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DRYING

A
B

Keey,R.B.

DOI:10.1615/AtoZ.d.drying

D
DALLTUBE

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DALTON'SLAW
DALTON'SLAWOFPARTIAL

Dryinghasbeendefinedastheprocesswherebymoistureisvaporizedfromamaterialandissweptawayfromthesurface,

PRESSURES

sometimes under vacuum, but normally by means of carrier gas which passes through or over the material [Keey (1992)].

DAMAGEINTERFACE

Commonly,dryingisconceivedastheremovalofwaterintoahotairstream,butdryingmayencompasstheremovalofany

DAMPING,OFHEATEXCHANGER
TUBES
DARCYEQUATION

volatile liquid into any heated gas. For drying, so defined, to take place, the moist material must obtain heat from its
surroundingsbyconvection,radiationorconduction,orbyinternalgenerationsuchasdielectricorinductiveheating;the
moistureinthebodyevaporatesandthevaporisreceivedbyacarriergas.ThisdryingprocessissketchedinFigure1.

DARCYFREECONVECTION
DARCYNUMBER
DARCY'SLAW
DARCYPRANDTLNUMBER
DATAFORMOLECULESOF
PRACTICALINTEREST

Figure1.Convectivedryingprocess.

DATINGOFARCHAEOLOGICAL
SAMPLES
DDT,DEFLAGRATIONTO

Dryinghasanumberofclosesynonyms.Dehydrationistheprocessofdeprivingamaterialofitswaterorthelossofwateras

DETONATIONTRANSITION

a constituent. The term is often used in fooddrying operations to describe processes which strive to expel moisture but

DELAVALNOZZLES

retain other volatile constituents in the original material, and which are responsible for valuable aromatic and flavoring

DEICING

properties.Desiccationimpliesamorethoroughremovalofwater.Itisappliedinthedryingoffoodstuffstoindicatealmost

DEBORAHNUMBER

completedehydrationofthesematerialsforpreservation.Thetermisalsocommonlyusedtodescribethethoroughremoval

DEBYETEMPERATURE

ofmoisturefromgases.

DECANTATION

Whileheatmaybeusedtodriveoffmoisturefromawetsubstance,moisturecanbeseveredfromitshostmaterialbythe

DECANTERS

actionofpressuregradients.Thisprocessisknownasdewatering,andisnormallyusedasaprecursortothedryingofvery

DECELERATINGDROPS
DECONVOLUTION,OPTICS

wetmaterialswhenthemoisturesolidbondingisnotstrong.Dewateringmaybeundertakenbymechanicalmeans,suchas
pressing or centrifuging. These operations are not considered in this encyclopedia since combined heat and mass transfer
processesarenotinvolved.

DEEPSHAFT
DEFINITEINTEGRALS
DEFLAGRATION
DEFLAGRATIONTODETONATION
TRANSITION,DDT
DEGENERACY

Watercanalsoberemovedbyosmoticdehydration.Foodscanbetreatedwithconcentratedsolutionsofsaltorsugartoattain
substantialremovalofwaterwithlimitedsoluteuptake.Theprocesshasbeendescribedintermsofcoupleddiffusionofthe
waterandsolute[RaoultWacketal.(1989)].Sludgeshavebeendewateredthroughtheactionofanexternaldirectcurrent
field;thisisknownaselectroosmosis [Yoshida and Yukawa (1992)]. These osmotic techniques also lie outside the realm of
heatandmasstransferprocesses.

DEGREESOFFREEDOM

Drying is an energyintensive operation of some significance. Estimates of energy demand range between 7 and 15% of a

DEHYDRATION

nationsindustrialenergyconsumption[Keey(1992)],butamorerecentsurveyfortheUnitedKingdomin1990suggeststhe

DELIQUESCENCE
DELTAFUNCTION

figure may be as high as 20%, an increase from the 12% obtained in a similar survey in 1978 [Oliver and Jay (1994)]. This
differencemayreflectthechangingpatternofindustrialactivityinthatcountryovertheperiod.

