American House Car 00 Hat Fiala

\
THE
AMERICAN HOUSE-CARPENTER
A TREATISE UPON
ARCHITECTURE,
CORNICES AND MOULDINGS
FRAMING,
DOORS, WINDOWS, AND STAIRS.
TOGETHER WITH
THE MOST IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES

OF
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
BY
HATFIELD,
R. G.
ARCHITECT.
FIFTH
EDITION,
Illustrated b
mote
WITH
ADDITIONS
tfian titfee twnfcrct)
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY, 167 BROADWAY,
1852.
'
*
ENTERED, according
to
R.
in the Clerk's Office
K,
G.
in the year 1844,
.V.
Y.
by
HATFIELD,
of the District Court of the Southern District of
CRAICHEAD, PRINTER,
53 Vtaey Street,
Act of Congress,
New
York.
PREFACE.
THIS book
intended for carpenters for masters,

journeymen and apprentices. It has long been the
complaint of this class that architectural books, inis
tended for their instruction, are of a price so high as

This is owing, in a
to be placed beyond their reach.
great measure, to the costliness of the plates with
which they are illustrated an unnecessary expense, as
:
illustrations
upon wood, printed on good paper, answer
every useful purpose.

distributed among the
which plates but
Wood
engravings, too, can be
letter- press
partially
an
advantage
of great
and
one
possess,
;
importance to the reader.

Considerations of this kind induced the author to
undertake the preparation of this volume. The subject matter has been gleaned from works of the first
authority,
tion.
and subjected
The
to the
most careful examina-
explanations have
all
been written out
from the figures themselves, and not taken from any

other work
and the figures have all been drawn ex;
pressly for this book.
has been taken to
In doing this, the utmost care
make every
nature of the case would admit.
thing as plain as the
PREFACE.
IV
The
attention of the reader
new
the following
describing the
is
particularly directed to
inventions, viz
an easy method of
curves of mouldings
three
through
given points ; a rule to determine the projection of

a new method of proportioning a coreave cornices
;
nice to a larger given one
way
to determine the
lengths and bevils of rafters for hip-roofs
proportion the rise to the tread in stairs
the true position of butt-joints in hand-rails
Many problems
simplified,
way
to
to find
a general rule for scrolls,

geometry, also, have been
the bevils for splayed-work
&c.
to determine
in
and new ones introduced.
Much
labour
has been bestowed upon the section on stairs, in which

the subject of hand-railing is presented, in many rehoped, more practical form
than in previous treatises on that subject.
The author has endeavoured to present a fund of
spects, in a new, and,
useful information
that
to
would enable him
it
is
the
American house-carpenter
to excel in his vocation
how
he has been successful in that object, the book

itself must determine.
far
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.
SINCE the
edition of this
first
work was
have received numerous testimonials of
published, I
its
excellent
practical value, from the very best sources, viz. from
workmen themselves who have used
the
have profited
by
to
and who
As a convenient manual
it.
reference in respect
it,
for
to every question relating
either
the simpler operations of Carpentry or the
more
and abstruse problems of Geometry, those who

have tried it assure me that they have been greatly
intricate
And, indeed, to the true workman,

in the study of the subjects of which this
assisted in using
there
is,
volume
it.
a continual
treats,
pleasurable interest.
source of profitable and
Gentlemen,
in
numerous instances
have placed it in the hands of their sons, who have

manifested a taste for practical studies; and have also
procured
for
it
the use of the
workmen upon
their
estates, as a guide in their mechanical operations.
was
not, then, mistaken in
of this kind
usefulness
taken in
was wanted
rewards
its
me
my
;
in
impressions, that
and
this
York,
Oct.
its
the pains
preparation.
R
New
a work
evidence of
a measure for
1,
1852.
G. H.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Art.
Articles necessary for drawing, 2

5
To prepare the paper,
SECT.
Angles,
point,
Polygons,
The
The
circle,
-
cone,
Conic sections,
The
The
ellipsis,
cylinder,
PROBLEMS.
To bisect a line, To erect a perpendicular, To let fall a perpendicular,

To erect ditto on end of line,
Six, eight
and ten
rule,
To
To
To
square end of board,

square foundations, &c.,
let fall a perpendicular
near the end of a line,
To make equal angles, To bisect an angle, To .risect a right angle,

To draw parallel lines, To divide a line into equal
parts,
To find the centre of a circle,

To draw tangent to circle,
Do.
without using centre,
To find the point of contact,

To draw a circle through three
given points,
11
use the set-square,

Directions for drawing.
13
To find a fourth point in circle,

To describe a segment of a
86
circle by a set-triangle, Do. by intersection of lines,

27
28 To curve an angle,
47 To inscribe a circle within a
56
given triangle,
58 To make triangle about circle,
61 To find the length of a cir68
cumference,
To describe a triangle, hexa71
gon, &c.,
72 To draw an octagon,
73 To eight-square a rail, &c.,
74 To describe any polygon in
a circle,
74
74 To draw equilateral triangle,
74 To draw a square by com-
87
88
89
DEFINITIONS.
Angular
To
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
I.
Lines,
Art.
17
...
80
To draw any polygon on
92
93
94
94
95
96
given line,
form a triangle of required
98
To
size,
99
To copy any right-lined figure, 100

To make a parallelogram
equal
to
a triangle,
To find the area of a triangle,

82 To make one parallelogram
81
91
97
passes,
75
76
77
78
79
90
101
101
102
83
equal another,
84 To make one square equal to
103
two others,
85 To find the length of a rafter, 103
CONTENTS.
viii
Art.
Art.
To
To
a brace, 103
ascertain the pitch of a
103
roof, To ascertain the rake of a
103
step-ladder,
To describe one circle equal
104
to two others,
To make one polygon equal
104
to two or more,
To make a square equal to
105
a rectangle,
To make a square equal to
106
a triangle,
To find a third proportional, 107
To find a fourth proportional, 108
To proportion one ellipsis to
108
another,
To divide a line as another, 109
To find a mean proportional, 110
Definitions of conic sections, 111
To find the axes of an ellipti112
cal section,
To find the axes and base of
find the length of
Do. from conjugate diameters, 118

119
Do. by intersecting arcs,
To describe an oval by com120
passes,
Do. in the proportion, 7x9,
121
5x7, &c., To draw a tangent to an el122
lipsis,
To find the point of contact, 128
To find a conjugate to the
124
given diameter,
To find the axes from given
125
diameters,
To find axes proportionate to
126
given ones,
To describe a parabola by intersection of lines, 127
To describe hyperbola by do., 128
%
DEMONSTRATIONS.
the parabola,
find the height, base and
114
axes of the hyperbola,
To find foci of ellipsis, 115
To
describe an ellipsis with

-
a* string,
To
describe an ellipsis with
130. 139
Definitions, axioms, &c.,
Addition of angles,
Equal triangles,
113 Angles at base of
To
isoceles
tri-
142
angle equal,
Parallelograms divided equally by diagonal,
Equal parallelograms,
115 Parallelogram equal triangles,
To make
116
gon,
To construct a trammel, - 116 Opposite angles equal, To describe an ellipsis by orAngles of triangle equal two
117
dinates,
right angles,
To trace a curve through
Corollaries from do.,
150.
117 Angle in semi-circle a right
given points, To describe an ellipsis by inangle,
tersection of lines,
118 Hecatomb problem, -
II.
HISTORY.
Antiquity of
its
Its cultivation
among
the an-
cients,
Among
the Greeks,
147
148
149
155
156
157
ARCHITECTURE.
Among
origin,
143
144
146
triangle equal poly-
a trammel,
SECT.
140
141
the
Romans,
18*
159 Ruin caused by Goths and

Vandals,
160 Of the Gothic,

161 Of the Lombard,
104
165
CONTENTS.
IX
Art.
Art.
Of the Byzantine and Oriental, 166 Extent of Roman structures, 202

Roman styles copied from
Moorish, Arabian and Modern
208
Grecian,
204
Origin of the Tuscan,
.
205
Adaptation,
169 Characteristics of the Egypt-
167
Gothic,
168
English,
Revival of the art in the sixth
Of the
century,
The
art
improved
in the 14th
and 15th centuries,
Roman
styles cultivated,
STYLES.
206
ian,
170 Extent of Egyptian structures, 206
.
171 Adaptation, 207
Appropriateness ofdesign, 208.211
172 Durable structures, 212
173 Plans of dwellings, &c.,
213
174 Directions for designing, 213, 214
Origin of different styles,

Stylobate and pedestal,
Definitions of an order,
Of the several parts of an
175. 185
order,
To proportion an order,
The Grecian orders,
Origin of the Doric,
Intercolumniation, -
.-
Adaptation,
Origin of the Ionic,
'-
Characteristics,
Intercolumniation,
Adaptation,
To describe the volute,
Origin of the Corinthian,
Adaptation,
Persians, -
Caryatides,
The Roman
orders,
SECT.
III.
186
187
188
189
190
PRINCIPLES.
Origin of the art,
Characteristics,
226
227
228
238
239
240
241
dec.
229 Antse caps, 230

CORNICES.
231
232 To proportion an eave cornice, 242

and
Do. from a smaller given

233
one, .
To describe the echinus,
Do. from a larger given
234
To describe the cavetto,
235
one,
To describe the cyma-recta, 236 To find shape of angle-bracket,
To describe the cyma-reversa, 237 To find form of raking cornice,
describe
scotia,
221
222
223
224
mouldings,
Designs,
220
Modern mouldings,
Profile,
To
neces-
MOULDINGS, CORNICES,
Grecian and Roman,
215
216
217
218
219
... .225
...
200 The dome,

202 The roof,
Roman
Elementary forms,
Stability,
Ornaments,
191 Scientific knowledge
192
sary,
193 The foundation,
194 The column, 195 The wall,
196 The lintel,
197 The arch,
199 The vault,
MOOTDINGS, &C.
Arrangement and design, Ventilation and cleanliness,
the
torus
243
244
245
246
CONTENTS.
SECT.
IV.
FRAMING.
Art.
248
of pressure,
248
Parallelogram of forces,
To measure the pressure on
ROOFS.
Laws
rafters,
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
Do. on tie-beams,
The
The
Best
effect of position,
composition of forces,
position for a strut,
Nature of
To
ties
and
distinguish ties
struts,
from
struts,
Lattice-work framing,
Direction of pressure in
raft-
ers,
Oblique thrust of lean-to roofs,

Pressure on floor-beams, Kinds of pressure,
Resistance to compression,
Area of post,
Resistance to tension,
Area of suspending piece,
Resistance to cross-strains,
Area of bearing timbers,

Area of stiffest beam,
Aft
Lateral strains,
Pressure on roofs,
Weight of covering,
260 Roof with a
262
262
263
263
264
265
266
Definitions,
Relative size of timbers,
To find the area of a king-post,
Of a queen-post, Of a tie-beam, Of a rafter, Of a straining-beam,

Of braces,
257 Of purlins,
258 Of common rafters,
259 To avoid shrinkage,
261
261
built-rib,
Badly-constructed roofs,
find the length and bevils
285
286
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
To
in hip-roofs,
find the backing of
To
rafter,
301
a hip-
302
DOMES.
With
303
304
Area of the ribs,
305
Curve of equilibrium,
306
267 To describe a cubic parabola, 307
Single-joisted,
To find area of floor-timbers, 268 Small domes for stairways,
308
Dimensions of trimmers, &c., 269 To find the curves of the ribs, 309
270 To find the shape of the coverStrutting 'bet ween beams,
271
Cross- furring and deafening,
310
ing for spherical domes,
Double floors,
272 Do. when laid horizontally, 311
Dimensions of binding-joists, 273 To find an angle-rib, 312
Do. of bridging-joists,
274
BRIDGES.
Do. of ceiling-joists, 275 Wooden bridge with
313
t^-beam,
Framed floors, 276
Do. without a tie-beam,
314
Dimensions of girders, 277
Do. with a built-rib,
315
Girders sawn and bolted,
278 Table of least rise in bridges, 315
Trussed girders,
279 Rule for built-ribs,
315
Floors in general,
280 Pressure on arches,
316
PARTITIONS.
To form bent-ribs,
317
Nature of their construction, 281 Elasticity of timber,
317
282 To construct a framed rib,
318
Designs for partitions,
282 Width of roadway, &c.,
319
Superfluous timber, 283 Stone abutments and piers,
320
Improved method, 284 Piers constructed of piles,
321
Weight of partitioning,
Bearers narrow and deep,
Principles of framing,
FLOORS.
horizontal
Ribbed dome,
ties,
-
CONTENTS.
Art.
JOINTS.
321
322 Scarfing, or splicing,
Piles in ancient bridges,

Centring for stone bridges,
Art.
332. 334
322 To proportion the parts, Pressure of arch-stones,

Joints in beams and posts,
Centre without a tie at the
base,
Construction of centres,
General directions,
Lowering
centres,
Relative size of timbers,

do.
Short rule for
Joints
between arch-stones,
Do. in elliptical arch,

Do. in parabolic arch,
SECT. V.
335
336
Joints in floor-timbers,
337
Timber weakened by framing, 338
Joints for rafters and braces,
339
Evil of shrinking avoided, - 340
-
323
324
325
326
327 Proper joint for collar-beam, 341
328 Pins, nails, bolts and straps,
342
329 Dimensions of straps,
342
330 To prevent the rusting of
331
342
straps,
DOORS, WINDOWS,
&c.
WINDOWS.
343 To determine the size,
To proportion height to width, 344 To find dimensions of frame,
Width of stiles, rails and
To proportion box to flap
345
shutter,
panels,
346 To proportion and arrange
Example of trimming,
Elevation of a door and trimwindows,
347 Circular-headed windows,
mings,
To find the form of the soffit,
General directions for hangDo. in a circular wall, 348
ing doors,
DOORS
Dimensions of doors,
...
SECT.
Their
position,
Principles of the pitch-board,

To proportion the rise to the
tread,
The
angle of ascent, Length of steps,

To construct a pitch-board,
To
lay-out the string,

Section of step,
construct the cylinder,
'To cut the lower edge of do.,

To place the balusters, -
351
352
353
354
355
STAIRS.
356 To find the moulds

.
357
rail,
for the
-
367
Elucidation of this method,

368
Two other examples,
369, 370
358
359 To apply the mould
360
plank,
To
to
the
371
372
362 Face-mould for moulded rail, 373
363 To apply this mould to plank, 374
To ascertain thickness of stuff, 375
364
WINDING STAIRS.
365 Flyers and winders,
376
366 To construct winding stairs, 377
361
PLATFORM STAIRS.
To
VI.
349
350
bore for the balusters,
CONTENTS.
zii
Art.
Art.
Timbers
to
stairs,
To
To
To
support winding
-
find falling-mould of rail,

find face-mould of do.,
Position of butt-joint,
To ascertain thickness
378
379
380
380
of
381
To apply the mould to plank, 383
384
Elucidation of the butt-joint,
385
Quarter-circle stairs,
386
Falling-mould for do.,
387
Face-mould for do.,
388
Elucidation of this method,
find bevils
work,
Another
for
splayed-
391
method
for
face-
392
moulds,
apply face-mould to plank, 394
To
To
395
apply falling-mould,
stuff,
To
To
bevil edge of plank,
SECT.
Shadows on mouldings,
Shadow of a shelf, -
For
curtail-step,
Balusters under scroll,
Falling-mould for
390
To
Round
407
408
409
Of a shelf of varying width, 410
411
Of do. with oblique end,
Of an inclined shelf,
412
Of do. inclined in section,
413
Of do. having a curved edge, 414
Of do. curved in elevation, 415
Shadow on cylindrical wall, 416
Do. on inclined wall,
417
Shadow of a beam, 418
Inclination of line of shadow,
To
Face-mould
VII.
396
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
rule,
describe scroll for rail,
389
apply moulds without be-
villing plank,
SCROLLS.
General
for
scroll,
do.,
over winders, form of newel-cap,
rails
find
SHADOWS.
Shadow
419
420
Shadow in a fireplace, 421
Shadow of window lintel, - 422
Shadow of step-nosing, 423
Of a pedestal upon steps, - 424
Of square abacus on column, 425
Of circular abacus on do.
426
On the capital of a column, 427
Of column and entablature, 428
Shadows on Tuscan cornice, 429
430
Reflected light,
in a recess,
Do. with wall inclined,
APPENDIX.
Page.
Glossary of Architectural Terms,

Table of Squares, Cubes and Roots,
Rules for extending the use of the foregoing table,
Rule for finding the roots of whole numbers with decimals,
Rules for the reduction of Decimals,
Table of Areas and Circumferences of Circles, Rules for extending the use of the foregoing table,
Table showing the Capacity of Wells, Cisterns, &o.,
Rules for finding the Areas, &c., of Polygons,
.
Table of Weights of Materials, -
3
14
21
23
.23
-
25
28
29
30
81
INTRODUCTION.
ART.
A knowledge of the properties and principles of lines
1.
can best be acquired by
Although the various problems
practice.
throughout this work may be understood by inspection, yet they

will be impressed upon the mind with much greater force, if they
are actually performed with pencil
and paper by the
student.
by practice he, therefore, who

would have any thing more than a theoretical, (which must of
Science
is
acquired by study
necessity be a superficial,)
art
knowledge of Carpentry, will attend

himself with the articles here
to the following directions, provide
specified,
and perform
ing pages.
ing,
Many
all
the operations described in the follow-
of the problems
somewhat confused and
may
intricate
appear, at the
first
read-
but by making one line
at a time, according to the explanations, the student will not
only succeed in copying the figures correctly, but by ordinary

attention will learn the principles
and thus be able

to
to
which they may

2.
The
make them
upon which they
available in
are based,
any unexpected case
apply.
following articles are necessary for drawing, viz
drawing-board, paper, drawing-pins or mouth-glue, a sponge, a

T-square, a set-square, two straight-edges, or
flat rulers,
a lead
pencil, a piece of india-rubber, a cake of india-ink, a set of drawing-instruments, and a scale of equal parts.
3.
The
ing to the size
Yet
drawing-board must be regulated accordof the drawings which are to be made upon it.
size of the
for ordinary practice, in learning to

1
draw, a board about 15
AMERICAN HOUSE CARPENTER.
by 20 inches, and one inch thick, will be found large enough,

and more convenient than a larger one. This board should be
well-seasoned,
perfectly
clamps on the ends.

the
little
at
square
board
is
the
corners,
better without clamps, because
service they are supposed to render
board from warping,
is
and without
by preventing the
overbalanced by the consideration that
the shrinking of the panel leaves the ends of the clamps project-
ing beyond the edge of the board, and thus interfering with the
When
proper working of the stock of the T-square.

is
and by exposing the rounding side to the

may be brought back to its proper shape.
For mere
4.
be what
is
line drawings, the
called drawing-paper
where much
will,
Cartridge-paper, as
as
is
used,
it is
make
fire,
or to the sun,
it
paper need not commonly

is rather costly, and
as this
quite
an item of expense.
by 26 inches, and of
called, of about 20
good a quality nearly as drawing-paper, can be bought for

and each sheet may be
cts. a quire, or 2 pence a sheet
about 50
cut in halves, or even quarters, for practising.

is
the stuff
well-seasoned, the warping of the board will be but trifling
to
If the
much used, as working drawings generally are,

is much better than the other kind.
be
paper
drawing
cartridge-
drawing-pin is a small brass button, having a steel pin

By having one of these at each
projecting from the under side.
to
the
can
be
fixed
the
board but this can be done
corner,
paper
5.
in a
much
better
manner with mouth-glue.
The
pins will pre-
vent the paper from changing its position on the board but,
more than this, the glue keeps the paper perfectly tight and
;
smooth, thus making
To
it
so
much
the more pleasant to
attach the paper with mouth-glue, lay
on the board
it
work
on.
with the bottom
and with a straight-edge and penknife,

cut off the rough and uneven edge.
With a sponge moderately
rub
surface
of
all
the
the
wet,
paper, except a strip around the
side up,
edge about half an inch wide. As soon as the glistening of the

water disappears, turn the sheet over, and place it upon the
INTRODUCTION.
board just where you wish
it
lay a
flat
ruler
of
the
upon
and within a quarter of an inch of
paper, parallel to the edge,

knife, or
Commence upon one
glued.
the longest sides, and proceed thus
With a
any thing similar, turn
against the edge of the ruler,
it
the edge of the papei
up
and put one end of the cake
ol
mouth-glue between your lips to dampen it. Then holding it

upright, rub it against and along the entire edge of the paper
that
is
turned up against the
Moisten the glue as often as
hand.
sufficiency of
it
becomes dry,
board, and lay

this,
upon
it
a strip of pretty
stiff
imparted to the glue that
make
Take
must be
Some
away
in a
until
warm
The
be
other edges in succession
more of the edges, may

the glue must again be applied,
and ready
the paper,
This
this as
may
must be taken
The
board must then be
and in a short
time, the sur-
out, perfectly tight
paper dries best

is finished,
when
and smooth,
the board
is
laid
lay a straight-edge upon
from the board, leaving the glued
may
with the sponge
Do
it
adheres.
drawn
the drawing
and cut
attached.
the board
The
for use.
When
if so,
it
or dry place
face of the paper will be
strip still
afterwards be taken off
which
will
by wetting it freely
soak the glue, and loosen the
soon as the drawing
is
taken
off,
in order that
be dry
when
that, in
applying the glue, the edge of the paper
it
is
wanted
does not become damper than the rest
must be
nail
to
short distances along one or
and the paper rubbed
paper.
and heat
same manner.
treated in the
afterwards be found loose
level.
rubbing
thumb
on the edge of the paper, you will
is
adhere to the board.
it
By
paper.
not very hard but pretty rapidly, with the
of the right hand, so as to cause a gentle friction,
laid
until a
rubbed on the edge of the paper.
is
it
left
the ruler, restore the turned-up edge to the level of the
away
upon
bearing moderately against
ruler,
which must be held firmly with the
the edge of the ruler,
for
if it
use again.
should, the paper
laid aside to dry, (to use at another time,)
sheet be used in
its place.
Care
and another
Sometimes, especially
when
the drawing board
paper will not stick very readily

culty
solution of
strong
accounts
is to
gum-arabic
be preferred
it
a sufficiency of
warm
It
oil.
to
must be applied
diffi-
be used, and on some

edges of the paper need not
may
for the
water
new, the
place of the mouth-glue, a
adheres more readily.
be kept dry, and
linseed
In the
be overcome.
may
is
but by persevering, this
make
it
Dissolve the
gum
the paper with a brush,
to
in
of the consistency of
when
turned up against the ruler, as was described for the

mouth-glue. If two drawing-boards are used, one may be in use
the edge
is
while the other
made,
it is
is laid
more
size to suit
and as they
may
be cheaply
The drawing-board having

may afford
the paper when this is of the
advisable to have two.
a frame around
rather
away to dry
it,
commonly
called a panel-board,
facility in attaching
yet
it
has objections which overbalance that con
sideration.
A T-square of mahogany, at once simple in its construcand

tion,
affording all necessary service, may be thus made,
Let the stock or handle be seven inches long, two and a quarter
6.
inches wide, and three-eighths of an inch thick: the blade,
twenty inches long, (exclusive of the stock,) two inches wide,

and one-eighth of an inch thick. In joining the blade to the
stock, a very firm and simple joint may be made by dovetailing
it
as
shown
at
Fig.
1.
INTRODUCTION.
The
form of a right-angled triangle

commonly made of mahogany, one-eighth of an inch in
thickness.
The size that is most convenient for general
is
7.
and
set-square
is
in the
is
use,
and three inches respectively
six inches
tain the right angle
for the sides
which con-
although a particular length for the sides is

Care should be taken to have the square
by no means necessary.
corner exactly true.
This, as also the T-square and rulers,

should have a hole bored through them, by which to
hang them
upon a nail when not in use.
One
8.
of the rulers
may be about twenty inches long, and

The pencil ought to be hard enough to
the other six inches.
and yet not so hard
retain a fine point,
marks.
It
should be used lightly, so that the extra marks that
when
are not needed

off"
the drawing
bed against the
be easily rubbed
best kind of india-ink is that which
The
with the rubber.
will easily rub off
9.
as to leave ineffaceable
upon the
teeth, will
plate
is
may
inked,
and,
be free from
when
be purchased of mathe-
matical instrument makers at various prices

dollars a set.
In choosing a
set,
from one
remember
lowest price articles are not always the cheapest.

prising a sufficient
number
made and
fitted in
rub-
is
grit.
The drawing-instruments may
hundred
the cake
one
to
that the
set,
com-
of instruments for ordinary use, well
mahogany
box,
may
be purchased at Pike
and Son's, (Broadway, near Maiden-lane, N. Y.,) for three or four

dollars.
The compasses in this set have a needle point, which
is
much preferable to a common point.

10.
The best scale of equal parts for
carpenters' use,
is
one
that has one-eighth, three-sixteenths, one-fourth, three-eighths,

one-half,
inch,
five-eighths,
and one
three-fourths,
and seven-eighths of an
inch, severally divided into twelfths, instead ot
being divided, as they usually are, into tenths.
By
this, if
it
be
required to proportion a drawing so that every foot of the object

of an inch,
represented will upon the paper measure one-fourth
use that part of the scale which is divided into one-fourths of an
AMERICAN HOUSE-CARPENTER.
inch, taking for every foot one of those divisions,
inch one of the subdivisions into twelfths
manner
for
every
in like
any of the other divisions

instrument in the form of a semi-circle, called a
in proportioning a
of the scale.
and
and proceed
An
drawing
to
down and measuring angles, is

of much service to surveyors, but not much to carpenters.
11.
In drawing parallel lines, when they are to be parallel
to either side of the board, use the T-square
but when it is
protractor, and used for laying
drawn
in a
direction oblique to either side of the board, the set-square
must
required to
draw
Let a
be used.
lines parallel to
(Fig.
b,
2,)
a line which
be a
is
which
it is
Place any edge, as c

then place the ruler,
d, of
line, parallel to
Fig. 2.
desired to
draw one or more
lines.
the set-square even with said line
h,
against one of the other sides, as c e, and hold it firmly

slide
the set-square
the
of
the
ruler
as
far
as it is desired,
along
edge
;
and a
as at/;
12.
as
line
To draw
drawn by the edge, /, will be parallel to a b.

line, as k I, (Fig. 3,) perpendicular to another,
the shortest edge of the

set-square at the line, a b ;
place the ruler against the longest side, (the hypothenuse of the
b, set
hold the ruler firmly, and slide the setsquare along until the side, e d touches the point, k ; then the
right-angled triangle
line, I k,
drawn by
;)
it,
will be perpendicular to
b.
In like
INTRODUCTION.
manner, the drawing of other problems may be
be d Jcovered in using the instruments.
facilitated, as will
Fig.
13.
In drawing a problem, proceed, with the pencil sharpened
a point, to lay
down
the several lines until the whole figure
observing to
completed;
several angles, instead of
let
is
the lines cross each other at the
By
merely meeting.
of every line will be clearly defined.
this,
the length
With a drop
or
two of
water, rub one end of the cake of ink upon a plate or saucer,
until a sufficiency adheres to it.
Be careful to dry the cake of
ink because if it is left wet, it will crack and crumble in pieces.
;
With an
inferior camel's-hair pencil,
add a
ink that was rubbed on the plate, and mix
it
little
well.
diluted sufficiently to flow freely from the pen,
enough
little
to
make a black
line.
With
water to the
It
and yet be thick
the hair pencil, place a
of the ink between the nibs of the drawing-pen,
the nibs together until the pen makes a fine
with the curved

being careful
lines,
now
to
should be
line.
and screw
Beginning
proceed to ink all the lines of the figure
make every
line of its requisite length.
If
drawing will have a

to
and
this
is
that neatness and
ragged appearance;
opposed
accuracy which is indispensable to a good drawing. When the
If
ink is dry, efface the pencil-marks with the india-rubber.
they are a
trifle
too short or too long, the
8
the pencil
lines
used
is
they will
lightly,
all
rub
off,
leaving those
only that were inked.
14.
In problems,
all
drawn
auxiliary lines are
light
while
the lines given and those sought, in order to be distinguished at
made much
a glance, are
so,
heavier.
The heavy
lines are
made
by passing over them a second time, having the nibs of the
pen separated
If the
heavy
far
enough
lines are
to
made
make
the lines as
before the
heavy as
drawing
the rubber, they will not appear so black and neat

india-rubber takes
away
part of the ink.
If the
desired.
cleaned with
is
because the
drawing
is
ground-plan or elevation of a house, the shade-lines, as they are

termed, should not be put in until the drawing is shaded as
;
there is danger of the
heavy
lines spreading,
when
the brush, in
shading or coloring, passes over them. If the lines are inked

with common writing-ink, they will, however fine
they may be
be
to
the
same
evil
for
which
made,
subject
india-ink
;
reason,
is
the only kind to be used.
THE
SECTION L PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
DEFINITIONS.
treats of the properties of
15.
Geometry
16.
A point has neither length, breadth, nor thickness.
17.
A line
magnitudes.
18.
has length only.

Superficies has length and breadth only.
19.
A plane
direction
is
a surface, perfectly straight and even in every

when not warped nor winding.
as the face of a panel
20.
A solid has
21.
drawn between two

22.
23.
length, breadth
right, or straight, line
and thickness.
is
the shortest that can be
points.
Parallel lines are equi-distant throughout their length.

An angle is the inclination of two lines towards one
another.
(Fig.
4.)
Fig.
4.
Fig.
5.
Fig.
&
10
24.
(Fig.
right angle has one line perpendicular to the other.
5.)
An
25.
oblique angle
(Fig. 4 and
angle.
is
either greater or less than a right
6.)
An acute angle is less than a right angle. {Fig- 4.)

27.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. (Fig. 6.)
When an angle is denoted by three letters, the middle one, in
26.
the order they stand, denotes the angular point, and the other
two the sides containing the angle thus, let a b c, (Fig. 4,) be
the angle, then b will be the angular point, and a b and b c will
be the two sides containing that angle.
;
28.
(Fig.
triangle
7, 8,
is
a superficies having three sides and

angles,
9 and 10.)
Fig.
An
29.
(Fig.
equi-lateral
7.
Fig.
has
triangle
its
three sides
equal.
7.)
30.
An
31.
A scalene
isoceles triangle has only
triangle has
all its
two
sides equal.
sides unequal.
(Fig.
8.)
(Fig. 9)
Fig. 10.
32.
A right-angled triangle
33.
An
(Fig. 7 and
An
34.
(Fig.
8.)
obtuse-angled
triangle
has
one
obtuse
angle.
9.)
35.
to
acute-angled
has one right angle.

(Fig. 10.)
triangle has all its angles acute.
16.)
A quadrangle has four
sides
and four angles.
(Fig. 11
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 11.
36.
37.
and
angles.
38.
A square is
A rhombus
a parallelogram,
is
rectangle
lique angles.
its
opposite
its
angles being right
12.)
a rectangle having equal sides.
an
is
equi-lateral parallelogram
(Fig.
11.)
having ob-
(Fig. 13.)
Fig. 13.
40.
a quadrangle having
(Fig. 11 to 14.)
(Fig. 11
39.
is
parallelogram
sides parallel.
11
rhomboid
Fig. 14.
a parallelogram having oblique angles.
is
(Fig. 14.)
41.
trapezoid
is
a quadrangle having only two of
Fig. 15.
trapezium
sides parallel.
is
Fig. 16.
a quadrangle
which has no two of
its
(Fig. 16.)
44.
A polygon is a figure bounded by right lines.

A regular polygon has its sides and angles
45.
An
46.
43.
sides
(Fig. 15.)
parallel.
42.
its
equal.
irregular polygon has its sides and angles unequal.

trigon is a polygon of three sides, (Fig. 7 to 10 ;)
a tetragon has four
sides,
(Fig. 11 to 16
;)
a pentagon has
12
five,
(Fig. 17
;)
a hexagon
six,
(Fig. 18
;)
a heptagon seven,
a nonagon nine; a
(Fig. 19;) an octagon eight, (Fig. 20;)
twelve
ten an undecagon eleven and a dodecagon
decagon
sides.
47.
circle is
circumference
a figure bounded by a curved
which
tain point within, called
The
Fig. 20.
Fig. 19.
Fig. IS.
Fig. 17.
circumference
is
is
its
line, called
the
every where equi-distant from a cercentre.
also called the periphery,
and sometimes
the circle.
The radius
48.
centre to
any
of a circle
is
a right line drawn from the
point in the circumference,
(a
6,
Fig. 21.)
All the radii of a circle are equal.
Fijr. 21.
The diameter
49.
is
a right line passing through the centre,
and terminating at two opposite points

Hence it is twice the length of the radius,
50.
An
bed, Fig.
61.
(b d,
arc of a circle
is
in the circumference.
(c d, Fig. 21.)
a part of the circumference, (c b or
21.)
chord
Fig. 21.)
is
a right
line joining the extremities of
an
arc.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
A segment is
52.
chord.
its
two
sector
is
drawn
radii,
54.
part of a circle
bounded by an
55.
56.
bounded by an arc and
part of a circle
any
to its extremities.
(B, Fig. 21.)
quadrant, or quarter of a circle,
quarter of the circumference for
a right
is
tangent
touches, without cutting
cone
is
its arc.
a sector having a
(C, Fig. 21.)
which
line,
is
in passing a curve,
it.
(fg, Fig. 21.)
a solid figure standing upon a circular base
diminishing in straight lines to a point at the"

vertex.
top,
called
its
(Fig. 22.)
d
Fig. 23.
Fig. 22.
The
57.
and
arc
(A, Fig. 21.)
53.
any
13
axis of a cone
is
a right line passing through
it,
from
the vertex to the centre of the circle at the base.
An
58.
ellipsis is described if a cone be cut
(a
b,
plane, not
Fig. 23.)
59.
parallel to
by a
through the curved surface,
parallel to its base, passing quite
d being
60.
parallel
vertex,
61.
parabola
is
described
if
a cone be cut by a plane,
a plane touching the curved surface,

parallel
An
to
(c d,
Fig. 23
tofg.)
hyperbola
is
described
if
a cone be cut by a plane,
any plane within the cone
(e h, Fig. 23.)
Foci are the points
scribing an ellipse.
at
that passes through
which the pins
its
are placed in de-
(See Art. 115, and/,/, Fig. 24.)
14
The
62.
(a
ellipsis,
ellipsis
is,
the
is
shortest diameter
of
the
therefore, at right angles to the transverse axis.
The parameter
64.
an
ted
and
conjugate axis
Fig. 24)
(c d,
of
the longest diameter of the
is
Fig. 24.)
6,
The
63.
axis
transverse
ellipsis, at
by
is
a right line passing through the focus
right angles to the transverse axis,
(g h and
the curve,
t,
and termina-
Fig. 24.)
diameter of an ellipsis is any right line passing

n
the
(k /, or
centre, and terminated by the curve,
through
65.
Fig. 24.)
66.
diameter
a tangent drawn
ter,
is
conjugate
at the
to another
when
extremity of that other
it is
thus, the diame-
m n, (Fig. 24,) being parallel to the tangent, o p,
conjugate to the diameter,

67.
of an
A double
ellipsis,
that diameter,
68.
ordinate
and drawn
(i t,
parallel to
is
therefore
I.
is
any
right line, crossing a diameter
parallel to
a tangent at the extremity of
Fig. 24.)
a solid generated by the revolution of a
A cylinder is
right-angled parallelogram, or rectangle, about one of
its
and consequently the ends of the :ylinder are equal
(1^.26.)
sides
circles.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig. 25.
69.
The
15
Fig. 26.
axis of a cylinder
from the centres of the two
is
circles
a right line passing through
it,
which form the ends.
A segment of a cylinder is comprehended under three

and
the curved surface of the cylinder.
Two of these
planes,
70.
are segments of circles
by way
the other plane
is
a parallelogram, called
of distinction, the plane of the segment.
segments are
called, the
ends of the cylinder.
The
(Fig. 26.)
circular
PROBLEMS.
RIGHT LINES AND ANGLES.
71.
To
bisect
&T,) as centres,
line.
with any
Upon
the ends of the line,
and the
line,
point,
e,
6,
(Fig.
distance for radius greater than hall
describe arcs cutting each other in c
6,
c d,
where
it
cuts
6,
and d ; draw the
line,
will be the middle of the
b.
practice, a line is generally divided with the compasses, or

dividers but this problem is useful where it is desired to draw,
at the middle of another line, one at right angles to it.
(See
Art. 85.)
In
Fig.
72.
To
erect
528.
a perpendicular.
From the point,
a,
(Fig. 28,)
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
set off
upon
distance, as
any
c,
as a centre, with
describe
an
another at
b,
17
and the same distance from a
any distance
for radius greater
to c ;
than
c a,
; upon 6, with the same radius, describe

join d and a, and the line, d a, will be the per-
arc at
d;
pendicular required.
This, and the three following problems, are more easily performed by the use of the set-square (see Art. 12.) Yet they
are useful when the operation is so large that a set-square cannot
be used.
Fig. 29.
73.
To
let
fall a perpendicular.
Let
a,
(Fig. 29,) be the
from which the perpendicular is repoint, above the line, b c,

quired to fall. Upon a, with any radius greater than a d, describe an arc, cutting b c at e and/; upon the points, e and/,
with any radius greater than
other at
g;
join
e d, describe
a and g, and
the
line,
arcs, cutting
each
d, will be the perpen-
dicular required.
Fig. 30.
74.
To
erect
(Fig. 30,) at the

perpendicular
is
a perpendicular at the end of a line. Let a,

end of the line, c a, be the point at which the
to be erected.
Take any point, as 6, above the
3
18
line,
c a,
and with the
through d and
b,
a, describe
radius, b
draw the
line,
be the perpendicular required.

The principle here made use
e ; join e
of, is
the arc,
and
a,
d a
a very important one
applied in many other cases (see Art. 81,

For proof of its correctness, see Art. 156.)
is
6,
e,
then e a will
and
and Art.
84.
Fig. 31.
74, a.
line,
6,
second method.
Let
be the point at which
it
b,
(Fig. 31 ,) at the end of the
is
required to erect a perpen-
dicular.
Upon b, with any radius less than b a, describe the arc,
c e d ; upon c, with the same radius, describe the small arc at e,
and upon
e,
another at
upon
and
d,
with the same or any
other radius greater than half e d, describe arcs intersecting

join /and 6,
at/;
and the line,/ 6, will be the perpendicular required.
d
Fig. 32.
at
74, b.
which
it is
third method.
Let
6,
(Fig. 32,) be the given point
required to erect a perpendicular.
Upon b with any

d ef; upon d, with
upon e, another at c /
radius less than b a, describe the

quadrant,
the same radius, describe an arc at e, and
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
through d and e, draw d c, cutting the arc in
then c b will be the perpendicular required.
19
c ; join c
and
6,
This problem can be solved by the six, eight and ten rule,
as it is called
which is founded upon the same principle as
the problems at Art. 103, 104 and is applied as follows. Let
a d, (Pig. 30,) equal eight, and a e, six then, if d e equals ten,
the angle, e a d, is a right angle.
Because the square of six
and that of eight, added together, equal the square of ten, thus :
;
x6
100.
36,
Any
and 8 x 8
64
36
64
and 10 x 10
six, eight and
4 and 5, or 12, 16 and
100,
taken in the same proportion, as
sizes,
produce the same effect as 3,

(See note to Art. 103.)
By the process shown at Fig. 30, the end of a board may be
squared without a carpenters'-square. All that is necessary is a
Let c a be the edge of the board,
pair of compasses and a ruler.
and a the point at which it is required to be squared. Take the
point, b, as near as possible at an angle of forty-five degrees, or on
a mitre-line, from a, and at about the middle of the board.
This
is not necessary to the
working of the problem, nor does it affect
its accuracy, but the result is more easily obtained.
Stretch the
compasses from b to a, and then bring the leg at a around to d ;
draw a line from d, through b, out indefinitely take the disten, will
20.
tance, d b, arid place it from b to e ; join e and a ; then e a will

be at right angles to c a. In squaring the foundation of a building, or laying-out a garden, a rod
instead of compasses and ruler.
75.
Let
e,
To
and chalk-line may be used
fall a perpendicular near the end of a line.

(Fig. 30,) be the point above the line, c a, from which the
let
perpendicular
is
required to
obliquely to the
radius, b
e,
line,
From
fall.
bisect e
describe the arc, e
a d
e,
draw any
at
; join e
line, as e d,
b ; upon 6, with the

and a ; then e a will
be the perpendicular required.
d
Fig. 33.
76.
To make an angle,
angle, (as b a
c.)
describe the arc,
From
be;
(as e
df, Fig.
33,)
the angular point, a,
and with the same
equal to a given
with any radius
radius,
on the
line,
c,
20
and from the
point,
rf,
arc,fg; take the
describe the
distance,
6 c, and upon g, describe the small arc at/; join /and

the angle, e df, will be equal to the angle, b a c.
d ; and
If the given line upon which the angle is to be made, is situated parallel to the similar line of the given angle, this may be
more readily with the set-square. (See Art. 11.)
performed
Fig. 34.
To
77.
to
bisect
be bisected.
upon a and
c,
an angle.
Let a b
c,
(Fig. 34,) be the angle
Upon b, with any radius, describe the arc, a c ;

with a radius greater than half a e, describe arcs
cutting each other at
and d ; and 6 d will
join b
bisect the
angle, a b c, as was required.

This problem is frequently made use of in solving other problems it should therefore be well impressed upon the memory.
;
Fig. 35.
78.
To
trisect
a right angle.
radius, describe the arc, b c
upon
describe arcs cutting the arc, b

lines to a,
The
and they will
truth of this
c,
Upon
6
at
trisect the
and
c,
d and
(Fig. 35,) with any

with the same radius,
a,
e ;
angle as
from d and
was
e,
draw
required.
made evident by
the following operation.

Divide a circle into quadrants also, take the radius in the diviThis will divide the
ders, and space off the circumference.
is
circumference into just six parts.
A semi-circumference,
there-
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
21
equal to three, and a quadrant to one anti

The radius, therefore, is equal to | of a
parts.
this is equal to a right angle.
fore, is
a half of those
quadrant
and
Fig. 36.
draw a line parallel to a

be
the
a, (Fig. 36,)
given point, and b c the
Upon any point, as c?, in the line, b c, with the
Through a given
79.
given
line.
given
line.
radius,
a, describe the arc,
describe the arc,
draw the
This
is
point, to
Let
line, e
e ;
make d
which
upon the same
upon
c;
a,
e equal to
with the same radius,

a c ; through e and a,
will be the line required.
principle as Art. 76.
any number of equal parts.

Let a A, (Fig. 37,) be the given line, and 5 the number of parts.
Draw a c, at any angle to a b ; on a c, from a, set off 5 equal
To divide a given
80.
parts of
any
the points,
c b ;
which
The
length, as at
1.
2,
3 and
4,
line into
4 and c
1, 2, 3,
draw
will divide the line,
lines,
and a
c,
join c
e,
2/, 3
b,
as
was
and b
and 4
through
A, parallel to
required.
are divided in the
same
proportion.
(See Art. 109.)
THE
81.
To find
the centre of
CIRCLE.
circle.
Draw any
chord, as
6,
(Fig. 38,) and bisect
with the
line,
81, a.
it
ef, as at
with the perpendicular,
g;
then
second method.
is
the centre as
Upon any two
d;
bisect c
was
required.
points in the cir-
cumference nearly opposite, as a and 6. (Fig. 39,) describe arcs

cutting each other at c and d : take any other two joints, as e
and/, and describe arcs intersecting as at g and h

and c and d ; the intersection, o, is the centre.
This
81> &
is
upon the fame
join
6,
g and h,
principle as Art. 85.
method.
Draw any
chord, as
40,)
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
and from the
c
and b
point, a,
; bisect c b at
draw a
which
c,
23
at right angles to
a b
join
will be the centre of the circle.
If a circle be not too large for the purpose, its centre may very
readily be ascertained by the help of a carpenters'-square, thus
app y the corner of the square to any point in the circumference,
as at a ; by the edges of the square, (which the lines, a b and
a c, represent,) draw lines cutting the circle, as at b and c ; join
b and c ; then if b c is bisected, as at d, the point, d, will be the
:
centre.
a,
Join a and b
cle.
b,
circle, to draw a tangent thereto.

be
the
(Fig. 41,)
given point, and b the centre of the cir-
At a given point in a
82.
Let
(See Art. 156.)
draw
through the point,
o,
and
at right angles to
dis the tangent required.
Fig. 42.
S3.
circle.
The same, without making- use of

Let
any distance
a,
the centre of the
(Fig. 42,) be the given point.
to 6,
and the same from b
From
to c ; join
a, set off
a and
c ;
upon a, with a 6 for radius, describe the arc, d b e ; make d b

equal to be; through a and d, draw a line this will be the
;
tangent required.
84.
tact.
circle
and a tangent given,
From any
to find the
point of con-
point, as a, (Fig. 43,) in the tangent, b
c,
draw
AMERICAN liOfSf.-CAKPENTER.
24
a line
to the centre
e a, describe the arc,
bisect
afd;fis
If/ and d were joined, the

the tangent, b
c.
a d
at e ;
upon
e,
with the radius,
the point of contact required.
would form
line
right angles with
(See Art. 156.)

b
Fig. 44.
85.
draw a
Through any
Let
circle.
three points not in
a, b
and
c,
a straight
line, to
(Fig. 44,) be the three given
with any radius greater than half a b,

describe arcs intersecting at d and e ; upon b and c, with any
points.
Upon a and
b,
radius greater than half b
through d and
e,
draw a
c,
describe arcs intersecting
at/ and
right line, also another through /and
upon the intersection, A, with the radius,

b c, and it will be the one required.
Fig. 45.
/i
a,
g;
&;
describe the circle,
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
25
Three points not in a straight line being given,
86.
to find
a fourth that
a
circle.
shall, with the three, lie in the circumference of

Let a b c, (Fig. 45,) be the given points. Connect
them with
angle, c b a, (Art. 77,) with the line, b
and
right lines, forming the triangle,
erect e d, perpendicular to
also bisect c
cutting 6
c,
c b ; bisect the
in
a in
e,
is
then
the fourth point required.
fifth point may be found, as at/, by assuming a, d and 6,

as the three given points, and proceeding as before.
So, also,
any number of points may be found simply by using any three
This problem will be serviceable in obtaining
already found.
;
short pieces of very
To
87.
Let a
b,
ment.
and
e
segment of a
be the chord, and
describe a
nailing
against the pins,
them
put in pins at
the direction,
arc,
(See Art. 311.)
sweeps.
(Fig. 46,)
Secure two straight-edges, or
c/ by
to/;
flat
c b ;
a and
together at
a and
c,
circle
c
by a set-triangle.
d the height
of the seg-
rulers, in the position, c e
and
move
from
affixing a brace
the angular point,
c,
in
keeping the edges of the triangle hard

; a pencil held at c will describe the
c b.
formed by the rulers at c be a right angle, the

segment described will be a semi-circle. This problem is useful
If the angle
in describing centres for brick arches, when they are required to

flat.
Also, for the head hanging- stile of a window-
be rather
frame, where a brick arch, instead of a stone

placed over it.
lintel,
is
to be
26
To describe
88.
Let a
lines.
b,
the
segment of a
by intersection of
circle
and c d the height of

(Fig. 47,) be the chord,
draw b /at
Through c, draw c/, parallel to a b ;
c e equal to c /; draw a g and b h,
angles to c b ; make
d a, d b, a g and 6 A, each
c
angles to a b ; divide e, cf,
the segment.
right
at right
into a like
&c.,
2,
number
of equal parts, as four
and from the
points,
o,
and
o,
draw the
draw
intersection of these lines, trace the curve,
lines, 1 1,
lines to c ; at the
c b,
which
will be
the segment required.
In very large work, or in laying out ornamented gardens, &c.,

found useful and where the centre of the proposed
arc of a circle is inaccessible, it will be invaluable.
(To trace
the curve, see note at Art. 117.)
this will be
Fig. 48.
89.
c,
In a given angle,
to
(Fig. 48,) be the given angle, and 1 in the
in the line, b
into a like
and
1,
c,
the termination of the curve.
number of equal
2 and
2,
3 and
3,
that will be tangical to
Let a
describe a tanged curve.

line,
Divide
parts, as at 1, 2, 3,
a
1 b
4 and 5
6,
and 5
and
;
b 5
join 1
&c. and a regular curve will be formed

the line, a b, at the point, 1, and to b c
;
at 5.
This is of much use in stair-building, in easing the angles

formed between the wall-string and base of the hall, also between
the front string and level facia, and in many other instances.
The curve is not circular, but of the form of the parabola, (Fig.
93 ;) yet in large angles the difference is not perceptible. This

problem can be applied to describing segments of circles for door-
e
f. 48.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
27
heads, window-heads, &c., to rather better advantage than Art,

For instance, let a 6, (Fig. 49,) be the width of the open87.
Extend c d, and make d e
ing, and c d the height of the arc.
equal to /; d ; join a and e, also e and b ; and proceed as direct-
ed
at
Ari 89.
90.
1*0
describe a circle
u- it kin
any given
the sidfs of the triangle shall be tangical.

