view,
the you implies an identity
not only for the teller of the
tale, but also for the reader of
your story. Most fiction is
addressed to a literary
convention, the reader. But
the story may also be told to
another character, or
characters, in which case the

reader overhears it; the
teller of the tale does not
acknowledge the reader. One
more way a story can be told
is to the self, which is very
intimate. An example of this
is a story written as a diary or
taking place completely in the
mind.
It is important to stay in one
viewpoint consistently
throughout the story unless

you are changing viewpoints
for specific reasons. In other
words, if part of your theme
in your story is to show how
different people think
differently about the same
event, you might write part of
the story in the first person
I and part of the story in the
third person he,
she, or they. Keep in mind,
however, that changing

viewpoints in a story jolts a
reader. What happens is that
the reader often has to stop
and even go back to see what,
if anything, s/he missed. And
your readers cant be
expected to do this. You want
them to be so caught up in
your story that they
experience the emotions you
want them to. Ultimately,
changing viewpoints should

be done sparingly and with
specific reasons when you are
writing short stories.
Characterization: Dialogue,
Action, Thought
Characterization is how you
develop your characters
through dialogue, action, and
thought. What your
characters say, do and think
are the crux of how your story
will be told. Depending on

the story you are writing, you
can use all three, or two, or
just one. Just like real people,
your characters will come to
life through their words,
actions and thoughts.
The purpose of dialogue in
fiction is never merely to
convey information.
Dialogue may do that, but it
must also simultaneously
characterize, provide
exposition, set the scene,
advance the action, and
foreshadow and/or remind.
Dialogue that is only there for
the sake of talking is
sometimes called pass the
peas, where the character is
only talking but nothing else
is being revealed. Look
through your dialogue to
make sure that first it is
absolutely necessary, and

second that it is revealing
something either about the
character, the scene, the
action, or something to come
(also called foreshadowing).
With dialogue, you will
convey information more
naturally if the emphasis is on
the characters feelings. But
this is easier said than done.
The trick to writing good
dialogue is hearing the

characters voice. Ask
yourself, What would he or
she say?
Exercise
A good way to practice
writing dialogue is to listen to
people in real life. Eavesdrop
on people anywhere, from
restaurants to bus stops to
airports to classrooms. Keep
a journal with you and try to
write down exactly what you

hear. If you hear an
interesting conversation, try
writing a passage of that
conversation. Try not to look
for words that seem right; just
listen the voice and let it
flow. You will develop your
inner ear and consequently
your own range of voices as
you listen to real people and
practice writing
conversations. Also, try

reading your dialogue out
loud.
In your short stories, examine
your dialogue to see if it does
more than one thing at a
time. Do the choice of words
and their syntax reveal that
the character is stiff,
outgoing, ignorant of the
facts, perceptive, afraid, about
to boil over? Is the conflict
advanced by no-dialogue,
in which the characters
say no to each other? Is the
drama heightened by the
characters inability or
unwillingness to tell the
whole truth?
Just like dialogue,
every action should have
more than one purpose in the
short story. This can be to
characterize, set the scene,
move the plot forward, or

foreshadow. Though what the
characters do may often be
important to the plot, often
the internal or mental moment
of change (or epiphany) is
where the action lies. For
example, the moment of
change may be the moment at
which the character decides to
do something, discovers that
an accident has happened, or
realizes that they were wrong

about something. This
internal change goes hand-inhand with either action or
dialogue. What your
characters do can often be in
conflict with what they think
or say, also. This adds depth
and complexity to your
characters. And remember,
the action that your character
does can often be the wrong
one; the reader can know

what the right action should
be, while the character does
the opposite.
Your story can either have
the thoughts of one or more
characters or no thoughts at
all. If the reader cannot get
into the mind of the
character(s), the conflicts
must be expressed in
contradictions outside of the
characters (such as speech

and action). However, if your
reader hears what your
character is thinking, the
conflicts in the difference
between what the character
thinks and how he acts or
what he says becomes
apparent. Ultimately, you
will want to listen to your
characters, let them tell you
what should be revealed.
Setting and Description