DENDRITELAYER

Althoughthedryingmediumisnormallyconsideredtobeair,thereareadvantagesinusingothermedia.Ifthesolidbeing

DENDRITICCRYSTALS

driedformsacombustiblepowderorthemoistureitselfisaflammablesolvent,thentheuseofaninertizedorinherently

DENSITYGASMODEL
DENSITYMAXIMUMOFWATER

inertgasisadvisable.Dryinginsteamhastheaddedadvantagesoflowerenergyuseandhigherheattransferrates.Above
thesocalledinversionpointtemperature, drying in steam is faster than drying in perfectly dry air at the same temperature.
Theevolutionofmoistureisuniform,andthisfeatureisobservedforexampleinthesuperheatedsteamdryingofwoodunder

DENSITYMEASUREMENT

vacuum, a process used commercially for the production of highquality seasoned board timber with minimum degrade

DENSITYOFGASES

causedbythedevelopmentofdryingstresses.Aclosedvacuumorhighpressurevesselisnotnecessaryforsteamdrying.By

DENSITYOFLIQUIDS

allowingairinthedryingchambertobedisplacedbywatervaporasthevesselwarmsupandmoistureevolutionbegins,

DENSITY,HOMOGENEOUS

thesteamwillremaininthedryerandnocomplexsealingarrangementsareneededfortheintakeanddischargeofsolids.
Steamat100Chasonly55%ofthedensityofairatthesametemperatureandthuswillremaintrappedinsidethechamber.

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DENSITY,OFTHEATMOSPHERE

Thepatentedtechniqueisknownasairlessdrying, and the arrangements for batch operation are shown in Figure2. If the

DENSITYWAVEOSCILLATIONS

ventedsteamcanbeusedforotherpurposes,suchastheproductionofhotwater,thentheairlessdryingsystemcanshow

DEPARTMENTOFTHE

considerablethermaleconomiesoverconventionaldryinginair.

ENVIRONMENT,DOE
DEPARTUREFROMFILMBOILING
DEPARTUREFROMNUCLEATE
BOILING,DNB
DEPHLEGMATOR
DEPOSITION
DEPOSITIONOFHOMOAND
HETEROEPITAXIALSILICONTHICK
FILMSBYMESOPLASMACVD
DEPOSITIONOFPARTICLES
DEPOSITIONRATEOFDROPLETS
INANNULARFLOW
DERIAZTURBINES
DERIVATIVE(DERIVED)UNITOF

Figure2.Anairlessdryingsystemwithheatrecovery.AfterStubbing(1994).

MEASUREMENT
DESALINATION
DESALINATIONOFOIL
DESALINATION,FLASH
EVAPORATIONFOR

Drying only takes place if the wet material contains more moisture than the equilibrium value for its environment. The
earliest ideas on convective drying implied that liquid moisture diffuses to the exposed surface of a wet body where it
evaporates, the vapor diffusing through the boundary layer into the bulk of the surrounding air. This view is clearly
unsatisfactory, except for drying of homogeneous materials in which the moisture is effectively dissolved. Mechanisms of
moisturemovementaregenerallymorecomplex.Mostmaterialsarecomposedofsubentities,suchasparticlesandfibres,

DESICCANTS

whichmaybelooseorheldinsomekindofmatrix.Thenumberandnatureofthevoidsbetweentheseentitiesandthepores

DESICCATION

withinthemgovernthequantityofmoistureretainedandtheextentofbondingtothesolids.Iftheopeningsformacapillary

DESIGNBASISACCIDENT

network,thematerialissaidtobecapillaryporous.Acapillaryporousmaterialmaybenonhygroscopic:thatis,themoisture

DESTRUCTIONOFSURFACES

held within the body exerts its full vapor pressure. This is a limiting case found in some coarse, nonporous mineral

DETECTIONOFCHEMICALAND
BIOLOGICALAEROSOLIZED

aggregates. Moisture is simply trapped between the particles. As the space between the particles becomes more confined,
vaporpressureisloweredaccordingtotheKelvinequation

POLLUTANTS

(1)

DETERGENTS
DETERMINANTS
DETERMINATIONOFMATERIAL
PROPERTIES:OPTICAL
TOMOGRAPHYAPPLICATIONS

wherepkisthecapillaryvaporpressure,p0isthesaturationvaporpressure,isthesurfacetension,isthemolarliquid
volumeanddpisthecapillarysize.