50,) be the given tiiangle.
to Art.
lines,
77
upon
Bisect the angles,
triangle, so that
Let a b
a and
b,
c,
(Fig.
according
d, the point of intersection of the bisecting
with the radius d
e,
describe the required circle.
About a given circle, to describe an equi-lateral triangle. Let a d b c, (Fig. 51 ,) be the given circle. Draw the
91.
diameter, c
scribe the arc,
c ;
draw
upon c?, with the radius of the given circle, dea e b ; join a and 6 ; draw f g, at right angles to
make/c and
h, also
g, each equal to a b
from g, through
the triangle required.
b,
draw
from/, through
h ; th&afg h
a,
will be
23
92.
of a
To find a right
Let
circle.
the diameter, a c
abed,
on
according to Art. 96
also e
ato
circle,
ad
then
g;
of the circle,
nearly equal
to the
circumference
(Fig. 52,) be the given
circle.
Draw
an equi-lateral triangle, a e c,
draw gf, parallel to a c ; extend e c to/,
will be nearly the length of the semithis erect
gf
and twice
c ;
line
b c d, as
gf
was
will nearly equal the circumference
required.
Lines drawn from
and
o,
to
e, through any points in the circle, as o, o

will
divide gfin the same way as the semiand
p
p,
^?,
a d
is divided.
So, any portion of a circle may be
c,
i
transferred to a straight line
very useful problem,
and should be well studied as it is frequently used to solve
circle,
Tm>
-,
problems on
stairs,
domes,
<fcc.
Fig. 53.
Another method.
92, a.
circle.
Draw the
angles to a
through
e,
c,
Let a
diameter, a c
draw d
join b

from d, the centre, and at right
bf c,
and
draw df; then ef added
c ; bisect
be
at e;
from
d,
to three times the diameter,
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Jj9
1
will equal the circumference of the circle within the 4T OTr part of
its
length.
POLYGONS, &c.
93.
angle,
given
Within a given
hexagon
circle.
circle, to inscribe
Let
or dodecagon.
Draw
the diameter, b
abed,
upon
\f the given circle, describe the arc, a
and
d,
and
and d
from
completed.
and the
a, also
jexagon
and eg; join a and
:
6,
from
b
c,
and
c,
equi-lateral tri-
(Fig. 54,) be the
b,
e c ; join
is
triangle
through
c
an
c,
with the radius
a and
completed.
c,
also
For the
draAV the lines,
af
and/, &c., and the hexagon is

be formed by bisecting the
The dodecagon may
sides of the hexagon.
Each side of a regular hexagon is exactly equal to the radius

of the circle that circumscribes the figure.
For the radius is
equal to a chord of an arc of 60 degrees
and, as every circle is
supposed to be divided into 360 degrees, there is just 6 times 60,
^j 6 arcs of 60 degrees, in the whole circumference.
line
:*ra\vn from each angle of the hexagofi to the centre, (as in the
figure,) divides it into six equal, equi-lateral triangles.
;
6
Fig. 55.
30
Within a square
94.
to inscribe
Draw
(Fig. 55,) be the given square.

a, b, c
be; upon
and
d,
with a
at
ting the sides of the square
and
2,
3 and
In order
4,
5 and
6,
&c.,
to eight-square
Let
abed,
the diagonals,
a d and
an octagon.
e for radius, describe arcs cut2, 3, 4,
1,
5,
and the figure
6,
is
7 and 8
join 1
completed.
a hand-rail, or any piece that
be
is to
afterwards rounded, draw the diagonals, a d and b c, upon the

end of it, after it has been squared-up. Set a gauge to the disthe whole length of the stuff, from
tance, a e, and run it upon
each corner both ways. This will show how much

chamfered off, in order to make the piece octagonal.
Within a given
Let a b
c 2,
diameter, a
circle to inscribe
any regular polygon.
(Fig. 56, 57 and 58,) be given circles.

c ;
be
to
rig. 5
Fig. 56.
95.
is
this, erect
upon
divide
an
Draw
equi-lateral triangle,
c into as
many
eqiin
the
e
c,
parts as the
polygon is to have sides, as at 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. fic*:x e, through

each even number, as 2, 4, 6, &c., draw lines cutting the circle
;
in the points, 2, 4, &c.
c,
draw
from these points and
at right angles to
lines to the opposite part of the circle
the remaining points for the polygon, as
6, /,
this will give
&c.
In forming a hexagon, the sides of the triangle erected upon

a c, (as at Fig. 57,) mark the points, b and/.
Upon a given
96.
Let a
6,
line to construct
line.
an
equi-lateral triangle.
Upon a and
b,
with a b
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
31
Fig. 59.
for radius, describe arcs intersecting at c; join
and
a and
also c
c,
a cb will be the triangle required.
b ; then
Fig. 60
To
97.
b,
describe
an
Let
equi-lateral rectangle, or square.
(Fig. 60,) be the length of a side of the proposed square.
Upon a and
6,
arc, c
d;
with a b
for radius, describe the arcs,
a d and b
the
e, in/; upon e, with e/for radius, describe
will
join a and c, c and d, d and 6 ; then a c d b
bisect the arc,
be the square required.
Fig- 61.
Upon a given
98.
Let a
b,
line to describe
(Fig. 61, 62 and
the required figure.
upon a and
b,
Fig. 63.
Fig. 62.
any regular polygon.
63,) be given lines, equal to
From
6,
draw
c,
a side of
at right angles to
with a b for radius, describe the
arcs,
a b
d and
32
fe
have
divide a c into as
sides,
and
many
equal parts as the polygon
extend those divisions
from
towards d
is to
from
the second point of division counting from c towards a, as 3,

draw a line to 6 ; take
(Fig. 61,) 4, (Fig. 62,) and 5, (Fig. 63,)
the distance from said point of division to a, and set it from b
o a.
and a
upon the
describe the circle, a f d
to e ; join e
intersection,
with the radius,

lines,
drawn
d, will
cut the
then radiating
from b through the even numbers on the

circle at the several
o,
arc,
angles of the required figure.
In the hexagon, (Fig. 62,) the divisions on the arc, a d, are

for the point, o, is at the intersection of the arcs,
riot necessary
a d and/ b, the points, /and d, are determined by the intersection of those arcs with the circle, and the points above,
and A,
;
can be found by drawing lines from a and 6, through the centre,

In polygons of a greater number of sides than the hexagon,
o.
the intersection, o, comes above the arcs
in such case, therefore,
the lines, a e and b 5, (Fig. 63,) have to be extended before they
;
will intersect.
Fig. 64.
99.
equal
given
Draw
lines.
lines.
the line,
Let
a, b
and
and make
c,
be severally
(Fig. 64,) be the
equal to c ; upon
with b for radius, describe an arc
at/; upon d, with a for
given
e,
To construct a triangle whose sides shall

to three
radius, describe
also /and e
e,
it
an arc intersecting the other at/; join d and/,
then
dfe
will be the triangle required.
Fig. 66.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
construct a figure equal to a given, right-lined

Let abed, (Fig. 65,) be the given figure. Make e/,
To
100.
figure.
(Fig. 66,) equal to c

arc at
33
g;
upon
e,
d ; upon
with
/,
with d a for radius, describe an
an arc intersecting
for radius, describe
upon / and g, with d b and a b

g ; join g
for radius, describe arcs intersecting at h ; join g and h, also h
and/; then Fig. 66 will every way equal Fig. 65.
and
the other at
e ;
So, right-lined figures of any number of sides may be copied,

oy first dividing them into triangles, and then proceeding as
The shape of the floor of any room, or of any piece of
above.
land, &c.,
accurately laid out by this problem, at a scale

and the contents in square feet be ascertained by
may be
upon paper
the next.
d
Fig. 67.
101.
Let a b
To make a parallelogram equal

c,
(Fig. 67,) be the given triangle.
at right angles to
parallel to b c ;
be;
bisect
from b and
c,
a d
draw
in e
b
to
a given triangle.
a, draw a d,
From
f and
through
e,
draw/g
c g, parallel to
e;
then b f g c will be a parallelogram containing a surface exactly

equal to that of the triangle, a b
c.
Unless the parallelogram is required to be a rectangle, the lines,

need not be drawn parallel to d e. If a rhomboid is
desired, they may be drawn at an oblique angle, provided they
be parallel to one another. To ascertain the area of a triangle,
b
f and c g,
multiply the base, b c, by half the perpendicular height,

doing this, it matters not which side is taken for base.'
d
Fig. 68.
a.
In
34
equal
to construct another
parallelogram being- given,
and having a side equal to a given line. Let A.
it,
the given line
be the given parallelogram, and
102.
to
(Fig. 68,)
Produce the sides of the parallelogram, as at
e
e,
equal to
draw the
then
through
diagonal, c
d,
draw
Let
69,)
upon
A and
added together.
JB,
the line, b
through
f, parallel to e
to
two or more given squares.
be two given squares.
as to form a right angle, as at a

C, formed
69.
To make a square equal

B, (Fig.
draw a
and d ; make
(See Art. 144.)
will be equal to A.
A and
a, b, c
c /, parallel to
from
Fig
103.
c,
join b
and
c ;
Place them so
then the square,
will be equal in extent to the squares,
Again
if
b,
(Fig. 70,) be equal to
the side of a given

square, c a, placed at right angles to o 6, be the
side of another
given square, and c d, placed at right angles to
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
c b,
be the side of a third given square
formed upon the
line,
then the square,
35
b, will be equal to the three given
(See Art. 157.)
squares.
The
usefulness and importance of this problem are proverbial.

ascertain the length of braces and of rafters in framing, the
length of stair-strings, &c., are some of the purposes to which it
may be applied in carpentry. (See note to Art. 74, 6.) If the
length of any two sides of a right-angled triangle is known, that
of the third can be ascertained.
Because the square of the
hypothenuse is equal to the united squares of the two sides that
To
contain the right angle.
The two
sides containing the right angle being known,

hypothenuse. Rule. Square each given side, add
the squares together, and from the product extract the squareroot
For instance, suppose it were
this will be the answer.
required to find the length of a rafter for a house, 34 feet wide,
the ridge of the roof to be 9 feet high, above the level of the
Then 17 feet, half of the span, is one, and 9 feet,
wall-plates.
the height, is the other of the sides that contain the right angle.
Proceed as directed by the rule
(1.)
to find the
17
17
9
9
119
17
81
289
289
1
1
370
19-235 -f
29
square of 17.
=
=
square of 9.
square of 17.
370 Product.
square-root of 370
equal 19 feet, 2; in.

nearly which would be the required
length of the rafter.
;
270
261
"900
382)
764
3843
13600
11529
38465)- 207100
192325
to the table of square-roots in the appendix, the
almost any number may be found ready calculated.)
(By reference
root
ot
36
frame building, to find the

suppose it be required, in a
Agair,
length of a brace, having a run of three feet each way from the
The length of the sides containing the
point of the right angle.
3
feet
each
be
will
then, as before
right angle
:
3
3
3 times 3
or 4
feet,
=
=
9
9
square of one side.

square of the other side.
] 8 Product
2 inches and
the square-root of
which
is
4'2426
-f- ft.,
;ths. full.
The hypothenuse and one side being known, to find the

(2.)
Rule. Subtract the square of the given side from
other side.
the square of the hypothenuse, and the square-root of the product
will be the answer.
Suppose it were required to ascertain the
a roof of a given span may have,
height
greatest perpendicular
when pieces of timber of a given length are to be used as rafters.
Let the span be 20 feet, and the rafters of 3x4 hemlock joist.
These come about 13 feet long. The known hypothenuse,
that being half the
then, is 13 feet, and the known side, 10 feet
span of the building.
13
13
39
13
10 times 10
169
100
=
=
square of hypothenuse.
square of the given side.
69 Product
3066
+ feet,
which is 8
This will be
Again suppose
the square-root of
or 8 feet, 3 inches
and
*ths. full.
the greatest perpendicular

height, as required.
that in a story of 8 feet, from floor to
floor, a step-ladder is required, the strings of which are to be of plank, 12 feet long
and
it is desirable to know the
greatest run such a length of string
will afford.
In this case, the two given sides are
hypothenuse
:
12, perpendicular
12 times 12
8 times 8
=
=
144
64
feet.
=
=
square of hypothenuse.
square of perpendicular.
80 Product the square-root of which

and * ths. the answer^ as
:
feet,
or 8 feet, 11 inches
is
8'9442
required.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Many
other cases might be adduced to
show
the utility of this
and ready method of ascertaining the
problem.
practical
length of braces, rafters, &c., when not of a great length, is to
apply a rule across the carpenters'-square. Suppose, for the
Apply
length of a rafter, the base be 12 feet and the height 7.
the rule diagonally on the square, so that it touches 12 inches
from the corner on one side, and 7 inches from the corner on the
The number of inches on the rule, which are intercepted
other.
by the sides of the square, 13| nearly, will be the length of the
If the dimensions
rafter in feet
viz, 13 feet and f ths of a foot.
are large, as 30 feet and 20, take the half of each on the sides of
the square, viz, 15 and 10 inches then the length in inches
across, will be one-half the number of feet the rafter is long.
This method is just as accurate as the preceding but when
the length of a very long rafter is sought, it requires great care
and precision to ascertain the fractions. For the least variation
on the square, or in the length taken on the rule, would make
perhaps several inches difference in the length of the rafter.
For shorter dimensions, however, the result will be true enough.
;
To make a
104.
and
angle,
c 6
circle equal to
c,
make a
two given
circles.
circles.
In the right-angled
b equal to the diameter of the circle,
equal to the diameter of the circle,
78.
A;
Let
tri-
B, and
then the hypothenuse.
38
c,
will be the diameter of a circle, C,
area to the two circles,
and
JB,
which
will be equal in
added together.
Any polygonal figure, as A, (Fig. 72,) formed on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, will be equal to two similar
and C*, formed on the two legs of the triangle.
figures,* as
To
105.
Let A, (Fig.
and make b
radius,
a,
construct a square equal to a given

rectangle.
Extend the
a
73,) be the given rectangle.
side,
6,
e; bisect a c in/, and upon/, with the

describe the semi-circle,
extend e b, till it
c equal to b
age;
cuts the curve in
g;
then a square, b
d,
formed on the
line,
b g, will be equal in area to the

rectangle, A.
fig. 74.
105, a.
rectangle.
Another method.
Extend the
side,
Let A, (Fig. 74,) be the

given
b, and make a d equal to a c;
* Similar
figures are such as have their several
angles respectively equal, and their
des respectively proportionate.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
bisect
a d in
circle,
afd;
/; then the
upon
extend
with the radius,
<?,
g- 6
till
on the
line,
in/;
join
a and
a/, will be equal in
(See Art. 156 and 157.)
area to the rectangle, A.
To form a square equal
106.
e a, describe the semi-
cuts the curve
it
square, B, formed
39
to
a given triangle.
Let a
6,
(ffig. 73,) equal the base of the given triangle, and b e equal
half
its
perpendicular height, (see Fig.
67
;)
then proceed as
directed at Art. 105.
Fig. 75.
Two
right lines being given, to find a third proporLet A and B, (Fig. 75,) be the given lines.
tional thereto.
107.
Make a b equal to A ; from a, draw a c, at any angle with a b ;

make a c and a d each equal to B ; join c and 6 ; from d, draw
d e, parallel to c b ; then a e will be the third proportional reThat
quired.
to
is,
same proportion
e bears the
to
B, as
B does
A.
Fig. 76.
Three right lines being given, to find a fourth pro

portional thereto. Let A, jBand C, (Fig. 76,) be the given
108.
lines.
Make a
b equal to
with a b; make a
b
from
e,
draw ef,
B does to A.
from
That
a,
B, and a
parallel to c
proportional required.
to C, as
A;
equal to
is,
draw a
c,
e equal to
at
any angle
C;
join c and
6; then a f will be the fourth
bears the
same proportion
40
the two axes of a given ellipsis,

apply this problem, suppose
a
of
axis
and the longer
proposed ellipsis are given. Then, by
the proposed ellipthis problem, the length of the shorter axis to
the
same
will
bear
it
that
so
found
proportion to the
sis can be
does to its longer.
of
the
shorter
as
the
ellipsis
given
longer axis,
To
(See also, Art. 126.)
109.
line with certain divisions
Let A, (Fig. 77,) be the line

its
Make a
divisions.
1, 2, 3,
&c.
equal to
from
A;
a,
join c
draw a
and
lines, parallel to c b ;
to
c,
at
B, with
B the line with
all its divisions, as at
any angle with a
from the
divide
same proportion.
be divided, and
b equal to
to
being given,
another, longer or shorter, given line in the
b ;
points, 1, 2, 3,
then these will divide the
line,
make a
&c., draw
a c, in the
same proportion as B is divided as was required.

This problem will be found useful in proportioning the members of a proposed cornice, in the same proportion as those of a
given cornice of another size. (See Art. 243 and 244.) So of
a pilaster, architrave, &c.
Fig. 78.
110.
Between two given right
the line,
c in e ;
lines, to find a mean proand B, (Fig. 78,) be the given lines. On

make a b equal to A, and b c
to B ; bisect a
Let
portional.
c,
upon
equal
e,
with
for radius, describe the

semi-circle,
a d
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
c ; at b, erect b d, at right angles to
c;
41
then b
will be the
proportional between A and B.

For an application of this problem, see Art. 105.
mean
CONIC SECTIONS.
If a cone, standing
111.
with
its axis,
a b
c,
that
at right angles
is
be cut by a plane, perpendicular to
passing through
(as
upon a base
its
Fig. 79
its
base and
axis, the section will be an isoceles triangle

;)
and the base
will be a semi-circle.
If
cone be cut by a plane in the direction, ef, the section will be

the section will be a paraan ellipsis ; if in the direction,
Z,
bola
and
c,
j,
To find
an hyperbola.
(See Art. 56
with the plane,
the axes of the ellipsis, bisect e /, (Fig. 79,)
through g, draw h
with j h
draw
o,
then
112.
in
in the direction, r
If the cutting planes be at right angles
to 60.)
a b
if
i,
parallel to
bisect
hiinj ; upon
for radius/ describe the semi-circle,
h k
then twice
k, at right angles to
conjugate axis, and
e/the
hi;
transverse.
i ;
from
will be the
42
113.
To find
the axis
(Fig. 79,) parallel to a
From m, draw
axis
m d,
and base of
c,
I,
be the direction of the cutting plane.
at right angles to
and height, and
Let
the parabola.
a b
then
m will be the
d an ordinate and half the base
as at
Fig. 92, 93.

114.
To find
Let o
hyperbola.
Extend
plane.
the height, base

r,
(Fig. 79,) be the direction of the cutting
and a
o r
o p, at right angles to
transverse axis,
and
and transverse axis of an
till
they meet at
a b; then r
n ; from
o will be the height,
half the base
o,
draw
r the
as at Fig. 94.
Fig. 80.
115.
The axes being given,
to
find the foci, and
to describe
Let a b, (Fig. 80,) and c d, be the

ellipsis with a string.
given axes. Upon c, with a e orbe for radius, describe the arc,
an
ff;
then /and/, the points at
tie
arc cuts the transverse
At/ and /pi ace two pins, and another at c /
axis, will be the foci.

'
which the
a string about the three pins, so as to form the triangle, //c
remove the pin from

string taut,
move
c,
and place a pencil in
its
the pencil in the direction,
describe the required ellipsis.
The
lines,
stead
eg
keeping the
it
will then
a;
;
fg and g /,
when the pencil arrives at g.

This method, when performed correctly, is perfectly
show
the
position of the string
accurate
but the string is liable to stretch, and is, therefore, not so good to
use as the trammel. In making an ellipse by a string or twine,
that kind should be used which has the least tendency to elasticity.
For this reason, a cotton cord, such as chalk-lines are commonly
made of, is not proper for the purpose a linen, or flaxen cord is
:
much
better.
PRACTICAL GEOMKTIIY
Fie. 81
trammel.
Let a
and
c d,
an
ellipsis
unth a
(Fig. 81,) be the given axes.
Place
The axes being given,
116.
to describe
the trammel so that a line passing through the centre of the
grooves,
would coincide with
the pencil,
e,
nuts slide in the grooves,
make
to the nut,/, equal to half c
to the nut, g, equal to half
cil, e,
c b
the axes
move
the distance from
also,
from the pen-
letting the pins under the
the trammel, e g, in the direction,
then the pencil at e will describe the required ellipse.
trammel may be constructed thus take two straight strips of

and make a groove on their face, in the centre of their
width join them together, in the middle of their length, at right
angles to one another as is seen at Fig. 81. A rod is then to be
prepared, having two moveable nuts made of wood, with a mortice through them of the size of the rod, and pins under them
Make a hole at one end of the
large enough to fill the grooves.
In the absence of a regular tramrod, in which to place a pencil.
mel, a temporary one may be made, which, for any short job,
Fasten two straight-edges at right
will answer every purpose.
Lay them so as to coincide with the axes
angles to one another.
:
board,
of the proposed ellipse, having the angular point at the centre.

Then, in a rod having a hole for the pencil at one end, place two
brad-awls at the distances described at Art. 116.
While the
pencil is moved in the direction of the curve, keep the brad-awls
hard against the straight-edges, as directed for using the tramThen,
mel-rod, and one-quarter of the ellipse will be drawn.
by shifting the straight-edges, the other three quarters in succession may be drawn.
If the required ellipse be not too large, a
carpenters'-square may be made use of, in place of the straightedges.
An
improved method of constructing the trammel, is as folmake the sides of the grooves bevilling from the face of
the stuff, or dove-tailing instead of square.
Prepare two slips of
wood, each about two inches long, which shall be of a shape to
lows
just
fill
the groove
when
slipped in at the end.
These, instead of
44
one to each of the moveable nuts with

pins, are to be attached,
about the screw
a screw, loose enough for the nut to move freely
The advantage of this contrivance is, preventing

as an axis.
the operation
the nuts from slipping out of their places, during
curve.
the
of describing
Fig. 82.
To
117.
an
describe
scribe the quadrant, /g-
number
points,
i,
draw
h ; divide
ordinates, parallel to
and place
it
at 1
the points, a, n, m,
1,
transfer
and
c,
2j
as at
of equal parts,
Let a b and c
by ordinates.
With
be given axes.
(Fig. 82,)
like
ellipsis
h,
e b,
;
each into a
through these
take the distance,
2 m, and 3 k
trace a curve,
d,
for radius, de-
and
2 and 3
cd and/gto
e or e
to 3
and the
n; through
ellipsis
will
be completed.
The greater the number of divisions on a e, &c., in this and

the following problem, the more points in the curve can be found,
If pins are
and the more accurate the curve can be traced.
&c., and a thin slip of wood bent
placed in the points, n, m,
around by them, the curve can be made quite correct. This
,
method
is
mostly used in tracing face-moulds for
stair
hand-
railing.
118.
To
describe
an
ellipsis
by intersection of
lines.
Let
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
a
and
c d, (Fig. 83,)
a b
parallel to
to
from a and
divide
f a, g
equal parts, as at
1, 2,
toe; through
drawn
to c
be that of an
be given axes.
o,
6,
draw a
and
e 6,
3 and
o, o,
6,
and
o,
draw
lines
45
Through
/ and
g-,
c,
draw /g-,
at right angles
each into a like number of
from
1,
from
rf,
2 and
3,
draw
lines
intersecting those
then a curve, traced through the points,
i, i, i,
will
ellipsis.
Where neither trammel nor string is at hand, this, perhaps, is

The divisions
the most ready method of drawing an ellipsis.
should be small, where accuracy is desirable. By this method,
ellipsis may be traced without the axes, provided that a diameter and its conjugate be given.
Thus, a b and c d, (Fig. 84,) are
conjugate diameters / g is drawn parallel to a b, instead of
an
a and
b are
being at right angles to c d ; also,
to c d, instead of being at right angles to a 6.
119.
To
describe
an
ellipsis
drawn
by intersecting' arcs.
parallel
Let a b
46
and
Between one of the foci,/
(Fig. 85,) be given axes.
c d,
mark any number
and/, and the centre, e,

as 1, 2 and 3 upon /and/, with b
gi
g an d S > U P 011 / an d/ with a 1
1 for radius, describe arcs at
for radius, describe arcs inter-
">
&tg g,g andg-; then these points of
secting the others
in like
and a 2
a 3
intersection
The
will be in the curve of the ellipsis.
found
of points, at random,
other points, h and
i,
are
manner, viz: h is found by taking b 2 for one radius,

i is found by taking b 3 for one radius, and
for the other
for the other,
always using the
tracing a curve through the points,
foci for centres.
c,
g, A,
6,
t,
Then by
&c., the ellipse
will be completed.
This problem is founded upon the same principle as that of the

This is obvious, when we reflect that the length of the
string is equal to the transverse axis, added to the distance between
the foci.
See Fig. 80; in which c f equals a e, the half of the
string.
transverse axis.
To
120.
describe a figure nearly in the shape of
Let a
sis, by a pair of compasses.
From
c, draw c e, parallel
given axes.
parallel to c
secting e
to i c,
d;
join e
in i; bisect
meeting
verse axis in r
draw
I;
i c
and
to
an
ellip-
be
c d, (Fig. 86,)
from
a,
draw a
e,
a in/; join/ and c, interfrom o, draw og, at right angles
bisect e
in o
d extended
fromj, through r
A,
and d ;
to
g ; join i and g,
cutting the trans-
make h j equal to h g, and h k equal to h r ;

and k, draw j m and j n ; also, from g, through
upon
and
j,
with
c for radius, describe
the
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
arcs, i
the arcs,
and
mn
and
upon r and
k,
47
with r a for radius, describe
this will complete the figure.
When
the axes are proportioned to one another as 2 to 3, the

and d, of the shortest axis, will be the centres for
n; and, the intersection of e d with
describing the arcs, i land
the transverse axis, will be the centre for describing the arc,
i,
&c. As the elliptic curve is continually changing its course from
that of a circle, a true ellipsis cannot be described with a pair of
extremities, c
The above,
compasses.
121.
Let
c?,
o,
therefore, is only
To draw an oval
in the proportion, seven by nine.
o,
with o
draw a
6, at
right angles to c
I ;
Bisect c
upon
e,
/, with h k
d;
also,
d mo,
bisect c o in e
fg
e for radius, describe the circle, e
through h and/, draw e j and e i ;

draw g k and g I ; upon g, with g
an iipproximation.
(Fig. 87,) be the given conjugate axis.
and through
upon
from
e,
from g, through h and/,
c for radius, describe the arc,
with e d for radius, describe the
for radius, describe the arcs,
arc, j
j k and
i ;
upon h and
I i ;
this will
complete the figure.
This is a very near approximation to an ellipsis and perhaps no

method can be found, by which a well-shaped oval can be drawn
;
with greater
facility.
By a little variation in the process, ovals
of different proportions may be obtained.
If quarter of the transverse axis is taken for the radius of the circle, efg h, one will be
drawn in the proportion, five by seven.
To draw a tangent
122.
to
an
ellipsis.
Let
abed,
(Fig.
Find the
the point of contact.
ellipsis, and d
and
115,)/and/, and from them, through d, draw/e
38,) be the given

foci, (Art.
f d;
bisect the angle, (Art. 77,) e
o,
with the
line, s r
then
5 r will be the tangent required.
An
123.
of contact.
with a tangent given, to detect the point

~Letagbf, (Fig. 89,) be the given ellipsis and tan-
ellipsis
Through
gent.
the centre,
e,
draw a
b,
parallel to the tangent
any where between e and/, draw c d, parallel to a b ; bisect c d in

o ; through o and e, draw / g ; then g will be the point of contact required.
124.
Let a
b,
A diameter
of an ellipsis given, to find its conjugate.

(Fig. 89,) be the given diameter. Find the line,/g-, by
the last problem
then/g-
will be the diameter required.
49
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Any diameter and
125.
and
c d, (Fig. 90,) be the
another.
Through
g, at right
angles
to
conjugate being given,
and thence
certain the two axes,
its
describe the ellipsis. Let
to
given diameters, conjugate to one
draw ef,
c,
to as-
ef; make
parallel to
c
equal to
a h
from
or
c,
draw
join
and h ; upon g, with g c for radius, describe the arc, i k c j ;

upon h, with the same radius, describe the arc, In; through the
upon
e
with
o,
audg,
through
and
in s
and
intersections,
also 5A,
draw
draw k
make
drawn
126.
will
m,
and
also
s,
arc, i c j, in
from/, through
A,
ig f ;
k and
join
from
e,
draw//?; from &
parallel tog- h, cutting e
m in
r,
and/p
equal
r, and h p equal to h s ; then r
be the axes required, by which the ellipsis may be
7*
in the usual
To
cutting the tangent, ef, in o
o,
and/, cutting the
#,
and * p
draw n
n,
o g-for radius, describe the semi-circle, e
to
way.
describe
an
ellipsis,
whose axes shall be proporgiven one. Let a
tionate to the axes of a larger or smaller

c b d,
ellipsis
and axes, and ij the transJoin a and c ; trom i,
verse axis of a proposed smaller one.
Iraw
i e, parallel to
c;
make
f equal to o e ;
then
ef will be
Fig. 91.
and
the conjugate axis required,
ij, as c
does to a
will bear the
123 132
To
127.
ttifcj,
same proportion
to
(See Art. 108.)
b.
describe a parabola by intersection of lines.
(Fig. 92,) be the axis and height, (see Fig. 79,) and
Lee
dd a
y
double ordinate and base of the proposed parabola.
draw a
a, parallel to
parallel to
equal parts
11,22,
a,
draw
<kc.,
I ;
intersection, #, o
height,
through d and
a d and d m, each
d,
into a like
number of
from each point of division in d m, draw the lines,

parallel to ml; from each point of division in d
lines to
127, a.
dd
divide
Through L
draw d a and d a,
then a curve traced through the points of
and
o,
will be that of a parabola.
m
Extend m
Another method.
and d d the
base.
Let
/,
I,
(Fig. 93,) be the axis and
and make
a equal
to
join a and d, and a and d ; divide a d and a d, each into a

like number of equal parts, as at 1,
2, 3, &c. join 1 and 1, 2 and
I ;
2,
&c., and the parabola will be completed.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
128.
Let r
o,
51
an hyperbola by intersection of lines.

p p the base, and n r the trans(See Fig. 79.) Through r, draw a a, parallel to p
draw a p, parallel to r o ; divide a p and p o, each
To
describe
(Fig. 94,) be the height,
verse axis.
p ; from p,
visions in
number of equal parts from each of the points of dithe base, draw lines to n ; from each of the points of
division in
into a like
p,
draw
points of intersection,
then a curve traced through the

&c., will be that of an hyperbola.
lines to r ;
o, o,
The parabola and hyperbola afford handsome curves

mouldings.
for various
DEMONSTRATIONS.
129.
To impress more deeply upon the mind of the learner
some of the more important of the preceding problems, and to
indulge a very common and praiseworthy curiosity to discover
the cause of things, are

exercises are introduced.
cessary
some of the reasons

In
the following
reasoning, definitions are ne-
all
minds of the proponent and

corollary is an inference deduced
in order to insure, in the
respondent, identity of ideas.
from
why
a previous course of reasoning.
evident at
first sight.
many axioms
same thing
An axiom
is
a proposition
In the following demonstrations, there are
taken for granted
(such
are equal to one another,
&c.
things equal to the
as,
;)
these
it
was thought
not necessary to introduce in form.
Fie. 95.
130.
Definition.
upon another
If a
straight line, as
straight line, as c d, so that the
b,
(Fig. 95,)
two angles made
at
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
the point,
&,
ab
are equal
each of the two angles

131.
Definition.
is
c to
b d, (see note to Art.

27,) then
a right angle.
called
The
53
circumference of every circle
be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees

posed
a semi-circle contains 180 degrees, a quadrant 90, &c.
to
is
sup-
hence
Fig. 96.
132.
Definition.
The measure of an angle is the number of
degrees contained between

as a centre
upon which
(Fig. 96,)
is
e b
angles,
two
sides,
using the angular point
Thus
to describe the arc.
the measure of the angle, c b e
and a
133.
its
d,
the arc, c
e,
e a, of the angle,
of the angle, a b d.
As
Corollary.
and as the
the
two angles
semi-circle,
cad,
(Fig. 95,) are right

contains 180 degrees, (Art.
at 6,
two right angles, therefore, is 180 degrees

of half a right angle, 45 of
of one right angle, 90 degrees
one-third of a right angle, 30, &c.
131,) the measure of
134.
gard
Definition.
is to
In measuring an angle, (Art. 132,) no
be had to the length of
its sides,
but only
re-
to the- degree
Hence equal angles
are such as have the
inclination, without regard
to the length of their
of their inclination.
same degree of
sides.
135.
Axiom.
If
two
straight lines, parallel to one another,
54
(Fig. 97,) stand upon another straight line, as e/,

the angles, a b /and c d /, are equal; and the angle, a b e, is
as
and
c d,
equal to the angle, c d

136.
e.
If a straight line, as
Definition.
6, (Fig-. 96,)
stand
as c d, then one of the anobliquely upon another straight line,

obtuse
an
is
called
as a & c,
angle, and the other, as a b d,
gles,
an acute angle.
Axiom.
137.
The two
together equal to
two
three angles,
a b
d, e b
angles,
right angles,
a and cbe,
d and a
b
(
Art. 130,
c,
]
(Fig. 96,) are
33
;)
are together equal to
also,
the
two right
angles.
138.
Hence
Corollary.
one side of a
all
the angles that can be
made upon
line, meeting in a point in that line, are together
equal to two right angles.

139.
Hence
Corollary.
both sides of a
line, at
can be made about a
all
the angles that can be
a point in that line, or
all
made on
the angles that
point, are together equal to four right angles.
each of two equal angles a third

angle be added, their sums will be equal. Let a b c and d e /,
(Fig. 98,) be equal angles, and the angle, i j &, the one to be
140.
added.
Proposition.
Make
If to
the angles,
gb
a and h
c?,
each equal to the given
angle, ij k ; then the angle, g b r, will be equal to the angle, h e

f; for, if a b c and d e/be angles of 90 degrees, and i j k, 30,
then the angles, g b c and h ef, will be each equal to 90 and
30 added, viz
120 degrees.
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
a
141.
65
Triangles that have two of their sides
Proposition.
and the angle contained between them respectively equal, have

also their third sides and the two remaining angles equal and
consequently one triangle will every way equal the other. Let a
;
c,
(Fig. 99,) and d
ef be two
given triangles, having the angle
a equal to the angle at d, the side, a b, equal to the side, d e,

and the side, a c, equal to the side, df; then the third side of
at
one, b
is
c, is
equal to the third side of the other,
equal to the
at/.
angle at
e,
and the angle
the angle at b
For, if one triangle be applied to the other, the three points,
b, a, c,
coinciding with the three points,
coincide with the line, e
e,
d, f,
the line, b
c,
must
f; the angle at b with the angle at e ;

at/ and the triangle, b a c, be every
the angle at c with the angle
way
ef;
at c is equal to the angle
equal to the triangle, e df.
142.
The two
Proposition.
triangle are equal.
of which the sides,
Let a b
c,
and a
angles at the base of an isoceles
(Fig-. 100,)
be an isoceles triangle,
are equal.
Bisect the angle, (Art.
c,
56
77,) b
c,
by
the line, a c
the line,
d.
the
d,
line,
Then
of the triangle, A, being equal to the
line,
being equal to the angle,
d,
d, of the triangle, B, being
d a
common to
143.
to the
angle at
Proposition,
each
c ; the line, b d,
ing to Art. 141, be equal to the line,
be equal
the line, b a, being equal to
the angle, b
must, accord-
d c ; and the angle
at b
must
c.
diagonal crossing a parallelogram di-
two equal triangles. Let abed, (Fig. 101,) be a

given parallelogram, and b c, a line crossing it diagonally. Then,
as a c is equal to b d, and a b to c d, the angle at a to the
angle
vides
at
c?,
it
into
the triangle, J, must, according to Art. 141, be equal to the
triangle,
144.
B.
Proposition.
Let
a.
b c d, (Fig.
102,) be a given pa-
rallelogram, and b c a diagonal. At any distance between a b and

c d, draw e/, parallel to a b ;
the intersection
through the point,
g,
of the lines, b c and e/,
draw h
In every parallelogram thus divided, the parallelogram, A, is equal to the parallelogram, B.

According to Art. 143, the triangle, a b c, is
equal to the triangle, be d ; the
to the
i,
parallel to b d.
triangle,
C',
triangle,
EioF; this being the case, take D and F from the

bed, and C and E from the triangle, a b
and what
and
c,
triangle,
remains
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
must be equal
in one
parallelogram, A,
is
to
what remains
in the other
equal to the parallelogram,
therefore, the
B.
57
Fi<r. 103.
145.
Proposition.
Parallelograms standing upon the same
base and between the same parallels, are.equal.
efcd,
same
and between the same
equal to b d,
and ef, a e equals bf; the

and a e to bf, and the angle, c a
equal, take the
what remains
the other,
d bf,
same amount, the
efdg;
triangle,
146.
triangle, c
c,
being
must be
e,
two triangles being
beg, from
each,
and
d, to each,
and they must
b c d,
is
still
be
equal to the paral-
efcd.
if
Hence,
Corollary.
the
c,
line,
a b
therefore, the parallelogram,
lelogram,
these
c d.
one another;
the triangle, a e
bfd;
and
g c, must be equal to what remains in

these two quadrangles being equal, add the
in one,
same amount, the
gram
equal, (Art. 141,) to the triangle,
upon
equal to c d, are equal to
equal, (Art. 135,) to the angle,
parallels,
and
Then, a b
ef being
b e being added to both a
equal
abed and
(Fig. 103,) be given parallelograms, standing upon the
base, c d,
being
Let
a parallelogram and triangle stand
same base and between the same
parallels, the parallelo-
will be equal to double the triangle.
lelogram, a
d,
(Fig. 103,)
is
Thus, the
paral-
double, (Art. 143,) the triangle,
c e d.
147.
Proposition.
Let
abed,
rangle with the diagonal, a d.
extend
d to
e ; join
a and
in area to the quadrangle,
ad
e,
(Fig. 104,) be a given quad-
From
b,
draw
then the triangle, a
abed.
stand upon the same base, a
e,
parallel to
e c, will
a d;
be equal
Since the triangles, a d b and

d,
and between the same
paral-
58
lels,
a d and 6
e,
146
they are therefore equal, (Art. 145,
since the triangle, C,
and B,
a e c, is equal
is
common, to
are therefore equal
then
to the quadrangle,
;)
and
both, the remaining triangles,
B being equal to A, the triangle,

abed.
Fig. 105.
148.
Proposition.
a b and
c d,
If
two
straight lines cut each other, as
(Fig. 105,) the vertical, or opposite angles,
and
Thus, a e, standing upon c d, forms the angles,

B and C, which together amount, ( Art. 137,) to two right angles
in the same manner, the angles, A and B, form two right angles
C, are equal.
and B, are equal to B and C, take the same

amount, the angle, jB, from each pair, and what remains of one
pair is equal to what remains of the other
therefore, the ansince the angles,
gle,
A,
is
equal to the angle, C.
the opposite angles,

149.
equal to
angle, with
The
right angles.
its
be proved of
B and D.
Proposition.
two
The same can
three angles of
Let a b
c,
sides extended
to/,
e,
(Fig.
and
any
lt)6,)
d,
triangle
be a given
and the
line,
are
tri-
eg,
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
Fig. IOC.
drawn
is,
parallel to b
As
e.
g c is
d;
as the lines,/c
cut one another at a, the opposite angles,

equal, (Art. 148
a eg, the
angle,
;)
as the angle,
angle,
g,
fa
is
fore, the three angles meeting at
of the triangle,
b c
parallel to e b, the angle,
equal, (Art. 135,) to the angle, e b
e, is
fa
and
c d,
and
b a
c,
e,
are
equal, (Art. 135,) to the
equal to the angle, b a c
there-
are equal to the three angles
c,
and since the
three angles ate are equal,
two right angles, the three angles of the triangle, a

must likewise be equal to two right angles. Any triangle
(Art. 137,) to
c,
can be subjected to the same

150.
Corollary.
Hence,
proof.
if
one angle of a triangle be a right
angle, the other two angles amount to just one right angle.
151.
Corollary.
If
one angle of a triangle be a right angle,

to one another, these are
and the two remaining angles are equal

each equal
152.
to half a right angle,
Corollary.
If
any two angles of a
a right angle, the remaining angle

153.
Corollary.
If
is
triangle
amount
to
a right angle.
any two angles of a triangle are together
equal to the remaining angle, that remaining angle
is
right,
angle.
154.
Corollary.
If
any two angles of a
equal to two-thirds of a right angle, the
equal
triangle are each
remaining angle
is
also
to two-thirds of a right angle.
155.
gle, are
Corollary.
each
Hence, the angles of an equi-lateral

a right angle.
equal to two-thirds of
trian-
60
156.
If
Proposition.
from the extremities of the diameter of
a semi-circle, two straight lines be
Let a b
right angle.
a b and
c,
c,
given point, b
to the
the angle at
a,
also, the
157.
is
must
being
a b
and
b,
and the
same
radii of the
by these
centre,
d;
same reason, equal
the
circle, are equal
b d,
is,
for the
c,
being equal to the angles at a and c taken
to the angle,
therefore, (Art. 153,) be a right angle.
The
Proposition.
right-angled
be a
the extremities of the diameter, a
Join the point,
c,
in the cir-
therefore equal, (Art. 142,) to the angle,
angle at c
c ; the angle,
together,
and d
any point
the angle formed at that point
a right angle.
lines, is
lines,
c,
to
at that point will
(Fig. 107,) be a given semi-circle
drawn from
lines
drawn
by them
cumference, the angle formed
triangle, is
Let a b
square of
the hypothenuse of a
equal to the squares of the
two remaining
(Fig. 108,) be a given right-angled triangle,

a
formed
on each of its sides then, the square, 6 e, is
having square
sides.
c,
equal to the squares,
and
b,
taken together.
This can be
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
proved by showing that the parallelogram, b I,
b
and that the parallelogram,
/,
is
61
is
equal to the square,
equal to the square,
c.
The
is a right angle, and the angle, a bf, is a right angle

c/,
each of these the angle, a b c ; then the angle,/ b c, will evidently be equal, (Art. 140,) to the angle, a b d ; the triangle,/ 6 c,
angle, c b
add
to
and the square, g 6, being both upon the same base, fb, and between
the same parallels, / b and g- c, the square, g 6, is equal, (Art. 146,)
to
a b
d,
being both upon the same base, b
d,
twice the triangle,
gram, b
same
I,
parallels, b
the triangle, a b
/b
c ; the triangle,
d and a I, the
d;
parallelogram, b
I,
I,
is
b, is
equal to twice
equal to the parallelo-
either being equal to twice the triangle,
The method
parallelo-
and between the
the triangles,/ b c and a b d, being equal to
one another, (Art. 141,) the square,

gram, b
and the
of proving h c equal to c
proving the square, b
e,
I is
c or
fb
a b
exactly similar
equal to the squares, h c and
g 6,
d.
thus
taken
together.
is
This problem, which is the 47th of the First Book of Euclid

said to have been demonstrated first by Pythagoras.
It is sta
ted, (but the story is of
ing for its discovery
From this
blem.
in
doubtful authority,) that as a thank-offer
he
circumstance,
It is
hundred oxen
sacrificed a
it is
gods
sometimes called the hecatomb pro-
of great value in the exact sciences,
Mensuration and Astionomy, in which
cate calculations are
made easy
by
These demonstrations, which
it
to the
many
more
especially
otherwise
intri-
of solution.
relate
mostly to the problems pre-
viously given, are introduced to satisfy the learner in regard to

their mathematical
accuracy.
By
studying and thoroughly un-
derstanding them, he will soonest arrive at a knowledge of their

importance, and be likely the longer to retain
Should he have a
relish for
them
may
farther,
he
whole subject of
them
in
consult Euclid's Elements, in
theoretical
sufficiently intelligible to
memory.
such exercises, and wish to continue
geometry
is
which the
treated of in a
manner
be understood by the young mechanic.
62
The
house-carpenter, especially, needs information of this kind,
and were he thoroughly acquainted with the principles of geometry, he would be much less liable to commit mistakes, and be
better qualified to excel in the execution of his often difficult un-
dertakings.
SUCTION
ARCHITECTURE.
H.
HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE.
Architecture has been defined to be
158.
ing
;"
but, in its
common acceptation,
-"the art of build-
" the art of

designing
it is
and constructing buildings, in accordance with such principles as

The literal signification
constitute stability, utility and beauty."
word
of the Greek
is
derived,
known
is
archi-tecton,
chief-carpenter
from which the word architect
but the architect has always been
as the chief designer rather than the chief builder.
the three classes into