Like everything else in the
short story, setting and
description suggest more
meaning than just being
where the story takes place or
arbitrary details. Why does
your story take place where it
does? Is there a conflict
between the characters and
the setting and/or
description? Or are they
parallel to the
action/characters/conflict
etc.? Writers often use
symbolic settings such as war,
a farm, a city, an inner-city
project, etc. to give their
stories depth and meaning.
Description can also be used
this way. In this way, setting
and description comment on
the action, thought,
appearance, and other
elements of the story. Also,

setting and description can
arouse the readers
expectations and foreshadow
events to come.
Editing and Rewriting
Revision is an ongoing
process, and many writers
never consider their stories
ever finished. But the
advantage of revision is the
chance to see your story fresh
and creating it again. This revision, or seeing your story in

a new way, involves internal
and external insight. Youll
need your conscious critic,
your unconscious, and readers
you can trust. And, over time,
you may discover what your
story is really about.
One of the best things you
can do for your story is to set
it aside and not look at it for a
matter of days or weeks

until you feel fresh on the
project. This gives you some
distance on your story and
allows you to see it new
again.
When you think that you have
acquired enough distance
from the story to see it in a
fresh way, go back to work.
Make notes in your journal,
freewrite, write new passages
or dialogue. Try to write in

one sentence what your story
is about. Look for irrelevant
scenes, conflict, tension, and
crisis or epiphany. Make sure
that it is clear and that your
reader can follow the story,
and look for places where you
have told too much. Listen to
your characters and what they
are telling you. Keep a copy
of the story as it is so that you
can always go back to the

original, and then be
merciless with revising
another copy of the draft.
Remember, in the short story,
what is between the lines
often is most profound.
Summary
Youve learned some of the
techniques that short story
writers use to tell their stories
and the different ways you
can tell your own. Youve

also learned the importance of
revision and how important it
is to see your story anew so
that you can rewrite to make
your story better and better.
With practice, your characters
will come alive. And
remember that reading short
stories is one of the best ways
to learn how great writers do
what they do.
Works Referenced
Creative and Critical
Approaches to the Short
Story. Noel Harold Kaylor,
Jr., Ed., 1997.
The New Short
Theories,Charles E. May, Ed.,
1994.
Short Story Theories. Charles
E. May, Ed., 1976.
Story to Anti-Story.Dr. Mary
Rohrberger, 1979.
Writing Fiction: A Guide to a

Narrative Craft.Janet
Burroway, 1992.
Dramatic Technique in
Fiction.Robert Bahr, 1998.
The Right to Write: An
Invitation and Initiation into
the Writing Life. Julie
Cameron, 1998.
The Norton Introduction to
Fiction.Jerome Beaty, 1996.
Handbook
Writing Poems 1: What is a
Poem and How Do I Start
One?
Objective
In this lesson you will learn
what a poem is, some types of
poems, and some strategies
for starting to write a poem.
What is a poem?
Audre Lorde describes poetry
as "distilled emotion." Alice
Fulton describes it as a
"model of the way the world
works." We all use language
to communicate: we speak
and we write. Poets also use
language to communicate, but
not in the same ways as in
regular speech and writing.
The primary purpose of
language as we see, hear, and

write it in textbooks, on the
news, and in essays is to
convey information. Those
words serve a primarily
utilitarian function, but a poet
uses language the way a
painter uses paint or a
musician uses notes. The task
of the poem is to use the
sounds, textures, rhythms,
and images of language to
evoke emotional, aesthetic,

and intellectual responses in
readers and listeners. Poems
have ideas and places and
aunts and bathtubs in them,
all of which are important,
but the pictures painted are
secondary to the way the
language paints them.
What are some types of
poem?
Poems are as varied as beetles
and there are at least

450,000 species of those! The
best way to learn what the
possibilities are for poems is
to read poems lots of
poems. There are,
nonetheless, some general
categories that you can keep
in mind as you read and write.
First, let's look at categories
that reflect the way a poem is
built its form.
Fixed Forms: A fixed form

poem is one that fits a
traditional set of rules about
repetition, meter, rhyme, and
other patterns. Some
examples of formal poems are
sestinas, sonnets, villanelles,
and ghazals.
Open Forms (a.k.a. Free
Verse): An open form poem is
one that does not fit a
traditional set of rules. It still

works with repetition, meter,
rhyme, and other patterns, but
it creates its own set of rules
for how to use those tools.
Within the broad categories of
open and fixed forms are
some other divisions that
reflect what a poem's
relationship is to its subject
matter.
Narrative: A narrative poem
has the elements of a story