DETERMINISTICCHAOS

Hygroscopicitymayberelatedtothiscapillarycondensationinthevoids,butnormallyitstemsfromthestructureofthe

DETONATION

primaryentitieswith theirfinerpassagewaysandtheirabilitytoholdmoistureinavarietyofways.Material maynot be

DETONATIONWAVE
DEUTERIUM

simplycapillaryporous,butbecomposedofcomplexarrangementsofcapillaries,vesselsandcells,asseenwithmaterialsof
vegetable origin. Some of these may be described as being both capillaryporous and colloidal, composed of a matrix
colloidal by nature but developing a pore structure upon drying. Colloidal slurries of inorganic particles lose volume as

DEUTERIUMOXIDE

moisture is driven off until the mass becomes consolidated. Colloidal material of biological origin, by contrast, does not

DEUTSCHANDERSONEQUATION

shrink until condensed moisture in the intermiscellar spaces has been emptied. This condition is called the fibresaturation

DEVIATORICSTRESS

pointinwoodymaterialdrying.Thereafter,ascellularmoistureisexpelled,thestuffshrinksasthecellsshrivel.

DEVOLATIZATIONOFCOAL
PARTICLES
DEWPOINT

The ratio of the moisturevapor pressure to the saturation value at the same temperature is called relative humidity . The
lowertherelativehumidity,themorestronglyisthemoistureboundtothehostmaterial.ThefreeenergyGrequiredto
releaseunitmolalquantityofthismoistureisgivenby

DEWAR

(2)

DEWATERING
DIAMETER,HYDRAULIC
DIAMONDSHAPEDCYLINDER

for an isothermal, reversible process without change of composition. Isothermal variation of the equilibrium moisture

BUNDLE

content (which is a function of this freeenergy change) with relative humidity yields a moisture isotherm, and it is the

DIAPHRAGMGAUGE

desorptionisothermwhichisofinterestindrying.Moistureisothermsarenormallysigmoidinshapewhenplottedoverthe

DIE

wholerelativehumidityrange,butoftenasimpleexponentialexpressioncanbefittedoveramorelimitedrangeathigher

DIECASTING
DIELECTRICHEATING

relativehumidities.Thegeneralshapeoftheisothermreflectsthenatureofthemoistmaterial,asillustratedinFigure3An
exceptiontothiskindofbehavioristhatofinorganiccrystallinesolidswhichhavemultiplehydrates.Withthesematerials,
relativehumidityfallsinstepwisefashionwithlossofmoistureaseachhydratedisappears.

DIELECTROPHORETICFORCES
DIESELCONDITIONS
DIESELENGINES
DIESELFUEL

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DIESELJETDESTRUCTION
DIESELSPRAY
DIESELEMITTEDPARTICLES
DIFFERENTIALAPPROXIMATIONS
DIFFERENTIALCONDENSATION
CURVE
DIFFERENTIALEQUATIONS
DIFFERENTIALPRESSURE
FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIALPRESSURE
TRANSDUCERS

Figure3.Variationofrelativehumiditywithequilibriummoisturecontentfordifferentmaterials.AfterKeey(1978).
When pores in a solid are of molecular size, moisture can only be held therein by volume filling such that the adsorbate,
althoughhighlycompressed,isnotconsideredtobeaseparatephase.Thechemicalpotentialoftheadsorbentvarieswith

DIFFRACTION

the amount adsorbed, unlike the behavior at higher moisture contents when a separate adsorbate phase existswith

DIFFUSER

equilibrium between phasesand the chemical potential remains invariant. The fractional filling of these micropores is a

DIFFUSION

complexexponentialfunctionoffreeenergysorption,RTln.Withlargerporesizes,moisturecansorbinmolecularlayers

DIFFUSIONAPPROXIMATIONIN

onthehostmaterial.Considerationofmultimolecularadsorptionleadstotheequation

MULTIDIMENSIONALRADIATIVE
TRANSFERPROBLEMS

(3)

DIFFUSIONCOEFFICIENT
DIFFUSIONCOEFFICIENTOF
GASES

fortheequilibriummoisturecontentXatarelativehumidity,whereX1isthemoisturecontentforacompletemonolayer,

DIFFUSIONEQUATIONS

kisthe exp (H/RT),whereHis theconstant enthalpydifferenceinadsorptiveheatsbetweenthefirstandsuccessive

DIFFUSIONFLAMES

molecular layers of moisture, and C is a coefficient. When k is zero, the equation reduces to that for monomolecular