Civil, Military,
which architecture has been divided
and Naval, the
construction of edifices
known
159.
and
is
is
Adam,
name
city after the
or
it
its
"
and other
civilized
follow.
one of the most ancient of the
tures inform us of
the son of
which
arts
the scrip-
existence at a very early period.
builded a
of his son,
city,
and
Enoch"
viz.,
refers to the
accommodation of
the subject of the remarks
This
which
as dwellings, churches
public buildings, bridges, &c., for the
man
that
first is
Of
called the
name
Cain,
of the
but of the peculiar style
manner of building we are not informed. It is presumed that

was not remarkable for beauty, but that utility and perhaps sta-
bility
were
its characteristics.
Soon
after the
deluge
that
me
64
morable event, which removed from existence all traces of the

works of man the Tower of Babel was commenced. This was
of the materials,
a work of such magnitude that the gathering
three years the period from
according to some writers, occupied
was twentyits commencement until the work was abandoned,
;
two years
and the bricks were
like blocks of stone,
being twenty
Learned men have given
broad and seven thick.
feet long, fifteen
as their opinion, that the tower in the temple of Belus at Babylon was the same as that which in the scriptures is called the
it
Tower
The tower
of Babol.
at its base,
of the temple of Belus was square
eacn side measuring one lurlong, and consequently

Its form was that of a pyramid
half a mile in circumference.
and
its
height
was 660
feet.
It
had a winding passage on the

which was wide enough for
outside from the base to the summit,
two
carriages.
Historical accounts of ancient cities, of
1^0.
now
but few remains
show
such as Babylon. Palmyra and
are
Nmevah
Sidon, Tyre, Aradus and Serepta of the Phoeand Jerusalem, with its splendid temple, of the Israelites
of the Assyrians
nicians
which there
that architecture
among them had made great advances.

among other nations
Ancient monuments of the art are found also

the subterraneous temples of the
phanta and Salsetta
Hindoos upon the
islands, Ele-
the ruins of Persepolis in Persia
pyramids,
and sepulchres in Egypt all prove that

of those early times were possessed of skill and
obelisks, temples, palaces
the architects
judgment highly
cultivated.
The
their works, are gigantic dimensions,
some
instances,
of some
principal characteristics of
immoveable
The
harmonious splendour.
is illustrated
in the
Hi
The
stones of
which
it is
extraordinary size
pyramids of Egypt.
these stands not far from the

city of Cairo
square, covers about
acres, and its
its
height
built are
immense
solidity, and, in
is
The
base,
largest of
which
nearly 500
is
feet.
the smallest being
full thirty feet long.
161.
Among
the Greeks, architecture
was
cultivated as a fine
ARCHITECTURE.
65
and rapidly advanced towards perfection. Dignity and grace

were added to stability and magnificence. In the Doric order,
art,
their first style of building, this is fully exemplified.
and
Ictinus
period
them
Callicrates, are
spoken of as masters in the
the encouragement and support of Pericles stimulated
to a noble emulation.
erected
Phidias,
art at this
The beautiful
temple of Minerva,
Odeum
The Ionic
the acropolis of Athens, the Propyleum, the
upon
and others, were lasting monuments of their success.

and Corinthian orders were added to the Doric, and
nificent edifices arose.
tions, the elegant
These exemplified,
refinement of Grecian
many mag-
in their chaste propor-
Improvement in
taste.
Grecian architecture continued to advance, until perfection seems

to
have been attained.
The specimens which have been partially
preserved, exhibit a combination of elegant proportion, dignified

simplicity
and majestic grandeur.
Greeks was
at the
preceding the Peloponnesian war
An
after
excess of enrichment succeeded
yet a
strict
Architecture
height of its glory at the period
regularity
its
which the
among
immediately
art declined.
former simple grandeur
was maintained amid
splendour increased:
the consequent decline
and the Greeks afterwards paid but
visible,
the profusion of orna-
After the death of Alexander, 323 B. C., a love of
ment.
the
gaudy
was
of the art
little
attention to the
science.
162.
While the Greeks were masters
in architecture,
which
they applied mostly to their temples and other public buildings,

the
Romans gave
of the
many
their attention to the science in the construction
aqueducts and sewers with which
Rome abounded
building no such splendid edifices as adorned Athens, Corinth

and Ephesus, until about 200 years B. C., when their intercourse
with the Greeks became more extended.
was
introduced into
and
Caesar,
Grecian architecture
Rome by Sylla by whom, as also by Marius

;
Italy.
many
large edifices
were erected
But under Caesar Augustus,
Christian era,
in various cities of
about the beginning of the

the art arose to the greatest perfection it ever at9
at
66
couraged, and
emigrated to Rome.
many
time that Solomon's temple
at
Some
about this
at
of the stones of
and was most pro-
erection,
of building
bably of the Grecian style
thian order.
was
It
Jerusalem was rebuilt by Herod
This was 46 years in the
a Roman.
were en-
his patronage, Grecian artists
Under
tained in Italy.
perhaps of the Corin-
which
it
was
built
were 46
high and 14 thick and others were of the

The porch rose to a great height
astonishing length of 82 feet,
the whole being built of white marble exquisitely polished. This
feet long,
21
feet
is
the building concerning
what manner of
stones,
which
it
"
was remarked
Master, see
For the
and what buildings are here."
construction of private habitations also, finished artists were
ployed by the
Romans
finest marble,
and
their dwellings being often built
their villas splendidly adorned.
continued
tus, his successors
em-
with the
After Augus-
to beautify the city, until the reign of
who, having removed the imperial residence to

Constantinople, neglected to add to the splendour of Rome and
Constantine
the
art, in consequence, soon fell
Thus we
Rome was
find that
from
its
high excellence.
indebted to Greece for what she
possessed of architecture
not only for the knowledge of
but also for
of the best buildings themselves
ciples,
many
its
prin-
these
having been originally erected in Greece, and stolen by the unprincipled
conquerors
taken
down and removed
to
Rome.
Greece was thus robbed of her best monuments of architecture.
Touched by
the
Romans, Grecian architecture
elegance and dignity.

for their scientific
The Romans, though
much
lost
of
its
justly celebrated
knowledge as displayed in the construction of

were not capable of appreciating the simple
their various edifices,
grandeur, the refined elegance of the Grecian style

to
improve upon
thus deprived
it
palace of gold
is
Adrian did
much
it
by
of true elegance.
but sought
and
In the days of Nero, whose
so celebrated,
buildings
to
the addition of luxurious enrichment,
encourage the art
were lavishly adorned.
but not satisfied with the
simplicity of the Grecian style, the artists of his time
aimed
at
ARCHITECTURE.
new
inventing
and added
ones,
to the already
Hence the
lishments of the previous age.
67
redundant embel-
origin of the pedestal,
the great variety of intricate ornaments, the convex frieze, the
The rage for luxury

open pediments, &c.
who
made some improvecontinued until Alexander Severus,
round and the
ment
but very soon after his reign, the art began rapidly to
decline, as particularly evidenced in the

ter
mean and
charac-
trifling
of the ornaments.
The Goths and
163.
tries
Vandals,
of Italy, Greece, Asia
works of ancient
and
when they
overran the coun-
Africa, destroyed
Cultivating no art but that of
architecture.
war, these savage hordes could not be expected to take

in the beautiful forms
most of the
any
interest
and proportions of their habitations. From

assumed an entirely different aspect. The
this time, architecture
celebrated styles of Greece
modern
The
over
architecture took
Goths, in their
Italy,
were unappreciated and forgotten; and
its first
step
on the platform of existence.
conquering invasions, gradually extended
France, Spain, Portugal and Germany,
From the
reign of Gallienus
buildings
which were
into
it
England.
may be reckoned the total extinction

of the arts among the Romans.
From his time until the 6th or
7th century, architecture was almost entirely neglected.
The
erected during this suspension of the arts,
were very rude. Being constructed of the fragments of the edifices which had been demolished by the
Visigoths in their unrestrained fury,
and the builders being
ledge of architecture,
many
work might have been seen

inverted,
destitute of a proper
know-
sad blunders and extensive patchin their construction
columns standing on
their
entablatures
wrong ends, and other
ridi-
culous arrangements characterized their clumsy work. The vast

number of columns which the ruins around them afforded, they
which by some is
having passed through various changes, to have
used as piers in the construction of arcades

thought, after
been the origin of the plan of the Gothic cathedral.

generally,
which
ar3 not of the classical styles,
Buildings
and which were
68
erected after the
of the
fall
indiscriminately
empire, have
Roman
included under the term
by some been
But the
Gothic.
underwent during the dark ages, show

changes which architecture
that there were several distinct modes of building.
a friend of the
Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths,
164.
who
reigned in Italy
from A. D. 493
to 525,
endeavoured
arts,
to re-
and preserve some of the ancient buildings and erected

still seen at Verona and Ravenna.
others, the ruins of which are
store
the characteristics of the structures

Simplicity and strength are
him they are, however, devoid of grandeur and eleerected
by
gance, or fine proportions.
These
are properly of the
GOTHIC
by some called the old Gothic to distinguish it from the

pointed style, which is generally called modern Gothic.
style
The Lombards, who
165.
ruled in Italy from A. D. 568,
taste for architecture nor respect for antiquities.
no
pulled down the
they
splendid
monuments
had
Accordingly,
of classic architecture
which they found standing, and erected in their stead huge buildings of stone which were greatly destitute of proportion, elegance
or utility
their characteristics being scarcely
any thing more than
stability and
racter.
immensity combined with ornaments of a puerile chaTheir churches were disfigured with rows of small columns
along the cornice of the pediment, small doors and

circular heads, roofs supported
to resist their thrust,
ments.
windows with
by arches having arched buttresses
and a lavish display of incongruous orna-
This kind of architecture
is called,
the
LOMBARD
style,
and was employed in the 7th century in Pa via, the chief city of
the Lombards at which city, as also at
many other places, a
;
great
many
edifices
were erected in accordance with
its
inelegant
forms.
166.
ple,
the
The Byzantine architects, from Byzantium,
erected
Constantino-
among which are included

cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms and
Mentz, and the most an
many
spacious edifices
cient part of the minster at

Strasburg
in all of these they combined the Roman-Ionic order with the Gothic of the Lombards,
;
ARCHITECTURE.
This
there
east,
style is called the
69
and the many minarets which are the
tals,
To the last style
LOMBARD-BYZANTINE.
were afterwards added cupolas similar to those used in the

together with numerous slender pillars with tasteless capi-
proper Byzantine,
In the eighth century,
167.
stroyed the
characteristics of the
or Oriental style.
kingdom
when
the Arabs and Moors de-
and sciences were
of the Goths, the arts
mostly in possession of the Musselmen-conquerors
viz
the
The ARABIAN
Arabian, the Moorish and the modern-Gothic.

style
which
at
time there were three kinds of architecture practised
was formed from Greek models, having
circular arches
added, and towers which terminated with globes and minarets.
The MOORISH
very similar to the Arabian, being distinguished

from it by arches in the form of a horse-shoe. It originated in
Spain in the erection of buildings with the ruins of Roman architecture,
and
is
is
seen in
all its
splendour in the ancient palace of the
Mohammedan monarchs at Grenada, called the Alhambra, or redThe MODERN-GOTHIC was originated by the Visigoths
house.
Spain by a combination of the Arabian and Moorish styles
and introduced by Charlemagne into Germany. On account of
in
the changes and improvements
it
there underwent,
the 13th or 14th century, termed the

It is
it
was, at about
German, or romantic
style.
exhibited in great perfection in the towers of the minster of
Strasburgh, the cathedral of Cologne and other edifices.
most remarkable features of
this lofty
and aspiring
lancet or pointed arch, clustered pillars, lofty towers

buttresses.
tecture,
and
It
was
principally
employed
The
style, are the
and flying
in ecclesiastical archi-
in this capacity introduced into France, Italy, Spain,
and England.
168.
The
Norman,
dicular
Gothic architecture of England
is
divided into the
the Early-English, the Decorated, and the Perpen-
styles.
character of
its
most common.
The Norman
ornaments
is
principally distinguished
the chevron, or
by the
zigzag, being the
Buildings in this style were erected in the 12th
70
The
century.
Early-English
celebrated for the beauty of
is
its
of design which they

edifices, the chaste simplicity and purity
This
character of its foliage.
display, and the peculiarly graceful
as
its
name
Decorated
The
is of the IHth century.
style,
style
implies,
which
and
is
characterized
by a
great profusion
of enrichment,
consists principally of the crocket, or feathered-ornament,
ball-flower.
It
was mostly
in use in the 14th century.
The
Perpendicular style, which dates from the 15th century, is distinguished by its high towers, and parapets surmounted with spires
similar in
number and grouping
to oriental minarets.
169.
Thus these several styles, which have been erroneously
termed Gothic, were distinguished by peculiar characteristics as well
as by different names.
The first symptoms
of a desire to return to a
pure style in architecture, after the ruin caused
by the Goths, was
manifested in the character of the art as displayed in the church

of St. Sophia at Constantinople,
which was erected by Justinian

of St. Mark at Venice, which
The church
in the 6th century.
arose in the 10th or llth century,

tects,
and resembles
tecture.
was the work of Grecian
archi-
in magnificence the forms of ancient archi-
The cathedral
at Pisa,
a wonderful structure for the age,
was erected by a Grecian architect in 1016. The marble with

which the walls of this building were faced, and of which the four
rows of columns that support the roof are composed, is said to be
of an excellent character.
The Campanile, or leaning- tower as it
is
usually called, was erected near the cathedral in the 12th cen-
tury.
Its inclination is
a poor foundation
generally supposed to have arisen from
although by some
it is
said to have been thus
constructed originally, in order to

inspire in the minds of the
beholder sensations of
and
awe. In the 13th century,
sublimity
the science in Italy was
slowly progressing many fine churches
were erected, the style of which
displayed a decided advance in
;
the progress towards pure classical architecture.
In other parts
of Europe, the
The
Gothic, or pointed style, was prevalent.
catL -Iral at
Strasburg, designed by Irwin Steinbeck, was erected
ARCHITECTURE.
in the 13th
and 14th
the 14th century,
centuries.
71
In France and England during
very superior edifices were erected in this
many
style.
In the 14th and 15th centuries, and particularly in the
170.
latter,
to
architecture in Italy
was greatly revived. The masters began
study the remains of ancient
Roman edifices and many

;
splen-
did buildings were erected, which displayed a purer taste in the

science.
about this time,
Rome, which was
others, St. Peter's of
Among
monument
a lasting
is
built
of the architectural skill of
Giocondo, Michael Angelo, Palladio, Vignola, and other

celebrated architects, each in their turn, did much to restore the art
the age.
to its
In the edifices which were erected under
former excellence.
their direction,
however,
it is
plainly to be seen that they studied
not from the pure models of Greece, but from the remains of the
deteriorated architecture of
The high
Rome.
pedestal, the cou-
pled columns, the rounded pediment, the many curved-and-twisled
enrichments, and the convex
Yet
cian architecture.
to a
frieze,
their efforts
good degree, the very impure
the overthrow of the
At about
171.
artists
who had
Roman
this
were unknown
to
pure Gre-
were serviceable in correcting,

taste that
had prevailed
since
empire.
time, the Italian masters
and numerous
visited Italy for the purpose, spread the
style over various countries of
Europe
Roman
which was gradually reThis fell into
ceived into favor in place of the modern-Gothic.
although it has of late years been again cultivated. It

requires a building of great magnitude and complexity for a perfect display of its beauties.
In America at the present time, the
disuse
pure Grecian style
is
more
or less studied
and perhaps the sim-
plicity of its principles is better
adapted to a republican country,

than the intricacy and extent of those of the Gothic.
STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
172.
It is
architecture,
generally acknowledged that the various styles
were originated
in accordance
with the
different pur-
72
suits of the early inhabitants of the earth
propensity for
or less
and were brought by
through the
imitation and desire of emulation which are found
their descendants
more
to their present state of perfection,
all
among
Those
nations.
that followed agricultural
from being employed constantly upon the same piece of

and the wooden hut was the
land, needed a permanent residence,
of their wants while the shepherd, who followed his
pursuits,
offspring
and was compelled to traverse large tracts of country for

tent to be the most portable habitation
again,
pasture, found the
flocks
the
man
way of
devoted to hunting and fishing
idle
and vagabond
naturally supposed to have been content with
is
living
an
The
the cavern as a place of shelter.

the origin of the Egyptian style
latter is said to
have been
while the curved roof of Chi-
nese structures gives a strong indication of their having had the

tent for their
model
and the simplicity of the original style of

shows quite conclusively, as is generally
the Greeks, (the Doric,)
conceded, that
pointed style,
structures, is
its
original
The
was of wood.
which the ancients
imitate the bower, or grove of trees, in
formed
173.
modern-Gothic, or
which was most generally confined to ecclesiastical

said by some to have originated in an attempt to
per-
their idol- worship.
There
are
numerous
and a knowledge of the

student in the
art.
styles, or orders, in architecture
peculiarities of each, is important to the
The STYLOBATE
is
the substructure, or base
In
ment, upon which the columns of an order are arranged.
Roman architecture especially in the interior of an edifice it
frequently occurs that each column has a separate substructure
this is called a pedestal
If possible, the pedestal should be
avoided in all cases because it
gives to the column the appearance of having been
originally designed for a small building,
and afterwards pieced-out to make it
for a
;
long enough
larger
one.
174.
An ORDER,
pal parts, viz
the
in
composed of tw
column and the entablature.
architecture,
is
>
princi-
ARCHITECTURE.
The COLUMN is composed of the base, shaft and capital.

The ENTABLATURE, above and supported by the
175.
176.
horizontal
is
columns,
and
73
cornice.
These
and
is
composed of the
architrave, frieze
principal parts are again divided into various
members and mouldings. (See Sect. III.)

The BASE of a column is so called from
177.
basis, a founda-
tion, or footing.
The SHAFT,
178.
the base
in the
the upright part of a column standing upon
and crowned with the
manner of a
well,
capital, is
whose inside
is
from shafto,
to dig
not unlike the form of a
column.
The CAPITAL, from kephale
179.
or caput, the head,
uppermost and crowning part of the column.

180.
The ARCHITRAVE, from arefii, chief or
trahs, a beam,
is
diate connection
that part of the entablature
the
principal,
and
which
lies in.
imme-
with the column.
The FRIEZE,
181.
is
of the entablature
fromjibron, a fringe or border,
which
beneath the cornice.
zophoruSj because
is
was
It
is
that part
immediately above the architrave and

called
by some
of the ancients,
was usually enriched with sculptured
it
animals.
The CORNICE, from
182.
corona, to crown,
is
the upper and
being also the uppermost and
projecting part of the entablature
crowning part of the whole order.
The PEDIMENT, above
183.
which
the entablature,
is
the triangu-
formed by the inclined edges of the roof

the end of the building.
In Gothic architecture, the pediment
lar portion
called,
185.
and
at
is
a gable.
The TYMPANUM
184.
which
is
is
enclosed
by
The ATTIC
is
the perpendicular triangular surface
the cornice of the pediment.

is
a small
order, consisting
of
pilasters
entablature, raised above a larger order, instead of a pedi-
ment.
An attic story is the upper story, its windows being usually
square.
10
74
An
186.
has
order, in architecture,
its
mem-
several parts and
one another by a scale of 60 equal parts,

which are called minutes. If the height of buildings were albers proportioned to
the same, the scale of equal parts would be a fixed quanBut as buildings are
tityan exact number of feet and inches.
ways
erected of different heights, the
of equal parts,
whole order
know
which
accompaniments
the height to
which the
This must be divided by the numdirected for the order under considera-
is
quotient obtained
by such division,
and
of the scale of equal parts
column next above the
For
base.
Suppose
now
it
column and
were desirable
entablature,
and
is
an exam-
to construct
Then 40
gives 5 feet for the length of the scale
The
the length
instance, in the Grecian Doric
ple of this order, forty feet high.
60, the scale is completed.
is
also, the diameter of the
is,
order the whole height, inpluding

diameters.
its
To ascertain the scale
be erected.
is to
Then the
necessary to
is
it
ber of diameters
tion.
column and
be of different dimensions.
are required to
feet divided
by
8,
this being divided
by
upright columns of figures,
marked JfJand P, by the side of the drawings illustrating the orders,

The
designate the height and the projection of the members.
projection of each
member is reckoned from
the axis of the column,

entablature.
The
a line passing through
and extending above
it
figures represent minutes,
to the top of the
or
60ths, of the
major diameter of the shaft of the columnf
GRECIAN STYLES.
187.
among
this
the Greeks,
was
The
what
in
original
is
method of building
Doric order to
called the
were afterwards added the Ionic and the
These
three were the only styles
Corinthian.
known among
them.
Each
distinguished from the other two, by not only a peculiarity

of some one or more of its principal parts, but also by a
is
particular destination.
The
manly and Herculean-like

feminine, matronly
delicate,
character of the Doric

that of
the Ionic
is
more
while that of the Corinthian
youthful and virgin-like.
is
is
robust,
delicate,
extremely
However they may
differ in
ARCHITECTURE.
their general character,
nity, elegance
they are alike famous for grace and dig-
and grandeur,
Known
high degree of perfection.
to -a
The DORIC ORDER
188.
is
so ancient that
although some have pretended
But the most general opinion
is,
to
its
is
origin
un-
have discovered
it.
an improvement upon
These no doubt were very
that
it is
the original log huts of the Grecians.

rude,
75
and perhaps not unlike the following
figure.
The trunks of
trees,
set
perpendicularly to support
the roof,
columns
may
;
be taken for
the tree laid
upon
the tops of the perpendicular ones,

Fig. 109.
which
rest
upon
ends
the, architrave, the
the architrave
of
the
the
cross-beams
triglyphs; the tree
laid
on
the cross-beams as a support for the ends of the rafters, the bed-
moulding of the cornice
the ends of the rafters
which
project
beyond the bed-moulding, themutules; and perhaps the projection

of the roof in front, to screen the entrance from the weather, gave
origin to the portico.
The
Doric order are the triglyphs those

parts of the frieze which have perpendicular channels cut in their
peculiarities of the
surface; the absence of a base to the
column
as also of
fillets
between the flutings of the column, and the plainness of the

The triglyphs are to be so disposed that the width of
capital.
the metopes
the spaces between the triglyphs
shall be equal to
their height.
189.
is
The intercolnmniation,
regulated
by
or space
between the columns,
placing the centres of the columns under the cen-
tres of the triglyphs
as
may
except at the angle of the building where,

be seen in Fig-. 110, one edge of the triglyph must be
;
over the centre of the column.*
Where
the columns are so dis-
posed that one of them stands beneath every other triglyph, the
arrangement
is
called,
mono-triglyph, and
*
See note, page 108,
is
most common.
DORIC ORDER.
Fig. 110.
ARCHITECTURE.
When
a column
rangement
This
aranstyle.
The
190.
is
placed beneath every third triglyph, the ar-
called diastyle
is
last style
Doric order
is
ance,
are
and when beneath every fourth,

and is seldom practised.
is
the worst,
suitable for buildings that are des-
tined for national purposes, for
ful.
77
banking-houses, &c.
though massive and grand, is nevertheless rich and graceThe Custom-House and the Union Bank, in New -York city,
good specimens of this order.

The IONIC ORDER. The Doric was
for
some time the
They gave
their attention
191.
only order in use
the Greeks.
among
to the cultivation of
until perfection
it,
seems
to
have been
at-
Their temples were the principal objects upon which

was displayed and as the Doric order seems
tained.
their skill in the art

to
Its appear-
have been well
fitted,
by
its
massive proportions,
to represent
the character of their male deities rather than the female, there
seems
have been a necessity
to
for
another style which should be
emblematical of feminine graces, and with which they might
Hence
decorate such temples as were dedicated to the goddesses.
This was invented, according to

and he being a native
historians, by Hermogenes of Alabanda
of Caria, then in the possession of the lonians, the order was
the origin of the Ionic order.
called, the Ionic.
192.
The
distinguishing features of this order are the volutes,
and the dentils among the bed-mouldalthough in some instances, dentils are want-
or spirals of the capital
ings of the cornice

ing.
The
volutes are said to have been designed as a represen-
tation of curls of hair
whole column
is
on the head of a matron, of
it
is called,
when
the exception of the Doric
the interval
is
when two and
three diameters, diastyle
are
one and a half
pycnostyle, or columns thick-set
two diameters, systyle

eustyle
of this and the other orders
When
distinguished as follows.
diameters,
the
taken as a semblance.
The iritercolumniation
Roman and Grecian, with
193.
both
whom
when
a quarter diameters,
and when more than
78
IONIC.
Fig. 111.
ARCHITECTURE.
79
three diameters, arceostyle, or columns thin-set.
when
called, tetrastyle ;
when
when
the orders,
there are six in a row, hexastyle
-The Ionic order
seminaries, libraries,
and
all
all
is
is
and
appropriate for churches, colleges,
edifices dedicated to literature
places of peace
Merchants' Exchange,
order
all
eight, octastyle.
194.
arts,
In
there are four columns in one row, the arrangement
and
New- York
tranquillity.
city,
is
The
and the
front of the
a good specimen of this
Fig. 113.
195.
To
from a
to s,
describe the Ionic volute.
(Fig. 112,) and
the whole height, a c

to 1|
min.
the volute
2,
upon
o,
ab;>i;t o,
with sides equal
and divide
it
into
draw
with
2.,
make a
5
Draw
s equal to
20 min. or
o, at right angles to 5 a,
to f of
and equal
min. for radius, describe the eye of
draw the
the centre of the eye,
to half the
144 equal
a perpendicular
shown
at
min.,
Fig. 113.
The
diameter of the eye,
parts, as
square, r
viz.,
several centres in rotation are at the angles
formed by the heavy
The
position, of these an-
lines, as figured,
gles
is
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
&c.
determined by commencing at the point, 1, and making

line one part less in length than the preceding one.
each heavy
No.
1 is the centre for the arc,
the arc,
be; and
so
on
b,
(Fig. 112
to the last.
;)
The inside
is
the centre for
spiral line is to
be
described from the centres, #, x, z, &c., (Fig. 113,) being the

ci-iiiH! of ihe first small
square towards the middle of the eye
1V(
m the
aj,
is to
centre for the outside arc.
be made equal
revolutions ;
to 2-ft
min.
The
breadth of the
This
is for
fillet
at
a spiral of three
but one of any number of revolutions, as 4 or
6,
ARCHITECTURE.
be drawn, by dividing o/, (Fig. 113,) into a corresponding
may
number
o,
81
two
into
Then
of equal parts.
parts, as at
and h
rallel to o 1,
h;
divide the part nearest the centre,
and
join o
4, parallel to o
the cenLes.
draw h 3,
lines, o
lines,
1,
o 2,
pa-
3,
and the place of
(See Art. 396.)
The CORINTHIAN ORDER
196.
and 2
then the
determine the length of the heavy
4, will
in general like the Ionic,
is
The
though the proportions are lighter.
more
also o
1,
airy elegance, a richer appearance
This
beautiful capital.
Corinthian displays a
but
its
distinguishing
generally supposed to have
feature
is its
had
origin in the capitals of the columns of Egyptian temples
its
which, though not approaching
it
is
in elegance,
have yet a
ty of
form with the Corinthian.
The
origin
which
an architect
Rome,
in the days of
is
told
by Vitruvius
Augustus Caesar
considered, to be fabulous,
recited.
It
is
this
oft-repeated story of
its
who flourished
in
though pretty generally
nevertheless worthy of being again
is
young lady
of Corinth
Her nurse gathered into a deep
finally died.
similari-
was
basket,
and
sick,
such trinkets
and keepsakes as the lady had been fond of when alive, and
placed them upon her grave covering the basket with a flat stone
;
or
tile,
that
its
The basket was
contents might not be disturbed.
placed accidentally upon the stem of an acanthus plant, which,
shooting forth, enclosed the basket with
reaching the
tile,
its
foliage
some of which,
turned gracefully over in the form of a volute.
A
chus,
celebrated
saw
sculptor,
Calima
the basket thus decorated,
and from the hint
which
it
sug-
gested, conceived and constructed a

capital for
This was
column.
called Corinthian from the fact that
was invented and

Flp
197.
'
The
lovely of
all
114
first
it
made Use of
at Corinth.
Corinthian being the gayest, the richest and most

the orders,
it
is
appropriate for edifices
11
which
ai
CORINTHIAN.
Fig. 115
ARCHITECTURE.
S3
dedicated to amusement, banqueting and festivity
where
gayety and splendour
delicacy,
198.
for all places
are desirable.
In addition to the three regular orders of architecture,
was sometimes customary among the Greeks
it
and afterwards
employ representations of the human

these were
form, instead of columns, to support entablatures
called Persians and Caryatides.
among
other nations
to
199.
PERSIANS are statues of men, and are so called in com
memoration of a victory gained over the Persians by Pausanias.
The Persian prisoners were brought to Athens and condemned to
abject slavery
and
them
in order to represent
in the lowest state
of servitude and degradation, the statues were loaded with the

heaviest entablature, the Doric.
200.
CARYATIDES are statues of women
after the Asiatic
manner.
Their origin
is
dressed in long robes
as follows.
In a war
between the Greeks and the Caryans, the latter were totally vanquished, their male population extinguished, and their females
carried to Athens.
statues of females,
erected,
The
To
perpetuate the
having the form
memory
of
this
event,
and dress of the Caryans, were
and crowned with the Ionic or Corinthian entablature.
caryatides were generally formed of about the
but the persians
much
and astonishment
larger
in order to
in the beholder.
portioned to a statue in like
manner
human
size,
produce the greater awe
The
entablatures were pro-
as to a
column of the same
height.
201.
These semblances of slavery have been
in frequent use
among moderns as well as ancients and as a relief from the

stateliness and formality of the regular orders, are capable of
;
forming a thousand varieties
yet in a land of liberty such marks
human degradation ought not to be perpetuated.

ROMAN STYLES. Strictly speaking, Rome had no
architecture of her own all she possessed was borrowed from
Before the Romans exchanged intercourse with
other nations.
of
202.
the Greeks, they possessed
some
edifices of considerable extent
84
and
which were
merit,
Rome was
of the
principally
erected
by
indebted to
architects
from Etruria
but
Greece for what she acquired
as an architecture
Although there is no such thing
was so devoted
ever
invention, yet no nation, perhaps,
art.
Roman
the cultivation of the art as the
of
to
Whether we consider
Roman.
extent of their structures, or the lavish richness
number and
and splendour with which they were adorned, we are compelled
At one lime, under
to them our admiration and praise.
to
the
yield
the consuls and emperors,
such as
public works
were, in extent
modem
times.
Rome employed 400
theatres,'
circuses, baths, aqueducts, &c.
and grandeur, beyond any thing attempted in

were built to convey water from a
Aqueducts
*
distance of 60 miles or more.
In the prosecution of this work,
rocks and mountains were tunnelled, and valleys bridged.

of the latter descended 200
in passing
Some
feet below the level of the water;
them the canals were supported by an
and
arcade, or suc-
Public baths are spoken of as large as cities
cession of arches.
up with numerous conveniences for exercise and
fitted
being
The
architects.
Their decorations were most splendid indeed, the

exuberance of the ornaments alone was offensive to good taste.
So overloaded with enrichments were the baths of Diocletian,
amusement.
that
ture
on an occasion of public festivity, great quantities of sculpfell from the

ceilings and entablatures, killing many of the
people.
The
203.
three orders of Greece
in all the richness
rious
and elegance of
Romans, not
satisfied
were introduced into
their perfection.
But the luxu-
with the simple elegance of their
fined proportions, sought to

improve upon
of ornament.
They transformed in
them by
orders
column
for
the Doric
to
gaudy splendour,
The Romans
re-
lavish displays
many instances,
gance of the Grecian art into a

their less refined taste.
Rome
the true ele-
better suited to
remodelled each of the
was modified by increasing the height of the

by changing the echinus of the capital
8 diameters
an ovolo, or
quarter-round, and adding an astragal and neck
ARCHITECTURE.
below
it
by placing
the centre of the
85
first
column
one edge, over the centre of the
triglyph, instead of
and introducing
zontal instead of inclined mutules in the cornice.
was modified by diminishing the
The
size of the volutes, and, in
hori-
Ionic
some
new capital in which the volutes were

This new capital has been termed modern
diagonally arranged.
Ionic.
The favorite order at Rome and her colonies was the Corinthian.
The Roman artists, in their search for novelty, subspecimens, introducing a
it
jected
to
many
especially in the foliage of
alterations
its
capi-
Into the upper part of this, they introduced the modified
tal.
thus combining the two in one. This change was

with
the importance of an order, and received the apdignified
Ionic capital
COMPOSITE,
pellation
or
Roman
found in the Arch of Titus.
among
now.
themselves, and
Its decorations
204.
the
to
Romans
is
but slightly appreciated
a standing
monument
of
invented.
said to
have been introduced
and
architects,
to
have been
style used in Ita'y before the introduction of the
Grecian orders.
Doric
was
it
The TUSCAN ORDER is

Romans by the Etruscan
only
style
are too profuse
luxury of the age in which
;he
the
the
which is
was not much used
the best specimen of
This
However
order gives
this
may
indications
strong
rude imitation of that style
this
is
its
be,
of
similarity to the
having been a
its
very probable, since his-
tory informs us that the Etruscans held intercourse with the
Greeks at a remote period.
The rudeness
of this order prevented
extensive use in Italy. All that is known concerning it is from

Vitruvius no remains of buildings in this style being found
among ancient ruins.
its
205.
utility
prove
For mills, factories, markets, barns, stables, &c., where

and strength are of more importance than beauty, the immodification of this order, called the
(Fig. 116,) will be useful
where economy
206.
and
its
modern Tuscan,
simplicity
recommends
it
is desirable.
EGYPTIAN STYLE.
The** architecture of the ancient
TUSCAN.
86
H.
P.
17)
26J
30
21
25
Fig. 116.
ARCHITECTURE.
Egyptians
to
which
semblance
is
characterized
grandeur.
87
that of the ancient
The miazing
Hindoos bears some
re-
by boldness of outline, solidity and
labyrinths
and extensive artificial
lakes,
and gloomy cemeteries, the gigantic pyramids

and towering obelisks, of the Egyptians, were works of immenand their extensive remains are enduring
sity and durability
the splendid palaces
proofs of the enlightened skill of this once-powerful, but long since
The principal
extinct nation.
uniformity of plan,
architecture are
lines
features of the
and angles
Egyptian Style of
never deviating from right
thick walls, having the outer surface slightly
deviating inwardly from the perpendicular
low
roof
flat,
to pier, these
the
whole building
composed of stones reaching in one piece from pier
being supported by enormous columns, very short in
proportion to their height
the shaft sometimes polygonal, having
no base but with a great variety of handsome capitals, the foliage

of these being of the palm, lotus and other leaves
entablatures
having simply an architrave, crowned with a huge cavetto ornamented with sculpture and the intercolumniation very narrow,
In the remains
usually 1 2 diameters and seldom exceeding 2.
;
of a temple, the walls were found to be 24 feet thick
and
at the
gates of Thebes, the walls at the foundation were 50 feet thick
and
perfectly solid.
The immense stones
as Egyptian walls generally, were built,
outside surfaces faced,
and the
of
which
had both
these, as well
their inside
and
joints throughout the body of the
wall as perfectly close as upon the outer surface.
For
this reason,
as well as that the buildings generally partake of the pyramidal
form, arise their great solidity and durability.
The
dimensions
and extent of the buildings may be judged from the temple of

Jupiter at Thebes, which was 1400 feet long and 300 feet wide
exclusive of the porticos, of
which
there
was a
great number.
estimated by Mr. Gliddon, U. S. consul in Egypt, that not

than 25,000,000 tons of hewn stone wert employed in the
It is
less
erection of the
Pyramids of Memphis alone, or enough to conmonuments. Some of the blocks are 40
struct 3,000 Bunker-Hill
88
EGYPTIAN.
H. P.
ARCHITECTURE.
feet long,
and polished with emery
to
and
207.
canals,
The
It is
from a distance of 6 or 7 hundred miles.
general appearance of the Egyptian style of archi-
tecture is that of
solemn grandeur
sepulchral gloom.
For
ries, prisons,
a surprising degree.
pyramids was brought, by
conjectured that the stone for these

rafts
89
&c.
this reason
amounting sometimes
it is
and being adopted
to
appropriate for cemete-
for these purposes,
it
is
gradually gaining favour.
great dissimilarity exists in the proportion, form
and general
Egyptian columns. In some instances, there is no

uniformity even in those of the same building, each differing
from the others either in its shaft or capital. For practical use
features of
in
Fig. 117
this country,
The
style.
may
be taken as a standard of this
Halls of Justice in Centre-street,
a building in general
New- York
city, is
accordance with the principles of Egyptian
architecture.
Buildings in General.
208.
That
utility, stability
style of architecture is to be preferred in
and
deur and elegance.
But as an arrangement designed
country would be inappropriate for a colder climate,

that the style of building
of the people for
whicn
regularity, are gracefully blended with gran-
whom
ought
to
it
for a
warm
would seem
be modified to suit the wants
designed.
High roofs to resist the
and
heavy snows,
arrangements for artificial heat, are
indispensable in northern climes; while they would be regarded
it is
pressure of
as entirely out of plare in buildings at the equator.
209.
upon
Among
the Greeks, architecture
their temples
was employed chiefly

and the proportions
and other large buildings
by them, when executed to such

But when used for
happiest effect.
of the orders, as determined

large dimensions,
have the
small buildings,porticos, porches, &c., especially in country-places,
they are rather heavy and clumsy in such cases, more slender
The
proportions will be found to produce a better effect.
;
12
90
English cottage-style
more
rather
is
appropriate,
and
is
becom
for small buildings in the country.

ing extensively practised
should bear an expression suited to its
210.
Every building
If
destination.
it
be intended for national purposes,
grand
magnificent
for a banqueting-house,
gay and splendid
for a
should be
it
and modest
for a private residence, neat
monument
.;
or
melancholy; or, if for a church, majestic and

some it has been said "somewhat dark and
cemetery, gloomy
graceful.
By
to a devotional state of feeling ;" but

gloomy, as being favourable
such impressions can only result from a misapprehension of the
".Her ways are
nature of true devotion.
and
all
her paths are peace."
of that brighter
world
to
However happily
211.
The church
which
of the structures in
it
may
may
be
appear as a whole, yet
upon the character and style

immediate vicinity, and the degree of cul-
its site,
its
should rather be a type
'leads.
the several parts of an edifice
disposed, and however pleasing
much depends upon
it
of pleasantness,
ways
as also
tivation of the adjacent country.
A splendid country-seat should
have the out-houses and fences in the same style with itself, the
trees and shrubbery neatly trimmed, and the grounds well cultivated.
Europeans express surprise that so many houses in this

country are built of wood. And yet, in a new country, where
wood is plenty, that this should be so is no cause for wonder.
212.
the practice should not be encouraged.

Buildings erected
with brick or stone are far preferable to those of wood they are
Still,
more durable
and
will be
house
is
not so liable to injury
by
fire,
nor to need repairs
found in the end quite as economical.
suitable for a temporary residence

only
would bequeath a dwelling to their

build with a more durable material.
wooden
and those who
children, will
Wooden
endeavour
to
cornices and gut-
attached to brick houses, are objectionable not

only on account of their frail nature, but also because
they render the buildters,
ing liable to destruction
by
fire.
91
Fig. 118
Fig. 119.
04
Dwelling houses are
213.
styles,
according
rections for their erection,
and
N
object.
built of various
to their destination
it
is
and
dimensions and
to give designs
necessary to
know
and
di-
their situation
dwelling intended for a gardener, would require
very different dimensions and arrangements from one intended for

a retired gentleman with his servants, horses, &c. nor would
;
a ihouse designed for the city, be appropriate for the country.
city houses, arrangements that
would be convenient
for
For
one
fa-
might be very inconvenient for two or more. Fig. 118, 119,
mily
120 a\id 121, represent the ichnographical projection, or groundthe floors of an ordinary city house, designed to be
plan, of
occupied
by one favtnily only. Fig. 122 is an elevation, or front-view, of

same ihouse all these plans are drawn at the same scale
the
which
that at the bottom of Fig. 122.
is
Fig. 118
kitchen.
wash-room
d, d, dj
wash
troughs.
with shelving.
pantries
e, e,
/passage having
clothes-hooks on th
h,
->.
shelves, drawers, &c.,
kitchen-dresser.
i,
JJ
I
front
and rear
areas.
plan of the
first-story.
parlours.
library.
portico.
Fig. 120- -plan of the second-story.

and sitting rot m.
toilet
principal bed-chamler.
bath-room.
d, d,
on one
other.
Fig. 119
a plan of the basement.
the dining-room.
is
is
bed-chambers,
passage with wardrobe and clothes-hooks.
side,
and
93
i
:zi
94
Fig. 121
plan of the attic-story.
/nursery,
bed-chamber*.
g,g,g,g
h, h, h, h, A,
I
;'
wardrobes
pantry with shelves,

to roof.
step-ladder leading
Fig. 122
section,
front,
These
front elevation.
some general
are introduced to give
ideas of the princi-
The width of city

become a common practice
in designing city houses.

ples to be followed
iots is ordinarily 25 feet,
but as
it
has
on account of the enhanced value of land, the

the orplans here given are designed for a lot only 20 feet wide
of
this
In
of
class.
width
placing the
many buildings
dinary
to reduce this size,
chimneys, make the parlours of equal
size, and set the chimneybetween the sliding-door partiwalls.

The basement chimney-
breast in the middle of the space

tion
and the
breasts
there
is
may
front (and rear)
be placed in the middle of the side of the room, as
but one flue to pass through the chimney-breast above
but in the second-story, as there are two flues, one from the base-
ment and one from the
parlour, the breast will
have
to
be placed
nearly perpendicular over the parlour breast, so as to receive the

flues
within the jambs of the
fire-place.
As
it
is
desirable to
have the chimney-breast as near the middle of the room as possible, it may be placed a few inches towards that point from over
the breast below.
always make
214.
So
in arranging those of the stories above,
provision for the flues from'
In placing the
stairs,
below.
there should be at least as
room
in the passage at the side of the

stairs, as upon
to
the
of
the
in the second
regard
length
much
them and
;
in
passage
story, there must
be room for the doors which open from each of the
principal rooms
into the hall,
and more
if
the stairs require
it.
a position for the stairs of the second

story,
Having assigned
let
the winders of
95
96
the other stories be placed perpendicularly over and under them

and be careful to provide for head-room. To ascertain this, when
it is
doubtful,
well to
it is
draw a
whole
vertical section of the
but in ordinary cases, this is not necessary. To dispose

the windows properly, the middle window of each story should
stairs
be exactly in the middle of the front
two windows which

that
room
because
but the pier between the
light the parlour, should be in the centre of
when
chandeliers or
hang from the centre-pieces of the parlour
any
similar ornaments,
ceilings,
it is
important,
in order to give the better effect, that the pier-glasses at the front
and
rear,
be in a range with them.
If both these objects
must be attempted.
be attained, an approximation to each

piers should in no case be
less in
cannot
The
width than the window open-
when thrown open will interfere

with one another; in general practice, it is well to make the outside piers j of the width of one of the middle piers.
When this
ings, else the blinds or shutters
is
desirable, deduct the
width of the
width of
all
front,
amount
of the three openings from the
and the remainder
the pieft
divide this
will be the
amount of
and the product
the-
will be
by
and then, if the parlour arrangements do not
interfere, give twice this amount to each corner pier, and three
times the same amount to each of the middle
piers.
J
10,
of a middle pier;
PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
215.
and rude
In the construction of the

as they
first
must have been, the
habitations of men, frail

first
and principal
object
But
was, doubtless, utility a mere shelter from sun and rain.
as successive storms shattered the
poor tenement, man was taught
by experience the
And when
an idea to durability.
symmetry, proportion and
necessity of building with
in his walks abroad, the
beauty of nature met his admiring gaze, contrasting so strangely

with the misshapen and disproportioned work of his own hands,
he was led
to
make gradual changes
till
his abode
was rendered
ARCHITECTURE.
97
not only commodious and durable, but pleasant in its appearance

and building became a fine-art, having utility for its basis.
designs for buildings of importance, utility, duraof architecture, should

bility and beauty, the first great principles
In
216.
all
be pre-eminent.
In order that the edifice be useful, commodious
and comfortable, the arrangement of the apartments should be

such as to fit them for their several destinations for public as;
semblies, oratory, state, visitors, retiring, eating, reading, sleeping,
these should each have
bathing, dressing, &c.
form and
make
To
situation.
accomplish
this,
their relative situation agreeable
and
and
own
its
at the
peculiar
same time
to
pleasant, producing
regularity and harmony, require in some instances much skill and

sound judgment. Convenience and regularity are very important,
and each should have due
be obtained, the
mer.
latter
when
yet
both cannot
should in most cases give place to the
A building that is
other good qualities
attention
it
for-
neither convenient nor regular, whatever
may
possess, will be sure of disappro-
bation.
217.
The utmost
rangements
tilation
is
importance should be attached
as are calculated to
promote health
by no means the least.
For
light, or
any
lowered.
part of the roof that can be
made moveable, should
ceiling, that
made
from the passages
especially for those
may
and
be closed at
in the partitions that separate the
rooms
rooms which are used for
All the apartments should be so arranged
sleeping apartments.
as to secure their being

easily kept
dry and
suitable apartments should be fitted
necessary apparatus for
To
and the sky-
pullies, so as to be easily raised
Small openings near the
ar-
this purpose, the ceilings of
pleasure, should be
218.
such
among these, ven-
the apartments should have a respectable height
be arranged with cord and
to
up
clean.
In dwellings,
for bathing,
with
all
the
conveying the water.
insure stability in an edifice,
it
should be designed
upon well-known geometrical principles such as science has demonstrated to be necessary and sufficient for firmness and dura:
13
98
have the appearance of stability as

should it seem tottering and unsafe, the
It is well, also, that
bility.
well as the reality
for
it
sensation of fear, rather than those of admiration and pleasure,

To secure certainty and accuwill be excited in the beholder.
those principles, a knowledge of the

racy in the application of
of the materials used, is indispensastrength and other properties
ble
and in order that the whole design be so made as to be
;
of execution, a practical
capable
mechanical operations
The
219.
is
knowledge of the
requisite
quite important.
elegance of an architectural design, although chiefly
depending upon a just proportion and harmony of the
parts, will
be promoted by the introduction of ornaments provided this be

For enrichments should not only be of a
judiciously performed.
proper character to suit the style of the building, but should also
have
most common
tecture,
to
and be bestowed
their true position,
is
fault,
and one which
an excess of enrichment
is
:
in proper quantity.
The
prominent in Roman archian error which is carefully
But those who take the Grecian models
be guarded against.
for their standard, will not
be liable to go to that extreme.
In
ornamenting a cornice, or any other assemblage of mouldings, at

least every alternate member should be left plain
and those that
;
are near the eye should be

tant.
more finished than those which are
Although the characteristics of good architecture are
ty and elegance, in connection with durability, yet
some buildings
ornament in
are designed expressly for use, and others

again for
the former,
utility,
and in the
latter,
dis-
utili-
beauty, should be the gov-
erning principle.
220.
The
principles
builder should be intimately acquainted with the
upon which the
ing are founded.

certainty and
extensive and
essential,
elementary parts of a build-
knowledge of these will insure

and enable the mechanic to erect the most
scientific
security,
lofty edifices
with confidence.
The more important
parts are the foundation, the column, the wall, the lintel, the arch,
the vault, the dome and the roof.
separate description of the
ARCHITECTURE.
peculiarities of each,
would seem
to
99
be necessary
and cannot
perhaps be better expressed than in the following language of a
modern writer on
this subject.
"In laying the FOUNDATION of any building,
221.
below the reach of
basis,
most
solid basis
Next
to these are clay
frost
and common accidents.
rock, or gravel
is
ne-
is
The
which has not been moved.
and sand, provided no other excavations
From
have been made in the immediate neighbourhood.

basis a stone wall
it is
a certain depth in the earth, to secure a solid
cessary to dig to
carried
up
to the surface of the
Where
constitutes the foundation.
it
is
this
ground, and
intended that the super-
its piers, chimneys, or

sometimes
of
use
to
columns,
occupy the space between the
This distributes me
points of pressure by an inverted arch.
structure shall press unequally, as at

it is
pressure equally, and prevents the foundation from springing be-
tween the
In loose or
different points.
we can
always unsafe to build, unless

below.
In
salt
marshes and
bers, or driving
upon them.
wooden
The
flats,
this is
muddy
situations,
it
is
reach the solid bottom
done by depositing timand raising walls
piles into the earth,
preservative quality of the salt will keep these
timbers unimpaired for a great length of time, and
makes the
foundation equally secure with one of brick or stone.