(see Chapter 1, Lesson
Techniques: Editing and
Revising), characters, plot,
setting, and action. It tends to
include events "out there" in
the world, though its subject
can be (and frequently is)
concerned with emotions and
other inner experiences.
Lyric: A lyric poem meditates
on one subject. It tends to

focus on internal experiences
without a strong storytelling
component.
Hybrid: A hybrid poem isn't
exactly a type. Rather, it is a
reminder that these categories
narrative and lyric are
not rigid. Poems can have
moments of each or may exist
in both modes at once; poems
may exist in another space
that is neither narrative nor

lyric.
These poem categories can
help you as you think about
the poem you are creating.
You might decide that you
like the challenge of writing
within a form, so you might
set out to write a villanelle.
Perhaps, part way through
your villanelle, you will
discover that the poem no
longer fits that shape. It wants

to take a detour and become a
more narrative, open formed
poem. As you begin to have a
feel for what the possibilities
are in poetry, you will have
more options in your own
writing. How do I begin a
poem?
As you set out to write a
poem, you will move through
two crucial stages: Getting
Started and Revising. In this

lesson, we will focus on
Getting Started. When you
are ready to revise, you can
visit Writing Poems 2:
Techniques and
Revision Getting Started: The
Creator
Beginning can seem like the
hardest part of a poem, but
once we let ourselves write,
the beginning is the easiest
part. As poets, we have two

minds: the creator and the
reviser. The creator generates
material; the reviser shapes it,
making the tough choices
about what stays and what
goes. If you let your reviser
start working before your
creator has a chance to finish,
you will have a hard time
getting started. Below are
some tips to help you start
your poem, but the most

important thing to remember
is to turn off your reviser,
telling this inner self to come
back later when your creator
is done doing his work.
The best and possibly the
only way to start a poem is
to start writing. Here are a
few techniques you can use to
get your creative energy
flowing.
If you are stuck, do

something you don't usually
do. Write in the bathtub or
in longhand, write outside,
write for 20 minutes
without stopping. Don't
worry about grammar or
eloquence or spelling. Just
get your ideas and images
on paper.
Find a "writing outfit"
something that makes you
feel outrageous enough that
you can get away with

writing anything a feather
boa, a floppy hat,
liederhosen, a chiffon ball
gown from Good Will.
Make yourself into a
character who can say
anything and get away with
it. (You might want to keep
this persona away from
friends, teachers, parents
the people who will remind
you that you can't say just
anything! The point is to

keep your creator protected
from the censors internal
and external.)
Get a special notebook
that you use for writing,
perhaps even a special pen.
Write in a new place: a
coffee shop, the bus station,
the library, a park.
Keep a list of words,
images, phrases, and ideas
that appeal to you. You may

not use all of them, but
when you are stuck for a
place to begin, you can use
an item from your "seed
book" as the starting point
for a new writing session.
Pick a beginning line
from a poem you admire.
Then, write a poem of your
own that uses that line as its
first line. (When you revise,
you'll want to cut the
borrowed line and keep

only your own.)
Describe the people
around you, the smell of the
grass, the music booming
through the floor from the
apartment below. Let
yourself keep writing.
Write nonsense because
you like the sound of the
words next to each other.
Write until you surprise
yourself. And then keep

writing about the surprise.
Frequently, we start writing
with an image or place that
inspires us, but as the poem
keeps going, it moves away
from that initial image, what
Richard Hugo refers to as the
"triggering town." Don't be
afraid to let your poems
wander from what they
originally seemed to be about.
Trust the writing to find it's

own meaning, separate from
the triggering subject.
Exercise
In the space below, write
without stopping or worrying
about grammar or
correctness. Write for ten
minutes about a place you
associate with a person who
raised you mother,
grandfather, foster parent,
sibling. Keep the person who

raised you in mind, but don't
write about him or her
directly. Instead, describe that
place that you associate with
him or her your mother's
office, your father's garden
in as much detail as you can,
and let those details show us
how you feel about that
person.
After you have generated

some material to work with,
you are ready to think about
how to revise it. How does
the mass of words in front of
you become a poem? You job
now is that of a sculptor: you
have hacked marble out of
your mind's hillside, now you
must shape it into a work of

art. Your reviser can come out
of hiding now. Summary
In this lesson, you learned
what makes a poem and some
types of poems. You also
learned some strategies for
getting started on your own
poem. The best way to keep
learning about poetry is to
keep reading it and to
experiment with imitating or
responding to what you read.