DIFFUSIONINELECTROLYTE

adsorption.Overtherange0<k<1,thisequationcandescribethemoisturesorptionbehaviorofmaterials,whichappearsto

SOLUTION

reach a finite moisture content as relative humidity approaches unity. This quantity is sometimes known as the maximum

DIFFUSIONLAW

hygroscopicmoisturecontent.Thisthreecoefficientequation(withC,kandX1astheadjustableparameters)hasbeentestedfor

DIFFUSIONPUMP

sorptionofwatervaporon29materialsatroomtemperatureoverawiderangeofrelativehumidity(from0.07to0.97)and

DIFFUSIVECONVECTION
DILATANCY

forsomeofthesematerials,overanarrowerrangeoftemperaturesbetween45and75%C[JaafarandMichalowski(1990)].In
mostcases,experimentaldatacouldbefittedtowithin8%uptoarelativehumidityof0.7,andinsomeinstancesoverthe
whole humidity range. To cope with the hygroscopic behavior at high relative humidities with colloidal material, which

DILATANTFLUIDS

swells with increasing moisture content, Schuchmann et al. (1990) have recommended that ln (1 ) be chosen as the

DILATIONOFGRANULARMATERIAL

dependentvariableratherthanyitselfinthecorrelation.Itisunwisetoextrapolatesorptioncorrelationsbeyondtheirtested

DILUTANTFLUIDS

range of relative humidities, owing to changes in hygroscopic behavior at extremes in this range compared with that at

DILUTESUSPENSION

intermediatevalues.

DIMENSION(OFASECONDARY
QUANTITYWITHRESPECTTOA
GIVENPRIMARYQUANTITY)
DIMENSIONALANALYSIS
DIMENSIONALANALYSISAND
SIMILARITY
DIMENSIONALEQUATION

Themannerinwhichamaterialdriesoutdependsnotonlyonitsstructurebutalsoonitsphysicalform.Thedryingofsmall
woodchipsiscontrolledessentiallybymoisturevaportransportthroughtheboundarylayer;veneersandthinslatsofthe
samewoodbythedryfractionoftheexposedsurface;whilethedryingofboardtimber,bytheinternalmoisturetransport
mechanismswithinthetimberitself.Earlyexperimentsondryingmaterialsinsampletraysinanairstreamhavenotedthat
initially, the drying rate was almost the same as that of a free liquid surface under the same conditions and remained
relativelyconstantasthematerialdriedout[Keey(1972)].Thisperiodofdryingisfollowedbyoneinwhichthedryingrates
fell off sharply as moisture content was reduced to the equilibrium value even though the drying conditions remain

DIMENSIONALMATRIX

unchanged.Thismarkeddifferenceinbehaviorhasledtothedivisionofdryingintotheconstantrateperiodandfallingrate

DIMENSIONALQUANTITY

period,respectively.Thekneeinthedryingcurvebetweenthesetwoperiodsisknownasthecriticalpoint.Sometimes,these

(VARIABLE)
DIMENSIONALSTABLEANODES,
DSAS
DIMENSIONALLYHOMOGENEOUS
EQUATIONS
DIMENSIONLESSGROUPS

periodsarereferredtoasunhindereddryingandhindereddrying,respectively,toindicatewhetherthematerialitselfplaysa
controllingroleinrestrictingmoistureloss.Appearanceoftheinitialperiodcanbemaskedbytheinductioneffectsatthe
start of drying as a moist solid warms up or cools to a dynamic equilibrium temperature, which is the Wetbulb
Temperature, if the surface is only heated convectively. This surface temperature is maintained as long as the surface is
sufficientlywettoeffectivelysaturateit.AnexampleofadryingcurveisshowninFigure4.

DIMENSIONLESSPARAMETERS
DIMENSIONLESSQUANTITY
(DIMENSIONLESSVARIABLE)
DIMERS
DIOXINS
DIPHENYL
DIPOLEMOMENT
DIRACDELTAFUNCTION
DIRECTCONTACTCONDENSERS
DIRECTCONTACTEVAPORATORS

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Figure4.Anexampleofadryingcurve.