222.
The
means an
simplest
essential
a perpendicular
member
one to
part,
in
the
all, is
any
COLUMN,
or pillar.
of equal breadth
commonly
by no
This is
building, though
and thickness,
not intended for the purpose of enclosure, but simply for the support of
some
part of the superstructure.
which a column has

In
its
The
principal force
to resist, is that of perpendicular pressure.
shape, the shaft of a
column should not be exactly cylinmust support the weight of the
drical, but, since the lower part
superior part, in addition to the weight
which presses equally on
the whole column, the thickness should gradually decrease from
bottom
to .top.
The
outline of
columns should be a little curved,
so as to represent a portion of a very long spheroid, or paraboloid,
100
This figure
rathe- than of a cone.
of
culations, independent of beauty
form
that the
is,
cone; the other
the joint result of
is
One
appearance.
two
cal-
of these
best adapted for stability of base is that of a

is,
that the figure,
strength throughout
for
supporting
which would be of equal

a superincumbent weight,
would be generated by the revolution of two parabolas round the

axis of the column, the vertices of the curves being at its exThe swell of the shafts of columns was called the entremities.
tasis by the ancients.
It
has been lately found, that the columns
which have been commonly supabout an inch from a straight line, and
of the Parthenon, at Athens,
posed straight, deviate
that their greatest swell
Columns
is
at
about one third of their height.
in the antique orders are usually
made
to diminish
one
sixth or one seventh of their diameter, and sometimes even one

fourth.
The
Gothic
pillar
is
commonly
of
equal thickness
throughout.
223.
The WAL L,
be considered as the
another elementary part of a building,

lateral
ing the purpose both of enclosure and support.
diminish as
tion, as the
it
wall must
same reasons, and in the same propormust diminish still more rapidly if it ex-
rises, for the
column.
It
tends through several stories, supporting weights at

heights.
wall, to possess the greatest strength,
of pieces, the upper
sist
may
continuation of the column, answer-
must
different
also con-
and lower surfaces of which are horizon-
rounded nor oblique. The walls of most of

the ancient structures which have stood to the present time, are
tal
and
regular, not
constructed in this manner, and frequently have their stones

together with bolts and cramps of iron.
adopted in
The same method
such modern structures as are intended
strength and durability, and, in
some
bound
cases, the stones are
dove-tailed together, as in the light-houses at
is
to possess great
even
Eddystone and Bell
But many of our modem stone walls, for the sake of

cheapness, have only one face of the stones squared, the inner
Rock,
half of the wall being completed with brick
so that they can,
ARCHITECTURE.
101
in reality, be considered only as brick walls faced
Such walls
the difference in
made
The
of rough, irregular stones, laid in mortar.
should be broken,
The
with stone.
become convex outwardly, from

the shrinking of the cement.
Rubble walls are
are said to be liable to
if possible,
stones
so as to produce horizontal surfaces.
coffer walls of the ancient
Romans were made by enclosing
successive portions of the intended wall in a box, and filling
with stones, sand, and mortar, promiscuously.

structure must have been extremely insecure.
it
This kind of
The
Pantheon,
and various other Roman buildings, are surrounded with a double

brick wall, having its vacancy filled up with loose bricks and
The whole
cement.
has gradually consolidated into a mass of
great firmness?
The
reticulated walls of the Romans, having bricks with
oblique surfaces, would, at the present day, be thought highly

unphilosophical.
Indeed, they could not long have stood, had
not been for the great strength of their cement.
it
Modern brick
walls are laid with great precision, and depend for firmness more
upon
their position
than upon the strength of their cement.
The
and continually overlaying

or
each other,
breaking joints, the whole mass is strongly interbound
and
Wooden walls, composed of timbers
woven,
together.
covered with boards, are a common, but more perishable kind.
bricks being laid in horizontal courses,
They
require to be constantly covered with a coating of a foreign
them from spontaneous

In some parts of France, and elsewhere, a kind
substance, as paint or plaster, to preserve
decomposition.
of wall
is
made
moulds or cases.
much more
us
of earth, rendered compact
This method
is
by ramming
called building in pise,
it
and
in
is
durable than the nature of the maforial would lead
to suppose.
Walls of
all
kinds are greatly strengthened by'
angles and curves, also by projections, such as pilasters, chimneys

and buttresses. These projections serve to increase the breadth
of the foundation, and are always to be
buildings,
made use
and in walls of considerable length.
of in large
102
The LINTEL,
224.
or
beam, extends in a right
line over a
vacant space, from one column or wall to another. The strength

of the lintel will be greater in proportion as its transverse vertical
diameter exceeds the horizontal, the strength being always as the
The/oor
square of the depth.

connection of
The ARCH
225.
a transverse
is
swering the same purpose as the
The
strength.
the lateral continuation or
is
beams by means of a covering
of boards.
member
lintel,
arch, unlike the lintel,
of a building, an-
but vastly exceeding
may
consist of
ber of constituent pieces, without impairing
its
it
in
any num-
strength.
It is,
however, necessary that all the pieces should possess a uniform

and that the joints,
the shape of a portion of a wedge,
shape,
formed by the contact of their surfaces, should point towards a

common centre. In this case, no one portion of the arch can be
displaced or forced inward
which
any
force
it is
made.
is
and the arch cannot be broken by
not sufficient to crush the materials of which
In arches made of
are parallel,
common bricks, the
sides of
which
any one of the bricks might be forced inward, were
two of the bricks,

however, by the disposition of their mortar, cannot collectiveAn arch of the proper form, when comly be forced inward.
it
not for the adhesion of the cement.
Any
rendered stronger, instead of weaker, by the pressure of

a considerable weight, provided this pressure be uniform. While
plete, is
building, however,
the shape of
its
it
requires to be supported
internal surface, until
stone of an arch
is
it is
by a centring
complete.
called the key-stone, but
is
of
The upper
not more essential
than any other.
In regard to the shape of the arch, its most

simple form is that of the semi-circle. It is, however, very frequently a smaller arc of a circle, and, still more frequently, a por-
tion of
an
itself only,
its
ellipse.
is
The
simplest theory of an arch supporting
that of Dr.
own weight
to bear,
Hooke.
may
The
arch,
when
it
has only
be considered as the inversion of a
chain, suspended at each end.
The
chain hangs in such a form,
that the weight of each link or

portion is held in equilibrium
by
ARCHITECTURE.
the result of two forces acting at
its
103
extremities
and these
forces,
or tensions, are produced, the one
by the weight of the portion of

the other by the same weight increased
the chain below the link,
by
that of the link
itself,
both of them acting originally in a ver-
Now, supposing
tical direction.
the chain inverted, so as to con-
an arch of the same form and weight, the relative
stitute
situa-
tions of the forces will be the same, only they will act in contrary
directions, so that
they are compounded in a similar manner, and
balance each other on the same conditions.
The arch thus formed is denominated a catenary arch. In

common cases, it differs but little from a circular arch of the extent
of about one third of a
whole
circle,
and
from the abut-
rising
ments with an obliquity of about 30 degrees from a perpendicular.

But though the catenary arch is the best form for supporting
own
its
weight, and also
in a vertical direction,
it
all
additional weight
which
presses
not the best form to resist lateral
is
pressure, or pressure like that of fluids, acting equally in all direc-
Thus
tions.
the arches of bridges
and similar
structures,
when
covered with loose stones and earth, are pressed sideways, as well
as vertically, in the
of fluid.
same manner
In this case,
it is
as
if
they supported a weight
necessary that the arch should arise
more perpendicularly from the abutment, and
that
its
general
figure should be that of the longitudinal segment of an ellipse.

In small arches, in common buildings, where the disturbing
force
is
not great,
it
is
of
little
consequence what
is
the shape of
The outlines may even be perfectly straight, as in the

bricks which we frequently see over a window.
This is,
the curve.
tier of
strictly speaking, a real arch,
tend towards a
common
provided the surfaces of the bricks
centre.
It is
the weakest kind of arch,
and a part of it is necessarily superfluous, since no greater portion

can act in supporting a weight above it, than can be included between two curved or arched
lines.
Besides the arches already mentioned, various others are in use.
The
acute or lancet arch,
much used
in Gothic architecture, is
104
described usually from two centres outside the arch.
It is a
The rampant arch
strong arch for supporting vertical pressure.
The
is one in which the two ends spring from unequal heights.
horse-shoe or Moorish arch is described from one or more centres
placed above the base line. In this arch, the lower parts are in
danger of being forced inward. The ogee arch is concavo-convex, and therefore
the upper surface
The
trados.
fit
is
In describing arches,
only for ornament.
called the extrados,
springing lines are those
the abutments, or supporting walls.
and the
inner, the in-
where the intrados meets
The span
is
the distance
from one springing line to the other. The wedge-shaped stones,

which form an arch, are sometimes called voussoirs, the uppermost being the key-stone. The part of a pier from which an
arch springs
is
called the impost,
and the curve formed by the
upper side of the voussoirs, the archivolt.

the walls, abutments and piers, on
should be so firm as to
resist
pressure, of the arch.
It will at
sideway pressure of an arch

lect that
whose
It is
necessary that
which arches
are supported,
the lateral thrust, as well as vertical
is
once be seen, that the
very considerable,
every stone, or portion of the arch,
is
force acts to separate the abutments.
lateral or
when we
recol-
a wedge, a part of
For want of
atten-
tion to this circumstance, important mistakes
have been committed,

the strength of buildings
materially impaired, and their ruin accelerated.
In some cases, the want of lateral firmness in the
walls
is
compensated by a bar of iron stretched across the span of
the arch, and connecting the

abutments, like the tie-beam of a
roof.
This is the case in the cathedral of Milan and some other
Gothic buildings.
In an arcade, or continuation of
arches,
it is
only necessary that
the outer supports of the terminal arches should be

strong
o
enough
o
'
to resist horizontal pressure.

eral force
of each arch
is
In the intermediate arches, the latcounteracted by the opposing lateral
force of the one contiguous to
it.
In bridges, however,
individual arches are liable to be
destroyed by accident, it
where
is desi-
ARCHITECTURE.
105
rable that each of the piers should possess sufficient horizontal
strength to resist the lateral pressure of the adjoining arches.
The VAULT
226.
to
is
the lateral continuation of an arch, serving
cover an area or passage, and bearing the same relation to the
arch that the wall does to the column.

structed
simple vault
on the principles of the arch, and distributes
equally along the walls or abutments.
its
is
con-
pressure
complex or groined
vault is made by two vaults intersecting each other, in which
case the pressure is thrown upon springing points, and is greatlyincreased at those points.
The
groined vault
is
common
in
Gothic architecture.
The DOME, sometimes called cupola, is a concave coverand may be either a segment of a
it,
227.
ing
a building, or part of
to
sphere, of a spheroid, or of
stone,
it is
similar figure.
any
arch, since the tendency of each part to fall
only by
It is
When
built of
a very strong kind of structure, even more so than the
those above and below
it,
is
counteracted, not
but also by those on each
side.
only necessary that the constituent pieces should have a

form, and that this form should be somewhat like the
common
frustum of a pyramid, so that, when placed in its situation, its

may point toward the centre, or axis, of the dome.
four angles
During the erection of a dome,
it is
not necessary that
be supported by a centring, until complete, as
Each
circle of stones,
when
laid,
without aid from those above

be
left
open at
top,
it.
is
It
is
it
should
done in the arch.
capable of supporting
follows that the
itself
dome may
without a key-stone, and yet be perfectly
secure in this respect, being the reverse of the arch.
The dome
Rome, has been always open at top, and yet

has stood unimpaired for nearly 2000 years. The upper circle
of the Pantheon, at
of stones, though apparently the weakest,
made
it.
to support the additional
is
nevertheless often
weight of a lantern or tower above
In several of the largest cathedrals, there are two domes, one
within the other, which contribute their joint support to the lantern,
which
rests
upon the
top.
14
In these buildings, the dome
106
upon a
rests
which
circular wall,
is
arches upon massive pillars or piers.
supported, in
its
This construction
and
building upon pendentives, and gives open space
by
turn,
is
called
room
for
The remarks which have been made
passage beneath the dome.
abutments of the arch, apply equally to the walls

They must be of sufficient
immediately supporting a dome.
in regard to the
thickness and solidity to resist the lateral pressure of the dome,
which
is
The
very great.
and
great depth
walls of the
Roman Pantheon
In order that a
solidity.
dome
are of
in itself should be
lower parts must not be too nearly vertical,

perfectly secure,
since, in this case, they partake of the nature of perpendicular
its
and are acted upon by the spreading force of the parts above
them. The dome of St. Paul's church, in London, and some
wails,
others of similar construction, are

iron, to
are
bound with chains
prevent them from spreading at bottom.
made
wood depend,
of
The
ternal carpentry.
or hoops of
Domes which
in part, for their strength,
on
their in-
Halle du Bled, in Paris, had originally a
wooden dome more than 200
feet in diameter,
and only one
This has since been replaced by a dome of
in thickness.
foot
iron.
(See Art. 303.)

228.
The ROOF
is
the most
common and cheap method
of
covering buildings, to protect them from rain and other effects of

the weather.
its
shape.
shedding
pent
most
It is
The
rain,
sometimes
flat
and
or platform-roof is the least

is
advantageous for
seldom used in northern countries. The
two oblique sides meeting at top, is the

These roofs are made steepest in cold cli-
common
form.
are liable to be loaded with snow.
four sides of the roof are
and where there
liquity,
are
but more frequently oblique, in
roof, consisting of
mates, where they
roof,
flat,
it
is
are
a curb, or
made almost
all
oblique,
two portions
mansard
it is
Where
the
denominated a hipped
to the roof, of different ob-
roof.
In modern times, roofs
exclusively of wood, though frequently covered

with incombustible materials. The internal structure or
carpentry of roofs is a subject of considerable mechanical contrivance.
ARCHITECTURE.
107
supported by rafters, which abut on the walls on
The
roof
each
side, like
is
the extremities of an arch.
existed, except the rafters, they
would
If
no other timbers
exert a strong lateral pres-
To
sure on the walls, tending to separate and overthrow them.
counteract this lateral force, a tie-beam, as
ends of the
across, receiving the
from
their
is called,
extends
and protecting the wall

prevent the tie-beam from
rafters,
To
horizontal thrust.
it
sagging, or bending downward with its own weight, a kingpost is erected from this beam, to the upper angle of the rafters,
serving to connect the whole, and to suspend the weight of the
beam.
This
is
Q,neen-posts are sometimes
called trussing.
added, parallel to the king-post, in large roofs
a!so various other
In Gothic buildings, where the vaults do
connecting timbers.
not admit of the use of a tie-beam, the rafters are prevented from
spreading, as in an arch,
In comparing the
by the strength
lateral pressure of
of the buttresses.
a high roof with that of a
low one, the length of the tie-beam being the same, it will be
seen that a high roof, from its containing most materials, may
produce the greatest pressure, as
the other hand, if the
far as
will exert the greater pressure;
and
tion to the distance of the point at
from the end of each
wooden domes and
On
relied on.
rafter,
this will increase in propor-
which
would meet.
perpendicular's,
drawn
In roofs, as well as in
which, the cohesive strength of the material
are connected together
beams should, when possible!, be

cannot be effected, two or more beams
this
by splicing.
strong as
whole ones, yet they
strength,
by
Spliced beams are never so
may be made
affixing lateral pieces, or
to approach the
by making
The tendency
to separate is also resisted,
by
by
same
the ends overlay
each other, and connecting them with bolts and straps of

into each father
On
concerned.
this account,
Where
of one piece.
is
bridges, the materials are subjected to an in-
ternal strain, to resist

is
weight
weight of both be equal, then the low roof
letting the
the process called scarfing.
iron.
two pieces
Mortices,
in-
108
tended
truss or suspend one piece by another, should be formed
to
similar principles.
upon
Roofs in the United States, after being boarded, receive a secondary covering of shingles. When intended to be incombustible,
they are covered with slates or earthern tiles, or with sheets of lead,
copper or tinned iron. Slates are preferable to tiles, being lighter,
and absorbing
flat roofs,
Metallic sheets are chiefly used for
less moisture.
wooden domes, and curved and angular
surfaces,
which
require a flexible material to cover them, or have not a sufficient
pitch to shed the rain from slates or shingles.
Various
compositions are occasionally used to cover roofs, the
mon of which
are mixtures of tar with lime,
Ency. Am. (See Art.
sand and gravel."
NOTE TO ARTICLE
mine
Hie illniiifttf
The
W hen the width
DORIC ORDER.
Gi'Ki IAN
relation
if I/if
to be
artificial
most com-
and sometimes with
285.)
189.
occupied by the whole front is limited; to deter-
column.
between the parts may be expressed thus:
Wa,
c)
Where
the width in feet occupied by the columns, and their intercolumniations taken
collectively, measure.) at the b;:se ; A equals the width of the iii-'!<ipe, in minutes
c equals the width
of the tn-iypt,* in minuses; d equals the number of
a..
t'.ie ilium.'!-!- in feel.
/
f<|i;.ih
metopes,
.,-
equ:ils
A Croat of six columns hexiistyleCl feet wide; the frieze having one tritflyph over
F.ramp'i:
oach inteivohimniaiiun, or mono-tritfiyph. In this case, there heiiu live iiitercoluiniiiiilions and two
10 metopes. Let the metope equal 42 minutes and
metopes over e.sch, therefore there are 5 X 2
(he triglyph equal itf. Then a
6 ; b
42 ; c
28 ; ami d
10 and the formula above becomes,
__+
10(4-J
Example.
Uon, 21 in
An
IOXTJ 4^2
7l"
'
octastylo front, 8 columns, 184 feet wide, ;hiv;-
all,
25T+ (CO^ffl)
and the metope and triglyph 42 and 28, as beforo.
60x184
21 (42 +28)
+ (60 -28)
11040
= l5o
= 7 3j T5 02
'
êl
diameter required.
m -topes over
each intercolumuia-
Then,
= (he diameter required.
SFCTION
III.
&c.
MOULDINGS.
229. A moulding is so called, because of its being of the
same determinate shape along its whole length, as though tho
whole of it had been cast in the same mould or form. The regular
mouldings, as found in remains of ancient architecture, are eight

in
number
and are known by the following names

Annulet, band, cincture,
fillet, listel
Fig. 123.
Astragal or bead.
Fig. 124.
Torus or
tore.
Fig. 125.
Scotia, trochilus or
mouth.
Fig. 126.
Ovolo, quarter-round or echinus.
or square.
Cavetto, cove or hollow.
Cymatium, or cyma-recta.
Fig. 129.
> Ogee.
Inverted cymatiuni, or cyma-reversa.)

Fig. 130.
Some
of the terms are derived thus
word//, thread.
Astragal,
from the French
Bead, because this moulding,
a string of beads.
properly carved, resembles
tore, the Greek for rope,
a column.
which
resembles,
when on
Torus, or
the base of
from shotia, darkness, because of the strong

depth produces, and which is increased by the
its
projection
of the torus above
which
member
this
it
Scotia,
shadow which
tal.
fillet,
from astragalos, a bone of the heel
or the curvature of the heel.
when
resembles,
it.
Ovolo, from ovum, an egg,
when carved,
as in the Ionic capi-
Cymatium, from kumaton,
Cavetto, from cavus, hollow.
a wave.
any one of the

orders of architecture, but each one is common to all and although each has its appropriate use, yet it is by no means confined to any certain position in an assemblage of mouldings.
230.
Neither of these mouldings
is
peculiar to
The use
gal
and
of the
torus,
fillet is
to
bind the parts, as also that of the astra-
which resemble
ropes.
The
ovolo and cyma-re-
versa are strong at their upper extremities, and are therefore used
to support projecting parts
cavetto, being
weak
at their
above them.
The
supporters, but are placed uppermost to cover
other parts.
The
cyma-recta and
upper extremities, are not used as
and
scotia is introduced in the base of a
shelter the
column, to
MOULDINGS, CORNICES, &C.

separate the upper
and lower
variety and
is the same
The form
relief.
and
to
and
is
placed
among
produce a pleasing
of the bead, and that of the torus,
the reasons for giving distinct
that the torus, in every order,
the bead,
torus,
names
them
to
are,
always considerably larger than
is
the base mouldings, whereas the
never placed there, but on the capital or entablature tlie

and while the
torus, also, is never carved, whereas the bead is
bead
is
torus
among
bead retains
the Greeks
its
is
frequently elliptical in
While the
circular shape.
the torus, the cavetto
is
its
form, the
scotiais the reverse of
the reverse of the ovolo,
and the cyma-
rectaand cyma-reversa are combinations of the ovolo and cavetto.

231.
The curves of mouldings, in Roman architecture, were
most generally composed of parts of cjrcles; while those of the

Greeks were almost always elliptical, or of some one of the conic
sections, but rarely circular, except in the case of the bead,
which
was always, among both Greeks and Romans, of the form of a

Sections of the cone afford a greater variety of
semi-circle.
forms than those of the sphere
why
the Grecian architecture so
and perhaps
much
one reason
this is
excels the
Roman.
quick turnings of the ovolo and cyma-reversa, in particular,
exposed
of light,
232.
ings.
to
The
when
a bright sun, cause those narrow, well-defined streaks
which give
life
A profile
an assemblage of
That
is
profile
and splendour
to the
produces the happiest
posed of but few m]Hibers. varied in form

so that the plane
whole.
essential parts
effect
and
and mould-
which
size,
is
com-
and arranged
and the curved surfaces succeed each other
al-
ternately.
233.
To
describe the Grecian torus
and
scotia.
Join the
a and
b, (Fig. 131;) and from/, the given projection

of the moulding, draw/ o, at
from b,
right angles to the fillets
draw b A, at right angles to a b ; bisect a bine; join / and c,
extremities,
and upon c, with the radius, c/ describe the arc, / A, cutting b h

in h ; through c, draw d e, parallel with the fillets make d c and
;
c e,
each equal
to b
h ; then d
and a b
will be conjugate diame-
112
Fig. 131.
ters of the required ellipse.
To
describe the curve
tion of lines, proceed as directed at Art.
trammel, see Art. 125
with a
and
intersec;
by a
to find the foci, in order to describe
it
string, see Art. 115.
Fig. 132.
234.
by
118 and note
Fip. 133
Fig. 132 to 139 exhibit various modifications of the
Grecian ovolo, sometimes called echinus.
Fig. 132
to
136 are
Fig. 136.
Fig. 137.
Fig. 138.
a b and b
elliptical,
113
fcC.
Fig. 139.
being given tangents to the curve
parallel
which, the semi-conjugate diameters, a d and d c, are drawn.

In Fig. 132 and 133, the lines, a d and d c, are semi-axes, the
to
tangents,
draw the
bolical,
The
c,
being at right angles to each other. To

In Fig. 137, the curve is para-
curve, see Art. 118.
and
the curve
and
is
is
drawn according to Art.
length of the transverse axis, a
in order to flatten the curve,

tion to
127.
In Fig. 138 and 139,
hyperbolical, being described according to Art. 128.
6,
being taken at pleasure
b should be
c.
15
made
short in propor-
114
Fig. 141.
Fig. 140.
To
235.
describe the Grecian cavetto, (Fig. 140 and 141,)
118.
having the height and projection given, see Art.
Fig. 143.
To
236.
describe the Grecian cyma-recta.
When
the pro-
more than the height, as at Fig. 142, make a b equal

jection
into 4 equal parallelograms
to the height, and divide
is
abed
then proceed as directed in note to Art. 118.

tion
to
is less
than the height, draw d
complete the rectangle,
rectangles,
a,
(Fig. 143,)
abed;
and proceed according
When
the projec-
at right angles
divide this into 4 equal
to Art. 118.
Fig. 144.
237.
To
describe the Grecian cyma-reversa.
When
the

projection
is
more thar^the height,
as at Fig. 144, proceed as di-
rected for the last figure";" the curve being the
When
position only being; Changed.
the height,
draw a
make a d equal
d,
(Fig.
115
same
the projection
as that, the
is less
than
145,) at right angles to the fillet
to the projection of the
moulding
then proceed
as directed' for Fig. 142.
Roman mouldings
238.
and torus
in
are of the
some instances
are
composed of
parts of circles,
form of the
but the
and the
semi-circle,
latter is often
and
The bead
beauty of form than the Grecian.
have, therefore, less
scotia,. also,
composed of two quad-
having different radii, as at Fig. 146 and 147, which resemble the elliptical curve. The ovolo and cavetto are generally
rants,
a quadrant, but often

the centre
b in c
level line
is
less.
found thus
from
c,
and
they are
in
than
moulding
more than the height, as
less,
join the extremities, a
at right angles to
drawn from a
projects less
When
at
its
6,
as at Fig. 150,
and
draw
and
then d will be the centre.

height.
When
bisect
Fig. 152, extend the
line
Pif. 149.
from
This
the projection
Fig. 146.
Fig. 148.
6,
c d, cutting
is
c until
116
Fig. 150.
Fig. 151.
Fig. 153.
Fig. 152.
Fig. 154.
1P%. 108.
Fig. 155.
Fir.
117
Fig. 159.
Fig. 158.
Fig. 160.
cuts a perpendicular
it
centre of the curve.

for the
The
mouldings
at
drawn from a,
as at
d; and that will be the
In a similar manner, the centres are found
Fig. 147, 151, 153, 156, 157, 158 and 159.
and 161, are found thus

and 6, successively, with a c
centres for the curves at Fig. 160
bisect the line,
6, at c ;
upon
a, c
d and d
or c b for radius, describe arcs intersecting at
then those
intersections will be the centres.
239.
tion.
Fig. 162 to 169 represent mouldings of modern invenThey have been quite extensively and successfully used in
Fig. 162 is appropriate for a bed-moulding

under a low, projecting shelf, and is frequently used under mantle-shelves.
The tangent, i h, is found thus bisect the line, a 6,
inside finishing.
and b
at
c,
b,
draw
the arc,
d; from
b /, parallel to e
df;
from
and i
a,
d,
draw d
e,
at right angles to e b ;
d ; upon b, with
from
for radius, describe
divide this arc into 7 equal parts, and set one of the
from s, the
parts
o e;
c at
limit of the projection, to o
draw
the tangent,
A, through c,
each into a like number of equal
hi;
make
h equal
h c,
ci
and draw the
in-
divide b h,
parts,
to
118
Fig. 168.
164.
119
fcC.
Fig. 186.
Fig. 165.
u
Fig 167.
tersecting lines as directed at Art. 89.
draw the
tangent,
Fig. 189
Fig. 168,
h,
If
a bolder form is desired,
nearer horizontal, and describe an elliptic
curve as shown in Fig. 131, 164, 175 and 176. Fig. 163 is
much used on base, or skirting of rooms, and in deep panelling.
The curve is found in the same manner as that of Fig. 162. In
this case,
however, where the moulding has so
little
projection
120
in
comparison with
last figure,
In
height, the point,
be made equal to s
may
Fig. 164
last figure.
cornice.
its
is
To
e.
upon o,
h ; then make
the
b, drawn through the middle of

taken at pleasure and d c is parallel to a
find the length of
with o
crown moulding of a
and projection are given
this figure the height
is
being found as in the
instead of o e as in the
e,
appropriate for a
direction of the diameter,
the diagonal, e f,
e,
c,
draw
b h, at right angles to
a b
for radius, describe the arc,/ h, cutting 6
oc
and
Fig-.
165
to
h in
To draw the curve,
o d. each equal to b h*
see note to Art. 118.
169 are peculiarly distinct from
ancient mouldings, being composed principally of straight lines

the few curves they possess are quite short and quick.
H. P.
H. P.
1-H
14*
11
1-
910*
910J
10
10
Fig. 171.
Fig. 170.
240.
*
Fig. 170 and 171 are designs for antaB caps.
The manner
of ascertaining the length of the conjugate diameter, d
and also in Fig.
131, 175
and
176,
is
new, and
is
is
ellipsis are
diameters
is
All the parallelograms that
It
is
may
equal to one another, and consequently any one
equal to the rectangle of the two axes.
pair of conjugate
in this figure,
important in this application.
founded upon well-known mathematical principles, viz
be circumscribed about an
c,
The
equal to the
And
again
sum
of the squares of the
the
sum of
the squares of every
two
axes.

diameter of the antae
is
121
divided into 20 equal parts, and the height
and projection of the members, are regulated in accordance with

those parts, as denoted under Hand P, height and projection.
The
projection
is
measured from the middle of the
antae.
These
will be found appropriate for porticos, doorways, mantle-pieces,
door and
window trimmings, &c.
The
height of the antae for
mantle-pieces, should be from 5 to 6 diameters, having an entablature of
from 2
to
2 diameters.
being similar to the Doric order.
much too heavy
This
But
is
a good proportion,
it
for a portico these propor-
an antse, 15 diameters high, and an entablature of 3 diameters, will have a better appearance.
tions are
CORNICES.
Fig. 172, 173 and 174, are designs for eave cornices,
and Fig. 175 and 176, for stucco cornices for the inside finish of
rooms. The projection of the uppermost member from the facia,
241.
is
divided into 20 equal parts, and the various members are pro-
portioned according to those parts, as figured under

H. P.
20
816i
2!
Fig.
IVL
16
Hand P.
122
H. P.
Hi20
7 1C
.;"
31 3i
>5
Fig. 173.
Fig.
174
-f
H. P
uooooooooooo
Fig. 175.
H.
P.
Fig. 176.
123
184
ft
3 4
Fig. 177.
To proportion an eave
242.
height of the building.
make
b c
and
e,
and from
a,
each equal
b a,
right angles to
cornice in accordance with the
Draw
to
18 inches
for
and upon
40
from
6,
feet
high
b d, at
bisect b
in
c for radius,
with e/for radius, describe the

c, into 7 equal parts, as at 10, 20,
then the distance, b
a building 10
draw
e,
draw
division,
1, is
lines to b
c,
pa-
the projection of a cornice
b 2, the projection at
b 3, the projection at 30 feet, &c.
a building 34
(Fig. 177,) and
and equal in length to f of a c ;

c,
through e, draw a f; upon a, with a
arc,/d; divide the curve, df

of
30, &c., and from these points
rallel to
c,
describe the arc, c/,
the line,
20
feet
high
If the projection of a cornice for
feet high, is required, divide the arc
between 30 and
and from the fourth point from 30, draw a

parallel- with b d ; then the distance of the
into 10 equal parts,
line to the 'base, b
point, at
which
c,
that line cuts the base,
So proceed
tion required.
The above
from
for a cornice of
6,
will be the projec-
any height within 70
based on the supposition that 18 inches is the

for
a cornice 70 'feet high. This, for general
proper projection
feet.
is
purposes, will be found correct;
maybe
still, the length of the line, b c,

varied to suit the judgment of those who think differ-
ently.
Having obtained the projection of a cornice, divide it into 20

equal parts, and apportion the several members according to its
destination
as
is
shown
at
Fig. 172, 173 and 174.
Fig. 178.
To proportion a
243.
one.
cornice according to a smaller given
Let the cornice at Fig. 173 be the given one.
point in the lowest line of the lowest
member,
Upon any
as at a, with the
height of the required cornice for radius, describe an intersecting
a and b
arc across the uppermost line, as at b /join
then b
1 will
be the perpendicular height of the upper fillet for the proposed cor-
2 the height of the crown moulding and so of all the

members requiring to be enlarged to the sizes indicated on this
nice, 1
line.
For the
angles to
6,
projection of the proposed cornice,
and
at right angles to
be;
draw a
parallel
draw
lines
from each projection of the given cornice
ad;
then
cornice,
d, at right
with
e?,
to the line,
will be the required projection for the proposed
and the perpendicular
lines falling
upon
will indicate
the proper projection for the members.

244.
one.
To proportion a cornice according to a larger given

Let A, (Fig. 179,) be the given cornice. Extend a o to b,
and draw
c d, at right angles to ab; extend the horizontal lines

of the cornice, A, until they touch o d ; place the height of the
proposed cornice from o to
e,
and join
/ and
e;
upon
o,
with the
projection of the given cornice, o a, for radius, describe the quadrant,
a d ; from
d,
draw d
b, parallel
radius, describe the quadrant,
to/ e ; upon
be; then
jection for the proposed cornice. Join
o,
with o b
for
o c will be the proper pro-
a and c ; draw
lines
from the
126
Fir. 179.
members
the different
projection of
of the given cornice to
o,
od; from these divisions on the line, a o, draw lines

the line, o c, parallel to a c ; from the divisions on the line, of,
parallel to
to
draw
lines to the line, o
visions
on
the lines, o e
projection for the different

this process,
parallel to the line,
e,
and
c,
members of
we have assumed
cornice to be given
but
c,
e,
c for radius, describe
to
In
we
Thus upon o,
alone be given,
:
; upon o, with o a
a d ; join d and b ; from/, draw
the quadrant, c b
for radius, describe the quadrant,
/ e, parallel
di-
and
of the proposed
can obtain the same result by a different process.

with o
then the
the proposed cornice.
the height, o
the projection, o
if
fe;
will indicate the proper height
then o e will be the proper height for the pro-
posed cornice, and the height and projection of the different members can be obtained by the above directions.
By this problem.
a cornice can be proportioned according

as well as to a
article is
245.
larger
to
a smaller given one
but the method described in the previous
much more simple for that purpose.

To find the angle-bracket for a cornice.
B the given bracket, which,
180,) be the wall of the building,
and
for the present purpose, is turned
down
bracket, C,
is
obtained thus
Let A, (Fig.
horizontally.
through the extremity,
a,
The
angle-
and
paral-
Vig. 181.
with the wall,/d, draw the line, a b ; make e c equal a j.

and through c, draw c i. parallel with e d ; join d and 6, and from
lei
the several angular points in B,
and 3
draw
ordinates to cut
at those points erect lines perpendicular
to
d
b
b in
;
1,
from
2
h.
draw h g, parallel to/ a ; take the ordinates, 1 o, 2 o, &c., at B\

and transfer them to C, and the angle-bracket, C, will be defined.
In the same manner, the angle-bracket for an internal cornice, or
the angle-rib of a coved ceiling, or of groins, as at Fig. 181, can
be found.
A level crown moulding being given,
246.
moulding and a
Let A, (Fig- 182.1 bo

Divide the
level return at the top.
the given moulding, and
to find the raking
b the rake of the roof.
curve of the given moulding into any number of parts, equal or

from these points, draw horizontal
unequal, as at 1, 2, and 3
;
lines to a perpendicular erected
on the
6,
rake, as at
draw
J5,
draw a
c,
the horizontal line, b

at A,
from b
moulding
line, a e ; from the
to a,
any convenient
.-1
b ; also,
place
from
of the
a ; place the thickness, d
the
draw
a,
perpendicular
,
points, 1, 2, 3, at A,
form
at
and from
A b ; make o 1, a 2 and a
at A ; through the points, 1,
to
will be the proper
from c;
at right angles to
3, at
draw
B and
2 and
3, at
for the raking
lines to C, parallel
at C, equal to
1,
B, trace the curve
moulding.
&c.,
this
From 1, 2 and
128
Fig 182.
3. at
1.
C, drop perpendiculars to the corresponding ordinates
2 and
curve
3,
at
A;
this will
from
through the points of intersection, trace the

be the proper form for the return at the top.
SECTION
This subject
247.
tance
is,
and deserves more
FRAMING.
IV.
to the carpenter, of the
attention
and a
highest impor-
larger place in a
volume
of this kind, than is generally allotted to it.

Something, indeed,
has been said upon the geometrical principles, by which the several lines for
tained
the joints and the lengths of timber,
yet, besides this, there
is
much
ever precise or workmanlike the joints

it
avail,
of
its
to
may
be learned.
may
be ascer-
For how-
be made, what will
should the system of framing, from an erroneous position
timbers, &c.,
taining even
its
change
its
form, or become incapable of sus-
own weight?
Hence the necessity
for a
ledge of the laws of pressure and the strength of timber.
knowThese
being once understood, we can with confidence determine the best

position and dimensions for the several timbers which compose a
floor or a roof, a partition or a bridge.
are
more
As systems of framing
heavy weights and strains, and, in

cause not only a loss of labour and material, but
or less exposed to
case of failure,
frequently that of
life itself, it is
very important that the materials
employed be of the proper quantity and quality to serve their desAnd, on the other hand, any superfluous material is not
tination.
only useless, but a positive injury,
upon the points
of support.
It is
17
it
being an unnecessary load
necessary, therefore, to
know
130
The
the least quantity of timber that will suffice for strength.

greatest fault in
Economy,
framing
at least,
is
that of using an excess of material,
would seem to require
that this evil be abated.
Before proceeding to consider the principles upon which a sys-
tem of framing should be
constructed, let us attend to a few of
the elementary laws in Mechanics,
which
will be found to be of
great value in determining those principles.
248.
LAWS OF PRESSURE.
its own
exerts a pressure equal to
Example: Suppose an iron
ball,
(1.)
heavy body always

in a vertical direction.
weight
weighing 1UO
upon the top of a perpendicular
post,
Ibs.,
be supported
(Fig. 196;)
then
the
pressure exerted upon that post will be equal to the weight of the
ball; viz.,
100
Ibs.
(2.)
But
if
two inclined
posts, (Fig. 183.)
be substituted for the perpendicular support, the united pressures

upon these posts will be more than equal to the weight, and will
be in proportion to their position.
The farther
spread the greater will be the pressure,
apart their feet are
and vice versa.
Hence
tremendous strains
weight.
And
it
may be exerted by a comparatively small

follows, therefore, that a piece of timber intend-
ed for a strut or
post,
should be so placed that
its
axis
may
coin-
The
cide, as near as possible, with the direction of the pressure.
direction of the pressure of the
is
in
the
weight, W, (Fig. 183.)
vertical line, b
the
d; and the weight, W, would
two posts were removed, hence the
fig. 183.
fall in
that line,
if
best position for a support
FRAMING.
for
the weight
would be
131
But, as
in that line.
it
rarely occurs in
systems of framing that weights can be supported by any single
two or more supports, (as in

rafters,) it becomes important
resistance, they requiring generally
the case of a roof supported
by its
amount of pressure any certain
capable of exerting upon oblique supports. This can
know
therefore, to
weight
is
the exact
be ascertained by the following process.
Let a b and b
c,
(Fig- 183,) represent the axes of two sticks of
timber supporting the weight,
Make
equal to 6 tons.
from
d,
draw
the line, b
the
number
The
df
found
to
6,
and d
the weight,
let
bo
W,
e, parallel to c b ;
be 3i inches long, which
of tons that the weight,
pressure
and
the vertical line, b d, equal to 6 inches
parallel to
will be
e,
upon the other post

same length as
this case is of the
W,
exerts
equal
to
upon the post, a
b.
is
represented
e.
The
then
by
b f,
is
which
in
posts being inclined
upon them is
which weighs
at equal angles to the vertical line, b d, the pressure
equal.
Thus
it
will be found that the weight,
only 6 tons, exerts a pressure of 7 tons
the
amount being
creased because of the oblique position of the supports.
in-
The
bf,fd and d e, compose what is called the parallelogram of forces. The oblique strains exerted by any one force,
therefore, may always be ascertained, by making b d equal, (upon
lines, e &,
any
scale of equal parts,) to the
number
of
Ibs.,
cwts., or tons
contained in the weight, W, and b e will then represent the number of Ibs., cwts., or tons with which the timber, a 6, is pressed,,
and
bf that exerted upon
c.
Fig. 184
132
timbers
Correct ideas of the comparative pressure exerted upon
will be readily formed by drawing
according to their position,
strains in
various designs of framing, and estimating the several
are
struts
the
accordance with these principles. In Fig. 184,
framed into a third
The
struts are
alter the
different angle to
placed at a
The
pressures.
and the weight suspended from
piece,
show
used as
length of the timber
amount of the
pressure.
But
it
may
that.
the diverse
struts,
does not
be observed that
of resistance as short ones.

long timbers are not so capable
Fig. 185.
249.
In Fig. 185, the weight,
W,
struts in the direction of their length
exerts a pressure
on the
their feet, n, n, have, there-
n o, and would so move,

were they not opposed by a sufficient resistance from the blocks,
A and A. If a piece of each block be cut off at the horizontal
fore,
a tendency to
line,
move in
the direction,
n, the feet of the struts
would
along that line, in the direction,

pieces were cut off
descend vertically.
pressures exerted
at the vertical line,
To
by the
scale of equal parts) to
which the
slide
n a ; but
away from each
if,
6,
then the struts would
estimate the horizontal

struts, let
the
strut is pressed
other
instead of these, two
and the
vertical
be made equal (upon any

tons (or pounds) with
number of
construct the parallelogram of forces
FRAMING.
by drawing o
(by the same
e parallel to
scale,)
n,
and
133
of parallel
to b
shows the number of tons
(or
n ; then n
/,
pounds) pres-
sure that is exerted by the strut in the direction, n a, and n e

shows the amount exerted in the direction, n b. By constructing
designs similar to
this,
giving various and dissimilar positions to
and then estimating the pressures, it will be found in

every case that the horizontal pressure of one strut is exactly
equal to that of the other, however much one strut may be inthe struts,
clined
more than the other
and
also, that the
united vertical
pressure of the two struts is exactly equal to the weight,

this calculation, the
weight of the timbers
is
W.
(In
not taken into con-
sideration.)
250.
rafters
Suppose that the two struts, B and J5, (Fig. 185,) were
of a roof, and that instead of the blocks, A and A, the walls
of a building were the supports
then, to prevent the walls from
B and B, it would be desiraremove the horizontal pressure. This may be done by uniting the feet of the rafters with a rope, iron rod, or piece of timThis figure is similar to the truss of a roof.
ber, as in Fig. 186.
being thrown over by the thrust of

ble to
Fig. 186.
The horizontal
on the tie-beam, tending

length, may be measured
strains
in the direction of
its
to pull
it
asunde
at the foot
of
th-
134
was shown
can be more readily

and as accurately measured, by drawing from /and e horizontal
rafter, as
at
Fig. 185
lines to the vertical line, b d,
the horizontal thrust

eqfual
it
it
in o
and o; then/ o will be
e o at
A;
these will be found to
meeting
B, and
When
one another.
the rafters of a roof are thus connected,
to thrust the walls horizontally is
all
tendency
pressure on them
is
weight of the roof

sure
at
but
is
removed, the only
in a vertical direction, being equal to the
and whatever
it
has
to support.
beneficial rather than otherwise,
This
pres-
as a roof thus formed
tends to steady the walls.
Fig. 188.
251
Fig. 187 and 188 exhibit methods of framing for supIF and IF. Suppose it be required to
measure and compare the strains
produced on the pieces, A
and A C. Construct the
of
e b
ac-
porting the equal weights.
parallelogram
cording to Art. 248.

e the strain
in each,
it
on
C.
Then
f will
show the strain on
By comparing
d,
B, and b
d being equal
187
are
about three
Fig.
the figures, b
will be seen that the strains in
forces,
FRAMING.
188
times as great as those in Fig.
AB
and
C, in Fig. 188,
is
135
the position of the pieces,
therefore far preferable.
This and the preceding examples exemplify, in a measure, the

viz., the finding of two or more forces, which,
resolution offorces
acting in different directions, shall exactly balance the pressure

of
Thus, in Fig. 185, supposing the

be the greatest force that the two timbers, in their
any given single
weight,
W,
to
force.
present position, are capable of sustaining, then the weight,

is
the
given
force,
and the timbers
W,
are the two forces just equal to
the given force.
Fig. 189
The
composition of forces consists in ascertaining the

direction and amount of one force, which shall be just capable of
252.
balancing two or more given forces, acting in different directions.
This
are
is
only the reverse of the resolution of forces, and the two
founded on one and the same
principle,
and may be solved in

and B, (Fig. 189,) be
same manner. For example; let A

two pieces of timber, pressed in the direction of their length towards b A by a force equal to 6 tons weight, and B equal to 9.
the
To find the direction and amount of pressure they would unitedly

exert,
draw the
lines, b e
timbers, and make b

also
make
/equal
and b
/, in a line
with the axes of the
equal to the pressure exerted
to the pressure
the parallelogram of forces,
ebfd;
on A,
then b
viz., 6,
d, the
by B.
viz.,
and complete
diagonal of the
136
be the direction, and its length will be the

parallelogram, will
and of B. The line, b d, is
of the united pressures of
A
amount,
termed the resultant of the two forces,
be supported by one
f and be.
If
A and B are to
be
for that post will

post, C, the best position
in the direction of the diagonal, b
d; and
it
be
will require to
the united pressures of

sufficiently strong to support
A and
of
Fig. 190.
Fig. 190 represent a piece ol

framing commonly called a crane, which is used for hoisting
253.
Another example:
let
heavy weights by means of the rope, B b /, which passes over a

pulley at b. This is similar to Fig. 187 and 188, yet it is materially different.
In those figures, the strain
only, viz., from b to

to
B and from A to
The
strain in the direction,
dently equal to that in the direction,
C,
the parallelogram of forces,
and
strut
it
one direction
in
but in this there are two strains, from
W.
position for the strut,
is
make
ebfd;
B,
A W. To ascertain
b e equal to b /,
will be the position required.
is
evi-
the best
and complete
then draw the diagonal, b
Should the
d,
foot, O, of the
be placed either higher or lower, the strain on A C would be

In constructing cranes, it is advisable, in order that
increased.
the piece,
B A, may be under a gentle pressure,
of the strut a
dicate,
trifle
to place the foot
lower than where the diagonal, b
but never higher
d,
would
in-
FRAMING.
137
Fig. 191.
Ties
254.
and
Struts.
Timbers
in a state of tension are
called ties, while such as are in a state of compression are termed

struts.
Let
This subject can be illustrated in the following manner.

and B, (Fig. 191,) represent beams of timber supporting
W W and W; A having but one
the weights,
in the middle of
show
its
length, and
the nature of the strains,
middle from a to
b.
The
each beam be sawed in the

obvious
B will
each end.
at
the cut in
of
its
ber
is
the
while the cut in
beam be very little

cuts be made in the
closed perfectly tight at a, and the
by
it.
jured, while
that, in
To
If the weights
close.
But
on the other hand, the

bottom edge of the timbers, from c to b, B will be seriously
injured
is
let
effects are
heavy enough, the beam, A, will break at b
B will be
which
two, one
beam, A, will open, whereas that in

are
support,
A will
if,
scarcely be affected.
a piece of timber subject
to
By
this
it
in-
appears evident
a pressure across the direction
length, the fibres are exposed to contrary strains.
If the tim-
supported at both ends, as at B, those from the top edge down
middle are compressed in the direction of their length, while

those from the middle to the bottom edge are in a state of tension
to the
but if the
while the
beam is supported as at A,
fibres at the
The strains
the contrary effect
is
produced
middle of either beam are not at
all strained.
same nature
as those in
in a framed truss are of the
The truss for a roof, being supported at each end,

tie-beam in a state of tension, while its rafters are com-
a single beam.
has
its
pressed in the direction of their length.
By this,
it
appears highly
important that pieces in a state of tension should be distinguished
18
133
from such as are compressed, in order that the former may be preA strut may be constructed of two or more
served continuous.
pieces; yet,
where there are many
joints,
it
com-
will not resist
ression so firmly.
To distinguish
255.
ties
from
This
struts.
be done
may
by the following rule. In Fig. 183, the timbers, a b and b c, are the
sustaining forces, and the weight, W, is the straining- force and.
;
the support be removed, the straining force
if
the point of support,

tain
b,
towards
d.
Let
it
would move from
be required to ascer-
whether the sustaining forces are stretched or pressed by the
Rule
straining force.
upon the
direction of the straining force,
b d, as a diagonal, construct a parallelogram, e
bf d, whose
sides
with the direction of the sustaining forces, a b

through the point, 6, draw a line, parallel to the diag-
shall be parallel
and
c b
onal, e
and
f;
this
then be called the dividing line between
may
Because
struts.
the dividing line,
all
those supports
which are on
ties
that side of
which the straining force would occupy if unreon the other side of the divi-
sisted, are compressed, while those
ding line are stretched.