You can also keep your
creative mind sharp by trying
various writing exercises and
experiments. There are many
good books of writing
exercises. You might start
with The Practice of
Poetry by Robin Behn and
Chase Twichell.
Handbook
Writing Poems 2: Techniques
and Revision
Objective
In this lesson you will learn
about techniques that poets
use and will learn some ways
to use that knowledge to
revise your own poem. To
understand what a poem is
and the different types of
poems, you can refer

to Writing Poems 1: What is a
Poem and How Do I Start
One
The Reviser
No one writes a perfect poem
the first time: Elizabeth
Bishop kept unfinished poems
tacked to her walls for years,
waiting for the right word to
come to her. To revise your
poem, you must be able to
hear it with fresh ears. No,

that doesn't mean that you
need an ear transplant. It
means that you need to figure
out how to let go of your
attachment to the poem.
Some of us hate everything
weve written, and some of us
love it all. We can be so in
love with a poem so that we
can't see what would make it
better; sometimes we hate it
so much that we can't see

what is already good.
Whichever way you lean, the
key to writing a good poem is
to give yourself a chance to
look at the poem as if
someone else had written it.
Time is the best method
even a few days or a week
can allow you to have a fresh
perspective on a poem. But,
along with time, you can use
some other strategies to get

new ears:
Read it out loud.
Read it backwards, line by
line.
Have someone else read it
to you.
Sing it.
Play a drum to the rhythm
of it.
Print it out, then cut each
line or stanza out of the

paper and rearrange the
pieces, try at least three
different orderings and read
each one out loud, looking
for surprising and pleasing
connections.
Tack it to the wall by the
place where you do
homework so that you will
see it periodically as you
are thinking about other
things
As you revise your poem, you
need to have a sense of what
to look for. Trust your gut as
to whether something sounds
good, but also think about the
questions below. You can ask
yourself these questions as
you revise your poem, you
can use them as you read your
peers' work, and you can ask
your peers and writing tutor
to think about these issues as

they consider your poem.
Questions for Revision
Is my language concrete? Do
I show instead of just telling?
Concrete nouns are things
that we can touch, see, smell,
and taste: garlic, bamboo, a
white t-shirt, a Bowie knife.
Abstract nouns are intangible
and tend to describe feelings
or ideas: love, peace, anger,
democracy, war. Sure, poems

can be about abstract things,
but the best poems talk about
abstract things by using
concrete nouns. When readers
can see and feel the objects,
they are more moved by the
poem than they are by an
abstract discussion of the
idea.
Concrete nouns make your
poems more alive, more
interesting to your reader, and

they allow you to show your
readers the emotions that you
want to convey. You want
your reader to get as close to
feeling as you can get, but
saying "I missed her" won't
do it. Think instead of an
image that will let your reader
sense sadness without having
to be told about it: "The
daisies she gave me had
wilted in the vase. Limp

leaves clung to the glass,
abandoned by water. Each
morning, more petals littered
the countertop." Think of an
image that conveys sadness or
peace or grief or war or love
or desire and use it to show
your readers what matters in
the poem.
Exercise
Make a list of concrete nouns
twenty-five things that you

can see, feel, and taste. Pick
words that you like for their
sound and image: coriander,
coconut, velvet.
As you read over your list,

think about each item on it
if you close your eyes, can
you see it? If not, then it is
probably not concrete. Pick

the fifth, twelfth, thirteenth,
eighteenth and twenty-first
concrete nouns on your list.
Write a twenty-five line poem
using those words and three
from the following list:
bottlecap, macaw, recliner,
pencil, horseshoe, moose.
Pick either joy or loneliness
as the emotion of your poem,
but don't use any words that
are typically associated with

that subject. (That means
no hearts or tears or smilesor
sadness or happy or absence.)
How is my poem using the
music of language?
Poetry is about using
language to make music. It
takes advantage of all the
sound patterns in
language: consonance (simila
r
consonants), assonance(simila
r vowels), alliteration (same
initial sounds) Assonance,
Consonance, and
Alliteration),
and rhyme (similar word
endings,
like trance and glance,darknes
s
in and discipline, daze and al
ways). And it makes use of
rhythmic patterns: meter (the
patterns of stress in
words) and repetition (the
recurrence of phrases or
sentence structures). The best
way to get a feel for the
musical patterns in your poem
is to read it out loud. Pay
attention to how it feels in
your mouth. Does it sound
and taste good? Could you tap
your foot to it? Does the
rhyme sound too obvious, the
alliteration too much like an

advertising jingle?
One flaw to watch for in your
poem's music is an overreliance on ing verbs. A lot
of beginner poets think that
the ing sounds more poetic,
but in fact, the ing turns the
verb into a noun. The verbs
are all stopped; the only real
action in the sentence is
usually "was," which isn't
much as action goes.