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DIRECTCONTACTHEAT
EXCHANGERS
DIRECTCONTACTHEATTRANSFER
DIRECTCONTACTMASSTRANSFER
DIRECTINVERSIONOPTICAL
TECHNIQUE

Thereasonsfortheappearanceofadryingperiodofconstant,ornearconstant,dryingratesarecomplex,particularlyasitis
unlikelythatthereexistsafilmofliquidmoistureatthesurfaceexceptinrarecircumstances[vanBrakel(1980)].Indeed,a
constantrate period can be observed if the dimensions of the wet and dry patches on the surface are sufficiently small
comparedwiththethicknessoftheboundarylayer.Therequirementisthatmoisturevaporpressureatthesurfacemaintain
thesaturationvalueatthemeansurfacetemperature,andthustherateofmoisturelossoverunitexposedsurface(

DIRECTNUMERICALSIMULATIONS,

(4)

DNS
DIRICHLETCONDITIONS
DIRICHLET'SPROBLEM
DISCHARGECOEFFICIENT

)is:

wherepGisthepartialpressureofthemoisturevaporinthebulkofthegasandpSisthevalueofthegasadjacenttothe
moistsurface.Indryingcalculations,itismoreusefultousehumidities(ratiosofthemassofmoisturevaportothatofdry
gas),andtheaboveexpressiontransformsto

DISCRETEENERGY

(5)

DISCRETEORDINATE
APPROXIMATION
DISCRETEORDINATESANDFINITE
VOLUMEMETHODS
DISCRETEORDINATESMETHOD
DISCRETEORDINATESMETHOD
FORONEDIMENSIONALPROBLEMS
DISKANDDOUGHNUTBAFFLES

where y is a mass transfer coefficient based on the humidity difference; is the humidity potential coefficient which
effectivelycorrectsfortheintroductionofalinearhumiditydrivingforce[Keey(1978)];andYSandYGarethehumidities
atthesurfaceandinthebulkofthegas,respectively.Thefallingrateperiodbeginswhenmoisturemovementwithinthe
solid can no longer maintain the rate of evaporation, or if moisture content at the surface falls below the maximum
hygroscopicvalueandthepartialpressureofthemoisturevaporalsodwindles.Clearly,aconstantrateperiodmayneverbe
observedincolloidalmaterialdryingthatreachesunitrelativehumidityonlyatveryhighmoisturecontents.

DISKTYPECENTRIFUGE
DISKTYPESTEAMTURBINE
DISORDER
DISPERSEDFLOW

To a first approximation, the drying kinetics in the fallingrate period may be regarded as of the firstorder, and thus the
drying rate is directly proportional to the difference between the mean moisture content of the wet material (X) and its
equilibriumvalue(Xe):

DISPERSEDFLOW,INNOZZLES

(6)

DISPERSEDLIQUIDFLOWS
DISPERSIONINPOROUSMEDIA
DISPERSIONOFPARTICLES

IntegrationofthisequationyieldsthetimettodryfromamoisturecontentofX1toX2:

DISPERSIONRELATIONSHIPS,FOR

(7)

WAVESINFLUIDS
DISPLACEMENT
CHROMATOGRAPHY
DISPLACEMENTTHICKNESS
DISPLACEMENTTHICKNESS,OF
BOUNDARYLAYER
DISSIPATIONOFHEATFROM

whereaisacoefficientwhichmaybeproportionaltoamoisturediffusivity.However,thevalidityofthisequationisno
testthatmoisturemovementisbydiffusionasthisexpressioncorrelatesdryingtimeforanumberofmaterialsdriedinstatic
andfluidizedbeds,inwhichdiffusionalprocessesareunlikely[vanBrakel(1980)].Theappearanceoffirstorderkineticsis
sometimesreferredtoastheregularregimeofdrying.

EARTH'SSURFACE

There have been a number of attempts to provide a fundamental theoretical framework to describe drying and the

DISSIPATIVESYSTEMS

development of moisturecontent and temperature profiles in materials being dried. These include the use of irreversible

DISSOLVEDAIRFLOTATION,DAF

thermodynamicstodefinetheappropriatetransportpotentials[Luikov(1966)];theoriesbasedonmoisturevapordiffusion

DISSOLVEDSOLIDS

and capillary transport of liquid in porous media [Krischer and Kast (1978)]; and volumeaveraging the equations of

DISTILLATION
DISTILLATIONREBOILERS
DISTRIBUTIONS

continuity, mass and energy conservation which apply to each of the discontinuous phases within a moist porous body
[Whitaker(1980)].Whiletheseapproacheshavefoundsomelimitedsuccessindescribingheatandmasstransferprocesses
under certain idealized conditions, these theories are limited in application by the assumptions made to get numerical
solutions.