In Fig. 183, the supports are both compressed, being on that
side of the dividing line
unresisted.
if
which the
straining force
In Fig. 187 and 188, in which
would occupy
B and A C
are the sustaining forces,
compressed, whereas
AB
a state of tension
that side of the line,
the straining force

opposite side.
chain or rope.
A C is
A C being on
would occupy
The
if
unresisted,
and
is
in
i,
which
A B
on the
place of the latter might be supplied
In Fig. 186, the foot of the jafter at
is
by a
sus-
tained by two forces, the wall and the tie-beam, one perpendicular
and the other horizontal the direction of the straining force is
:
indicated
by
by the line, b a. The dividing line, h i, ascertained

shows that the wall is pressed and the tie-beam
the rule,
stretched.
256.
Another example
a gate, supported
by hinges
EAB
F, (Fig. 192,) represent
A and E.
In this case, the strain-
let
at
Fig. 192.
force
course vertical.
G,
and the
the weight of the materials,
is
direction ot
Ascertain the dividing line at the several points,
Hand F. It will then appear that the force at G is

and the dividing line shows that the
by A G and G
jB, I, J,
sustained
former
1,
and the
is stretched
supported by
compressed.
pressed
A Hand
The
latter
HE
compressed.
at
is
the former stretched and the latter
force at
the other stretched.
is
opposed by
The
F E, G F being stretched
Fund
The force
H B and A B, one
by
this
it
force at .Pis sustained
and
FE pressed.
By
A B is in a state of tension, and E F, of compresA Hand G F are stretched, while B H and G

E are compressed which shows the necessity of having A H
and G F, each in one whole length, while B Hand G E may
appears that
sion
also, that
be. as
G /and / H,
by
The
pressed.
piece,
as effectually without
would be
257.
the former stretched
C D,
could be dispensed with
if
it.
is
force at /is sus-
and the
latter
com-
neither stretched nor pressed, and
the joinings at
In case
AB
be
made
then
CD
/and 1 could
should
fail,
in a state of tension.
The pressure of inclined beams.
ty of a uniform prism or cylinder,

its
The
they are shown, each in two pieces.
tained
length.
is
The centre
in its axis, at the
In irregular bodies with plain
of gravi-
middle of
sides, the centre of
140
may be found by balancing them upon the edge of
gravity
two
in
positions,
making a
a prism
each time upon the body in a line
line
with the edge of the prism, and the intersection of those lines
will indicate the point required.
Fig. 193.
An
inclined post or strut, supporting
plied at
its
in the direction of
beam
its
length, or nearly so.
roof, the pressure at its foot
its
foot
But when such a
whole length, as the rafter of a

varies considerably from the direction
loaded uniformly over
is
some heavy pressure ap-
upper end, as at Fig. 186, exerts a pressure at
its
For example, let A B, (Fig. 193,) be a beam leaning against the wall, B c, and supported at its foot by the abutment, A, in the beam, A c, and let o be the centre of gravity of the
of
its
length.
beam.
Through
draw
o,
the vertical line, b d,
B b, catting b
the horizontal line,
will be the direction of the thrust.

its
loosing
to b
The amount
A.
(by any
or
footing, the joint at
in
b; join
To
and from B, draw

b and A and b A
:
prevent the
should bp made
beam from
at right angles
of pressure will be found thus
scale of equal parts,) equal the
number of
let
b d,
tons, cwts.,
pounds weight, upon the beam, A B ; draw d e, parallel to B

then b e, (by the same scale,) equals the pressure in the direc-
tion, b
A;
and
d the pressure against the wall

:
at
and
also
the horizontal thrust at A, as these are always equal in a construction of this kind.
ported at their feet

is
Fig. 194 .represents two equal beams, supby the abutments in the tie-beam. This case
similar to the last
cisely the position of
for
it is
the
obvious that each
beam
in Fig. 193.
beam
The
is
in pre-
horizontal
FRAMING.
141
Fig. 194.
pressures at B, being equal
and
and
opposite, balance one another;
their horizontal thrusts at the tie-beam are also equal.
Art. 250
194,)
is
When
Fig. 186.)
the inclination of a
one-fourth of the span, or of ashed, (Fig. 193,)
the span, the horizontal thrust of a rafter,

is
roof
at the
middle of
its
length,
tributed uniformly over
its
is
whose
is
(See
(Fig.
one-half
centre of gravity
exactly equal to the weight dis-
surface.
The
inclination, in a rafter
uniformly loaded, which will produce the least oblique pressure,

(b e :
Fig. 193,)
is
35 degrees and 16 minutes.
Fig. 195.
%8.
j.-.i*3sure
In shed, or lean-to
roofs, as
Fig. 193, the horizontal
will be entirely removed, if the bearings of the rafters, as
A. B, (Fig. 195,) are made horizontal
provided, however, that
the rafters and other framing do not bend between the points of
support.
If a
beam
or rafter
have a natural curve, the convex
or rounding edge should be laid uppermost.
259.
beam
uniformly loaded,
laid horizontal }
is
subject ic
tin*
and
supported at each end
at the middle
strain
greatest
142
of
its
The amount
length.
of pressure at that point
half of the whole load sustained.
upon
The
greatest strain
the middle of such a beam, mortices, large knots
defects,
equal to
is
coming
and other
should be kept as far as possible from that point
and, in
resting a load upon a beam, as a partition upon a floor beam, the

weight should be so adjusted that it will bear at or near the ends.
(See Art. 282.)
The
260.
When
resistance of timber.
the stress that a
given load exerts in any particular direction, has been ascertained, before the proper size of the
timber can be determined for the
resistance of that pressure, the strength of the kind of timber to
be used
must be known.
The
resistance of timber, are based
ber used be of
what
is
strait-grained, seasoned,
called
and
following rules for calculating the
upon the supposition

"
free
that the tim-
merchantable" quality
from large knots,
that
splits,
is.
decay,
&c.
The
strength of a piece of timber,
is
to
be considered in
cordance with the direction in which the strain
is
ac-
applied upon
FRAMING.
143
When it is
it.
its
Fig: 196,
When
compressed in the direction of

strength is termed the resistance
the force tends to pull
length,
Fig. 197,)
(.4,
And when
strained
it
it
its
length, as in
to compression.
asunder in the direction of its
termed the resistance
is
by a force tending to break
it
tension.
to
crosswise, as at
Fig\ 198, its strength is called the resistance to cross strains.

261.
Resistance to compression.
When the height of a
piece of timber exceeds about 10 times its diameter if round, or
10 times
The
its
first
thickness
if
rectangular,
it
will
bend before crushing.
of the following cases, therefore, refers to such posts as
would be crushed
if
overloaded, and the other two to such as
would bend before crushing.
In estimating the strength of tim-
ber for this kind of resistance,
it
is
provided in the following
rules that the pressure be exactly in aline with the axis of the
post.
Case
1.
To
when
weight
thickness.
for pine
find the area of a post that will safely bear a given
the height of the post
and 1400
is less
for oak,
of the post in inches.
and the quotient
This
What should
will be the least area
should there
be, there-
be the least area of a pine post that will
safely sustain 48,000 pounds
the
inches,
its
least
a tenon on the end of the post, this quotient will be too small.
Example.
48
its
rule requires that the area of the
abutting- surface be equal to the result

fore,
than 10 times
Divide the given weight in pounds by 1000
Rule.
48,000, divided
by 1000, gives
Such a post may be 6x8
required area in inches.
and
will bear to be of
any length within 10 times 6
inches,
least thickness.
Case
2.
To
find the area of a rectangular post that will
safely bear a given weight
Rtde
thickness or more.
sure in pounds
by
ply this product

pine and '0016
when
its
height
is
10 times
Multiply the given weight or pres-
the square of the length in feet
by
its least
and multi-
the decimal, '0015, for oak, '0021, for pitch
white pine
then divide this product by the

breadth in inches, and the cube-root of the quotient will be the
for
144
thickness in inches.
What
Example.
should be the thickness
of a pine post, 8 feet high and 8 inches wide, in order to support

a weight of 12 tons, or 26,880 pounds ? The square of the length
64
is
feet;
by the weight
multiplied
this,
1,730,320; this product, multiplied
2768-512
346-064
and
this again, divided
by reference
which
is
that in
which the
Case
appendix,
The
stiffest
rectangular post
is
sides are as 10 to 6.
To find
the area of a round, or cylindrical, post, that
will safely bear a given

least
by
-0016, gives
the breadth in inches, gives
will be found to be 7 inches large
the thickness required.
3.
pounds, gives
by the decimal,
to the table of cube-roots in the
number
the cube-root of this
in
diameter or more.
when
weight
Rule.
its
height
is
10 times
its
Multiply the given weight or
pressure in pounds by 1*7, and the product by -0015 for oak, '0021
for pitch pine
and -0016
root of this product
for
white pine
by the height
then multiply the square-
in feet,
and the square-root of
the last product will be the diameter required, in inches.

ple.
rWhat should be the diameter
feet high, in order to support
Exam-
of a cylindrical oak post, 8
a weight of 12 tons, or 26,880
pounds ? This weight in pounds, multiplied by 1'7, gives 45,696

and this, by -0015, gives 68'544 the square-root of this product
;
is
(by the table in the appendix) 8*28, nearly
by
8,
gives 66-24
the square-root of this
therefore, 8-14 inches
is
which, multiplied
number
is
8'14, nearly
the diameter required.
Experiments have shown that the pressure should never be
more than 1000 pounds per square inch on a joint in yellow pine
when the end of the grain of one piece is pressed against the
side of the grain of the other.
262.
Resistance to tension.
pulled in the direction of
weight of
Of white
Of
pine
pitch pine
its
A bar of
oak of an inch square,
length, has been torn asunder by a
...
11,500
.
11,000
10,000
Ibs.
FRAMING.
Therefore,
when
the strain
the piece, the following rule
To
is
145
applied in a line with the axis of
must be observed.
find the area of a piece of timber to resist a given strain in
the direction of
its
length.
Divide the given weight
Rule.
to
be sustained, by the weight that will tear asunder a bar an inch
square of the same kind of wood, (as above.) and the product will
be the area in inches of a piece that will just sustain the given
weight but the area should be at least 4 times this, to safely
;
sustain a constant load of the given weight.
What
Example.
should be the area of a stick of pitch pine timber, which

quired
to sustain safely a constant load of 60,000
divided by 10,000, (as above,) gives
6,
the answer.
give 24 inches
263.
Resistance to cross strains.
and
pounds
this,
To find
piece of timber to sustain a given weight,
is re-
60,000,
multiplied by
4,
the scantling of a
when such
piece
is
supported at the ends in a horizontal position.
Case
When
1.
the breadth
is
given.
Rule.
Multiply the
square of the length in feet by the weight in pounds, and this
product by the decimal, '009, for oak, 'Oil for white pine and '016
for pitch pine
divide the product
by the breadth in
inches,
and
the cube-root of the quotient will be the depth required in inches.
What
Example.
should be the depth of a beam of white pine,
having a bearing of 24 feet and a breadth of 6 inches, in order

support 900 pounds
The
by 900, gives 518-400; and

this,
divided
6,
square of 24 is 576, and this, multiplied

this again,
gives 950-400
by
-Oil, gives
the cube-root of
5702-400
which
is
9'83
the depth required.
inches
Case
by
to
When
the depth is given.

Rule. Multiply the
square of the length in feet by the weight in pounds, and multi2.
ply this product
and -016
by the
the depth in inches,

required.
decimal, -009, for oak, -Oil for white pine
for pitch pine
divide the last product
and the quotient
Example.
What
by
the cube of
will be the breadth in inches
should be the breadth of a beam of
oak, having a bearing of 16 feet and a depth of 12 inches, in

19
146
The
order to support a weight of 4000 pounds?

256, which, multiplied
by
gives 9216
'009,
12, gives 5
by 4000, gives 1,024,000
and
which
inches
When the
When neither
Case
for instance,
Rule.
the product
by
it
given,
suppose
is
be convenient to
it
will be
make
to
the
then the rule would become as
to 1,
by the decimal,
white pine and '016 for pitch pine; divide
and extract the square-root multiply this root

feet, and extract the square-root a second time,
0'6,
the length in
The
will be the depth in inches required.
equal to the
that
is
Multiply the weight in pounds
009, for oak, 'Oil for
by
which
the breadth required.
the breadth nor depth
breadth to the depth as 0-6

:
multiplied
by 1728, the cube of
on some proportion which the breadth should have
best to fix
the depth
follows
is
this,
is
breadth bears *a certain proportion to the
3.
depth.
this again, divided
square of 16
the decimal, 0-6.
breadth
It is
is
obvious
depth multiplied by
any other proportion of the breadth and depth may be ob-
tained
ple.
pine,
by merely changing the decimal, 0'6, in the rule. ExamWhat should be the depth and breadth of a beam of pitch
having a proportion
of 22
feet, in
one another as
06 to
and a bearing
sustain a ton weight, or 2240 pounds I
order to
to
1,
This, multiplied by '016, gives 35*84, which, divided by 0'6,

gives 59-73 the square-root of this is 7'7. which, multiplied by
;
22, the length, gives 169-4; the square-root of this is 13

is
Then
the depth required.
inches
Case
Rule.
multiplied by 0'6, gives 7'8
the required breadth.

4.
When
the
beam
is
inclined, as
in feet,
and the decimal,
for pitch pine
-009, for oak, -Oil for
divide this product
by
0-6,
root of the quotient will give the

depth in inches.
is
B,
Fig. 193.
Multiply together the weight in pounds, the length of the

in feet, the horizontal distance, A c, between the
supports.
beam
016
13,
which
equal
What
to the
depth multiplied by the decimal, 0'6.
white pine, and
and the fourth
The
breadth
Example.
should be the size of an oak beam, the sides to bear a

proportion to cr.e another as 0-6 to 1, in order to support a ton weight
FRAMING.
147
2240 pounds, the beam being inclined so that, its length being
20 feet, its horizontal distance between the points of support will
or
be 16 feet?
plied
by
16, gives
gives 6451-2
root of
6'1
2240, multiplied
which
716,800
by
and
this last, divided

is
10'18, nearly
by the decimal,
this again,
-009,
0*6, gives 10,752, the fourth
by
and
this, multiplied by 0-6, gives

beam should be 10'18 inches by
therefore, the size of the
20, gives 44,800, which, multi-
6-1 inches.
Fig. 199.
264.
>To ascertain the scantling of the
stiffest
beam
that
can be cut from a cylinder. Let d a c b, (Fig. 199,) be the secDraw the diameter,
tion, and e the centre, of a given cylinder.
a b
arcs,
upon a and b, with the radius of the section, describe the

e and e c ; join d and a, a and c, c and b. and b and d
then the rectangle,

265.
The
d a
c b, will
be a section of the
beam
greater the depth of a
thickness, the greater the strength.
beam
required.
in proportion to the
But when the difference be-
tween the depth and the breadth
is
stayed, (as at Fig. 202,) to prevent
its
great, the
beam must be
falling over
and breaking
sideways. Their shrinking is another objection to deep beams

but where these evils can be remedied, the advantage of increa.s
_ng the depth
is
considerable.
strongest form for a
Rule.
beam
The
following rule
is,
to find the
out of a given quantity of timber.
by the decimal, 0*6, and divide

inches by the product and the square of the
Multiply the length in feet
the given area in
quotient will give the depth in inches.

strongest form for a
Example.
beam whose given
What is
area of section
is
the
48
148
inches,
and length of bearing 20
multiplied
by
48, divided
16
by
portant
and even
ings,
same area of
in
new
feet, 20,
which
the square of
4,
and the breadth must be
section;
make beams deep and
much
is
as a
which shows how imIn
thin.
many
old build-
ones, in country places, the veiy reverse of
has been practised
this
length in
the given area in inches,
16 inches by 3 would bear twice as
of the
to
it is
in inches
depth
A beam
square beam
a quotient of
12, gives
this is the
inches.
The
feet ?
the decimal, 0'6, gives 12
the principal
beams being
oftener laid
on the broad side than on the narrower one.

266.
known
object
In the various parts of framing

partitions, roofs, bridges, &c., each has a specific
Systems of Framing.
as floors,
and, in
all
designs for such constructions, this object
should be kept clearly in view
the various parts being so dis-
posed as to serve the design with the least quantity of material.
The
simplest form
economical, but for
is
the best, not only because
many
The
other reasons.
the most
it is
great
number of
a complex design, render the construction liable
joints, in
to de-
rangement by multiplied compressions, shrinkage, and, in consequence, highly increased oblique strains
and
by which
its
stability
durability are greatly lessened.
FLOORS.
267.
known
Floors have been constructed in various

ways, and are
as single-joisted,
double, and
framed.
In a single-
joisted floor, the timbers, or floor-joists, are disposed as
Fig. 200.
Where
is
is
shown
the principal object, this
strength
of disposing the floor-joists is far
preferable
in
manner
as experiments have
with the same

quantity of material, single-joisted
floors are much
stronger than either double or framed floors.
proved
To
that,
obtain the greatest

strength, the joists should be thin and
deep.
268-
and
To find
the depth of
thickness being given,
joist,
when
the
length of bearing
the distance from centres is
FRAMING.
Fig.
12 inches.
by
20a
Divide the square of the length in
Rule.
the breadth in inches

plied
149
and the cube-root of the
feet,
by
quotient, multi-
2-2 for pine, or 2*3 for oak, will give the depth in inches.
What
should be the depth of floor-joists, having a

and a thickness of 3 inches, when said joists
The square of
are of pine and placed 12 inches from centres ?
divided
48
the
cube-root
of this
12 is 144, which,
by 3, gives
Example.
bearing of 12 feet
number
which, multiplied by 2'2, gives 7'986 inches,

or 8 inches will be found near enough for
the depth required
is 3'63,
practice.
269.
Where chimneys,
flues, stairs,
&c., occur to interrupt
the bearing, the joists are framed into a piece,

called a trimmer.
The
beams, a, a, into
(6,
Fig. 201,)
which the trimmer
is
framed, are called trimming-beams, trimming-joists, or car-
riage-beams.
They need to be
stronger than the
common joists,
number of beams, c, c, which they support.

trimmers have to be made strong enough to support half the
weight which the joists, c, c, support, (the wall, or another trimin proportion to the
The
mer, at the other end supporting the other half,) and the carriage-
Fig. 201
beams must each be

which the trimmer
strong enough to support half the weight
supports.
In calculating for the dimensions
must be had
of floor-timbers, regard
which they generally support
the weight
such as persons of 150 pounds
moving over the floor
exerts a
equal weights at
When
rest.
to the fact that
much
greater influence than
the trimmer,
b, is
not more dis-
from the bearing, rf, than is necessary for ordinary hearths,

&c.j it will be sufficient to add J of an inch to the thickness of
tant
the carriage-beam for every

the thickness of c
be
6,
that
is
supported.
Thus,
if
3 inches, and the number of joists supported
is
It is
the carriage-beam,
common joists.
When
a and
a,
generally the practice in dwellings to
make
in all situations, one inch thicker than the
But
more accurately
270.
as
c,
add 6 eighths, or f of #n inch, making the carriage-beams
3| inches thick.
size
joist,
it is
in
well to have a rule for determining the
extreme cases.
the bearing exceeds 8 feet, there should be struts,
(Fig. 202,) well nailed between the
joists.
will prevent the turning or twisting of the floor-joists,
greatly stiffen the floor.
These
and
will
For, in the event of a heavy weight

one
of
the
resting upon
joists, these struts will prevent that joist
from settling below the others, to the injury of the plastering
FRAMING.
Fig. 202.
upon the undeîde.
When the
should be inserted
about every 4
at
length of bearing
is great, struts
feet.
may be constructed for as great a

length of bearing as timber of sufficient depth can be obtained
271.
Single-joisted floors
such cases, where perfect ceilings are desirable, either

double or framed floors are considered necessary. Yet the ceil-
but, in
ings under a single-joisted floor
cross-furring, as
it is
termed
may be rendered more

which
durable by
consists of nailing a series
of narrow strips of board on the under edge of the beams and at
To
right angles to them.
The
strips
to join the laths
upon
are nailed.
these, instead of the beams, the laths
should be not over 2 inches wide

is all
that
is
wanted
in
width
enough
and not
more than 12 inches
It is necessary that all furring for

apart.
be
in
order that the mortar may have a suflinarrow,
plastering
cient clinch.
When it
is
desirable to prevent the passage of sound, the open-
ings between the beams, at about 3 inches from the upper edge,
are closed
to
by short
the beam along
which mortar
is
which
pieces of boards,
its
whole length.
laid to the depth of
about half an inch from
its
rest
on
elects nailed
This forms a
floor
upon
about 2 inches, leaving but
upper surface
to the
under side of the
floor-plank.
272.
of three
Double
tiers
binding-joists,
floors.
double floor consists, as at Fig. 203,
of joists or timbers
b, b,
and
viz.,
ceiling-joists,
c,
bridging-joists, a, a,
c.
The
binding-joists
AMERICAN HOUSE-CARPENTEB.
152
Fig. 203.
are the principal support,
and of course reach from wall
The bridging-joists, which
which they
the binding-joists, to
notched into the
when
and
are nailed; sometimes they are
binding-joists, but they
well nailed.
side of the binders,
The
to wall.
support the floor-plank, are laid upon
ceiling-joists are
and nailed
are sufficiently firm
notched into the under
they are the support of the lath
plastering.
Binders are laid 6 feet apart.
273.
At
this distance the
fol-
lowing rules will give the scantling.
Case
To
1.
find the depth of a binding-joist, the length
Ride.
breadth being given.

feet,
by
by
in inches.
by
Case
given.
6,
gives 24
by 3'53
What
Example.
having a length of 12
the kind of timber is pine ?
vided by
and the cube-root of the quotient,
3-42 for pine, or
joist,
plied
Divide the square of the length in
multiplied
and
feet
for oak, will give the
depth
should be the depth of a binding-
and a breadth of 6
The
square of 12
the cube-root of this
is
is
inches,
when
144, which, di-
2*88, which, multi-
3-42, gives 9-85, the depth in inches.

2.
To find the
Rule.
breadth, when the depth and length are

Divide the square of the length in feet, by the
FRAMING.
and multiply the quotient by 40 for

oak, which will give the breadth in inches.
cube of the depth in inches

pine, or
by 44
153
for
What
should be the breadth of a binding-joist, having a length of 12 feet and a depth of 10 inches, when the kind
of wood is pine
The cube of 10 is 1000 the square of 12 is
Example.
'?
144;
this,
divided
by 1000, gives a
quotient, multiplied
by
scantling
275.
20 inches
The
apart.
be found by the rule at Art. 268.
may
Ceiling-joists are generally placed
centres.
They
being, in
most
regard to the
this
40, gives 5'76, the breadth in inches.
Bridging-joists are laid from 12 to
274.
and
quotient of '144;
12 inches apart from
are arranged to suit the length of the lath
cases,
What
feet long.
width of furring
is
this
said at Art. 271, in
for plastering, will
apply to the
thickness of ceiling-joists.
To
when
find the depth of a ceiling-joist,
and thickness
Rule.
are given.
for pine, or
inches.
Example.
of pine,
inches
'?
when
The
by 0'67
for
What
feet
by
and multiply the quotient

which
will give the depth in
oak,
the cube-root of the breadth in inches
by 0-64
the length of bearing
Divide the length in

;
should be the depth of a ceiling-jobt

is 6 feet and the thickness 2
the length of bearing
length in
feet, 6,
divided
by
the cube-root of the
breadth in inches, 1*26, gives a quotient of 4*76, which, being

multiplied
by the decimal,
0'64, gives 3 inches, the depth re-
quired.
When
the thickness of a ceiling-joist
is
2 inches, the depth in
inches will be equal to half the length of bearing in feet. Thus,

if the
bearing is 6 feet, the depth will be 3 inches bearing 8
;
feet,
depth 4 inches, &c.
276.
Framed
floors.
the distance of bearing
When
is
a good ceiling
is
required,
reaching from wall to wall, are framed into girders.
heavy
timbers, as d, (Fig. 204,)
being the chief support of the
termed a framed floor.
and
great, the binding-joists, instead of
The
These
which reach from wall

floor.
are
to wall,
Such an arrangement
is
binding, the bridging and the ceil
20
154
Fig. 201.
ing-joists in these, are
described.
The
the same as those in double floors just
distinctive feature of this
kind of
floor
is
the
girder.
277.
if
Girders should be made as deep as the timber will allow
their being increased in size should reduce the height of a story
a few inches,
it
would be
defective ceilings
better than to
and insecure
floors.
have a house
suffer
from
In the following rules for
the scantling of girders, they are supposed to be placed at 10 feet

apart.
Case
1.
To
find the depth,
when
and the length of bearing are given.

of the length in
feet,
by
the breadth of the girder
Rule.
of the quotient, multiplied
by
4'2 for pine, or
give the depth required in inches.
Divide the square

;
and
by
Example.
the cube-root
4'3 for oak, will
What
the depth of a pine girder, having a length of 20 feet
should be
and a breadth
The square of 20 is 400, which, divided by 13,

the
30
cube-root of this is 3'12, which, multiplied by
77;
gives
4'2, gives 13 inches, the depth required.
of 13 inches?
-
FRAMING.
Case
To find the
2.
when
breadth,
155
the length of bearing and
depth are given. Rule. Divide the square of the length in feet
by the cube of the depth in inches and the quotient, multiplied
;
by 74
by 82
for pine, or
What
Example.
for oak, will give the breadth in inches.
.should be the breadth of a pine girder, having
a length of 18 feet and a depth of 14 inches

the length in
feet,
The
square of
324, divided by the cube of the depth in
inches, 2744, gives -118
and
multiplied
this,
by
74, gives 8'73
inches, the breadth required.
When
278.
it is
inches,
the breadth of a girder
recommended
as
sawn
sides outwards.
it
portunity to
tion
it
by sawing from end to end,
and then to bolt it together with
This
some have supposed, but
order that
more than about 12
to divide
vertically through the middle,
the
is
to
is
not to strengthen the girder,
reduce the size of the timber, in
dry sooner. The operation affords also an opexamine the heart of the stick a necessary precau-
may
as large trees are frequently in a state of decay at the heart,
although outwardly they are seemingly sound. When the halves

are bolted together, thin slips of wood should be inserted between
them
at the several points at
which they are
bolted, in order to
leave sufficient space for the air to circulate between.

tends to prevent decay
which
will be
as are not exactly tight, nor yet far
found
first at
enough apart
to
This
such parts
permit the
escape of moisture.
When
27^.
them
girders are required for a long bearing,
it is
usual
between the halves two pieces of

is,
oak which are inclined towards each other, and which meet at
to truss
that
to insert
the centre of the length of the girder, like the rafters of a rooftruss,
though nearly
This, and
many
if
not quite concealed within the girder.
similar methods, though extensively practised,
are generally worse than useless

that, in
nearly
ened the
all
such
since
it
cases, the operation
has been ascertained
has positively weak-
girder.
girder may be strengthened
by mechanical contrivance, when
156
Fig. 205.
its
depth
is
will allow.
required to be greater than
any one
Fig. 205 shows a very simple yet
of doing this.
The two pieces
are bolted, or pinned, together,
of
which
piece of timber
scientific
the girder
method
is
composed
having keys inserted between to
prevent the pieces from sliding.
The
keys should be of hard
wood, well seasoned. The two pieces should be about equal in

depth, in order that the joint between them may be in the neutral
line.
(See Art. 254.)
The
thickness of the keys should be
about half their breadth, and the amount of their united thicknesses should be equal to a
the depth of the girder.
sometimes used
preferable.
trifle
over the depth and one-third of
Instead of bolts or pins, iron hoops are
and when they can be procured, they are
In this case, the girder
is
far
diminished at the ends,
and the hoops driven from each end towards the middle.
280.
Beams may be spliced, if none of a sufficient length can
be obtained, though not at or near the middle,
if it
can be avoided.
(See Art. 259 and 332.) Girders should rest from 9 to 12 inches on
the wall,
anâ space
should be
the ends, that the dampness
left for
may
the air to circulate around
evaporate.
Floor-timbers are
supported at their ends by walls of considerable height. They

should not be permitted to rest upon intervening partitions, which
are not likely to settle as
much
as the walls
otherwise the une-
qual settlements will derange the level of the floor.
As
however well-constructed,
advisable to
settle in
some degree,
it is
all floors,
FRAMING.
frame the
joists a little
In single-joisted
used.
are
higher at the middle of the room than
as also the ceiling-joists
its sides,
rounded edge of the
157
and
floors,
cross-furring, when
the same
for
at
either
reason, the
have one, should be placed up-
stick, if it
permost.
down
If the floor- plank are laid
temporarily at
first,
and
left to
season a few months before they are finally driven together and
secured, the joints will remain
the plank are planed after the

as
the nature of
it is
dry
it
wood
may have been
to
much
first
closer.
But
if
the edges ot
laying, they will shrink again
shrink after every planing however
before.
PARTITIONS.
281.
Too
little
attention has been given to the construction of
The
this part of the framework of a house.
settling of floors
and the cracking of ceilings and walls, which disfigure to so great

an extent the apartments of even our most costly houses, may be
attributed almost solely to this negligence.
tioning
added
weighs about
to
&c., than
its
half
customary
any ordinary
a ton,
a greater
such
load,
floor
is
as
square of partiweight,
furniture,
when
storage,
calculated to sustain.
Hence
the timbers bend, the ceilings and cornices crack, and the whole
the house settles
interior part of
providing
practicable, be
partition should, if
may
showing the necessity
for
adequate supports independent of the floor-timbers.
with which
it
settle
it
is
connected, in order,
supported by the walls

if
the walls
settle, that
This would prevent the separation of

the angles of rooms.
For the same reason, a
with them.
the plastering at
firm connection with the ceiling
is
an important object in the con-
struction of a partition.
282.
The
joists in
a partition should be so placed as
to dis-
charge the weight upon the points of support. All oblique pieces
in a partition, that tend not to this object, are much better omitted.
Fig. 206 represents a partition having a door in the middle.
Its
158
Fig. 206.
lAMVl
Fig. 207.
construction
is
simple but effective.
Fig. 207 shows the manner
of constructing a partition having doors near the ends.

is
The
truss
formed above the door-heads, and the lower parts arc suspended
it.
The posts, a and &, are halved, and nailed to the tie, c d.
from
and the
sill,
ef.
The
braces in a trussed partition should be
placed so as to form, as near as possible, an angle of 40 degrees
with the horizon.

their
20
own
In partitions that are intended
weight, the principal timbers
feet span,
3x5 for
the filling-in stuff
30
may
feet,
and 4x6
may
for 40.
to
support only
be 3x4 inches for a
The
thickness of
be regulated according to what
is
Art. 271, in regard to the width of furring for plastering.
said at
The
FRAMING.
159
should be stiffened at about every three
filling-in pieces
feet
by
short struts between.
All superfluous timber, besides being an unnecessary load
upon
the points of support, tends to injure the stability of the plaster-
ing
for,
as the strength of the plastering depends, in a great mea-
upon its clinch, formed by pressing the mortar through the

space between the laths, the narrower the surface, therefore, upon
sure,
which the
laths are nailed, the less will be the quantity of plas-
and hence
tering unclinched,
For
its
greater security from fractures.
this reason, the principal timbers of the partition
their edges reduced,
by chamfering
should have
off the corners.
..
:X.
V\.
When
283.
2U8.
the principal timbers of a partition require to be
large for the purpose of greater strength,
the upright filling-in pieces,

zontal pieces
in order,
and
it is
a good plan
in their stead, to place
upon these and the
to
omit
a few hori-
principal timbers, to
nail upright battens at the proper distances for lathing, as in
208.
partition thus constructed requires a little
Fig.
more space
has the advantage of insuring greater stability

to the plastering, and also of preventing to a good degree the conWhen a
versation of one room from being heard in the other.
than others
partition
is
but
it
required to support, in addition to
of a floor or
some other burden
resting
upon
its
it,
own
the
weight, that
dimension
oi
160
the timbers
may
be ascertained, by applying the principles which
regulate the laws of pressure
explained at the
ber, as
may
data,
however,
upon
partitions
The
part of this section.
assist in calculating the
following
amount of pressure
The weight of
may be
284.
lirst
and those of the resistance of tim-
a square, (that
is.
a hundred square
feet,)
estimated at from 1500 to 2000
Ibs.
square of single-joisted flooring, at from 1200 to 2000
Ibs.
of partitioning
square of framed flooring, at from
weight of a square of deafening,

of Art. 271,) at about 1500 Ibs.
When
a floor is
2700
to
partitions
and
work
is
and the
midway, one-half of the weight of the whole
then be supported by the partition.
it
supported at two opposite extremities, and by a
partition introduced
quently owing
Ibs.
(as described at the latter part
floor will
joints,
4500
which
floors,
is
As
so disastrous to plastering,
of the timber
to the
the settling of
and
is fre-
to ill-made
shrinking
very important that the timber be seasoned and the
well executed.
ROOFS.*
285.
In ancient buildings, the
Norman and
the Gothic, the
walls and buttresses were erected so massive and firm, that
it
was
customary to construct their roofs without a tie-beam; the walls

being abundantly capable of resisting the lateral pressure exerted
by the
rafters.
But
in
modern
buildings, the walls are so slightly
built as to be incapable of resisting scarcely
any oblique pressure

and hence the necessity of constructing the roof so that all
oblique and lateral strains may be removed as, also, that instead
;
of having a tendency to separate the walls, the roof
may
contri-
bute to bind and steady them.

286.
In estimating the pressures upon any certain roof, for the
purpose of ascertaining the proper sizes for the timbers, calculation
must be made
for the pressure exerted

* See also Art. 228.
by the wind, and,
if
FRAMING.
161
in a cold climate, for the weight of snow, in addition to the weight

of the materials of which the roof is composed.
The force of
wind may be calculated at 40 Ibs. on a square foot. The weight

of snow will be of course according to the depth it acquires.
In a severe climate,
be constructed steeper than in a milder one in order
(See weight of materials, in Appendix.)

roofs
ought to
that the
snow may have a tendency
sufficient
weight
to
to slide oif before
endanger the safety of the roof.
it
becomes of
The inclina-
tion should be regulated in accordance with the qualities of the
material with
may
which the roof
is
to
be covered.
The following table
be useful in determining the inclination, and in estimating
the weight of the various kinds of covering
MATERIAL.
162
AMERICAN HOUSE-CAB PENTER.
FRAMING.
"after
is
(Fig. 211,)
beam
a principal rafter
a straining-beam
is
a king-post
is
is
a strut
Q is a queen-post T
and P, P, (Fig. 212,) are
163
&,
is
tie-
In constructing a roof
purlins.
of importance, the trusses should be placed not over 10 feet apart,
by a strut at every purlin, the purlin

of
instead
framed
into the principal rafters, and
on
notched
being
the principal rafter supported
the tie-beam supported at proper distances, according to the weight
of the ceiling or whatever else
The
required to support.
it is
dimensions of the timbers
may
ance with the principles explained at the
first
288.
be found in accordpart of this section
but for general purposes, the following rules, deduced from the
experience of practical builders and from scientific principles,
may
be found useful
these rules give the dimensions of the piece
at its smallest part.
To find
289.
the dimensions of a king-post:
tiply the length of the post in feet
multiply this product

for oak,
which
by
by
Mul-
Rule.
the span in
Then
feet.
the decimal, 0'12, for pine, or
by 0'13
and
will give the area of the king-post in inches
divide this area
by the
by the thickness
breadth,
and
for the breadth.
it
will give the thickness
What
Example.
or
should be
the dimensions of a pine king-post, 8 feet long, for a roof having
a span of 25 feet ?
decimal, 0*12,
8 times 25
gives 24 inches
is
200
this,
for the area
multiplied
4x6,
by the
would
therefore,
be a good size at the smallest part.
To find
290.
the dimensions of a queen-post.
tiply the length in feet, of the queen-post or
that part of the length of the tie-beam
This product, multiplied by the decimal,
it
The
by the thickness
queen-posts in
which
is
12f
feet.
supports, also in feet.
by 0'32
and dividing
0'27, for pine, or

;
will give the breadth.
Fig. 210 support each
To make them
should be their dimensions
Mul-
suspending -piece, by
for oak, will give the area of the post in inches
this area
Rule.
Example.
of the tie-beam,
of pine, 6 feet long,
12|, multiplied
by
6,
what
gives 76,
164
which, multiplied by 0*27, gives 20-52
which
indicates a size of
about 4x5$.
the dimension^ of a tie-beam, that is required
To find
291.
to
support a
Divide the length of the
Rule.
ceiling- only.
longest unsupported part by the cube-root of the breadth
by T47
quotient, multiplied
the depth in inches.
for pine, or
by
and the
1'52 for oak, will give
The length
Example.
of the longest un-
supported part of the tie-beam in Fig. 210 is 12$ feet. What

should be the depth of the tie-beam, the breadth being 6 inches,
and the kind of wood, pine? The cube-root of 6 is 1'82, and 12|,
divided by 1*82, gives a quotient of 6'956
The
1'47, gives 10 225.

-
6xlO.
When
there are
the tie-beam can be found
To find
292.
rooms
this,
in the roof, the
the rule for girders,
by
the dimensions of
there is a king-post in the middle.

of the length of the rafter in
the product
multiplied
size of the tie-beam, therefore,
dimensions for
(
Art. 277.)
principal rafter when

Rule. Multiply the square
a,
by the span
feet,
in feet
;
the cube of the thickness in inches.
by
by
may be
and divide
For
pine,
multiply the quotient by '096, which will give the depth in

inches.
Example.
pine, 22-36 feet long,
The
of 40 feet
40, gives
20000
should be the depth of a rafter of
and 6 inches
square of 22-36
and
ness, gives 92-59
What
this,
To find
500 nearly,
having a span
this,
multiplied by
divided by 216, the cube of the thick-
which, multiplied by -096, equals 8'888.
size of the rafter should, therefore,
293.
thick, the roof
is
The
be 6x8|.
a principal rafter when two

are
used
instead
queen-posts
of a king-post^ Rule. The
same
as the
the dimensions of
except that the decimal, 0155, must be used
last,
instead of "096.
Example.
What
should be the dimensions ot
a principal rafter, having a

length of 14 feet, (as in Fig. 210,) and
a thickness of 6 inches, when the
span of the roof is 38 feet
and the wood

plied
by
is
pine?
38, gives
74 18
The
square of 14 is496, which, multi-
this,
divided
by 216, the cube of
6,
gives
FRAMING.
34
IS,
rafter
165
The size of
which, multiplied by 0-155, gives 5-34.

should, therefore, be 6x5|.
the
der that
To find the dimensions of a straining-beam. In orthis beam may be the strongest possible, its
depth should
be to
thickness as 10
294.
Rule.
is to 7.
Multiply the square-root

of the span in feet by the length of the straining-beam in feet,
its
and extract the square-root of the product. Multiply this root by

0-9 for pine, which will give the depth in inches
To find the
thickness, multiply the depth
by the decimal,
What should be the dimensions

long, for a span of
38
by
8*60, which, multiplied
is
774
the depth.
the thickness.
Therefore,
beam should be 5|x7|, or 5 jx8.

To find the dimensions of struts and
295.
6-164,
0'9, gives
This, multiplied by 0'7, gives 5'418

the
Example.
The square-root of the span is
feet ?
which, multiplied by 12, gives 73-968

nearly
0'7.
of a pine straining-beam, 12 feet
Rule.
braces.
Multiply the square-root of the length supported in

length of the brace or strut in feet
product, multiplied
feet, by the
and the square-root of the
0'8 for pine, will give the depth in inches
by
and the depth, multiplied by the decimal,

ness in inches.
Example.
the brace or strut, a,
rafter, or
feet
is
In Fig. 210, the part supported by
equal to half the length of the principal
and the length of the brace
should be the size of a pine brace
which, multiplied by
plied
by
and
2x3
6 feet
3'192
the depth.
the thickness.
0-6, gives 1-9152,
should be
It is
0*8, gives
is
The square-root of 7
6, gives 15'9
which, multiplied by
0'6, will give the thick-
what
is 2*65,
is
3-99,
This, multi-
Therefore, the brace
inches.
customary
to
braces, all of the
make
the principal rafters, tie-beam, posts
same thickness,
that the
whole
truss
may
be of the same thickness throughout.

296.
To find
the dimensions of purlins.

Rule. Multiply
the cube of the length of the purlin in feet, by the distance the
purlins are apart in feet
and the fourth
pine will give the depth in inches
root of the product for
or multiply
by T04
to obtain
166
the depth for oak
and the depth, multiplied by the decimal,
will give the thickness.
What should be
Example.
0'6,
the dimen-
The cube of
sions of pine purlins, 9 feet long and 6 feet apart 1
9 is 729, which, multiplied by 6, gives 4374 the fourth root of
;
5x8
the thickness.
4-878
more
trusses.
To find
297.
lowing rule
is
the dimensions of
for slate roofs,
Shingle roofs
apart.
proper size for them would be about
Purlins should be long enough to extend over two,
inches.
three or
This, multiplied by O6, gives
the required depth.
this is 8-13
dimensions of
rafters
feet,
by the cube-root of the breadth
inches.
Example.
O74
foot of 2, gives
inches
5-55,
and the
quotient,
for oak, will give the
depth in
in inches
should be the depth of a
long and 2 inches thick ?
feet
feet,
p*ine rafter,
divided by 1'26, the cube-
which, multiplied by 0'72, gives nearly 4
the depth required.
298.
beam
What
at the
Divide the length of bearing in
Rule.
part of this section.
multiplied
may
be found by
and the laws of pressure
first
for pine, or
fol-
The
placed 2 feet apart.
kinds of covering
reference to the table at Art. 286,
by O72
The
rafters.
having the rafters placed 12 inches
may have
rafters for other
common
If.
instead of framing the principal rafters
into the king
and the queen
posts, they
and straining-
be permitted
against each other, and the king and the queen posts be
halves, notched
tie-beam,
much
on and
of the
bolted, or strapped to
ill
effects of
to
each other and
shrinking in the
abut
made
in
to the
heads of the
king and the queen posts will be avoided. (See Art. 339 and 340.)
FRAMING.
167
Fig. 213 shows a method of constructing a truss having

a built-rib in the place of principal rafters.
The proper form
299.
for the
curve
as
as
flat
is
described in the figure, approximates so near to that of
the circle, that the latter
b,
the
is
just half of
rib.
This curve, when
that of a parabola, (Art. 127.)
is
The
c,
may
be used in
its
composed of two series of abutting pieces,

These pieces should be as long as the dimen-
sions of the timber will admit, in order that there
The
height,
the curve to pass through the middle of
rib is
bolted together.
joints.
The
stead.
may
be but few
suspending pieces are in halves, notched and bolted

and rib, and a purlin is framed upon the upper end
to the tie-beam
of each.
truss of this construction needs, for ordinary roofs,
no diagonal braces between the suspending

strength
is
required the braces
for the
is at
may
pieces,
suspending pieces
kind will be sufficiently strong,
the area of
if
about one-fourth more timber, than

ing-beam for a roof of the same
is
The
be added.
the joints of the
but
rib.
its
The
depth to the thickness should be about as 10
extra
best place
rib
of this
section contain
required for that of
size.
if
strain-
proportion of the
is to 7.
Pig. 214.
300.
Some
writers have given designs for roofs similar to Fig.
214, having the tie-beam omitted for the accommodation of an
arch in the ceiling.

objectionable,
gained by
This and
all
similar designs are seriously
and should always be avoided
as the small height
the omission of the tie-beam can never compensate for
the powerful lateral strains,
which
by
the oblique posi-
tion of the supports, tending to separate the walls.
Where ail arch
are exerted
168
required in the ceiling, the best plan
is
as high as the top of the arch.
is
up the walls
to carry
Then, by using a horizontal
beam, the oblique strains will be entirely removed.

building in this place and vicinity, has been
lic
upon a
the settling of the roof, consequent
formation of the truss in this respect.
It is
all
made
so strong
but ruined by
defective plan in the
very necessary, there-
fore, that the horizontal tie-beam be used, except
are
Many
tie-
a pub-
where the walls
and firm by abutments, or other support, as
to
prevent a possibility of their separating.
301.
Fig. 215
is
a meihod of obtaining the proper lengths and
bevils for rafters in a

hip-roof,
of the building
b e
jack or cripple rafter.

it
equal to the
is
Draw
in
and
b c are walls at the angle
e h, at
right
rise of the
roof; join b
length of the hip-rafter.

to b c;
the seat of the hip-rafter
Through
e,
and
angles to b
and
A,
and h
draw d
*,
upon b, with the radius, b h, describe the

; join b and i, and extend gfto meet b i in
e,
of a
and make
b will be the
at right angles
; ;
i,
cutting
then
gj will
arc,
FRAMING.
be the length of the jack-rafter.
found in the same manner
169
The length of each jack-rafter is
by extending
its
seat to cut the line,
From/, draw fk at right angles to/g-, also/Z, at right

angles to be; make/ k equal to fl by the arc, / &, or make g k
equal to g j by the arc, J k ; then the angle atj will be the top6
i.
bevil of the jack-rafters,
302.
To find
venient place in b
be; from
s
join
o,
and the one at k
will be the down-bevil*
the backing of the hip-rafter.

e,
(Fig- 215,) as
o,
draw
At any con-
m n, at right angles to
tangical to b h, describe a semi-circle, cutting b e in
m and 5 and n and s
then these lines will form at s the
proper angle for beviling the top of the hip-rafter.
DOMES.f
Fig. 2! 6.
u
Fig. 317.
The
process
lengths and bevils of rafters for Toof-valleys can also be found by the abov?
t See also Art. 227
22
170
The most
303.
usual form for domes
base being circular.
When
high, a horizontal
may
tie
gree of strength required

section,
rallel to
depend
(See the
ingly.
dome
for support,
is
duced
first
not rise too
dome
Fig. 216 shows a
of this kind,
b being
trusses of this kind, (Fig. 216,) pa-
be placed one on each side of the open-
to
dome.
and
be obtained.
plan, of a
Two
each other, are
ing in the top of the
dome does
be thrown across, by which any de-
may
and Fig. 217 the
the tie-beam in both.
that of the sphere, the
is
the interior
Upon these
their strength
the
whole framework
part of this section,
and Art. 286.)
large and of importance, two other trusses may be
at right angles to the foregoing,
served in one continuous length
is to
must be calculated accordIf the

intro-
the tie-beams being pre-
by framing them high enough
to
pass over the others.
u
Fig. 318.
Fig. 219.
304.
When
the interior
dome
rises too
high
to
admit of a level
FRAMING.
171
be composed of a succession of ribs

standing upon a continuous circular curb of timber, as seen at
Fig. 218 and 219, the latter being a plan and the former a sectie-beam, the framing
may
This curb must be well secured, as
tion.
serves in th$ place
it
of a tie-beam to resist the lateral thrust of the ribs.
domes, these ribs
be easily cut from wide plank
may
an extensive structure
is
must be
required, they
thicknesses so as to break joints, in the same
bed
a roof at Art. 299.
for
feet apart at the base,
The
305.
follows
and
where
but,
built in
manner
as
is
two
descri-
should be placed at about two
They
strutted as at
Fig. 218.
in
scantling of each thickness of the rib
may
be as
For domes of 24
"
"
"
'
"
"
"
"
feet diameter,
36
1x8
inches.
"
1^x10
60
"
90
"
108
"
"
2x13
"
2^x13
3x13
"
Although the outer and the inner surfaces of a dome
306.
may
In small
be finished to any curve that
may be
should be constructed of such a form, as
desired, yet the framing

to insure that the
curve
of equilibrium will pass through the middle of the depth of the
The
framing.
dome be
nature of this curve
is
such
constructed in accordance with
that, if
an arch or
no one part of the
it,
structure will be less capable than another of resisting the strains
and pressures
to
which the whole
fabric
may
curve of equilibrium for an arched vault or a

is
equally diffused over the whole surface,
(Art. 127
it,
;)
for
it,
roof,
where the
The
load
that of a parabola,
a dome, having no lantern, tower or cupola above
a cubic parabola, (Fig. 220
above
is
be exposed.
;)
and
for
one having a tower, &c.,
a curve approach ing that of an hyperbola
must be adopted,
as the greatest strength
If the
is required at its upper parts.
curve of a dome be circular, (as in the vertical section, Fig. 218,)
ihe pressure will have a tendency to burst the dome outwards at
-tbout one-third
of
its
height.
Therefore,
when
this
form is used
172
in the construction of an extensive dome,
an iron band should be
placed around the framework at that height and whatever may

be the form of the curve, a band or tie of some kind is necessary
;
around, or across the base.