Exercise
Revise the following sentence
so that all of the verbs are
active (not ing).
Dancing and singing, I was
running toward the gate.
[Our Example]: "As I ran
toward the gate, I danced and

sang." Yours may look very
much like ours. The action is
clearer and more active. In
addition, once we remove the
masking ing endings, we see
that the verbs we are using
are not as interesting as we
would like them to be. We
have uncovered a need for
revision. That's good news!
As a poet, be excited when
you realize that something

needs changing and that you
know how to go about it!
Music in poems also exists at
the level of the
sentence. Poetry allows
writers to bend the rules of
grammar in service of music
and meaning, but that doesn't
mean that the rule book can
be pitched out the window!
As you reread your poem,
look for passive voice, run

ons and comma splices,
and sentence fragments just
as you would in an essay.
Then ask yourself, once you
find these sentence structures,
whether they serve a purpose.
Does the fragment create a
rhythm and lack of action that
you want in your poem at that
point and could not get with a
complete sentence? If it does,
then keep it. For example,

you might want to keep the
fragment in the line, "I
stopped and stared. A dead
bird." The dead bird lacks
action, as does the speaker, so
the sentence fragment fits
with the movement of the
poem. But and this is
important don't just pitch
the rulebook on a whim.
Sentence structure matters.
You have more choices than

you do in an essay, but make
sure that you make your
choices for reasons.
Am I getting the most
mileage out of my verbs and
nouns?
Verbs and nouns are the
backbone of a poem, and the
stronger they are, the
healthier your poem will be.
One way to make sure that
you get the most out of your

nouns and verbs is to check
your adjectives and adverbs.
These descriptive words are
our way of trying to make our
nouns and verbs more
specific, but frequently they
are a signal that we need to
rethink our nouns and verbs.
If you write "walked slowly,"
you are using the
adverb slowly to specify the
pace at which the speaker

walked. However, if you
think of other, more specific
verbs that mean "to walk
slowly," then you may find
words that can help you to tell
us something specific about
the emotions of the person
who is walking
slowly. Strolled, crept, prowle
d, stalked, shuffled, ambled,
andsauntered are all verbs
that suggest slow walking, but

they imply very different
attitudes. Is your walker
arrogant? Then perhaps she
sauntered. Annoyed? Then
perhaps she stalked.
Depressed? Shuffled.
Carefree? Strolled or ambled.
The same principle applies to
adjectives and nouns.
Whenever you use an
adjective, look at the word it
modifies and try to think of

specific words that could give
you more bang for your noun.
If you are describing a "big
tree," could you
use oak or redwood to give
your reader a more specific
picture? If a "beautiful bird"
flew overhead, could you tell
us that it was
a hummingbird orGoss hawk?
(Note: you may be thinking "I
wouldn't know a Goss hawk

from a hummingbird if it hit
the window above my desk."
It doesn't matter. Poems are
about emotional and aesthetic
experience, not about a
completely accurate record of
events. If you need a Goss
hawk in your poem, put one
there.) When your nouns and
verbs are specific, your
poems have more life and will
have a greater impact on your

readers.
Exercise
How many different ways
can you think of to make the
words entered and left
more specific? When you're
done click below to compare
your list with ours.
[Our Example]: Entered:

burst in, slunk in, burrowed
in. Left: stormed out,
evaporated, fled.
You may have some words on
your list that aren't on ours;
we may have some that aren't
on yours. That's fine.
Everyone has her or his own
way of phrasing things. That's
part of what makes reading
different writers interesting!
What moods are suggested by

your revisions
of entered and left? Are any
of your verbs sorrowful?
Ecstatic? Reluctant? Defiant?
Hesitant? Determined?
Oblivious?
As you revise, look over the
nouns and verbs in your
poem. What mood do you
want your poem to have? Are
your nouns and verbs creating
that mood?
Exercise
Let's look again at the
sentence we revised in the last
section: "As I ran toward the
gate, I danced and sang."
Now that we've revised the
sentence to remove the ings,
we know that the sentence
still needs more work. We
need more specific verbs and
nouns to make our sentence
more dynamic. Can you think

of other verbs to use in the
sentence that will be more
specific actions?
[Our Example] Since we

know that our verbs and
nouns need some work, we
might write, "I hummed 'Hi
Ho Hi Ho' as I skipped out
the gate to meet Grace."