DISTURBANCEWAVES,INANNULAR
FLOW

Inpractice,moreempiricalapproacheshavebeenfoundwhichareusefulindescribingdryingbehaviorofactualmaterial

DISYMMETRYOFSCATTERED

underindustrialconditions.Onesuchmethodisbasedontheconceptofthecharacteristicdryingcurve[Keey(1978)].Thisisa

LIGHT

generalizeddryingcurveobtainedfromlaboratorytestsunderconstantdryingconditionswithasamplematerial.Itisaplot

DITTUSBOELTERCORRELATION

ofthedryingrate,normalizedwithrespecttoitsmaximumvalue(mW)intheconstantrateperiod,againstacharacteristic

DITTUSBOELTEREQUATION

moisturecontentdefinedastheratioofthefreelyevaporablemoisturecontent(XXe)tothefreemoisturecontentatthe

DNB,DEPARTUREFROMNUCLEATE

criticalpoint(XcrXe).Thesenondimensionalparametersthusbecome

BOILING

(8)

DOE
DOLINSKII,A.A.
DOMESTICWATERHEATER

and

DONNENEFFECT

(9)

DOPING
DOPPLERANEMOMETRY

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respectively.AnexampleofacharacteristicdryingcurveisshowninFigure5.

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DOPPLERBROADENING
DOPPLERBURST
DOPPLEREFFECT
DOPPLERGLOBALVELOCIMETRY
DOPPLERSHIFT
DOUBLEDIFFUSIVECONVECTION
INAROTATINGPOROUSLAYER
DOUBLEEXPOSUREHOLOGRAPHY
DOUBLEFLASHMETHODS
DOUBLEDIFFUSIVE
MAGNETOCONVECTION
DOUBLEPIPEEXCHANGERS
DOUBLINGTIME

Figure5.Anexampleofadryingcurve.

DOUBLYSTRATIFIEDDARCY
POROUSMEDIUM
DOWTHERM

Auniquecharacteristicdryingcurveisonlyfoundiftheratiooftheexposedsurfacetothematerialvolumeismaintained
constant or has a unique value at a given characteristic moisture content if the material shrinks. Strictly speaking, such a

DRAFTTUBEMIXER

curve is only found at extremes of drying intensity, when the materials moisture content is essentially uniform (low

DRAG

intensitydrying)orwhenthereisasharpfrontbetweendriedoutmaterialclosetothesurfaceandastillwetinterior(high

DRAGCOEFFICIENT

intensity drying). In practice, however, over the range of practical drying conditions, characteristic drying curves appear

DRAGFORCE

whendryingavarietyofparticulateandloosematerials,providedtheparticlesizeisbelow20mm[Keey(1992)].Thereis

DRAGFORCEONPARTICLES
DRAGINDUCEDFLOW
DRAGONAPARTICLE
DRAGONPARTICLESAND
SPHERES
DRAGONREACTOR
DRAGONSOLIDSPHERESAND
BUBBLES
DRAGREDUCTION

normallynosimplerelationshipbetweentheparametersfand,althoughtherearesomespecialcases.Firstorderkinetics
correspondtotheidentityf=,withdryingofpermeablematerialsapproximatingthisbehavior.Whendryingiscontrolled
bythedryfractionofexposedsurface(withthinsheets,forexample),thenf=2/3.Dryingofimpermeablematerialslike
heartwood timber corresponds approximately to f = 2. If no critical point is observed in the drying experiment, a
characteristiccurvecanbedrawnupbasedonnormalizingthemoisturecontentwithrespecttotheostensiblestartofthe
fallingrateperiod,providedasimplealgebraicrelationshipcanbefittedtothecharacteristiccurve.Theparticularadvantage
ofthecharacteristicdryingcurveconceptisthatasimplifiedequationcanbewrittentodescribetherateofdryingatany
place within a dryer if the humidity potential (YW YG) is known, where YW is the saturation humidity at the wetbulb
temperature:

DRAININGINTENSELY

(10)

EVAPORATEDWAVEFILMS
DREITSER,G.A.

ExamplesoftheuseofthisexpressiontodescribeindustrialdryingprocessesaregivenbyKeey(1978,1992).