If the framing be of a
form
less
convex than the curve of
equilibrium, the weight will have a tendency to crush the ribs in-
wards, but this pressure
between the
ribs
may be effectually overcome by
and hence
it is
strutting
important that the struts be so
placed as to form continuous horizontal circles.
h x
ii
Fig. 2.-0.
307.
To
the base
and
describe a cubic parabola.

b c the height.
Let a
Bisect a b at d,
b,
(Fig. 220,) be
and divide a d
into
100 equal parts; of these give d e 26, ef 18$, /

g- 14 J, g- A 12$,
h i 10|, t j 9^, and the balance, 8|, to / a: divide 6 c into 8
equal
from the points of division, draw lines parallel

meet perpendiculars from the several points of division
parts, and,
to
b,
to
in
b,
at the
points,
o, o, o,
&c.
Then
a curve traced through these
points will be the one required.
308.
Small domes
elliptical in
to light
stairways, &c., are frequently
both plan and section
and as no two of the
one quarter of the dome are alike in

form, a method
the curves
is
made
ribs in
for obtaining
necessary.
To find the curves for the ribs of an elliptical dome.

Let a bed, (Fig. 221,) be the plan of a
dome, and e f the seat
309.
FRAMING.
Fiir.
of one of the ribs.
twice the
rise, o
g,
173
221
Then take e f for

of the dome for the
(according to Art. 115, 116, &c.,) the
the transverse axis
conjugate, and describe,
semi-ellipse, e
will be the curve required for the rib, e
and
g f. The
gf, which
other ribs are
found in the same manner.
Fig. 222.
To find the shape of the covering for a spherical

Let A, (Fig. 222,} be the plan and
the section of a
given dome. From a, draw a c, at right angles to a b ; find the
310.
dome.
stretch-out, (Art. 92,) of o

arc, o b,
and the line,
c,
6,
and make d
equal to
it
divide the
each into a like number of equal parts,
174
as
one
;)
will insure greater accuracy than a small
number
(a large
5,
upon c, through the several points of division in c d, describe

d o, I e 1, 2f 2, &c. make d o equal to half the width
the arcs, o
of one of the boards, and draw o
s,
parallel to
c ; join 5
and
a,
and from the points of division in the arc, o 6, drop perpendicufrom these points, draw i 4, j 3, &c.,
lars, meeting a s in ij k I ;
parallel to
to
e 1,
o,
points,
a c; make d o, e l,&c., on the lower side of. c, equal

trace a curve through the
&c., on the upper side
;
o, I, 2, 3, 4, c,
on each side of
the proper shape for the board.
the base, A, into equal parts, and
By
c ;
c?
then o c o will be
dividing the circumference of
making the bottom,
board of a size equal to one of those parts, every board
made
of the
same
In the
size.
same manner
of the
o,
may
be
as the above, the
shape of the covering for sections of another form
may
be found,
such as an ogee, cove, &c.
311.
To find
tal courses.
dome, and
Let
DB
when
the curve of the boards
AB
its
laid in horizon-
C, (Fig: 223,) be the section of a given
axis.
Divide
B C
into as
many
there are to be courses of boards, in the points,

1
and
draw a
2,
through
then a will be the centre
line to
1,
parts as
2,
meet the axis extended
for describing the
3,
&c.
at
edges of the board,
Through 3 and 2, draw 36; then b will be the centre for describing
Through 4 and
F.
is
3,
draw 4.d; then d will be the centre for
the centre for the arc, 1
o.
If this
method
is
taken to find
FRAMING.
175
the centres for the boards at the base of the dome, they
occur so distant as to make

is
it
preferable for this purpose.
impracticable
D B, in
e ;
would
the following method
G being the last board obtained by
the above method, extend the curve of
meets the axis,
from
3,
its
through
inner edge until

e,
draw
3/
it
meeting
5 and /and
6, cutting the
in/; join /and 4, /and
axis,
B, in s, n and m ; from 4, 5 and 6, draw lines parallel to
A Cand cutting the axis in c, p and r ; make c4, (Fig. 224,)
the arc,
JB,
Fig. 224.
equal to c 4 in the previous figure, and c s equal to c s also in the

previous figure
then describe the inner edge of the board, H,
from the inner edge.

board
taking
segment.
easily,
the outer edge can be obtained
In like manner proceed
5 for half the chord and
pn
it
by finding intermediate
next
for the height of the
Should the segment be too large
reduce
by gauging
to obtain the
to
be described
points in the curve, as at
Art. 86.
312.
dome.
To find
Let
A G
shape of the angle-rib for a polygonal

H, (Fig. 225,) be the plan of a given dome, and
the
176
C D a vertical section
in the arc, C D, draw
taken at the
5 1 equal to o
From 1,
ef.
from the points of intersection on

angles to/ G; make
line,
G, draw
1,
D,
to
2, 3,
&c.,
meet/
ordinates at right-
5 2 equal to o 2, &c.
vhen
B, obtained in this way, will be the angle-rib required. The

best position for the sheathing -boards for a dome of this kin J is
G/
from the base
to be bent
horizontal, but if they are required
the vertex, their shape
shown
at
may
to
be found in a similar manner to that
Fig. 222.
BRIDGES.
Various plans have been adopted for the construction of
313.
which perhaps the following are the most useful.

Fig. 226 shows a method of constructing wooden bridges, where
bridges, of
the banks of the river are higti

tie-beum,
on
in
The
b.
pairs, for the
enough
to permit the
use of the
upright pieces, c d, are notched and bolted

support of the tie-beam.
bridge of this
construction exerts no lateral pressure
upon the abutments. This

method may be employed even where the banks of the river are
low,
by
letting the timbers for the
roadway rest immediately upon

In this case, the framework above will serve the
the tie-beam.
purpose of a railing.
Fig. 226.
314.
Fig. 227 exhibits a wooden bridge without a tie-beam.

buttresses can be obtained, this method may be
Where staunch
recommended
but
if
there
is
any doubt of
their stability,
it
FRAMING.
should not be attempted, as
it
is
evident that such a system of
framing is capable of a tremendous
Fig.
177
lateral thrust.
%&
Fig. 228 represents a wooden bridge in which a built-rib,

The curve of
(see Art. 299,) is introduced as a chief support.
315.
equilibrium will not differ
much from
that of a parabola
this,
made gradually a
little
as
it
the
buttresses.
As it is desirable
stronger
approaches
that a bridge be kept low, the following table is given to show the
therefore,
may
least rise that
Span
in feet
be used
may
especially if the rib
be given to the
rib.
is
178
greater if practicable
of timber to
make
as a small rise requires a greater quantity
The
the bridge equally strong.
form weight with which a bridge

bly, that of a dense
is
likely to
greatest uni-
be loaded
is,
proba-
This may be estimated at

and the framing and gravelled road-
crowd of
people.
120 pounds per square foot,

way at 180 pounds more which amounts
300 pounds on a
to
The following
based upon this estimate, may

square
the
area
of the ribs. Rule. Multiply
in
be useful
determining
foot.
the width of the bridge

feet
and divide
number of
ribs
by the square of half the
this product
the
rule,
by
the rise in
multiplied
quotient,
way
is
O'OOll.
only planked,
use the decimal,
What
Example.
multiplied
feet,
0-0011, will give the area of each rib in feet.
span, both in
by
the
by the decimal,
"When the roadinstead
0-0007,
ot
should be the area of the ribs for a
bridge of 200 feet span, to rise 15 feet, and be 30 feet wide, with
3 curved ribs ?
10,000;
plied
by
this,
3,
The
half of the span
multiplied
gives 45
by
100 and
its
and
30, gives 300,000,
square
15,
is
multi-
then 300,000, divided by 45, gives 6666f
which, multiplied by 0*0011, gives 7'333
Such a
the area of each rib.
is
rib
may
feet, or
1056 inches
for
be 24 inches thick by 44
inches deep, and composed of 6 pieces, 2 in width and 3 in depth.
Fig. 229.
316.
The above rule
gives the area of a
quisite to support the greatest possible
rib,
that
uniform
would be
re-
But
in
load.
large bridges, a variable load, such as a heavy wagon,
of exerting
rib
much
greater strains
should be made
larger.
The
is
capable
in such cases, therefore, the

greatest concentrated load a
FRAMING.
bridge will be likely to encounter,
20
179
may be
50 thousand pounds, according
to
estimated at from about
to the size of the

bridge.
This is capable of exerting the greatest strain, when placed at

about one-third of the span from one of the abutments, as at b.
(Fig:229.) The weakest point of the segment, b g c, is at g,
The
the most distant point from the chord line.
pressure exerted
by the above weight, may be considered to be in the direction

and be; then, by constructing the paral-
at b
of the chord lines, b a
lelogram of forces, e b f
d,
according to Art. 248, b f will show
the pressure in the direction, b
may
Rule.
by
c.
Then
the scantling for the rib
be found by the following rule.
Multiply the pressure in pounds in the direction, b
c,
the decimal, 0-0016, for white pine, 0*0021 for pitch pine, and
0-0015 for oak, and the product by the decimal representing the
sine of the angle, g b h, to a radius of unity.
Divide this product by the united breadth in inches of the several
cube-root of the quotient, multiplied
will give the depth of the rib.
feet span,
15 feet
rise,
by
ribs,
the distance, b
and the
c,
in feet,
In a bridge of 200
Example.
having 3 ribs each 24 inches thick, or 72
inches whole thickness, the pressure in the direction, b
c, is
be 166,000 Ibs., and the sine of the angle, g b

should be the depth of the rib for white pine ?
0-1
to
tiplied
26-56
last
this,
sum
0-"'17,
By
by 0-0016, gives
is
divided
265-6, which, multiplied

72, gives 0-3689.
by
c, is
found
what
166,000, mul-
by (H, gives
The cube-root
0-717 nearly, and the distance, b
multiplied
this,
by
h, is
135
feet
of
:
tin
then,
135, gives 96^ inches, the depth required.
each rib will require to be 24x97 inches, in order to en-
counter without injury the greatest possible load.

317.
In constructing these ribs, if the span be not over 50
each
rib may be made in two or three thicknesses of timber,
feet,
(three thicknesses is preferable,) of convenient lengths bolted
together
render
may
but, in larger spans,
where the
rib will
be such as
to
it difficult to
procure timber of sufficient breadth, they
be constructed by bending the pieces to the proper curve^
180
and bolting them
together.
In this case, where timber of
cient length to span the opening cannot be obtained,

is
necessary, such joints must be made as will
and compression, (see Fig. 238.)

for the pieces which compose the
resist
To ascertain
rib,
suffi-
and scarfing
both tension
the greatest depth
so that the process of bend,
ing may not injure their elasticity, multiply the radius of curvature
in feet
by the decimal, O05, and
inches.
Example.
then what should be the depth ? The

100, multiplied by 0'05, gives a product of 5 inches.
with a radius of 100

radius in
feet,
White pine
it
feet,
or oak timber, 5 inches thick,
the above curve

inches,
the product will be the depth in
Suppose the curve of the rib to be described
if
and,
would have
would
freely
bend
to
the required depth of such a rib be 2(
to be
composed of
at least
not quite so elastic as white pine or oak
pieces.
Pitch
thickness
its
pine
is
may
be found by using the decimal, 0'046, instead of 0*05.
Fig. 230.
318.
When the
in Fig. 230,
span
would be
is
over 250
feet,
a,
framed
preferable to the foregoing.
rib,
formed as
Of
this,
the
upper and the lower edges are formed as just described, by bending the timber to the proper curve. The pieces that tend to the
centre of the curve, called radials, are notched
and bolted on in
the
and
cross-braces
are
halved
in
the middle, and
pairs,
together
abut end to end between the radials. The distance between the
ribs of a bridge
should not exceed atout 8
feet.
The roadway
FRAMING.
18i
should be supported by vertical standards bolted to the ribs
at
about every 10 to 15 feet. At the place where they rest on the

ribs, a double, horizontal tie should be notched and bolted on the
back of the
ribs,
and also another on the under
side
and diago-
na braces should be framed between the standards, over the space

between the ribs, to prevent lateral motion. The timbers for the
1
roadway may be
less
timber
319.
is
It is
as light as their situation will admit, as all use-
only an unnecessary load upon the arch.

found that if a roadway be 18 feet wide, two car-
Its width,
riages can pass one another without inconvenience.
therefore, should be either 9, 18, 27 or 36 feet, according to the
amount of
for
every person.
as
few
course
The width
travel.
When
of the foot-path should be 2 feet
a stream of water has a rapid current,
piers as practicable should be allowed to obstruct
otherwise the bridge will be liable to be swept
When
freshets.
the span
is
not over 300
The
should be employed.
of the roadway, and
The
(See Art. 315.)

in
24
by
of the arch
rise
is
away by
and the banks
feet,
the river are of sufficient height to admit of
it,
by the form
the height of the banks of the river
rise of the
rise
roadway should not exceed one
one in 18, that
The commencement
settling.
spring, as
it
may be
one
roadway
24 after
in
of the arch at the abutments
termed, should not be below high-water
it is
of
only one arch
limited
feet, but, as the framing settles about one in 72, the
should be framed to
its
and the bridge should be placed
at right angles
the
mark
with the course of
the current.
The
320.
bridge,
is
purpose.
best material for the abutments
stone
The
and,
if possible,
following rule
and
piers of a
stone should be procured for the

to
is
determine the extent of the
abutments, they being rectangular, and built with stone weighing
120
Ibs.
to a cubic-foot.
height of the abutment
by
Rule.
160,
Multiply the square of the
and divide
this product
by the
weight of a square foot of the arch, and by the rise of the arch
add unity to the quotient, and extract the square-root. Diminish
;
the square-root
by unity, and multiply the
root, so
diminished, by
by the weight of a square-foot ot
product by 120 times the height of the
half the span of the arch, and
Divide the
the arch.
last
abutment, and the quotient will be the thickness of the abutment.

Example. Let the height of the abutment from the base to the
springing of the arch be 20 feet, half the span 100 feet, the weight
of a square foot of the arch, including the greatest possible load
upon it, 300 pounds, and the

be
thickness
its
The
rise of the
square of the height of the abutment,
400, multiplied by 160, gives 64,000, and 300

64,000, divided
this
is
makes
2*6
by
multiplied
gives 78,000
by
18, gives
5400
5400, gives a quotient of 11-852, one added to
12-852, the square-root of
this,
what should
arch 18 feet
this,
which
3-6
is
by 100, gives 260, and
divided
this, less one,
this again
by 300,
by 120 times the height of the abut-
ment, 2400, gives 32 feet 6 inches, the thickness required.
The
dimensions of a pier will be found by the same rule.

For, although the thrust of an arch may be balanced by an adjoining arch,
uninjured
when
yet,
the bridge
is
finished,
and while
it
remains
during the erection, and in the event of one arch
being destroyed, the pier should be capable of sustaining the entire
thrust of the other.
321.
Piers are sometimes constructed of timber, their princi-
pal strength depending
on
piles driven
piers should never be adopted

for,
where
into the earth, but
it is
possible to avoid
being alternately wet and dry, they decay
the upper parts of the bridge.
good
for
piles.
Where
much
such
them
sooner than
Spruce and elm are considered
the height from the bottom of
the
roadway is great, it is a good plan to cut them off at

below low-water mark, cap them with a horizontal tie,
river to the
little
and upon this erect the posts for the support of the
roadway.
This method cuts off the part that is continually wet from that
which is only occasionally so, and thus affords an
for
opportunity
replacing the upper part.
The
pieces
which
are
immersed
will
a great length of time, especially when of elm for it is a

well-established fact, that timber is less durable when
subject to
last
FRAMING.
alternate dryness
183
and moisture, than when
wet or continually dry.
It
either continually
it is
has been ascertained that the
piles
under London bridge, after having been driven about 600 years,
These
vere not materially decayed.
piles are chiefly of elm,
and
vholly immersed.
Fig. 231.
322.
Centres for stone bridges.
centre for a stone bridge
Fig. 231
where intermediate
is
a design fora
supports, as piles
driven into the bed of the river, are practicable.
Its
timbers are
so distributed as to sustain the weight of the arch-stones as they
are being laid, without destroying the original form of the centre
and
also to prevent
piles
its
be swept away.
centres
is,
The most
any
of the
usual error in badly-constructed
that the timbers are disposed so as to cause the framing
to rise at the
sides.
destruction or settlement, should
crown, during the laying of the arch-stones up the

evil, some have loaded the crown with
To remedy this
heavy stones
but a centre properly constructed will need no
such precaution.
Experiments have shown that an arch-stone does not press

upon the centring, until its bed is inclined to the horizon at an
angle of from 30 to 45 degrees, according to the hardness of the
stone,
and whether
it is
laid in
mortar or not.
For general pur-
which the pressure commences, may be conthat joint which forms an angle of 32 degrees
poses, the point at
sidered to be at
with the horizon.
At
this point, the pressure is inconsiderable,
184
but gradually increases towards the crown. At an angle of 45

the weight of the
degrees, the pressure equals about one-quarter
stone
as
57 degrees, half the weight
at
;
and when a
vertical line,
of gravity of
(Fig. 232,} passing through the centre
6,
Fig. 232.
the arch-stone, does not
within
fall
bed, c d, the pressure
its
be considered equal to the whole weight of the stone.
be the case at about 60 degrees,
double
The
breadth.
its
when
ered in a line with the radius of the curve.

centre being
known,
But
ber calculated accordingly.
may
it
will
the depth of the stone
direction of these pressures
the pressure
may
This
is
is
consid-
The weight upon
be estimated and the tim-
must be remembered
that the
whole weight is never placed upon the framing at once as seems

to have been the idea had in view by the designers of some cenIn building the arch,
tres.
same
tress at the
time, (as
it
should be commenced
framing, the effect produced
should,
by
In designing the
by each successive
pressure of the stones
layer of stone
upon one
the arrangement of the struts, be counterpoised
of the stones
323.
The
each but-
generally the case,) and each side
is
should progress equally towards the crown.
should be considered.
at
by
side
that
the other side.
upon
Over a river whose stream
is
rapid, or
where
is
it
ne
an uninterrupted passage for the purposes of

the
centre
must be constructed without intermediate
navigation,
supports, and without a continued horizontal tie at the base such
cessary to preserve
a centre
is
shown
base up to a and
rising at b.
any
a and from
at
c,
Fig. 233.
the pieces, b
In laying the stones from the
d and
b d, act as ties to prevent
After this, while the stones are being laid from
c to &,
they act as struts
the piece,
/ g,
is
added
foi
Fig. 233.
Upon this plan, with some variation to suit

centres may be constructed for any span usual in
additional security.
circumstances,
stone-bridge building.
In bridge centres, the principal timbers should abut, and
324.
be intercepted by a suspension or radial piece between.
not
These should be
The
in halves, notched
timbers should intersect as
joints the greater is the settling;
bad
practice, as
it
little
on each side and
bolted.
as possible, for the
more
and halving them together
is
destroys nearly one-half the strength of the
Ties should be introduced across, especially where many

and as the centre is to serve but a temporary pur-
timber.
timbers meet
whole should be designed with a view to employ the

timber afterwards for other uses.
For this reason, all unnecespose, the
sary cutting should be avoided.

325.
Centres
should be
sufficiently
strong to preserve a
staunch and steady form during the whole process of building;
any shaking or trembling will have a tendency to prevent the

mortar or cement from setting. For this purpose, also, the cen-
for
tre
should be lowered a
trifle
laid, in order that the stones
mortar
The
6
is set
immediately
may
after the key-stone is
take their bearing before the
otherwise the joints will open on the under side.
trusses, in centring, are placed at the distance of
feet apart
from 4
to
according to their strength and the weight of the
24
arch.
Between every two
trusses, diagonal braces
should be h.
troduced to prevent lateral motion.
In order that the centre
326.
or trusses, should be placed
These
at d, (Fig. 233.)
maybe
easily lowered, the frames,
upon wedge-formed
as
sills
;
is
shown
are contrived so as to admit of the settling
by driving the wedge, d, with a maul, or, in

a piece of timber mounted as a battering-ram.
of the frame
centres,
large
*
The
operation of lowering a centre should be very slowly performed,

in order that the parts of the arch
The wedge
formly.
may
take their bearing uni-
pieces, instead of being placed parallel
the truss, are sometimes
made
sufficiently
long and
the arch, in a direction at right angles to that
laid
shown
with
through
Fig. 233.
beneath the
at
This method obviates the necessity of stationing men

arch during the process of lowering and was originally adopted
with success soon after the occurrence of an accident, in lower;
men were
ing a centre, by which nine
To
327.
give some
idea of
killed.
manner of estimating the
the
pressures, in order to select timber of the proper scantling, calculate the pressure of the arch-stones
from
to 6, (Fig. 233,)
and acting
suppose half this pressure concentrated at a,

direction,
/.
Then, by reference
and
in the
laws of pressure and
to the
the resistance of timber at Art. 248, 260, &c.. the scantlings of

the several pieces composing the frame, b
a,
may
be computed.
Again, calculate the pressure of that portion of the arch hr-l ;ded
between a and
and consider half of
c,
in a vertical direction
b
d and
b d,
tre,
is
Add the
included between
and consider
vertical
this
direction
forces, the pressure
328.
bers, let
As a
collected at
be found by reference to the
may
section, as above.
which
it
6,
and acting
then the amount of pressure on the beams,
and
b to half the
amount concentrated
then,
first
part of this
pressure of that portion of the arch
weight of the cen-
at d,
and acting
in a
by constructing the parallelogram
upon dj may be
ot
ascertained.
short rule for calculating the scantlings of the tim-
every strut be sufficiently braced, so
tiiat it
will yield tc
FRAMING.
crushing before
it
will
bend under the pressure
(A rt. 261.)
Then
by 1000, and the quotient will be

inches.
For example, let the pressure
divide the pressure in pounds

the area of the strut in
upon a
strut, in
divided
by
the direction of
axis, be
its
60,000
Ibs.
1000, gives 60, the area of the strut in inches
This,
;
the
might be 6x10. This rule is based

which
it has been
upon experiments by
ascertained, that 1000
pounds is the greatest load that can be trusted upon a square inch
size of the strut, therefore,
of timber, without more indentation than would be compatible
with the
rule, therefore,
face
The
stability of the framing.
must have reference
area ascertained
by the
amount of sur-
to the actual
upon which the load bears and should the
strut
have a tenon
on the end, the area of the shoulders, instead of a section of the

whole piece, must be equal to the amount given by the rule.
In the construction of arches, the voussoirs, or arch-
329.
between them are perpen-
are so shaped that the joints
stones,
dicular to the curve of the arch, or to
which the
ôints
joint intersects the curve.
tangent at the point at
In a circular arch, the
tend toward the centre of the circle
arch, the joints
arch.
may
To find
330.
joint
a b
331.
A joint
in
an
be found by the following process
the direction of the joints for
being wanted
that point to the foci,

line,
its
/and/;
at
a,
bisect the angle,
then a b will be the direction of the
an
draw
(Fig. 234,)
elliptical
:
elliptical
lines
/a/
from
with the
joint.
To find the direction of the joints for a parabolic arch.

being wanted at a. (Fig. 235,) draw a e, at right angles to
the axis,
eg; make c g equal to e e, and join a and g ; draw a A, at
right angles to
g;
then a h will be the direction of the joint
188
Fig. 235.
The
The
direction of the joint

lines,
respectively
tained,
by
and
from b
found in the same manner
bf, are tangents to the
and any number of
first
is
curve
at those points
joints in the curve
may
be ob-
ascertaining the tangents, and then drawing lines
at right angles to
them.
JOINTS.
Fig. 236.
332.
Fig. 236 shows a simple and quite strong method
lengthening a tie-beam
bolts,
and in the
ot
but the strength consists wholly in the
produced by screwing the

Should the timber shrink to even a small
friction of the parts
pieces firmly together.
degree, the strength
would depend altogether on the
bolts.
It
would be made much stronger by indenting the pieces together;

237 or by placing
as at the upper edge of the tie-bearn in

Fig.
Fijr.
237.
lower edge in the same figure. This

weakens
the beam in proportion to the depth
however,
process,
keys in the
joints, as at the
of the indents.
333.
Fig. 238 shows a method of scarfing, or splicing, a tieThe keys are to be of well-seasoned, hard
bolts.
beam without
FRAMING.
189
1
Fig.
wood, and,
if possible,
would make
this a
2:
The addition
very cross-grained.
of bolts
very strong splice, or even white-oak pins
would add materially
to its strength.
Fig. 239.
334.
Fig. 239 shows about as strong a splice, perhaps, as
can well be made. It is to be recommended for its simplicity
;
as,
on account of
their being
no oblique joints in
it,
can be
it
A complicated joint is the

and accurately executed.
worst that can be adopted still, some have proposed joints that
readily
seem
to
have
little
else besides
complication to
recommend
them.
In proportioning the parts of these
335.
all
the indents taken together should be
scarfs, the
depths of
equal to one-third of the
depth of the beam. In oak, ash or elm, the whole length of the
scarf should be six times the depth, or thickness, of the beam,
when
there are
no
bolts
but, if bolts instead of indents are used,
then three times the breadth
and,
bined, twice the depth of the beam.
when
both methods are com-
The
length of the scarf in
should
pine and similar soft woods, depending wholly on indents,
be about 12 times the thickness, or depth, of the beam when
;
depending wholly on bolts, 6 times the breadth
and,
when both
methods are combined, 4 times the depth.
Fig. 240.
336.
Sometimes beams have
resist cross
when
strains
be pieced that are required to

such as a girder, or the tie-beam of a roof
supporting the ceiling.
to
In such beams, the
fibres of the
190
wood
in the
upper part are compressed
joint at that place, (as in
Fig. 240,)
In such case, an oblique joint

side of the
beam being
or bolted, or both
is
is
and therefore a simple butt

far preferable to
in a state of tension,
it
any
must be indented
plate under the heads of the
and an iron
other.
The under
the very worst.
bolts,
gives a great addition of strength.
Scarfing requires accuracy and care, as

bear equally
would be a tendency
there
the indents should
all
more than another,

the parts.
Hence the
otherwise, one being strained

to splinter off
In all
simplest form that will attain the object, is by far the best.
beams that are compressed endwise, abutting joints, formed at
right angles to the direction of their length, are at once the simplest
and the
well
on
For a temporary purpose, Fig. 236 would do very
best.
would be improved, however, by having a piece bolted

four sides.
Fig. 237, and indeed each of the others, since
it
all
they have no oblique joints, would resist compression well.

337.
In framing one beam into another for bearing puiposes.
such as a floor-beam into a trimmer, the best place to make the
mortice in the trimmer,
which
is
is
in
the neutral
in the middle of its depth.
line,
(see Art. 254,)
Some have thought
as the fibres of the upper edge are compressed, a mortice
be
made
there,
and the tenon be driven
in tight
enough
to
that,
might
make
the parts as capable of resisting the compression, as they jwpild
be without
the best.
and they have therefore concluded that plan to be

This could not be the case, even if the teftion would
it
not shrink; fora joint between two pieces cannot possibly be
made
The
to resist
compression, so well as a solid piece without joints.
proper place, therefore, for the mortice,
the depth of the

floor-beam,
is
beam
at its
bottom edge.
the upper edge, the greater
the joint
is
is at
the middle of
but the best place for the tenon, in the
is
For the nearer
the liability for
formed, therefore, as at Fig. 241,
the advantages that can be obtained.

tionable, because the piece
framed into
it
it
this is placed to
to splinter off; if
will
combine
Double tenons are

is
all
objec-
needlessly weakened,
FRAMING.
191
Kig. 241.
and the tenons are seldom so accurately made as to bear equally.

For this reason, unless the tusk at a in the figure fits exactly, so
as to bear equally with the tenon,
in
it
had
better be omitted.
sawing the shoulders, care should be taken not
tenon in the
able to bear
more or
;
less.
it
It
and where
other, rather
would wound
beam
to
saw
into the
in the place least
framing weakens both pieces,

should, therefore, be avoided as much as possiit is
practicable one piece should rest
than be framed into
framed
it.
upon
the
This remark
applies to the
and
jack-rafters of
floor, to the purlins
&c.
Fig. 242.
339.
the
will be seen that
bridging-joists in a
a roof,
it
it.
Thus
338.
ble
least, as
And
Fig. 243.
In a framed truss for a
roof,
Fig. 244.
bridge, partition, &c., the
joints should be so constructed as to direct the pressures through

the axes of the several pieces, and also to avoid every tendency
of the parts to slide.
on the end of a
the pressure
rafter, (see
Fig. 244
\s
strut
To
attain this object, the abutting surface
should be at right angles to the direction of
as at the joint
shown in Fig. 242
for the foot of a
Art. 257,) in Fig. 243 for the head of a rafter, and in
for the foot of a strut or brace.
The joint
at
Fig. 242
not cut completely across the tie-beam, but a narrow lip
is left
192
standing in the middle, and a corresponding indent is made in

The
the rafter, to prevent the parts from separating sideways.
made
abutting surface should be
as large as the attainment of
The
other necessary objects will admit.
iron strap is
added
to
prevent the rafter from sliding out, should the end of the tie-beam,
by decay or otherwise, splinter off. In making the joint shown
at
Fig: 243,
parts to
should be
it
fair
bearing
left
little
open
at a, so as to
the settling of the truss,
at
bring the
which must
necessarily take place from the shrinking of the king-post

If the joint is
other parts.
settles
it
will
cause
it
to
open
throwing the whole pressure
when
made
fair at first,
at the
under side of the
upon
and
the truss
rafter,
thus
This will
the sharp edge at a.
cause an indentation in the king- post, by which the truss will be
made
to settle
the rafter,
it
further
and
this pressure not
being in the axis of
will be greatly increased, thereby rendering the rafter
liable to split
and break.
UJ
Fig. 246.
Fig. 245.
340.
If the rafters
as in Fig. 245,
on
in halves
avoided.
and
struts
Fig. 247,
were made
abut end to end,
246 and 247, and the king or queen post notched
and
bolted, the
ill
effects of
shrinking would be
This method has been practised with
of the most celebrated bridges and roofs in

its
to
success, in
Europe
and, were
use adopted in this country, the unseemly sight of a
ridge
would seldom be met with.
some
hogged
plate of cast iron between
the abutting surfaces, will equalize the pressure.
FRAMING.
193
Fig. 248.
Fig. 249.
Fig. 248
341.
is
roof: the principle
The
a proper joint for a collar-beam in a small
shown here should
characterize
all tie-joints.
dovetail joint, although extensively practised in the above
very worst that can be employed. The

shrinking of the timber, if only to a small degree, permits the tie
and similar
to
cases, is the
withdraw
as
is
the position of the
shown
at
tie after it
Fig. 249.
has shrunk.
The
dotted line
shows
Locust and white-oak pins are great additions to the

In many cases, they would supply the place
strength of a joint.
of iron bolts and, on account of their small cost, they should be
342.
used in preference wherever the strength of iron
is
not requisite.
In small framing, good cut nails are of great service at the joints
but they should not be trusted to bear any considerable pressure,

as they are apt to be brittle.
the joinings in carpentry
Iron straps are seldom necessary, as all
may
be
made without them.
They can
be used to advantage, however, at the foot of suspending-pieces,
and
for the rafter at the
end of the tie-beam.
In roofs for ordi-
nary purposes, the iron straps for suspending-pieces

follows
When
10
feet,
the strap
15
20
may
be as
the longest unsupported part of the tie-beam
"
"
may
be
is
inch wide by j\ thick.
"
"
i
i
"
"
hold on the suspending-piece will be much

Iron straps should
increased, by turning its ends into the wood.
be protected from rust for thin plates of iron decay very soon
In fastening a strap,
its
19>
especially
when exposed to dampness.
as the strap
while
it
it is
is
made,
with beeswax.
dampness
let
hot, pour over
it
For
this purpose, as
soon
be heated to about a blue heat, and,
its
entire surface
raw
Either of these will givo
will not penetiate.
linseed
it
oil,
or rub
a coating whio>
SECTION V
DOORS, WINDOWS,
DOORS.
A.mong the several architectural arrangements of an ediis by no means the least in importance
fice,
and, if properly constructed, it is not only an article of use, but also of ornament, adding materially to the regularity and elegance of the
343.
the J.oor
apartments.
The dimensions and
style of finish of a door, should
be in accordance with the size and style of the building, or the
apartment for which
it
is
designed.
As regards
the utility of
doors, the principal door to a public building should be of
suffi-
width to admit of a free passage for a crowd of people

while that of a private apartment will be wide enough, if it permit one person to pass without being incommoded. Experience
has determined that the least width allowable for this is 2 feet 8
cient
inches
although doors leading to inferior and unimportant rooms

circumstances require it, be as narrow as 2 feet 6 inches
may, if
and doors
for closets,
be but 2 feet wide.
may
building
building
feet
where an entrance
is
seldom required,
may
The width
of the principal door to a public

be from 6 to 12 feet, according to the size of the
and the width of doors
8 inches, to 3
feet
6 inches.
ment in a dwelling be such as
to
for a dwelling
may
be from 2
an apartwidth
require a door of greater
If the importance of
196
6 inches, the opening should be closed with two

doors, or a door in two folds generally, in such cases, where the
than 3
feet
opening
As
6
is
to the
from 5
344.
folding or sliding doors are adopted.
feet,
height of a door,
should in no case be
it
less
than about
and generally not less than 6 feet 8 inches.

The proportion between the width and height of single
3 inches
feet
to
doors, for a dwelling, should be as 2
doors to public buildings, as
to
is
If the
1 is to 2.
and, for entrance-
width
is
given and
the height required of a door for a dwelling, multiply the width
by
5,
and divide tne product Dy 2 but, if the height is given and

by 5, and multiply by 2. Where two
;
the width required, divide
widths show in the same room, it is

well to proportion the dimensions of the more important by the
above rule, and make the narrower doors of the same height as
or
more doors of
the wider ones
different
as
all
the doors in a suit of apartments, except
when
the folding or sliding doors, have the best appearance
of
one height. The proportions for folding or sliding doors should

such that the width may be equal to f of the height yet this
l)e
rule needs
some
qualification
if
for,
the width of the opening
be greater than one-half the width of the room, there will not be
a sufficient space left for opening the doors also, the height
;
should be about one-tenth greater than that of the adjacent single

doors.
345.
Where
doors have but two panels in width,
and muntins be each 4 of the width

panels there
may
muntins, or the
of the door.
be, let the united
whole width of the
Thus
panels in width, the
feet
feet
or,
widths of the
solid,
the stiles
stiles
and the
be equal to f of the width
35 inches wide, containing two

should be 5 inches wide and in a door,
in a door,
stiles
6 inches wide, the
6 inches wide,
let
whatever number of
is to
stiles
should be 6 inches.
have 3 panels
If a door,
in width, the stiles
and
muntins should be each 4 inches wide, each panel being 8 inches.

The bottom rail and the lock rail ought to be each equal in
width to TV of the height of the door and the top rail, and all
;
DOORS, WINDOWS, &C.

others, of the
same width
as the
197
The moulding on
stiles.
panel should be equal in width to | of the width of the
the
stile.
Fig. 250.
Fig. 250 shows an approved method of trimming doors
346.
is
the door stud
jamb
e,
the stop
It is
stile.
6,
the lath and plaster
f and g,
architrave casings
customary in ordinary work
door by rebating the jamb.

heavy, a better plan
This piece can be
hung
so,
the evil,
347.
ble for
is
e,
the
But,
ground ;
and
the door
is
the
A, the door
form the stop
to
when
for the
thick and
on a piece as at e in the figure.

the door, and put on after the door is
to nail
fitted to
should the door be a
and the door be made
trifle
to
shut
winding,
this will correct
solid.
Fig. 251 is an elevation of a door and trimmings suitathe best rooms of a dwelling.
(For trimmings generally,
see Sect. III.)
be divided,
is
The number of
panels into
adjusted at pleasure
ing requires, that the

strength will admit.
which a door should
yet the present style of finish-
number be
as small as a proper regard for

In some of our best dwellings, doors have
been made having only two upright panels. A few years experience, however, has proved that the omission of the lock rail
expense of the strength and durability of the door
four-panel door, therefore, is the best that can be made.
is
at the
348.
The
doors of a dwelling should
into the principal
rooms
and, in general,
be hung so as to open
no door should be hung
all
open into the hall, or passage. As to the proper edge of the

door on which to affix the hinges, no general rule can be assigned.
to
198
I
Fig. 251.
It
may
hung
be observed, however, that a bed-room door should be
so that,
when half
leading from a
the
open,
it
will screen the
bed
and a door
hall, or passage, to a principal room, should screen
fire.
WINDOWS.
A window
should be of such dimensions, and in such a

a sufficiency of light to that part of the
to
admit
as
position,
349.
apartment for which
it is
designed.
No
definite rule for the size
DOORS, WINDOWS, &C.
199
can well be given, that will answer in all cases yet, as an approximation, the following has been used for general purposes.
;
Multiply together the length and the breadth in feet of the apartment to be lighted, and the product by the height in feet then
;
the square-root of this product will
show the
required
number
of
square feet of glass.
To
350.
ascertain the dimensions of
window frames, add 4|
inches to the width of the glass for their width, and

the height of the glass for their height.
sions, in the clear, of ordinary
frames for
glass
In a brick wall,
sill.
8 inches more than the width of the
is
for the stiles of the sash,
and the height between the stone
more than the height of the

thickness of the
inches to
height being taken at the inside edge of the

the width of the opening
6^-
These give the dimenthe

12-light windows
sill
glass,
it
and 3
for
and lintel
hanging
is
stiles
about 10
inches
being varied according to the
of the frame.
sill
In hanging inside shutters to fold into boxes, it is necessary to have the box shutter about one inch wider than the
flap, in order that the flap may not interfere when both are folded
351.
The
into the box.
shutter
when
shown between
usual margin
the face of the
box and the quirk of the stop bead,

half an inch and, in the usual method
folded into the
or edge of the casing,
is
of letting the whole of the thickness of the butt hinge into the
edge of the box shutter,
necessary to
it is
make allowance
for the
throw of the hinge. This may, in general, be estimated at i of

an inch at each hinging which being added to the margin, the
;
entire
width of the shutters will be 1^ inches more than the width
of the frame in the clear.
box
shutter,
add
Then,
to ascertain
the width of the
inches to the width of the frame in the clear,
between the pulley stiles divide this product by 4, and add

half an inch to the quotient and the last product will be the re;
quired width.
For example, suppose the window
lights in width, 11 inches each.
added
for the
wood
of the sash,
to
have 3
Then, 3 times 11 is 33, and 4

37^ and 1J is 39
gives 37
200
and
39. divided
by
4,
gives 9f
which add half an
to
inch,
and
the result will be 10 inches, the width required for the box shutter.
In disposing and proportioning windows for the walls of

a building, the rules of architectural taste require that they be of
352.
different heights in different stories, but of the
windows
of the upper stories should
over those of the
all
or principal, story
first,
same width. The
range perpendicularly
and they should be
disposed so as to exhibit a balance of parts throughout the front
To aid in this, it is always proper to place the

middle of the front of the building and, where
of the house will admit of it, this plan should be adopted.
of the building.
front door in the
the size
The proportion that
(See the latter part of Art. 214.)
should bear to the width,

usage, as follows
The
may
be, in
accordance with general
height of basement windows, 1$ of the width.
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
2}
principal-story
"
second-story
"
"
"
"
the
attic-story
But, in determining the height of the
story in
necessary
to
which the window
30 inches, room
"
same
windows
is
is to
which
be placed.
as the width.
for the several
to take into consideration the
the height from the floor,
28
"
1|
fourth-story
stories,
"
If
"
third-story
it is
the height
height of the
For, in addition to
generally required to be from
is
wanted above the head of the window
window-trimming and the cornice of the room, besides

some respectable space which there ought to be between these.
for the
353.
dows
to
The
present style of finish requires the heads of win-
in general to be horizontal, or
square-headed ;
yet,
it is
well
be possessed of information for trimming circular-headed win-
dows, as repairs of these are occasionally needed. If the jambs

of a door or window be placed at right angles to the face of the
wall, the edges of the
straight,
and
its
soffif,
or surface of the head,
length be found
by
would be
getting the stretch-out of the
DOORS, WINDOWS, tC.

circle, (Art.
92
;)but,
when
the
the wall, occasioned
face of
jambs are placed obliquely
and,
when
the
by
oblique direction, the form of the
"ollowing article
201
demand
soffit will
to the
for light in
an
be obtained as in the
the face of the wall
is
circular, as in
the succeeding one.
Fig. 252.
To find
354.
heads, when
abed,
a,
form
From
a,
of the
soffit
for circular windowdirection.

Let
an oblique
(Fig. 252,) be the ground-plan of a given window, ande/
a vertical section taken

a,
through
stretch-out of e
the
the light is received in
at right
e,
draw a g,
a,
and make
angles to the face of the jambs.
at right angles to
equal
each into a like number of equal
to
parts,
1,
2, 3, &c., in the line,
d,
a b
obtain the
divide e
and
and drop perpen-
from the points of

draw horizontal lines to
diculars from the points of division in each

intersection,
it
meet corresponding perpendiculars from eg; then those points

of intersection will give the curve line, d g, which will be the
one required for the edge of the
soffit.
The. other edge,
c h, is
To find the form of the soffit for circular windowheads, when the face of the wall is curved. Let a b c d, (Fig355.
253,) be the ground-plan of a given
window, and
ef a,
a vertical
section of the head taken at right angles to the face of the jambs.
26
202
Fig. 233.
Proceed as in the foregoing
article to obtain the line,
g;
that will be the curve required for the edge of the soffit
other edge being found in the
then
;
the
same manner.
If the given vertical section be taken in a line
with the face of
the wall, instead of at right angles to the face of the jambs, place
it
upon the
line, c 6,
(Fig. 252
;)
and, having
right angles to c &, transfer
them
at right angles to the jambs
can be obtained.
to
ef a ;
drawn
in this
ordinates at
way, a section
SECTION
356.
The STAIRS
STAIRS.
VI.
that mechanical arrangement in a build-
is
ing by which access is obtained from one story to another. Their

position, form and finish, when determined with discriminating
taste,
add greatly
to the
comfort and elegance of a structure.
regards their position, the first object should be to

the middle of the building, in order that
may
is
light
to
have them near
equally easy access
the rooms
and passages. Next in imobtain which they would seem to be best
be obtained from
portance
aai
As
all
which windows might be constructed for the purpose

yet a sky-light, or opening in the roof, would
not only provide light, and so secure a central position for the
situated near
an outer
wall, in
but
stairs,
may
be made, also, to assist materially as an ornament
to the building, and, Avhat is
of
more importance,
afford
an op-
portunity for better ventilation.