Notice that we've gotten rid of
the echo of the ing and
replaced it with the
consonance of "out," "gate,"
and "meet" and the
alliteration of "hummed" and
"Hi Ho Hi Ho" and "gate" and
"Grace." We've improved the
line in two ways: those
patterns of repetition are
subtler and therefore more
pleasing than the repeated

-ings in the original, and
we've made the action more
interesting!
Are my images working as
hard as I want them to?
With all this talk of concrete
language and verbs and
nouns, it should come as no
surprise that images, the
pictures painted in language,
are crucial to your poem. As
poets, we like to compare

things to each other through
simile and metaphor, using
the second thing to tell us
something new about the first.
Go for it!
A simile compares two
things to each other using
"like" or "as": "The sun
sprang over the horizon like
an Olympic hurdler."
A metaphor emphasizes
the similarities between two

things without resorting to
"like" or "as": "The sun
launched itself over the
horizon and detonated in
my flowerbed, shattering
the night with zinnias." In
the Exercise you did in
the previous lesson you
used a place as a metaphor
for a person who raised you.
The comparisons that we
draw between things give our
poems their tone and let our

readers know what our
concerns are. Frequently, we
can't even express certain
ideas without a metaphor or
simile! We can't, for example,
just say thatsadness is
like sadness; we need to
compare sadness to
something else in order to
understand it.
Two aspects of image are
particularly important to
successful poems.
Avoiding clichs.
Making sure that your
images work together.
A clich is an idea or image
that has been overused and
has become dull and
predictable. Some examples
of clichs include comparing
beauty to a flower or
something smooth to glass,
describing rage as "seeing

red" or youth as innocence.
Clichs make your writing
less interesting and less
expressive. As you reread
your poem, keep an eye out
for clichs and eliminate
them.
Exercise
We all know a slew of clichs
about color. We've heard
"emerald green" and "white
as snow" so many times that

we barely even think about
the image. But you want your
readers to think and to be
surprised. Compare "emerald
green" to "construction cone
orange"! The second is a new
image, one that surprises us.
In the box below, pick a color
and write as many ways as
you can think of to describe
it. Don't worry at first about
whether your images are

clichs, but after you have
finished the list, go back
through it and pick out the
most surprising and original
descriptions from your list.
[Our Example]: How did you

do? Did you come up with
one or two new ways of
describing your color? Our

list included: arresting red,
sleep-starved pink, green as a
gated neighborhood, a deep
shade of yolk. Notice that all
of these descriptions of color
are, in fact, metaphors. They
compare the color to
something else.
Summary
Writing a poem involves a
process of creation and
revision. As you create, try to

let your mind be as wild as
you can. Let yourself explore,
be weird, surprise yourself.
Later, as you revise, think
about how your poem could
be even better. How could it
be more original? How could
it more fully express the
emotional and aesthetic
experience that you are trying
to capture? In this lesson,
you learned some of the

techniques writers use to help
them revise poems and you
looked at some of the issues
you will want to bear in mind
as you revise your own
poems. Use those tools as you
revise; and make your own
poetry tools. As you play with
your poems, you will keep
coming up with new ideas for
ways to put words together to
make meaning. Whatever you

do, keep playing!

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Smarthinking Writer's

issues to form educated

that your position is the only

chance that s/he knows more

you become the subject-area

you'll be arguing your

professor will assign the

more than one view, or

example, it would be hard to

"should" or "ought" and

and "share" music on the

writer's intention can't be

evidence. You can't build an

reasonably can be argued

an issue that you are

does it represent a thesis that

Good reasons and logical

arguments appeal primarily

other children, as in recent

shoots her best friend. This

and have lost the right to

evidence that people are

this reason. Where would you

Remember: to convince your

position and address them.

give them a second chance.

what you want to argue and

consideration of the problem

Finally, in an argument that is

essay that argues a position

language to encourage people

become interested in their

you or to change a behavior,

argument, you also must

Written essays, television and

1. Audience and purpose

e.g., a school board, college

Who is this audience?

can accomplish. So, you need

that most people don't agree

step further and propose a

action. Let's say that you

by changing the types of

The lesson "Writing to Argue

What reasons are likely to

the students)? How much

shine through or they will not

sky" kind of idea?

but to recognize their possible

disposable tableware really

college administrators see

It can be challenging to think

Rhetorical Devices, or Style

How you state your proposal

strongest? Should you address

your opening and closing

means that your need to state

Consider whether your

6. Ethical appeals are appeals

difference in whether people

when you need to move

to answer test questions