DRIFTFLUX
DRIFTFLUXMODELS

Theintensityofdrying(I)isgivenbytheratioofthemaximumunhindereddryingrate(mW) to the maximum moisture

DRIFTVELOCITY

transferratethroughthematerialassumingadiffusionlikeprocess:

DROPFORMATION

(11)

DROPSHAPES
DROPSPLITTING
DROPTOWERS

whereDisamoisturediffusioncoefficient,X0istheinitialmoisturecontentandbistheeffectivethicknessorradiusofthe

DROPLETCOLLISION

material.ThissuggeststhattheproductmWbisausefulproperty;itiscalledthefluxparameter,F.IflnFisplottedagainst

DROPLETDEPOSITIONAND

moisturecontentX,aseparatecurveisfoundforeachinitialmoisturecontentX0inthepenetrationperiodasthemoisture

ENTRAINMENT,INANNULARFLOW

contentandtemperatureprofilesdevelopwithinthematerial.Intheregularregime,thereisacommoncurveindependentof

DROPLETDETECTION

initialmoisturecontentanddryingflux.

DROPLETGENERATION
DROPLETMEASUREMENTS

Undercertaincircumstances,dryingcurvescanappearwithbothnegativeandpositivegradientsindryingrateasmoisture
islost.Thedryingoflayersofsolubledyestuffscanshowdiscontinuitiesduetothebuildupandcrackingofsurfacecrusts,

DROPLETSIZEDISTRIBUTION

particularlyifthecrustisremovedperiodically.Thedryingofporousbodiescontainingamixedvolatilesolventmayalso

DROPLETSPRAYS

showperiodsoffallingandrisingratesduetoselectiveevaporationofthemoisturewithchangesinrelativevolatilityasthe

DROPLETSTREAM

compositionalters.

DROPLETSURFACETENSION
DROPLET/LIQUIDSEPARATION

References

DROPLETS

1. Jaafar,F.andMichalowski,S.(1990)ModifiedBETequationforsorption/desorptionisotherms,DryingTechnol.8(4),811

DROPS

827.DOI:10.1080/07373939008959916

DROPS,MASSTRANSFERTOAND

2. Keey,R.B.(1978)IntroductiontoIndustrialDryingOperations,Pergamon,Oxford.DOI:10.1002/cite.330510226

FROM

3. Keey,R.B.(1992)DryingofLooseandParticulateMaterials,Hemisphere,NewYork.

DROPSIZEMEASUREMENT

4. Krischer,O.andKast,W.(1978)DiewissenschaftlichenGrundlagenderTrocknungstechnik,3rded.SpringerVerlag,Berlin

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DROPWISECONDENSATION

HeidelbergNewYork.DOI:10.1002/star.19790310113

DROPWISEPROMOTERS

5. Luikov,A.V.(1966)HeatandMassTransferinCapillaryPorousBodies,Pergamon,Oxford.

DROWNINGOUT

6. Stubbing,T.J.(1994)AirlessDrying,inProc.9thInternat.DryingSymp.,GoldCoast,Qld,14Aug.DOI:

DRUMTYPESTEAMTURBINE
DRYCONTAINMENTS,FOR
NUCLEARREACTORS
DRYBULBTEMPERATURE
DRYERS
DRYING

10.1080/07373939908917642
7. vanBrakel,J.(1980)MassTransferinConvectiveDrying,Chapter7inAdvancesinDrying,1,(Ed.A.S.Mujumdar),
Hemisphere,Washington.
8. Whitaker,S.(1980)HeatandMassTransferinGranularPorousMedia,Chapter2inAdvancesinDrying,1,(Ed.A.S.
Mujumdar),Hemisphere,Washington.
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Articlelastmodified:10February2011

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DRYINGCHAMBERS
DRYOUT
DUALPURPOSEHEATPUMPS
DUBOIS'BODYSURFACE
DUCTILEFRACTURE
DUCTS,NONCIRCULAR,FLOWIN
DUFOUREFFECT
DUNEFLOW
DUST,ASANAIRPOLLUTANT
DUSTS
DUSTYPLASMAS
DWARFGALAXIES
DYELASERS
DYNAMICINSTABILITIESINTWO
PHASESYSTEMS
DYNAMICPRESSURE
DYNAMICWAVES
DYNAMICALSIMILARITY
DYNAMICS
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
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