357.
It
would seem
that the length of the raking side of the
infck-board, or the distance from the top of one riser to the top of
the next, should be about the
same
in all cases
for,
whether stairs
be intended for large buildings or*for small, for public or for private, the
accommodation of men of the same
sulted in every instance.

effort,
But
it
is
stature
is
to
be con-
evident that, with the same
a longer step can be taken on level than on rising ground
204
although the tread and rise cannot be proportioned

merely in accordance with the style and importance of the build-
and
that,
ing, yet this

flight rises.
may
If
be done according to the angle at which the
it is
required to ascend gradually and easy, the
length from the top of one rise to that of another, or the hypothe
nuse of the pitch-board, may be long but, if the flight is steep,

the length must be shorter.
Upon this data the following problem
;
is
constructed.
To proportion
358.
Make
b
c,
the line,
at right
b,
(Fig.
angles to a
b,
the
rise
and tread
254,) equal to
and make
b c equal to
one another.
to
24 inches
from
12 inches
6,
erect
join
form a scale upon which to

c,
c,
triangle,
graduate the sides of the pitch-board. For example, suppose a
very easy stairs is required, and the tread is fixed at 14 inches.
and
Place
and the
it
will
from b to/, and from/, draw/g\
then the length of f g will be found
to
at right angles to a b ;
be 5 inches, which is a
proper rise for 14 inches tread, and the angle,

the degree of inclination at
which the
b g, will
flight will ascend.
a majority of instances, the" height of a story
is
fixed,
show
But, in
while the
length of tread, or the space that the stairs occupy on the lower
The
height of a story being determined, the

height of each rise will of course depend upon the number into
floor, is optional.
which the whole height is divided the angle of ascent being more
easy if the number be great, than if it be smaller. By dividing
;
STAIRS.
205
whole height of a story into a certain number of rises, suppose the length of each is found to be 6 inches. Place this length
the
from
b to
7i,
and draw h
the proper tread for that
On
cent.
i,
parallel to
rise,
the other hand,
if
and j
a
i
then h
show
will
or
bj
will be
the angle of as-
the angle of ascent be given, as a
being 10^ inches, the proper length of run for a stepladder,) drop the perpendicular, I k, from I to k ; then I k b will
b
I,
(b
be the proper proportion for the sides of a pitch-board for that

run.
359.
stances.
The angle of ascent

The following treads
will
to circum-
vary according
will determine about the right in-
clination for the different classes of buildings specified.
In public
tread about 14
edifices,
inches.
12
"
In second-class
"
"11
"
In third-class
" and
cottages
"
"
In
first-class
dwellings
Step-ladders to ascend to scuttles, &c., should have from 10 to

11 inches
360.
run on
The
the rake of the string.
length of the steps
(See notes at Art. 103.)
regulated according to the ex-
is
and importance of the building in which they are placed,

varying from 3 to 12 feet, and sometimes longer. Where two pertent
sons are expected to pass each other conveniently, the shortest

length that will admit of
land
is
it is
3 feet
still,
small, they are frequently executed at
361.
thing in
in
crowded
so valuable, the space allowed for
To find
2^
cities
passages being very
feet.
the dimensions of the pitch-board.
commencing
to build a stairs, is to
where
The
first
make the pitch-board
done in the following manner. Obtain very accurately, in

and inches, the perpendicular height of the story in which
this is
feet
the stairs are to be placed.
the floor in the lower

story.
Then,
This must be taken from the top
story to the top of the floor in the
to obtain the
number
thus obtained must be divided by

quality
and
of
rises,
5, 6, 7, 8,
style of the building in
oi
upper
the height in inches
or 9, according to the
which the
stairs
are to be
For
built.
instance, suppose the building
dwelling, and the height ascertained
The
inches.
rise for
proper
divide the height, 160 inches,
give the height of one
first-class
4 inches, or 160
On
rise.
is
This
gives 26| inches.
6,
number
being nearer 27 than 26, the
Then
feet
be a
a stairs in a house of this class
Then, 160 divided by
about 6 inches.
13
is
to
by
of risers, should be 27.

27,
and the quotient
will
this operation, the
performing
1 and
TV of an inch.
quotient will be found to be 5 inches,
Then,
if
the space for the extension of the stairs
the tread can be found as at Art. 358.
the
number of
On
treads required.
the contrary
if
But,
case, the whole distance given for the treads
not limited,
is
is
the
must be divided by
account of the upper
floor
forming a step for the last riser, the number of treads is always
one less than the number of risers.
Having obtained this
rise
and
tread,
ing manner.
the pitch-board
Upon
made
be
may
in the
follow-
a piece of well-seasoned board about
of an
inch thick, having one edge jointed straight and square, lay the
corner of a carpenters'-square, as
shown
at
Fig. 255.
Make a
Fig. 255.
equal to the
rise,
and
b c equal to the tread
edges with a knife, and cut

perfectly square.
it
making
those
the edges
The grain of the wood must run in the direction
indicated in the figure, because, if
the tread will be equally affected

first
mark along
out by the marks,
made, the dimensions of the
it
shrinks a
by
it.
rise
trifle,
When
the rise and
a pitch-board
and tread should be
served in figures, in order that, should the
first
is
pre-
shrink, a second
could be made.
362.
To lay out the
string.
The
space required for timber
STAIRS.
d
Fig.
and plastering under the

stairs
set a
gauge,
:i5<i.
about 5 inches for ordinary

and run it on the lower
steps, is
therefore, at 5 inches,
edge of the plank, as a
b,
Commencing
(Fig. 256.)
at
one end,
of the pitch-board against the gauge-mark,

lay the longest side
b,
as at
tread
c,
and draw by the edges the
then place
number
quired
it
lines for the first rise
and
successively as at d, e and/, until the re-
of risers shall be laid
down.
Fig. 257.
Fig. 257 represents a section of a step and riser, joined

most approved method. In this, a represents the end of
a block about 2 inches long, two of which are glued in the corner
363.
after the
The
in the length of the step.
glued
in,
and stuck
after the
glue
cove at b
is
planed up square,
is set.
PLATFORM STAIRS.
364.
platform
stairs
ascends from one story to another in
having platforms between for resting and

This kind of stairs is the most easily
to cnange their direction.
The cylin
therefore
the most common.
and
is
constructed,
two or more
flights,
208
Fig. 258.
der
It
generally of small diameter, in most cases about 6 inches.
is
may
be worked out of one solid
piece,
glue together three pieces, as in Fig. 258

a, b
and
c,
the strings.
compose the cylinder, and
The
strings, after
kind of
for that
Find the
a b
c,
z,
lel to
g;
e,
to Art.
according
each equal
and
which the
e represent
is to
piece-f }
parts of
to the cylinder, are

o is the
most proper
the form of the lower edge of the cylinder.
stretch-out,
right angles to
at o
way
joint.
To obtain
365.
in
d and
being glued
The joining
secured with screws.
but a better
e ;
to
(Fig: 259,) of the face of the cylinder,
92
from d and
draw h
one
from
rise;
e,
g, parallel to
i
draw d
e,
and
and make
e g, at
hf
and/, draw ij and/ A:,
and
paral-
place the tread of the pitch-board at these last lines,
and draw by the lower edge the lines, k h and i

n and o p, at the requisite distance
these, draw
sions of the string; from
I ;
the centre of the plan,
s,
parallel to
for the
dimen-
draw
q.
and q g, each into 2 equal parts, as at

df;
(7
v and w; from v and w, draw v n and w o, parallel tofd; join n
and o, cutting q s in r ; then the angles, u n r and r o #, being
parallel to
divide
eased off according to Art. 89, will give the proper curve for the
A centre may be found upon which
bottom edge of the cylinder.

to describe these
to
mn
curves thus
from r, draw r
from
w,
draw u
#, at right angles to
the centre for the curve,
r.
The
x, at right angles
n o ; then x
will be
centre for the curve, r t
is
STAIRS.
200
Fig. 259.
366.
To find
centre of the
the position for the balusters.
first baluster, (b.
face of the riser, c d,

e
d ; and
and i
its
its
Place
the
diameter from the
Fig. 260,) \
diameter from the end of the
step,
place the centre of the other baluster, a, half the tread
from the centre of the
first.
The centre
over the centre of the balusters.
5 inches, and 2 feet 9 inches, for

respectively.
PIC sen.
27
of the
rail
must be placed
Their usual length is 2 feet

the short and the long balusters
210
Fig. 261.
To find the face-mould for a round hand-rail to platform stairs. CASE 1. When the cylinder is small. In Fig,
367.
261, j and e represent a vertical section of the last two steps of the
first flight,
and d and
a platform
stairs,
the
first
two
steps of the second flight, of
the line, e f, being the platform
and a b
the plan of a line passing through the centre of the
rail
c is
around
Through i and d, draw i k, and through j and e,

from k, draw k I, parallel to f e ; from 6, draw b m,
the cylinder.
draw j k
parallel
t,
tog d; from
at right angles
join c
and
Fig. 261
draw
toj k ; on
on
from
Z,
c,
le line,
draw
c,
t,
I r,
parallel to
the line, o
b,
(Fig: 262,)
tn
kj; from
mak< o
make
e c
nyht angles toj
c,
n,
draw n
equal to
equal to e
and make
t ;
n at
c
211
Fig. 262.
equal to c
make
t at
equal to
1 1
parallelogram,
118
Fig. 261
upon
1 1 at
through t, dr&wp I, parallel to^' c, and

Fig. 261 join / and c, and complete the
eels;
e, o, o, o,
half the width of the
find the points,
according to Art.
and/, successively, with a radius equal to
rail,
o, o, o,
shown
describe the circles
in the figure
then a curve traced on both sides of these circles and just touch-
The joint
ing them, will give the proper form for the mould.
I is
drawn
at right angles to c
I.
Elucidation of the foregoing method.
368.
at
This excellent
plan for obtaining the face-moulds for the hand-rail of a platform

stairs,
has never before been published.
me by an eminent
It
was communicated
to
and having seen

to
it
I
am
enabled
from
it,
give
put up
my unqualified reIn
order
to
have
it
commendation.
fully understood, I have introduced Fig. 263 in which the cylinder, for this purpose, ir
stair-builder of this city
rails
made
The
rectangular instead of circular.
spective
view of a
part of the upper
figure gives a per-
and of the lower
flights,
and
a part of the platform about the cylinder.
The heavy
m c and c
and are supposed
7,
show
the direction of the
pass through the centre of

flight is the
same
rail,
When
it.
as that of the
first,
the rake
which
is
lines, i rti.
to
of the second
here and
is
gene-
rally the case, the face-mould for the lower twist will,
when
versed, do for the upper flight: that part of the
therefore,
which passes from
e to c
and from
c to
/,
is all
rail,
re-
that will need ex-
planation.
Suppose, then, that the parallelogram, e a o

lying perpendicularly over e
e
c,
and
abf, being
level in the direction,
c o
c,
represent a plar^,
inclined in the d'.ection,
suppose this plune, e a o
c,
212
Fig. 263.
be revolved on
o
o,
n and a
e c as
x, until
it
an
axis, in the
will then be represented
lelogram,
xrt
n,
and the
by the
also lu'he direction, c
I,
line,
triangle, c 1 1,
apd the edges of the plane, e s
a bf.
manner indicated by the
coincides with the plane, e r t c
I c,
x n
arcs,
the line, a
then add the paral-
deducting the triangle, e r s ;
inclined in the direction, e c, and
will lie perpendicularly over the plane, e
Froi. this we gather that the line, c o, being at right angles to
STAIRS.
e
n
it
c,
must, in order to reach the point,
t,
and the right angle,
of the angle,
I.
that this lengthening

triangle, c o
The
line, c
t,
t,
e c
t,
gle,
I,
will
it
be seen
position
to
t,
being increased by adding the anI,
Fig. 263, the point,
and length of the
/,
lines, e c
is
reached,
and
c / ob-
obtain the face-mould for a rail over a cylindrical
well-hole, the
the length
the addition to
is
corresponding
To
be lengthened the
distance,
performed by forming the right-angled

corresponding to the triangle, cot, in Fig. 263.
is then transferred to Fig. 262, and
placed at right
and the proper

tained.
I,
made obtuse by
reference to Fig. 261,
By
angles to e c ; this angle, e c

t
be
213
same process
is
necessary to be followed until the
and position of these
lines are
found
the parallelogram,
then, by forming
eels, and describing a quarter of an ellipse
therein, the proper
form will be given.
Tig 264.
369.
CASE
2.
When
the cylinder is large.
Fiff.
264
re-
214
presents a plan
centre of the
tend the lines,
draw n
vertical section of a line passing
and^'
parallel to o b
I,
/c,
draw k
to
t,
From
e,
b,
until they
through
at right angles to j
Make
t.
and a
rail as before.
e c, (Fig". 265.)
b k, parallel to
meet
kbink and/;
draw
Z,
on the
equal to e
Fijr.
through the
draw
1 1,
parallel
line, o b,
at
cd ;
ex-
from
n,
toj k ; from
make
Fig. 264
equal
from
c,
265.
draw
t,
at right angles to e
t,
draw
p, parallel to c
e,
complete the parallelogram,

before
drawn
370.
and equal
e c I s,
1 1
to c t at
equal to
and find the
Fig. 264
1 1 at
from
Fig. 264
points,
o, o, o,
as
then describe the circles and complete the mould as in
Fig. 262.
line, c
c,
and make
t,
The
difference
between
instead of being raised
in.
(See note at pnge 255
CASE
3.
Where
this
and Case
and thrown
out, is
is,
that the
lowered and
the rake meets the level.
In Fig.
STAIRS.
266, a b c
rail
is
215
the plan of a line passing through the centre of the
around the cylinder as before, and j and
e is
of two steps starting from the floor, h g.
through
draw
df
line, o 6,
for the twist
going up the
flight,
a length and position such as
To obtain
in each figure.
o, (Fig. 266,) to i ;
i,
g;
bisect/
in
I,
in d,
and
and from
J,
nj; from n, draw n t, at right angles ioj n;

make o t equal to n t. Then, to obtain a mould
c c in that figure equal to e
parallel to
parallel to
on the
draw
d,
a vertical section
Bisect e
make
(Fig. 267,) equal to c
proceed as
in Fig. 266,
indicated
is
the
mould
o i equal
i
to/
and the other
making
lines of
by the letters of reference
Z,
and join
through
to
Fig. 262
for the level rail,
Fig. 266
at
at
i
c,
and
extend b
make
c/
draw
at
d
Fig. 267.
right angles to c
i ;
make d
plete the parallelogram, o
dfai Fig. 266, and comthen proceed as in the previous
equal to
c i;
cases to find the mould.
been
moulds obtained by the preceding examples have

round rails. For these, the mould may be applied to
All the
371.
for
a plank of the same thickness as the

the plank
sawed square through, the
the face of the plank.
hang
rail is
joints
intended to be, and
being cut square from
and truly rounded will

and present a perfect and
twist thus cut
in a proper position over the plan,
graceful wreath.
372.
ing
c
t,
it.
at
To bore for the bblusters of a round rail before roundMake the angle, o c t, (Fig. 268,) equal to the angle, o
Fig. 261
upon
c,
half the thickness of the
describe a circle with a radius equal to

rail
draw the
to
tangent, b d, parallel
and complete the rectangle, e b df, having sides tangical to

the circle from c, draw c a, at right angles to o c ; then, b d
t c,
being the bottom of the

the
whole length of the
rail, set
a gauge from b
to a,
and run
it
stuff ; in boring, place the centre of the
AM E K
216
bit in
cA N
IK; r s; r-r A
RPENTER.
the gauge-mark at a, and bore in the direction,
this easily,
edge,
make chucks
g h, being
as represented in the figure,
parallel to o
ef, to receive the
rail.
c,
c.
th'e
and having a place sawed
These being
To
do
bottom
out, as
nailed to the bench, the rail
will
be held steadily in
The
distance apart that the baluSters require to be, on the under
side of the
rail, is
its
proper place for boring vertically.
one-half the length of the rake-side of the
pitch-board.
Fig. 269
STAIRS.
To
373.
for
is
foregoing principles, the face-mould

a moulded rail upon platform stairs. In Fig.
the plan of a line passing through the centre of
around
rail
a vertical
are
it
obtain, by the
the twists of
269, a b c
the
217
the cylinder
section
of
as
and
before,
risers
steps,
the lines for the rail obtained as in Fig. 261.
of the rail from b to

e
and r
rail,
/ and from
d, parallel to c
b to
r,
the
and
platform,
with
Set half the width
and from
At Fig. 270,
s
d
above
lines
and
r,
draw/
the centre lines of the
k c and c n, are obtained as in the previous examples.
Make
draw the lines, i

j, each equal to c i at Fig. 269, and
and j g, parallel to c k ; make n e and n d equal to n e and n d
Fig. 269, and draw d o and e I, parallel to n c; also, through
c
and c
draw
s e
s g, parallel to
I,
then, in the
find the elliptic curves,
m
parallelograms,
and
m
at
k,
d o and
e g, according to Art.
The line, d e, being drawn

118, and they will define the curves.
which is to be cui
through n parallel to k c, defines the joint,
rather
through the plank vertically. If the rail crosses the platform
405.
Art.
see
which
obtain
to
will
be
steep, a butt joint
preferable,
AMERICAN HOUSE-CARPENTEJl.
218
To apply the mould
374.
according to the last article
shown
plank, as
an
The mould obtained
plank.
to
both sides of the
Before applying the mould, the
Fig. 271.
at
edge, e/, must be

269 if the rail is
to the
must be applied
bevilled according to the angle, c
x, at
Fig.
be canted up, the edge must be bevilled
to
at
with the upper face but if it is to be canted

down, the angle that the edge makes with the upper face must be
obttise angle
From
acute.
the spring of the curve, a,
hoard,
a b
a and
the points,
at b
c,
and/;
the rail out vertically.
After the
rail is
375.
rail,
To ascertain
The
sawed
rail,
lines,
at the
is
the
same
bottom
sides.
as that for the straight
the stuff for the twists
and ef, and
but
must be thicker than
In Fig. 269, draw a section of the
that for the straight.
ble
saw
the thickness of stuff required for the
as before observed,
tween the
out, the
it,
thickness of stuff required for the twists of a round
a moulded
for
draw
side, place
and, after marking around
and the top surfaces must be squired from the

twists.
c,
applying the pitch-
by
mould to the other
applying the
c ; then, in
and the end,
edge of the plank
vertical lines across the
as close to the line,
lower corner of the section, draw g
e,
rail be-
as possi-
h, parallel to
d e;
then the distance that these lines are apart, will be the thickness
required for the twists of a
The foregoing method of

to all stairs
moulded
rail.
finding moulds for rails
which have continued
rails
is
applicable
around cylinders, and are
without winders.
WINDING STAIRS.
376.
Winding
than at the other.
have steps tapering narrower at one end

In some stairs, there are steps of parallel width
stairs
incorporated with tapering steps
and the
377.
latter
To
the former are then called flyeris
winders.
describe
In Fig. 272,
abed
a regular geometrical winding
closing the space allotted to the stairs,
and
efgh
stairs,
represents the inner surface of the wall en-
e the
length of the steps,
the cylinder, or face of the front string.
The
line.
STAIRS.
219
Fig. 272.
e, is
given as the face of the
limit of the last.
Make
e i
first riser,
equal to
o i for radius, describe the arc,
and the
point, j, for the
18 inches, and upon

obtain the
o,
number of
with
risers
ij;
and of treads required to ascend to the floor at according to Art.
361, and divide the arc, ij, into the same number of equal parts
;',
as there are to be treads

<fec.,
through the points of division,
and from the wall-string
ing to the centre, o
each
riser,
to the front-string,
draw
then these lines will represent the face
and determine the form and width of the
the necessary projection for the nosing beyond a
be equal to the thickness of the step, and then a
dimensions
for
each
1, 2, 3,
lines tend-
step.
Make a pitch-board
e,
steps.
of
Allow
which should
elk will
be the
for the wall-string
having a k for the tread, and the rise as previously ascertained

with this, lay out on a thicknessed plank the several risers and
;
treads, as at
Fig. 256, gauging from the upper edge of the string
for the line at
Upon
which
to set the pitch-board.
the back of the string, with a
inch dado plane,
make
220
inches apart, and parallel with the
a succession of grooves 1
lines for the risers
on the
These grooves must be cut along
face.
whole length of the plank, and deep enough to admit of the

Then construct a
plank's bending around the curve, abed.
the
drum, or cylinder, of any common kind of stuff, and made to fit

a curve having a radius the thickness of the string less than o a ;
upon
of wood, called
After
in.
must be bent, and the grooves filled with strips

keys, which must be very nicely fitted and glued
this the string
has dried, a board thin enough to bend around on the
it
outside of the string,
must be glued on from one end
and nailed with clout
nails.
into
any place where a
In doing
risers
it off,
on the face
be careful not to nail
on the
riser or step is to enter
After the string has been on the
glue to set, take
this,
drum
to the other,
face.
a sufficient time for the
and cut the mortices
at the lines previously
for the steps
made
and
which may be
done by boring with a centre-bit half through the string, and

The drum need not be made so
nicely chiseling to the line.
large as the
enough
is
one piece of the wall-string
to receive
evident that more than one will be required.
may be
k
whole space occupied by the .stairs, but merely large
constructed in the same manner
for the tread of the pitch-board,
and bending
plane,
taking e
it
once
for
it
front string
instead of
with a smaller dado
dadoing
on a drum of the proper
it
at
The
size.
Fig. 273.
378.
To find
the shape
and position of
the timbers neces-
sary to support a winding stairs. The dotted lines in Fig.

272 show the proper position of the timbers as regards the plan
the shape of each

1 a,
is
lines,
equal to
2 m, 3
n,
is
obtained as follows.
riser,
In Fig. 273, the
less the thickness of the
4 o, 5 p and 6
q,
floor,
line,
and the
are each equal to one riser.
The
STAIRS.
2, is
figure,
&c.
line,
2,
m in Fig. 272, the
In drawing
the lines,
them
equal to a
and a
m 3,
each other
at right angles to
the lengths as above specified
through the points.

the points,
line,
m 3 to m w in that
commence
this figure,
at a,
and make
2, of the length above specified, and draw
at right angles to
and
21
1, 2. 3, 4,
1, 2, 3, 4,
draw 2 m,
2,
and so proceed
at right angles to
and make 2
and
to the end.
5 and 6. trace the
3 of
Then,
line, 1 b
upon
&c., with the size of the timber for radius,
shown
and by these the lower line

may be traced parallel to the upper. This will give the proper
shape for the timber, a b, in Fig. 272 and that of the others may
be found in the same manner. In ordinary cases, the shape of
describe arcs as
in the figure,
one face of the timber will be
hew
can easily
in the
same manner
To find
379.
stairs.
by
that
desirable, a pattern for the other side
is
accuracy
to its proper level
it
good workman
but where great
sufficient, for a
as for the
may
first.
a winding
the falling-mould for the rail of
In Fig. 274, a
half the cylinder,
be found
c b represents
the plan of a
the cap of the newel, and
around
rail
1, 2, 3,
&c., the
face of the risers in the order they ascend.
Find the
efj of a c
through the point of
b, according to Art. 92;
the mitre at the newel-cap, draw o s

the position of the points, 5 and
u^g* and /
from
;
K ,* as
1
o,
stretch-out,
obtain on the tangent, e d,

at t
and/
from
draw
equal to one rise and f' g* equal to 12, as this line
a:,
tf* and
d ; make
/,
h, all at right angles to e
is
drawn
from g, through g*, drawg- i; make g x eqna!

to about three-fourths of a rise, (the top of the newel, x, should
be 3^ feet from the floor ;) draw x u, at right angles to e #, and
from the 12th
riser
ease off the angle at
a distance equal to the thickness of
at
* In the
2
above, the references, a 2 , 6 , &c., are introduced for the
time taken to refer to the figure, the
memory of the/orm
while that of the sound alone remains
they
may
of these
first
may
time.
then be mistaken for a
can be avoided in reading by giving them a sound corresponding to

u second a second b, &c. or a second, b second.
During the
pass from the mind,
their
2, b 2,
&c. This
meaning, which
222
the
rail,
w y,
draw v
o,
draw
/>,.
at right angles
Z,
parallel to
manner, draw
to^
i,
d;
draw a
i ;
from the centre of the plan,
bisect
in p,
line for the joint
and through
in the
rail of a winding-stairs.
the extremities of the joints in the falling-mould, as
a'ld y, (Fig. 274,)
make
b e
joint,
a2
equal to
8
,
or b
draw k a2 z
,
srime
To find the face-mould for the
380.
hn
; then x y will be the falling-mould

which extends from s to b on the plan.
the joint at
for that part of the rail
From
xu
d.
Then,
d\ proceed as
at
and y
/.-.
d, at right angles to e
:
:
to obtain the direction of the
Fig. 275,
at
which the
parts are
STAIRS.
283
Fig. 275.
shown
at half their full size.
the falling-mould
From
from
e.
rf,
k',
6,
draw k
draw b /,
parallel to b
parallel to
in
A is
which k z
6, parallel to
I o,
the plan of the
rail,
and
B is
the direction of the butt-joint.
is
and k
e,
at right angles to
draw
tending to the centre of the plan, and from/,
k ; from
e/;
join
I,
through
d and
6,
e,
and d
draw
I i,
and from i, draw t
b will be the proper direction
&\
for the joint
The
on the plan.
direction of the joint
on the other
side,
c, can be found by transferring the distances, x b and o
to x a and o c.
(See Art. 384.)
Fur.
& tf in
276,) equal to s r
through s and from
make
from
u,
u and d
through
d,
other points in the line,
draw
and
the ordinates, r
o,
draw the
right angles to
equal
to/
/g
i,j
make u
c,
also e
and 7
on the plan
To
a;
a
274
to t
r,
&
t s,
in the
5, e
6 and o
2 equal
to r 2,
7, at
through the points
same manner, by transferand the arc, r d ; join 1
t a,
then, 1 c e 7 will be the face-mould required
lor that part of the rail

at
(Fig.
;',
ring the distances between the line,
and
from
b,
trace the curve, 1 7,

e,
6,
draw
respectively, in Fig.
equal to
rf,
at right angles
1, c 2, g- 3, i 4,
find the curve, c
e,
s r
and
and from as many

thought necessary, as/ h and
k and a o from w, c, g, i, k, e
through
a, as is
ordinates,
u and eZ
u and 6 wr,
c,
&c., and
3,
thus found
make
through r
draw
draw if
e,
274
JFio-.
equal to
27(5.
direction of the joint,
Having obtained the
d>
which
is
denoted by the
letters,
s r d? 6
s
,
Fig. 274.
ascertain the
mould for the next quarter, make acje, (Fig.
STAIRS.
22E
Fig. 277.
277,) equal to
the line,
i,
a8
e*
at
Fig. 274
in that figure,
draw
any convenient height on

parallel to e d ; through c
at
i',
d ; through a, and from j, draw 6 k and

d ; make b k and j o equal to i2 k and y
andj, (Fig. 277,) draw b

; o,
i,
at right angles
to b
respectively, in Fig.
proceed as in the
When
1.
d ; through
parallel to
k,
through
kf;
o,
draw &/; and
face-mould, A.
the requisite thickness of stuff.
Make
the falling-mould is straight.
(Fig. 277,) equal to

to b
from
last figure to obtain the
To ascertain
381.
274
Fig. 274
at
draw h
and
the corner farthest from kf, as
then the distance between
kf
CASE
h and k m,
m n, parallel
or
and n
i,
draw n
i,
will give
the thickness required.
When the falling-mould is curved. In Fig.

d b is equal to * r d b in Fig. 274. Make a c equal to the
CASE
382.
278, s r
2.
stretch-out of the arc, s 6, according to Art. 92,

s
b.
and divide a
each into a like number of equal parts from a and

line, a c, draw ak,el, &c.,
;
each point of division in the

gles to
ac
make a
A:
equal to
29
in
c,
and
and from
at right an-
Fig. 274, and c ; equal to 6*
and complete the tailing-mould, kj, every way equal

in Fig. 274 from the points of division in the arc, sb, draw
in that figure,
to
lines radiating
r d, in the
and b
towards the centre of the
same proportion as
u, at right angles to
w, at right angles to^' c
of the joint,
b.
s b
is
circle,
divided
dividing the arc.
from d
a d, and from j and
then x
uw will be a vertical
Supposing every
kj
draw
projection
radiating line across s r
corresponding to the vertical lines across

find their vertical projection, as at
arid 6,
v, draw j u and v
to represent a joint,
5 and 6
through the
curve
corners of those parallelograms, trace the
lines shown in the
or
then
will
be
a
vertical
6
u
helmet,
projection, of sr d b.
figure
1, 2, 3, 4,
To
find the thickness of plank necessary to get out this part of
the
rail,
draw the
line,
t,
touching the upper side of the helinet
two places through the corner farthest projecting from that

line, as w, draw y w, parallel to z t ; then the distance between
in
those lines will be the proper thickness of stuff for this part of the
rail.
The same
process
stuff in all cases in
383.
To apply
is
necessary to find the thickness of
which the falling-mould
is
in
any way curved.
the face-mould to the plank.
represents the plank with
the
its
same plank turned up so
as to
In Fig. 279,
and edge in view, and

bring in view the other side
best side
STAIRS.
227
Fig. 279.
and the same edge,
mould
tips of the
mark
this
and
c,
corresponding with
c,
be
kfdat
tips of the
the figure.
moved
dicular
from a and
o,
draw
the lines,
across the edge of the plank, the angles, e a b
apply the
shown in
Apply the
o, (A,} and
face.
edge of the plank, as at a and
out the shape of the twist
at jB,
being square from the
at the
In sawing
mould
turning the plank up as
at b
e o
and
c,
and mark
it
out as
In sawing out the twist, the saw must be
in the direction,
when
Fig. 277
and
the twist
ifr
which
held up in
its
direction will be perpen-
proper position.
by the face-mould, the sides
of the
rail
are obtained
the top and bottom, or the upper and the lower surfaces, are ob-
by squaring from the sides,

mould around the outer, or convex
tained
after
side,
having bent the fallingand marked by its edges.
Marking across by the ends of the falling-mould
will give the
position of the butt-joint.
Elucidation of the process by which the direction of

Mr. Nicholson, in his
the butt-joint is obtained in Art. 380.
384.
to
Carpenter's Guide, has given the joint a different direction
that here shown he radiates it towards the centre of the cylin;
der.
This
operation
is
erroneous
shown by
the following
In Fig. 280, a rj
joint,
as can be
is
i is
the plan of a part of the
the stretch-out of a
tical projection
i,
of the plan, a r j
and
t,
gp
is
rail
about the
the helinet, or ver-
obtained according to Art
328
382.
Bisect r
/,
Fig. 230.
from the centre of the plan,

at right angles to g v ; from
part of an ordinate
and through the middle, draw c b,

b and c, draw c rf and 6 e, at right angles to s u ; from d and e.
draw lines radiating towards the centre of the plan then d o
:
and e
m will be the direction of the joint on the plan, according to
Nicholson, and c b
admitted that
which
all
its
direction
on the falling-mould.
radiate towards the centre of the cylinder, as
ij, are level
It will
the lines on the upper or the lower side of the
for instance, the level line,
v,
o,
be
rail
m or
on the top of the
STAIRS.
rail in
the helinet,
The
on the plan.
the helinet,
is
is
parallel to c 6,
b,
also c
a true representation of the radiating line, i.

j
line, b A, therefore, on the top of the rail in
a true representation of
the bottom of the
rail
then c k
end of the lower

piece, A ; and/ k
piece,
or
truly represents
and from
and/;
229
h,
I
draw hf,
m on the plan, and k c on

d
o.
From
k,
draw k
parallel to b c ; join
/,
and
b will be a true representation of the
B, and
will
fh
b of the
show how much
the inner, or concave side of the
rail.
end of the upper
the joint
is
open on
230
To show that the

and
process followed in Art. 380
Fig. 275. Now,
to project,
line that does not radiate

k,
is correct, let
do
m, (Fig. 281,) be the direction of the butt-joint found as
draw
vertical lines
on the top of the
rail
at
in the helinet, a
towards the centre of the cylinder, as j
then it will be evident that
w and
A, and join w and h

w h is a true representation in the helinet
from J and k
to
j k on the plan, it being in the same plane as j k, and also in the

same winding surface as w v. The line, I n, also, is a true repreof
sentation on the bottom of the helinet of the line, j k, in the plan.
The line of the joint, e m, therefore, is projected in the same way

and truly by i b on the top of the helinet and the line, d o, by
c a on the bottom.
and then it will be seen that
Join a and
;
the lines, c a, a
and
b } exactly coincide with c
b,
the line of
the joint on the convex side of the rail

thus proving the lower
end of the upper piece, A, and the upper end of the lower piece,
B, to be in one and the same plane, and that the direction of the
;
joint
on the plan
be seen that the

that e
is
the true one.
line,
I i,
By reference to Fig.
corresponds to
in that figure is a representation
a: i
of/ b,
in
275,
Fig. 281
and
of
it
will
and
d b.
Fig. 288.
In getting out the twists, the
joints, before the falling-mould is
STAIRS.
231
applied, are cut perpendicularly, the face-mould being long enough

to include the overplus
to the line,
B,
extend
to
y z. Being sawed
end of the face-mould
the helinet
by
and make
rallel to i /,
then
to i
gf
that for
A, would be represented in
for
(Fig. 282,) at
.<?,
m e at
Fig: 281
to 5 b at
line,
i,
on
right angles to if,
through s, draw s g, paFig. 281 join b and i ;

;
to
will be a perpendicular section of the rail over the

at
helinet at that figure
To grade
to
Fig. 281, corresponding
and when the
back, must be trimmed off to the line,
385.
and
a section of the
/at Fig. 281, and from f, draw/^-, parallel
m, on the plan
line, e
obtain the position of the
and make s b equal
make i/equal
b
draw
s equal to
To
ifg.
to the line,
vertically at first,
joint at the
the end of the twist,
The face-mould
necessary for a butt-joint.
would have
for A, therefore,
rail is
i 6,
gf in the
squared, the top, or
and the bottom
the front string of a stairs,
to the
having winders
in a quarter-circle at the top of the flight connected with flyers

In Fig. 283, a b represents the line of the facia
at the bottom.
along the floor of the upper story, bee the face of the cylinder,
and c d the face of the front string. Makeg- b equal to of the
diameter of the baluster, and draw the centre-line of the rail, fg,
and
each equal
draw
to half the
to
arid the
to Art.
92
rail,
concave sides of the
convex side of the
extend a b
and u
and
6, parallel to
ing to the centre of the cylinder
to
v,
6,
o,
draw
a2
kmtos ; make c s
and
18 inches, and de-
nip ; from
and v
and make the point of

at right angles to
parallel
and parallel
of the semi-circle, k
equal to
the limit of the parallel steps, or flyers
from
t,
r,
rail,
rail,
/,
draw
from 6, and'on the
off the regular tread, as at 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
half the arc,
d; make g k and g I
and through k and /,
obtain the stretch-out, q
equal to the length of the steps,

scribe the arcs, s
and
b e c
tangical to the
k m, draw no;
p m, according
b,
width of the
convex
lines for the
to the centre-line
to
ij, parallel
line, 6
make u x
w, tendwar,
equal to
division nearest to
;
o.
make
run
ar,
as
r o equal to
mz
one
rise
and equal
to
;
;
hi
na
Fig. 283.
from a
through
draw a2
o,
draw
Then from
the line,
the
arc,
2
first
w?,
draw
s
parallel to
and equal
o,
to
one tread
from
s,
s W. %
draw
c*,'the
winder,
w,)
e draw
s,
2
,
at right angles to
same number of
J5,
e?
wc
as at
e',
o,
and
risers that the floor,
1, 2, 3, 4,
5 and 6
through
set up,
A,
5,
o,
and through
5,
above
is
(on the
tending to the centre of the cylinder
at right angles to
on
(on the
from
line.
STAIRS.
233
draw g*f, parallel to n o ; through 6, (on the line, w c3,)

2
2
and/ draw the line, A b ; make 6 c equal to half a rise, and
2
2
from c2 and 6, draw c 1 and 6/, parallel to n o ; make /i2 i2 equal
c
,)
A2 / 2 ; from
to
draw/
draw
i\
&2, at right
angles to
t"
describe the arc,/
A2 and from/2
,
i ;
A:
angle at 6 by the curve, /
In the figure, the curve
P.
to/ A ; upon F, with / for

make 62 f equal to & 2 / 2 and ease
at right angles
A:
radius,
off the
de-
is
scribed from a centre, but in a full-size plan, this would be impracticable
the best
way
(on the line,
n2
m*,
wc
draw
,)
would be with
to ease the angle, therefore,
a tanged curve, according to Art. 89.
Then from
n
lines parallel to
and p z ; from these
draw
points,
2
o,
3 and
4,
meeting the curve
in
1, 2,
lines at right angles to
and meeting it in x\ r s and t ; from x* and r2 draw lines

2
tending to w and meeting the convex side of the rail in y and
o,
mv
2
equal to r s and
make
z" ;
10*
equal to r
f ; from y'
z" ,
through 4, 3, 2 and 1, draw lines meeting the line of

3
3
3
3
3
the wall-string in a b c and d ; from e where the centre-line of
v"
and
the
o,
draw
crosses the line of the floor,
rail
and from/
d2 y a3 zy
2
through
draw/
which, being extended
3
,
angles to n
at right
g* ; then the heavy lines,/ g*,

and z y, will be the lines for the risers,
6,
w'
to the line of the front string, b e c d, will
give the dimensions of the winders, and the grading of the front
was
string, as
required.
To obtain
386.
mentioned
stairs.
the falling-mould for the twists of the last-
Make
2
i
to half the thickness of the
and g*f,
the
parallel to i s ;
amount of
equal to k
Ar
o ;
to
rail
A3 (Fig. 283,) each equal

3
3
3
through A and g draw A f
i*
3
assuming k k and
o,
equal to
mm
meeting the top
mm
on the plan as
make n q
draw lines at
; from n and P,
3
of the falling-mould in n and
line crossing the falling-mould at right angles
2
a chord of the curve,/ f
draw w
fc
from o3 draw a
,
and
straight to be got out with the twists,
and r
right angles to
through the centre of the cylinder,

n o ; through 8, draw 7 9, tending to
for the upper twist, and 7
;
8, at right angles to
then w3 7 will be the falling-mould
3
o the falling-mould for the lower twist.
30
234
To obtain
387.
The moulds for the
the face-moulds.
be obtained as at Art. 380
may
mould
course departs considerably from a straight
in
its
twists
but, as the falling-
of this stairs
line,
it
would, according to that method, require a very thick plank for

In order,
the rail, and consequently cause a great waste of stuff.
therefore, to
economize the material, the following method
be preferred
which
in
it
is
to
will be seen that the heights are taken
in three places instead of
two
only, as
is
done in the previous
method.
Fig. 284.
CASE
1.
When
the other two.

joint,
draw
Having found
and p
284,) equal to
the middle height is above
e,
k p3
3
at
a line joining
283
the
direction of the
Fig.
according to Art. 380,

e
in Fig.
283
make k p
join b
and
c,
e a, (Fig.
and from
o A, at right angles to b c ; obtain the stretch-out of
d g,
o,
as
dfj and at Fig. 283, place it from the axis of the cylinder, p, to
3
3
3
3
q ; from q in that figure, draw q r at right angles to n o ; also,
,
at
a convenient height on the
right angles to that line,
line,
3
draw u v
n w3
in that figure,
from 6 and
c,
and
at
in Fig. 284,
STAIRS.
draw 6 j and
235
make
at right angles to 6 c ;
I,
Fig. 283, t h equal to w> r in th.it figure, and c I equal

from Z, through j, draw J m; from h, draw A w, parallel
from n, draw w r, at right angles to b c, and join r and s ;
the lowest corner of the plan, as p,
a, e, u,
k,
t,
cessary,
ordinates to the
w x,
through h, draw
line,
draw
e,
at right angles to
an intersecting arc
ordinates to meet the line,
ing
s,
through
;
from
thought ne-
n,
with r s for
at x,
to r
parallel to r s
e,
upon
I ;
e ;
nx
is
u8 9
to c b
parallel to b c
base-line, v
and from the points of intersection on
rallel to
e,
to
and join n and x ; from

which the ordinates from the plan meet the base-
radius, describe
the points at
draw v
and from as many other points as
draw
w! n3 in
b j equal to
nx ; make
I,
at right angles to
Z,
draw correspondwhich are pa-
the ordinates
of a length corresponding to those
and through the points thus found,
which are
parallel
the face-mould
trace
as required.
CASE
When the middle
height is below a line joining

twist
in Fig. 283 is of this nature.
lower
the other two.
The face-mould for this is found at Fig. 285 in a manner similar
2.
The
to that at
Fig. 284.
The
heights are
the falling-mould at Fig. 283

i
equal to x*
through^' and
draw n
/,
and from
h,
to
w6
3
From
A,
draw h
in
of
Fig. 283,
Draw
n, parallel to 6
and join r and
the bevil for the lower ordinates.

gles to j
and
draw h
c,
taken from the top
b j being equal to
in that figure,
r, at right angles to b
all
a line
c; from
w,
then r s will be
.T,
at right an-
with r s for radius, describe an intersecting
upon w,
and join n and x ; then n x will be the bevil for the upper
ordinates, upon which the face-mould is found as in Case 1.
I ;
arc at x,
388.
Elucidation of the foregoing method.
This method
of finding the face-moulds for the handrail ing of winding
stairs,
being founded on principles which govern cylindric sections, may

be illustrated by the following figures. Fig. 286 and 287 represent solid blocks, or prisms, standing upright on a level base, b d
he
a forming oblique angles with the face, b I
upper surface, j
Fig. 285.
286 obtuse, and in Fig. 287 acute. Upon the base, describe the semi-circle, b s c ; from the centre, i, draw i s, at right
in Fig.
from
draw
5 #, at right angles to e d,
angles to b c
draw
right angles to b c
s,
make i h
and from
i,
and join
h and x ; then, h and x being of the same height, the line, h x,
From h, draw h n, parallel to b c,
joining them, is a level line.
i h, at
and from n, draw n
r, at
equal to 5
right angles to b c; join r
ar,
and
s,
also
STAIRS.
237
Fig. 286.
Fip.
^7.
and x ; then, n and x being of the same height, n x is a level line

and this line lying perpendicularly over r s, n x and r s must be
;
of the
a;,
r s
same length.
So,
all lines
on the
top,
drawn
parallel to
and perpendicularly over corresponding lines drawn parallel to

on the base, must be equal to those lines on the base and by;
drawing a number of these on the semi-circle at the base and

others of the same length at the top, it is evident that a curve, j
I,
may
be traced through the ends of those on the
top,
which
shall lie perpendicularly over the semi-circle at the base.

It is
upon
is
founded.
is
supposed
this principle that the process at
The
at
in Fig.
all
that
is
s,
in those figures, correspond to
n x
286 and 287.
In Fig. 288, the

c
under the face-mould at the top

the top over a corresponding one at the base.
n x and
ordinates,
and r s
Fig. 284 and 285
the bottom of those figures
rail at
to lie perpendicularly
and each ordinate
The
plan of the
top, e a,
forms a right angle with the
necessary, therefore, in this figure,
corresponding to h x
in the last
two
figures,
and in the upper surface so that all ordinates at

d r on the base, will correspond to those that are
;
is to
and that
face,
find a line
will lie level
right angles to
at right angles
238
Fit:
to e c
This elucidates Fig. 276

correspond lo h 9 and i 8 in this
on the
h 9 and
top.
i 8,
389.
288. r
To
at
which
the lines,
figure.
The
find the bevil for the edge of the plank.
plank, before the face-mould
is
applied,
must be bevilled accord-
ing to the angle which the top of the imaginary block, or prism,
This angle is dein the previous figures, makes with the face.
termined in the following manner

angles to
i s,
that figure,
and equal
to
w h at Fig.
and join w and s
then
draw
284
make
sw p will
i,
is
therefore acute.
To
s equal to
s in
be the bevil required
in order to apply the face-mould at Fig. 284.
middle height being below the
(Fig. 289,) at right
In Fig. 285, the
line joining the other two, the bevil
determine
this,
draw
i s,
(Fig. 290,) at
STAIRS.
239
Fig. 290.
rig'ht
to
angles to
w in
p,
and equal
Fig. 285 make 5 w equal

and i ; then w i p will be the
to i s in
Fig. 285, and join
bevil required in order to apply the face-mould at Fig. 285.
though the falling-mould
in these cases is curved, yet, as the
sprung, or bevilled
plank
is
to get
out the twist
may
Al-
on
its
edge, the thickness necessary
be ascertained according to Art. 381
taking the vertical distance across the falling-mould at the joints,
down from
383
two outside heights in Fig. 284 or

After bevilling the plank, the moulds are applied as at Art.
applying the pitch-board on the bevilled instead of a square
edge,
and placing the
same
relation to the edge of the plank, as they do to the
and placing
285.
in Fig.
it
the
tips of the
mould
so that they will bear the

line,
I.
284 or 285.
Fig. 291.
390.
Make w
To apply
the
moulds without bevilling
to
p, (Fig. 291,) equal
wp
the plank.
Fig. 289, and the angle,

make p a equal to the thickat
Fig. 284
from a draw a o, paness of the plank, as w a in Fig. 289, and
e
at right angles to w d, and join
rallel to w d ; from c, draw c e,
b c d, equal to b j
in
240
and
then the angle, b e
on a square edge of the plank, hav-
o,
ing a line on the upper face at the distance,
which
to
apply the tips of the
mould
will
a, in Fig. 289, at
answer the same pur-
pose as bevilling the edge.
edge of the plank, which reaches from
If the bevilled
is
to
supposed
from the
line,
an axis until the

the line,
will
and the
wp;
and
w,
a, arrives in
it
line,
in the line, c
fall,
to w,
be in the plane of the paper, and the point, a, to
be above the plane of the paper as

tant
e,
falls
;
much
as a, in Fig. 289,
the plank to be revolved on
it
b as
below the plane of the paper, and

it
then,
until
is dis-
is
evident that the point,
c,
behind the
e,
lies directly
line, b c, will lie directly
behind b
point,
e.
Fig. 292.
To find
391.
employed
for
splayed work
of applying
it
The
the bevils for splayed work.
in the last figure is
one that will serve
principle
to find the bevils
such as hoppers, bread-trays, &c. and a way

purpose had better, perhaps, be introduced
to that
In Fig. 292, a b c is the angle at which the

and
6 d, on the upper edge of the board, is at
splayed,
right angles to a b; make the angle, fgj, equal to a b c, and
from/, draw/^, parallel to e a; from 6, draw b o, at right anin this connection.
work
is
gles to
through
o,
then the angle, a e
the inside,
or
k d
draw
i e,
parallel to c 6,
and join
and
d, will be the proper bevil for the ends from
from the outside.
If a mitre-joint is re-
STAIRS.
211
setfg, the thickness of the stuff on the level, from e to

and d ; then k d
will be the proper bevil for a
m, and join
quired,
mitre-joint.
work
If the upper edges of the splayed

to be horizontal
when
the
work
being the same as a b
fgj,
its
proper position,
will be the proper bevil for that
Suppose, therefore, that a piece indicated by the lines,

off; then a line drawn upon the
purpose.
kg, g f
c,
be bevilled, so as
is to
placed in
is
and /A, were taken
bevilled surface from d, at right angles to

true position of the joint, because
it
would be
the board for the other side; but a line so
would show the
d,
in the direction of
drawn would pass
through the point, o, thus proving the principle correct. So, if

a line were drawn upon the bevilled surface from d, at an angle
of 45 degrees to k d, it would pass through the point, n.
Another method for face-moulds.
392.
will be seen
It
reference to Art. 388, that the principal object
had
in
view
by
in the
preparatory process of finding a face-mould,
is to ascertain upon it
This can be found by a method
and as it requires fewer
different from any previously proposed
it is
admits
of
less
and
probably to be preferred.
lines,
complication,
the direction of a horizontal
line.
can be best introduced, perhaps, by the following explanation
It
In Fig. 293, j d represents a prism standing upon a level base,

b d, its upper surface forming an acute angle with the face.
b
I,
as at Fig. 287.
line,j
from
/,
/,
upon a
to
to
meet at/;
through
A',
level floor,
meet that
floor,
and the raking

a, to meet at k;
we suppose
the prism to stand
Extend the base

extend
also,
draw
/ m.
ofm, and
then
it
If
d and
the plane,
and the line,/ k, being
the inclined plane,

parallel
jg kf,
to/ Ar, must be a
/,
to
be extended
will be obvious that the intersection
between that plane and the plane of the
f k;
line, b c,
floor
would be
in the plane of the floor,
any
line
level line.
made
By
in the line,
and
in the plane,
also in
j g k f,
of a
finding the position
k
perpendicular plane, at right angles to the raking plane, jf g,
we
shall greatly shorten the process for
31
obtaining ordinates.
242
Fig. 293.
This may be done thus

extend e b
to o,
and^ j,
from/, draw/ o. at right angles tofm ;

to t ; from o, draw o
at right angles to
,
of, and join
nght angles
to the inclined plane, t
the former,
then
and/;
o/
is at
o/
same
angles to of, or parallel
tofm
and from
q,
draw a
or at right angles to
to the point, j,
Now,
to
6,
A:,
both
b p, at right
from p. draw p q, alright angles

on the upper plane, parallel tofm.
this line will obviously
q j,
points, s
draw
line
line,
From
plane.
tf; then
and the
same way, from the
because the base of
g kf;
right angles to the base of the latter,/
these lines being in the
to o/,
will be a perpendicular plane, at
be equal to p
and
c,
to find
x and
apply the principle here explained,
be drawn
Proceed, in the
b.
let
/.
the curve, b s
(Fig. 294,) be the base of a cylindric segment, and
let it
be
c,
re
quired to find the shape of a section of this segment, cut by a

plane passing through three given points in
its
curved surface:
one perpendicularly over 6, at the height, b j ; one perpendicularly over 5, at the height, s x ; and the other over c, at the height,
c
these lines being
base, b
c.
drawn
at right angles to the
FromJ, through I,
extended to/; from 5, draw 5
draw x
k, parallel
draw a
k, parallel to
tojf; from/ through
k,
chord of the
meet the chord
line to
b /,
line
and from
x.
draw/w; then/m
will be the intersecting line of *he plane of the section with '.he
STAIRS.
243
Fig. 234.
plane of the base.
This
can be proved to be the intersection

way from 6, through s, and from^",
line
of these planes in another
through
.r,
draw
lines
meeting
in the intersecting line, as
is
at
shown
then the point, w, will be

in the figure,
and
also at
Fig. 293.
From/, draw//>,
at right angles
to/
from b and
c,
and
many
thought necessary, draw ordinates,
parallel to/m; make p q equal to bj, and join q and/; from
the points at which the ordinates meet the line, qf, draw others
from as
at right
other points as
angles to q //
is
make each
ordinate at
responding ordinate at C, and trace the curve,
A equal to its corg n through the

i,
points thus found.
Now
it
may
be observed that
is
the plane of the section,
the plane of the segment, corresponding to the plane, q p /, of

To give these planes
is the plane of the base.
Fig. 293, and
be turned onqf as an axis until it
their proper position, let
244
stands perpendicularly over the

the plane,
B;
then, while
B be turned on the
line,
p f,
line,
qf, and at right angles to
are fixed at right angles, let
and
as an axis until
it
A, will
lie
ponding
n, at x,
and
over b s c
by a
on the other
atj
as
was
level plane passing
qf and/)/ would
meet
the point,
i,
gn
i,
it
we
If
required.
resting at
lying perpendicularly
suppose the cylinder to be
through the point,
(as is
/,
meet
in
and the plane of the
I ;
and the plane of the
cf
To find
is
section, A,
would
the face-mould for
a hand-rail according
a b
stretch-out of a
bisect
df
c in
i,
the falling-mould
is
in
and
295,) corresponding
find a point, as
to i in the line,
the top of the falling-mould,
295, from
c,
From
Fig. 295.
through
c k, at right angles to
b,
draw
draw
c ;
c,
6,
i,
df, (Fig.
(Fig. 296,) to
at right angles to
k equal
c A, parallel to
in the arc,
and
to
and
being equal to the
draw
he; from
and from
c g,
make
;',
/e
to
In Fig. 295,
the plan of a hand-rail over a quarter of a cylinder
in Fig. 296,
ef;
done in
base, C,
the principles explained in the previous article.

e
the point,
in that point.
393.
Z,
will be obvious that lines corresponding
the plane of the segment, B,

all
and the curve,
finding a face-mould,)
to
then the plane,
over the plane, C, with the several lines on one corres-
to those
cut
stands perpendicu-
C;
larly over pf, and at right angles to the plane,
he;
draw
c,
at
at
Fig.
bj
and
Fig. 296,
and bj equal to ij at that figure from k, through j, draw k g,

and fromg-, through a, draw g p ; then gp will be the intersecting
;
Fig. 293 and 294 through e, draw

p 6, at right angles tog p. and from c, draw c q. parallel to gp ;
make r q equal to h g at Fig. 296 join/) and q, and proceed as
line,
corresponding
to/m in
The
in the previous examples to find the face-mould, A.
of the face-mould,
v, will be
finding the projection of the
joint
more accurately determined by
centre of the plan,
o,
as at
and w, and drawing u v, parallel to 5 w.

may be noticed that c k and b j are not of a length
w;
joining s
It
ponding
to the
above directions
they are but
corres-
the length given.
246
Fig.
AMERICAN
246
POVfr'y-'.'ARPENTEIl.
Fig. 296.
The
object of
drawing these
lines is to find the point, g,
and
that
can be done by taking any proportional parts of the lines given,

as well as
k and b j
and
by taking the whole

to
be the
the other in
lines.
For instance, supposing
length of the given lines, bisect one in i

then a line drawn from m, through i, will
full
give the point, g, as
was
required.
The point,
g,
may
also be
STAIRS.
obtained thus
from
h
to
equal
/,
draw
c ;
from
to Z
Fig. 296, make h
at
at right
I k,
247
angles
to
equal to c b in Fig. 295

from j, drawj A:, parallel
c ;
through k, draw g- w ; at Fig. 295, make b

296 then g will be the point required.
g-,
in .Fig-.
The reason why
the points, a, 6 and
in the plan of the rail a,
c,
Fig. 295, are taken for resting points instead of

the top of the rail being level,
in the section
e,
are of the
the same height as
6,
and
that plane
it
and
if c is
is
iri
c as/.
to
g p.
is
Now,
from the
also that the point,

if
line
this
is
i,
is
g p,
if
e,
of
must be below
must be below
The
it.
rule, then,
line of intersection,
in the direction of the line, e r
the line, see
taken for a point
take in each section the one that
Sometimes the
come almost
after finding
case,
is to
and/,
evident that the points, a and
the plane,/ must be below
nearest to the line,
e, i
taken for a point in that plane,
for taking these points,
happens
it is
same height
in the inclined plane rising

if
the points from
in
is
g p.
such
which
the
heights were taken agree with the above rule if the heights
were taken at the wrong points, take them according to the rule
not
above, and then find the true line of intersection, which will
;
vary
much from
the one already found.
Fig. 297.
394.
The
to
To apply
face-mould,
the
face-mould thus found
when
a square-edged plank,
ence
to
the plank.
obtained by this method, is to be applied

as directed at Art. 383, with this differ-
instead of applying both tips of the
mould
to the
edge
of
>
248
them
the plank, one of
is
plank, as x, in Fig. 295,

is
shown
Fig. 297.
at
from the edge of the
to be set as far
from the chord of the section p q
is
A, in this figure,
the
is
the upper side of the plank, B, the edge of the
mould applied on the under side

$to q x in Fig. 295, and the angle,
angle,
at
r,
apply the
to
c,
In order to
Fig. 295.
would be advisable
a b and
d being made
To
mould, e and
do
mediately
at
moulds
be applied as shown in the figure
to
volved upon
to
e until the point, 6, arrives at g,
eg:
coincide with
plank must
beneath
as
e,
draw d h,
now
from/, draw
at right angles to
wiihfj, and the
mould
The
gle,
/t,
then
let
is
to the
ifk, equal
and through
and
A;
i,
at k :
thickness of stuff
395.
To regulate
k
is
the
c,
t,
d\ &c., at Fig. 295
ing-mould
c.
upon
Then
make
the an-
make fk equal
parallel to
found as
at Art. 381.
application of the falling-mould.
(Fig. 296,) the several points,

a'*,
curve, s
C,
c/,
ij; then apply the

and the other corner rf, at the line, k I.
I,
and m, corresponding to the points, i 2

from r q p, &c., draw the lines, r t, q
r
and from
I; then the tips of
angle q v x, at Fig. 295
The
s,
b,
/.
draw
corner of the mould,
he; make h
re-
side of the
d ; then revolve the mould,
rule for doing this, then, will be as follows
line,
be
perpendicularly
to i d,
h, parallel
id, to coincide with
line,
will be at k
Obtain, on the
arrives at j, causing the line,/ h, to coincide
to /i,
to
suppose the
causing the line, e
be revolved upon a point that
/, until the point,
the
im-
b,
this,
mould upon the under
the
equal
on the edge, equal to the

avoid a waste of stuff, it
tips of the
the edge of the plank.
as
mould applied on
plank, and C, the
u,
z, y, &c., at
v,
r,
q,p,
Fig. 295
&c., at right angles
q u, &c., respectively equal to 6
c',
r q, 5
through the points thus found, trace the

get out the piece,
at several places
along
its
attached to the
fall-
length, as at z. z, z,
<fcc.
c,
In applying the falling-mould with this strip thus attached, the

edge, sw c, will coincide with the upper surface of the rail piece
STAIRS.
before
it is
squared
ing-mould along
its
249
and thus show the proper position of the
fall-
whole length. (See Art. 403.)
SCROLLS FOR HAND-RAILS.

General rule for finding the size and position of the
regulating square. The breadth which the scroll is to occupy,
396.
number
the
of
ting square
number
its
of revolutions
and the sum
the breadth
by
4,
and
square equal to
is
be divided.
one of these
to the
product add the number
contained in the diameter of th~
number of equal
will be the
is to
relative size of the regula
eye of the scroll, being given, multiply the
of times a side of the square

eye,
and the
revolutions,
to the
Make a
To
parts.
parts into
side of
which
the regulating
the breadth of the scroll
add one of the parts thus found, and half the sum
will
be the
length of the longest ordinate.
Fig. 298.
To find
397.
Let a 2 1
b,
the proper centres in the regulating square.

found
(Fig. 298,) be the size of a regulating square,
number of revoluaccording to the previous rule, the required

as
a 2 and 2 1, into
Divide two adjacent sides,
tions being If.
as
many equal
in the
parts as there are quarters
number
draw
of revo-
lines across
seven from those points of division,

the
the square, at right angles to the lines divided then, 1 being
the other quarfirst centre, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, are the centres for
lutions, as
ters,
and 8
is
the centre for the eye
32
the heavy lines that deter-
250
mine thse centres being each one
part less in length than
its
pre-
line.
ceding
Fig. 299.
To
398.
step.
number
square
rule,
describe the scroll for
Let a
b,
of revolutions,
to the
b to c ; bisect
ordinate, (1
from
6,
let
f multiplied by 4 gives
Divide a
10.
and
the relative size of the regulating
eye be $ of the diameter of the eye.
side of the square

is
a hand-rail over a curtail
(Fig. 299,) be the given breadth, If the given
6,
is
draw bf,
the
3,
10 equal
therefore, into
e.}
all at
From
parts,
follows: upon
describe
and
set
a,
right angles to
a b
make
describe
upon
e;
4, describe
one from
e I equal to e
set b c
;
from 1
upon
h,
2,
&c.
to 2,
divide this square
then describe the arcs that compose the

1,
sum
be the length of the longest

draw a d, from e, draw e 1, and
1.
298
of times a
e will
d, parallel to a b ;
a, and through 1, draw
and upon 1 2, complete the regulating square
as at Fig.
number
contained in the eye, being added, the
c in e ; then
or 1
and
7,
Then, by the
describe e
make d
f;
scroll,
as
upon 3
equal to the
STAIRS.
width of the
&c.
n,
rail,
describe the eye
(Fig- 299,) in
x equal
also
o,
make v
to
scroll.
1;
upon
1,
upon
2, aescribe
m
I,
o v equal to J of the diameter of a
describe
i ;
upon
4 and
5,
or u;
riser, <r,
dividers, space off as at
w y,
and upon 2, describe y z

describe ij, and so around to
3,
o,
set the baluster at
and from
<?,
r, s,
t,
fair
with the
with half the tread in the
M, &c., as far as q
rail
around
from the points of division in the
lines to the centre-line of the rail,

;
]),
describe the centre-line of the
of the scroll
upon
to the
circle, o r M,
2,
eye
draw
tending to the centre of the
then, the intersection of these radiating lines with the
centre-line of the
as
scroll is
scroll for the step will be completed.
face of the second
equal to the projection of the nosing, and
dius, describe the circle,
eye,
and the
8,
To determine the position of the balusters under the

Bisect d Z, (Fig. 299,) in o, and upon 1, with 1 o for ra-
400.
3,
upon
and make
2, describe
upon
and the
describe
1,
completed.
describe the scroll for a curtail step. Bisect d
To
399.
baluster
and upon
251
shown
rail,
will determine the position of the balusters,
in the figure.
Fig. 300.
401.
scroll.
To obtain the falling-mould for the raking part of the

draw h *, parallel to d
to the rail at
Tangical
a: then k a will be the
2
of the
scroll.
Make d
h,
(Pig. 299,)
and the other part

the stretch-out of de, and upon d
the twist
joint bet ween
equal to
252
e
2
,
find the position of the point,
equal to e
draw
from
c,
make
c b
bisect
Fig. 299, and
in
as at
&,
fc
c a, at right angles to e
and through
I,
draw
/,
c in that figure
and equal
c,
Fig. 300, make e d
c equal to
c?
equal to one tread, and from
c in
at
through
b,
one
to
draw
a,
to e
q, parallel
rise
bj
is
the height of the level part of a scroll, which should always be
about 3i feet from the
floor
gw
and draw
to Art. 89,
ease oil the angle,
equal to the thickness of the

joint, as
draw
i,
i n, at
A-,
draw k
h? equal to
h?
dh
o,
in Fig. 300,
2
and
mould
at
/i
j ; through
to
and draw A
d &
at
will be the position
Fig. 300, o
and p
p and
according
at a distance
a convenient place for the
right angles to b
then k a? and
plan,
at
h ; make d k equal
at right angles to c
from
rail
mfj
m x j, and
n, parallel to
in
draw
n,
A,
Fig. 299, and
Fig. 299, make d

at right angles to
of the joints on the
n, their position
on the
falling-
n, (Fig. 300,) will be the falling-mould re-
quired.
Fig.
402.
2
,
To
30L
At Fig. 299, from&, draw

d ; at Fig. 300, make h r equal to A 2 r 2
draw r s at right angles to r h ; from
describe the face-mould.
at right angles to r"
in Fig. 299,
and from
r,
the intersection of r s with the level line,
make K
in
to
q,
through
and k
d, as
is
thought necessary,
angles to the latter

in
its
make
draw
(Fig. 301,) equal in

2
,
join 6
arcs, a*
6,
in
draw
ordinates to r d, at right
divisions to the line, r 6
i,
Fig. 300, and
equal
Fig. 299,
qf
2
and r2 ; from a and from as many other points in the
t ; at
Fig. 299
its
from r
length and
:
n,
o,
p, q
STAIRS.
and
I,
draw the
gles to r
b,
lines, r k,
and equal
d, o a,
253
to r k, d? s\
^/and
e,
7
f* a &c.,
,
through the points thus found, trace the curves, k

complete the face-mould, as
shown
c,
at right an-
in Fig. 299
I
and a
This mould
in the figure.
and
c,
is
be applied to a square-edged plank, with the edge, I i, parallel

to the edge of the plank.
The rake lines upon the edge of the
to
plank are to be made

300.
The
to
correspond to the angle, s
thickness of stuff required for this
Fig. 300, between the lines 5

rallel to s
403.
and u v
mould
h, in
Fig.
shown
is
u v being drawn
at
pa-
t.
All the previous examples given for finding face-moulds
over winders, are intended for moulded
rails.
For round
rails,
same process is to be followed with this difference instead

of working from the sides of the rail, work from a centre-line.,-
the
After finding the projection

describe circles
upon
it,
of that line upon the upper plane,
as at Fig. 262,
and
trace the sides of the
moulds by the points so found. The thickness of stuff for the

twists of a round rail, is the same as for the straight and the
;
twists are to be
sawed square through.
AMERICAN HOUSE-CARPENTER
254
To
404.
ascertain the
Draw a
of the rail.
form of
the given section, and parallel to c
and
a, e
draw h i,fg, and kj,
b,
the newel-cap
venient place on the line,
fg,
bisect a b in
at right angles to
as
the line,
draw
j,
fg
parallel to
and
join
j, also
o,
many
upon the
and
at
e,
and through
a b
a con-
at
i ;
j g ; make r
from the curve,
ordinates as
from the points
the line, Ij, and
as
section
with a radius equal to half
the width of the cap, describe the circle,

to e b or e
from a
(Fig. 302,) through the widest part of
b,
is
equal
6,
to
thought necessary,
which these ordinates meet
centre, o, describe arcs in continuation to
u &c., parallel to / g ;
make n s, t u, &c., equal to e /, w v, &c. make x y, &c., equal
make o 2, o 3, &c., equal to o n, o t, &c. make 2 4
to z d, &c.
meet
from
op;
n,
t,
&c., draw n
x,
s, t
equal to
o
s,
and in
this
way
find the length of the lines crossing
through the points thus found, describe the section of the
newel-cap, as shown in the figure.
To find
405.
the true position of a butt joint for the twists of
a moulded rail over platform stairs.
mould according
equal to a
and equal
in o
to c 6
c,
to Art. 373,
Fig. 269
in length to
from
6,
draw
n m, Fig. 269
c,
at right angles to
join a and
through o draw e /, at right angles to a

;
make
d and
make n a
equal to e d,
angles to n c
a butt
joint,
c,
c,
6,
and bisect a
and d
k,
parallel
o k each equal to half e h at

Fig.
through e and /, draw h
for
Obtain the shape of the

line a b, Fig. 303,
and make the
269
and gj, parallel to a c. At Fig. 270,

Fig. 303, and through a, draw r p, at right
i
then r p will be the true position on the face-mould

as
was
required.
The
sides
must be sawn
verti-
STAIH:?.
255
cally as described at Art. 374, but the joint
is
to
be sawn square
The moulds obtained for round

for the joint, when applied to either
through the plank.
rails,
371,) give the line
side of the
plank; but here, for moulded

obtained from only one side.
joint is taken
twist,
from the mould
line for the joint
rails, tlr:
Whe
the rail
is
and on the under side of the upper twist
the rail
i?
can be
canted up, the
on the upper side of the lower
laid
canted down, a course just the reverse of this
When
(Art.
not canted, either
up
or
but
is
when
it
is
to be pursued.
down, the
vertical joint,
obtained as at Art. 373, will be a butt joint, arid therefore, in such
a case, the process described
in this article will
NOTE TO ARTICLE
be unnecessary
369.
Platform stairs with a large cylinder. Instead of

placing the platform-risers at the spring of the cylinder,
a more easy and graceful appearance may be

rail, and the necessity of canting either
given to the
of the twists entirely obviated, by fixing the place of

the above risers at a certain distance within the cylinder, as
shown
in the
annexed cut
the lines indi-
cating the face of the risers cutting the cylinder at k

and I, instead of at p and q, the spring of the cylinTo ascertain the position of the risers, let a b c
der.
be the pitch-board of the lower
flight,
and c d
e that
of the upper flight, these being placed so that b c

and c d shall form a right line. Extend a c to cut
de
in
f; draw f g parallel to d b, and of indefinite

draw g o at right angles to / g, and equal
length
in length to the radius of the circle formed
by the
centre of the rail in passing around the cylinder ;

on o as centre describe the semicircle j g i ; make
o h equal to the radius of the cylinder,
and describe
on o the face of the cylinder p h q ; then extend d b

across the cylinder, cutting it in I and k giving the
To
position of the face of the risers, as required.

find the face-mould for the twists
is
simple and ob-
:
it being
merely a quarter of an ellipse, having o j for semi-minor axis, and the distance on the
rake corresponding to o g, on the plan, for the semi-major axis, found thus,
vious
meet a /. then from
this point of
meeting to
is
the semi-major axis.
extend
to
SECTION VIL SHADOWS.
The
406.
art of
a plane surface
made
drawing consists
same appearance
figure, a tree, or a house.
reflection, shade,
made known
in representing solids
upon
so that a curious and nice adjustment of lines
to present the
human
its
to us
It is
does the
to the eye, as
by
the effects of light, in
and shadow, that the presence of an object

so,
the delineation
upon paper,
it
is
is
is
necessary, in order that
real, to
may appear
represent fully
and shadows that would be seen upon the object
all
the shades
In
itself.
this
by a few plain examples, the simple

which
shading, in architectural subelementary principles upon
section I propose to illustrate,
The
jects, is based.
necessary knowledge of drawing, prelim-
inary to this subject, is treated of in the Introduction,

1
from Art.
to 14.
The
407.
inclination of the line of shadow.
in architectural
plan
left
represents a horizontal plane, and
vertical planes placed at right angles to
resents
always,
is
Fig. 304, in which
two
is
supposed to be behind the spectator, and

This can be illustrated by reference to
shoulder.
and the sun
over his
This
drawing, 45 degrees, both on the elevation and the
the plan,
from the elevation.
the elevation, and
each other.
and
rep-
a vertical projection
In finding the shadow of the plane, B, the
SHADOWS.
257
Fig. 304.
line,
b, is
the line, c
drawn
at
the
b, at
an angle of 45 degrees with the horizon, and
same angle with the
vertical plane,
B.
The
plane, B, being a rectangle, this makes the true direction of the
sun's rays to be in a course parallel to
been proved
to
the horizon.
be
It
which direction has
an angle of 35 degrees and 16 minutes with

convenient, in shading, to have a set-square
at
is
with the two sides that contain the right angle of equal length
this will make the two acute angles each 45 degrees
and will
;
give the requisite bevil
square.
another,
ing
when worked upon
the edge of the
T-
One reason why this angle is chosen in preference to

is, that when shadows are properly made upon the draw-
is more readily known, since

shadow and the depth of the recess will be equal.
will be
distinguish between the terms shade and shadow, it
by
it,
the depth of every recess
the breadth of
To
such parts of a body as are not exposed to the

direct action of the sun's rays, are in shade ; while those parts
understood that
all
which are deprived of

are in shadow.
light
by the
33
interposition of other bodies,
256
Fig. 300.
Fig. 305.
Fig. 308.
Fig. 307.
shadow on mouldings and other hoFig. 305, 306, 307 and 308,
rizontally straight projections.
To find
408.
the line of
lepresent various mouldings in elevation, returned at the

the usual
manner
is
obtained
of mitreing around a projection.
spection of the figures
is
sufficient to see
how
bearing in mind that the ray, a
left, in
mere
in-
the line of shadow
b, is
drawn from the
45 degrees. Where there is no return

necessary to draw a section, at any place in the
length of the mouldings, and find the line of shadow from that.
To find the line of shadow cast by a shelf. In Fig. 309,
409.
projections at an angle of
at the end,
is
is
B is the
the plan, and
From a and
directed
cZ,
it
draw d
define the
c,
from
draw a
b,
elevation of a shelf attached to a wall.
and
c d, according to the angle

previously
erect a perpendicular intersecting c
e, parallel to the shelf
shadow
cast
by
then the lines, c
the shelf.
There
finding the shadow, without the plan, A.

of tne shelf to/,
and make
cf equal
is
at
d ; from
d and d
e,
will
another method of
Extend the lower
line
to the projection of the shelf
SHADOWS.
Fig. 309.
from the wall
from/, draw/#,
at the
customary angle, and from
drop the vertical line, c g, intersecting

g at g; from g, draw
g- e, parallel to the shelf, and from c, draw c d, at the usual
angle ;
then the lines, c d and d e, will determine the extent of the shadow
c,
as before.
Fig. 310.
410.
To find
the
shadow
one end than at the other.

the elevation.
Find the
cast by a shelf, which is wider at
In Fig. 310,
is
the plan, and
point, d, as in the previous example, and
from any other point in the front of the shelf, as a, erect the perpendicular, a e ; from a and e, draw a b and e c, at the proper angle,
and from
6,
erect the perpendicular, b
c,
intersecting e c in c
260
from
d,
through
the limit of the
draw d o
c,
shadow
cast
then the lines,
by
d and d
o, will
give
the shelf.
Fig. 311.
411.-~To
shadow of a shelf having one end acute or

Fig. 311 shows the plan and elevation of an
find the
obtuse angled.
Find the
acute-angled shelf.
the perpendicular, a b
line, e
join b and e
g, as before
then b e and e
from
a, erect
will define
the boundary of shadow.
Fig. 312.
412.
To find
the
shadow cast by an inclined
312, the plan and elevation of such a shelf
one end wider than the other.
is
shelf.
In Fig.
shown, having also
Proceed as directed for finding

the shadows of Fig. 310, and find the
points, d and c ; then a d
and d c will be the shadow required. If the shelf had been
SHADOWS.
width on the plan, then the
parallel with the shelf, a b.
parallel in
261
line,
Fig. 313.
413.
To find
tical section
Fig. 314.
the
either
and 314,) draw a
shadow
and
at the usual angle,
e c will define the
parallel
From
a,
and from
obtain the point,
usual angle.
d, at the
cast by a
shelf inclined in its ver-
upward or downward.
b,
parallel with the shelf;
from
would have been
c,
e,
6,
(Fig. 313
draw b
by drawing a
In Fig. 313, join e and i\ then
c,
line
i
shadow.
with the shelf; join
L\ Fig. 314, from o, draw o i,

and e; then i e and e c will be the
shadow required.
The
projections in
straight lines
but the shadows of curved lines
bounded by
may be found in
these several examples are
same manner, by projecting shadows from several points in

the curved line, and tracing the curve of shadow through these
the
points.
Thus
FI. 31&
Fig. 315.
262
414.
AMERICAN HOI;SE-CARPENTER.
To find
the
shadow of a shelf having

In Fig. 315 and 316,
end, curved on the plan.
its
front edge, or
and A show an
example of each kind. From several points, as a, a, in the plan,

and from the corresponding points, o, o, in the elevation, draw
rays and perpendiculars intersecting at
e, e,
points of intersection trace the curve, and
it
&c.
through these
will define the shadow.
Fig. 317.
415.
To find
the
shadow of a shelf curved in
In Fig. 317, find the points of intersection,
e,
and
examples, and a curve traced through them

shadow.
last
The preceding examples show how
to find
e,
as in the
will define the
shadows when cast
shadows thrown upon curved surfaces are

;
Thus
a similar manner.
upon a vertical plane

ascertained in
the elevation.
\
Fig. 318.
SHADOWS.
416.
To find
263
shadow
the
cast upon a cylindrical wall

by a
an
of
it
will
projection of any
be
By
inspection
Fig. 318,
seen that the only difference between this and the last
examples,
kind.
is,
that the rays in the plan die against the circle, a b, instead of
a straight line.
Fig. 319.
To find the shadow cast by a shelf upon an inclined

Cast the ray, a &, (Fig. 319,) from the end of the shelf to
the face of the wall, and from b, draw b c, parallel to the shelf;
417.
tvalt.
cast the ray,
and
e,
from the end of the shelf
e c, will define the
multiplied,
given to illustrate the general principle,
principle to
then the lines, d e
shadow.
These examples might be

instances are found.
Let us attend now
but enough has been
by which shadows
in all
to the application of this
such familiar objects as are likely
to
occur in practice
264
To find
418.
From
the
the
shadow of a projecting horizontal beam.
the points, a, a, &c., (Fig. 320,) cast rays
intersections,
drawn from the

clined, either
e, e, e,
of those rays with the perpendiculars
plan, will define the
shadow.
on the plan or elevation,
aghl angle, the difference
upon the wall
in the
at
If the
beam be
in-
any angle other than a
manner of proceeding can be seen
by reference to the preceding examples of inclined shelves, &c.
Fig. 321.
To find
419.
the
shadow in a
(Fig. 321,) in the plan,
and b
from
c,
d ; then
extent of the shadow.
420.
is
To find
is inclined,
322,
recess.
From
the elevation,
e,
the point,
draw the
and from
the lines, c e and e d, will
a,
rays, a c
e,
draw
show
the
This applies only where the back of the
with the face of the wall.
parallel
wall
in
erect the perpendicular, c
the horizontal line, e
recess
and b
the
and
shadow
in a recess,
when
the
face of the
the back of the recess is vertical.
shows the section and
B the
In Fig.
elevation of a recess of this
SHADOWS.
From
kind.
draw the
lines, c
from
and from any other point

from c, a, and
;
b,
rays, b c and a e
eh; from d
g, a f, and
i,
265
through
h,
draw
i s ;
in the
e,
line,
draw the
a, as a,
horizontal
and /, cast the rays, d i and

/A ;
then s i and i g will define the
shadow.
d
Fig. 323.
421.
To find
the
shadow
in
From a and b,
a fireplace.
from
and
c, erect the pere,
(Fig. 323,) cast the rays, a c and b

pendicular, c e
and d
e,
then c
from
e o,
e,
draw
and o
the horizontal line, e o, and join o
d, will give the extent of the
shadow.
Fig. 324.
422.
To find
the
shadow of a moulded window-lintel.
rays from the projections, a,
o,
Cast
&c., in the plan, (Fig. 324,) and
in&c., in the elevation, and draw the usual perpendiculars

connected
i ;
these intersections
tersecting the rays at i, i, and
d, e,
34
and horizontal
back from
drawn from them,
lines
The shadow on
the face of the lintel
will define the shadow.
is
found by casting a ray
to s y and drawing the horizontal line, s n.
Fig. 325.
To find
423.
a,
(Fig. 325,) and
and
c d,
and from
shadow
the
its
b,
cast by the nosing of
corresponding point,
From
step.
cast the rays, a b
c,
erect the perpendicular, b
tangical to the
curve at e, cast the ray, e f, and from e, drop the perpendicular,

e u,
meeting the mitre-line, a g, in o ; cast a ray from o to i, and
from
from
i,
figure
erect the perpendicular,

to
d and from d
from k and
the limit of the
424.
From
h,
the
on the
second
first
first
tread, as at C,
draw the
h k
ray,
lines,
k n and h s
then
will be completed.
and from
c in the elevation,
steps.
draw
then a o will show the extent of the shadow
h,
curve as shown in the
shadow thrown by a pedestal upon
riser, as at
riser, as at
f; from
k, trace the
a, (Fig. 326,) in the plan,
the rays, a b and c e
draw the horizontal
shadow
To find
to
A
c
fg
will determine the
shadow on
the
d gives the amount of shadow on the
and h
that on the second tread, as at
which completes the shadow of the left-hand pedestal, both on the

A mere inspection of the figure will be sufplan and elevation.
SHADOWS.
267
Fig. 326.
show how
to
ficient
the
shadow of the right-hand pedestal
is
obtained.
Fig. 327.
Fi?. 328.
To Jind the shadow thrown on a column by

From a and 6, (Fig. 327,) draw the rays, a
425.
abacus.
a square
c
and 6
and from
c,
draw the
erect the perpendicular, c e
and from
e,
tangical to the curve at
in the plan,
corresponding to
draw the ray, h o ; take any point between a and/, as i, and from
this, as also from a corresponding point, n, draw the rays, i r and
d,
from
ray,
r,
/,
and from
through the points,

figure
426.
abacus.
will
e,
d,
s,
h,
erect the perpendiculars, r s and
and
o,
trace the curve as
shown
do
in the
then the extent of the shadow will be defined.
To Jind
This
is
the
shadow thrown on a column by a
circular
so near like the last example, that no explanation
be necessary farther than a reference
to the
preceding article
268
__xs_x^
SHADOWS.
269
Fig. 330.
nature
cutting
in the lines,
it
b, c d,
&c., (Fig. 329,) and, in
by squaring up from the plan, the lines of section which these planes would make thereupon.
For instance
the elevation, find,
in finding
upon the elevation the
line of section,
b,
the plane
e, and therefore /will be the corresponding point

upon the elevation h corresponds with g, i with j, o with s, and
I with b.
Now, to find the shadows upon this line of section, cast
cuts the ovolo at
from m, the ray,
n,
the section indicated
tween h and
figure,
it
will
from
by the
o, will
h, the ray,
letters,
mf
be under shadow.
&c.
o,
way
then that part of
in, and that part also be-
By
be seen that the same process
of section, and in that
the points, p,
an inspection of the
is
r,
applied to each line
t,
w, v,
1, 2, 3, &c., are successively found, and the

traced through them.
w,
lines
x, as also
of shadow
an example of the same capital with all the shadows

finished in accordance with the lines obtained on Fig. 329.
Fig. 330
428.
is
To find
the
shadow thrown on a
vertical wall by a
column and entablature standing in advance of said
wall.
Cast
270
Fig. 331.
rays from a and
b,
previous examples
horizontal line, e
from
(Fig. 331,) and find the point,
draw the
d,
ray,
tangical to the curve at
c,
as in the
e,
and from
and
h,
e,
draw
the
the
h i, and from i and j, erect the perpendiculars, i I

rays, g j and
m and n, draw the rays, m f and n k, and trace the
from
k
and j ;
curve between k and f; cast a ray from o to p, a vertical line
from
shadow
to s,
and through
s,
as required will then
draw the horizontal
be completed.
line,
t ;
the
SHADOWS.
271
Fig. 332.
Fig. 332
the
shadows
is
an example of the same kind as the
filled
in,
last,
with
all
according to the lines obtained in the pre-
ceding figure.
Fig. 333.
429.
Tuscan cornice.
Fig. 333 and 334 are examples of the
The manner
of obtaining the shadows
is
evident.
272
Pig. 334.
430.
object
in
Reflected light.
depend much on
In shading, the finish and
reflected light
Fig. 330 and on the column
thrown
in
This
Fig. 332.
is
life
of an
seen to advantage
Reflected rays are
in a direction exactly the reverse of direct rays
therefore,
on that part of an object which is subject to reflected light, the

shadows are reversed. The fillet of the ovolo in Fig. 330 is .an
example of
of the
fillet
this.
is
reason of this
and reflected
On
much
is,
the face of the
light,
fillet
whereas the cove
Other instances of the

other examples.
the right-hand side of the column, the face
darker than the cove directly under

is
is
it.
The
deprived both of direct

subject to the latter.
effect of reflected light will
be seen in the
APPENDIX
GLOSSARY.
Terms
not found here can be found in the lists of definitions ,n other parts of
or in fommon dictionaries.
The uppermost member of a
Abacus.
Abbatoir.
:hifi
book,
capital.
slaughter-house.
The residence of an abbot or abbess.
Abbey.
Abutment.
That part of a pier from which the arch springs.
Acanthus.
Its leaves are
plant called in English, beards-Creech.
employed for decorating the Corinthian and the Composite capitals.
The highest part of a city ; generally the citadel.
Acropolis.
Acroteria.
The small pedestals placed on the extremities and apex
of a pediment, originally intended as a base for sculpture.
Aisle.
Passage to and from the pews of a church. In Gothic architecture, the lean-to wings on the sides of the nave.
Alcove.
Part of a chamber separated by an estrade, or partition of
columns.
Recess with
seats,
&c., in gardens.
In modern
pedestal whereon sacrifice was offered.
churches, the area within the railing in front of the pulpit.
Alto-relievo.
High relief; sculpture projecting from a surface so as
Altar.
to
appear nearly isolated.

A double theatre, employed by the ancients for the
Amphitheatre
exhibition of gladiatorial fights and other shows.
Ancones.
Trusses employed as an apparent support to a cornice
upon the flanks c/the architrave.
A small square moulding used to separate others ; the
Annulet.
fillets in the Doric capital under the ovolo, and those which separate
the flutings of columns, are known by this term.

AntcR.
A pilaster attached to a wall.
A place for keeping beehives.
Apiary.
building after the Arabian style.

intercolumniation of from four to five diameters.
Arcade A series of arches.
Arch.
An arrangement of stones or other material in a curvilinear
form, so as to perform the office of a lintel and carry superincumbent
Arabesque.
Areostyle.
An
weights.
That part of the entablature which rests upon the
Architrave.
The casing and
capital of a column, and is beneath the frieze.
mouldings about a door or window.
APPENDIX.
The ceiling of a vault
Superficial measurement.
an arch.
open space, below the level
of the ground, in front of basement windows.
Arsenal.
A public establishment for the deposition of arms and
Archivolt.
Area.
the under surface of
An
warlike stores.
Astragal.
on each
small moulding consisting of a half-round with a
fillet
side.
Attic.
low story erected over an order of architecture.
additional story immediately under the roof of a building.
Aviary.
low
place for keeping and breeding birds.
An open gallery projecting from the front of a building.

Balcony.
Baluster.
A small pillar or pilaster supporting a rail.
Balustrade.
series of balusters connected by a rail.
That part of the covering which projects over the
Barge-course.
gable of a building.
The lowest part of a wall, column, &c.
Base.
That which is immediately under the principal
Basement-story.
story, and included within the foundation of the building.
Low relief ; sculptured figures projecting from a

Basso-relievo.
See Alto-relievo.
surface one-half their thickness or less.
See Talus.
Battering.
Indentations on the top of a wall or parapet.
Battlement.
Bay-window. A window projecting in two or more planes, and not
forming the segment of a circle.
Bazaar.
A species of mart or exchange for the sale of various articles of merchandise.
circular moulding.
Bead.
Those mouldings which are between the corona
Bed-mouldings.
and the
frieze.
That part of a steeple in which the bells are hung anBelfry.

ciently called campanile.
An ornamental turret or observatory commanding a
Belvedere.
:
pleasant prospect.
Bow-window.
Bressummer.
window
Abeam
projecting in curved lines.

or iron tie supporting a wall over a
gateway
or other opening.
The brickwork between studs of partitions.
Brick-nogging.
A projection from a wall to give additional strength.
Buttress.
Cable.
A cylindrical
moulding placed
in flutes at the
lower part
of
the column.
To give a convexity to the upper surface of a beam.

A tower for the reception of bells, usually, in Italy,
Campanile.
separated from the church.
An ornamental covering over a seat of state.
Canopy.
The ends of rafters under a projecting roof. Pieces
Cantalivers.
of wood or stone supporting the eaves.
The uppermost part of a column included between the
Capital.
Camber.
shaft
and the architrave.
APPENDIX.
Caravansera.
In the East, a large public
building for the reception
of travellers by caravans in the desert.
Carpentry.
(From the Latin, carpentum, carved wood.) That department of science and art which treats of the disposition, the construction and the relative strength of timber.
Thn first is called de-
and the last mechanical carpentry.

Caryatides.
Figures of women used instead of columns to support
an entablature.
small country-house.
Casino.
Built with battlements and turrets in imitation of anCastellated.
scriptive, the second constructive,
cient castles.
Castle.
house with
building fortified for military defence.
towers, usually encompassed with walls and moats, and having a donjon, or keep, in the centre.
Catacombs.
Subterraneous places for burying the dead.
The principal church of a province or diocese, wherein
Cathedral.
the throne of the archbishop or bishop is placed.
A concave moulding comprising the quadrant of a circle.
Cavetto.
An edifice or area where the dead are interred.
Cemetery.
in
A monument erected to the

Cenotaph.
another place.
memory
of a person buried
The temporary woodwork,
or framing, whereon any

constructed.
A well under a drain or pavement to receive the wasteCesspool.
water and sediment.
Chamfer. The bevilled edge of any thing originally right-angled.
That part of a Gothic church in which the altar is placed.
Chancel.
A little chapel in ancient churches, with an endowment
Chantry.
to say mass for the relief of souls out of purgafor one or more
Centring.
vaulted work
is
priests
tory.
A building for religious worship, erected separately from

Chapel.
a church, and served by a chaplain.
Chaplet.
Cincture.
moulding carved
into beads, olives, &c.

of
fillet, at the top and bottom
a column, which divides the shaft of the column from its capital and base.
A straight, long, narrow building used by the Romans for
Circus.
At the present
the exhibition of public spectacles and chariot races.
of feats of horseexhibition
for
the
an
arena
a
building enclosing
day,
The
ring, listel, or
manship.
The
Clere-story.
roofs of the aisles.
above the
upper part of the nave of a church
The square space attached to a regular monastery or

around it, covered with
church,
large
having a peristyle or ambulatory
a range of buildings.
A case of piling, water-tight, fixed in the bed of a
Coffer-dam.
while any work, such as
river, for the purpose of excluding the water
a wharf, wall, or the pier of a bridge, is carried up.
K horizontal beam framed between two principal
Collar-learn.
Cloister.
above the tie-beam.

A range of columns.
Columbarium. A pigeon-house.
rafters
Cvllonade.
APPENDIX.
Column.
an order.
vertical, cylindrical support
under the entablature of
The same as jack-rafters, which see

long, narrow, walled passage underground, for secret
canal or pipe for the
between different apartments.
Common-rafters.
Conduit.
communication
conveyance of water.
Conservatory.
building for preserving curious and rare exotic
plants.
Consoles.
Contour.
Convent.
The same as ancones, which see.

The external lines which bound and
A building
terminate a figure.
for the reception of a society of religious per-
sons.
Stones laid on the top of a wall to defend
Coping.
weather.
Stones or timbers fixed
Corbels.
in
a wall
it
to sustain the
from the
timbers of
a (loor or roof.
Any moulded projection which crowns or finishes the

which it is affixed.
That part of a cornice which is between the crownCorona.
moulding and the bed-mouldings.
Cornice.
part to
The horn
Cornucopia.
An open
Corridor.
of plenty.
gallery or communication
to
the different apart-
ments of a house.
A concave moulding.
Cove.
Cripple-rafters.
The
short rafters which are spiked to the hip-raftei
of a roof.
Crockets.
In Gothic architecture, the ornaments placed along the
angles of pediments, pinnacles, &c.
The same as ancones, which see.
CroseUes.
The under or hidden part of a building.
Crypt.
Culvert.
An arched channel of masonry or brickwork, built beneath the bed of a canal for the purpose of conducting water under it.
\ny arched channel
for
water underground.
small building on the top of a dome.

A step with a spiral end, usually the first of the flight.
Curtail-step.
The pendents of a pointed arch.
Cusps.
the cyma-rer.ta, having
Cyma. An ogee. There are two kinds
tht upper part concave and the lower convex, and the cyma-rev?rsa.
with the upper part convex and the lower concave.
Cupola.
Dado.
The
Dairy.
An
die, or part between the base and cornice of a pedestal.

apartment or building for the preservation of milk, and
the manufacture of it into butter, cheese, &c.
A piece of timber or stone stood vertically in brickDead-shoar.
work, to support a superincumbent weight until the brickwork which
is to carry it has set or become hard.
A building having ten columns in front.
Decastyle.
Dentils.
(From the Latin, dentes, teeth.) Small rectangular blocks
used in the bed-mouldings of some of the orders.

An intercolumniation of three, or, as some say, four
Diaslyle.
diameters.
APPENDIX.
Die.
cornice
That part of a pedestal included between the base and

;
it is
the
also called a dado.
A building having twelve columns in front.

Dodecastyle.
A massive tower within ancient castles to which the gar.
Donjon.
rison might retreat in case of
necessity.
A
Scotch term given to wooden bricks.

placed on the roof of a house, the frame being
placed vertically on the rafters.
A sleeping-room.
Dormitory.
A building for keeping tame pigeons. A columbarium.
Dovecote.
Dooks.
Dormer.
Echinus.
A window
The Grecian
Elevation.
ovolo.
geometrical projection drawn on a plane at right an-
gles to the horizon.
That part of an order which is supported by the coconsisting of the architrave, frieze, and cornice.
An intercolumniation of two and a quarter diameters.
Eustyle.
A building in which merchants and brokers meet to
Exchange.
transact business.
Entablature.
lumns
Extrados.
The
exterior curve of an arch.
Facade. The principal front of any building.

Face-mould The pattern for marking the plank, out of which handrailing is to be cut for stairs,
flat
Facia, or Fascia.
&c.
member
like a band or broad fillet.

applied to the convex, vertical surface
of the rail-piece, in order to form the back and under surface of the
rail, and finish the squaring.
Festoon.
An ornament representing a wreath of flowers and leaves.
Falling-mould.
The mould
A narrow flat band, listel, or annulet, used for the separaFillet.

aon of one moulding from another, and to give breadth and firmness
to the edges of mouldings.
Flutes.
Upright channels on the shafts of columns.
Flyers.
Steps in a flight of stairs that are parallel to each other.
Forum. In ancient architecture, a public market
also, a place
where the common courts were held, and law pleadings carried on.
A building in which various metals are cast into moulds
Foundry.
;
or shapes.
Frieze.
That part of an entablature included between the architrave and the cornice.
The vertical, triangular piece of wall at the end of a roof,

Gable.
from the level of the eaves to the summit.
A recess made to receive a f-non or tusk.
Gain.
A common passage to several rooms in an upper storv.
Gallery.
A platform raised on colong room for the reception of pictures.

or
lumns?, pilasters,
piers.
The principal beam in a floor for supporting the binding
Girder.
and other joists, whereby the bearing or length is lessened.
A vertical, sunken channel. From their number, those in
Glyph.
the Doric order are called triglyphs.
A
APPENDIX.
Granary.
building for storing grain, especially that intended to
be kept for a considerable time.
Groin.
The line formed by the intersection of two arches, which
cross each other at any angle.
Gutta.
The small cylindrical pendent ornaments, otherwise called
drops, used in the Doric order under the triglyphs, and also pendent
from the mutuli of the cornice.
Gymnasium. Originally, a space measured out and covered with

sand for the exercise of athletic games afterwards, spacious buildings
devoted to the mental as well as corporeal instruction of youth.
Hall.
The
large apartment on entering a house.
first
room of a corporate body.
The
public
manor-house.
Ham. A house or dwelling-place. A street or village hence

Hamlet, the diminutive of ham, is a
Notting/mm, Buckingham, &c.
:
small street or village.

Helix.
The small volute, or twist, under the abacus in the Corinthian capital.
Hem.
The
Hcxastyle.
projecting spiral fillet of the Ionic capital.

A building having six columns in front.
piece of timber placed at the angle made
Hip-rafter.
jacent inclined roofs.
by two ad-
A mansion-house, or seat in the country.

Homestall.
A large inn or place of public entertainment. A
Hotel, or Hostel.
large house or palace.
A glass building used in gardening.
Hot-house.
An open shed.
Hovel.
Hut.
A small cottage or hovel generally constructed of earthy
materials, as strong loamy clay, &c.
The capital of a pier or pilaster which supports an arch.
Sculpture in which the subject is hollowed out, so that
Intaglio.
the impression from it presents the appearance of a bas-relief.
Impost.
The
Intercolumniation.
The
Intrados.
interior
distance between two columns.

and lower curve of an arch.
Rafters that fill in between the principal rafters of a

Jack-rafters.
roof; called also common-rafters.
Jail.
place of legal confinement.
The vertical sides of an aperture.
Jambs.
A post to receive struts.
Joggle-piece.
Joists.
The
timbers to which the boards of a floor or the laths of a
ceiling are nailed.
The same as donjon, which see.

The highest central stone of an arch.
Key-stone.
Kiln.
building for the accumulation and retention of heat, in order to dry or burn certain materials deposited within it.
Keep.
King-post.
Knee.
The
centre-post in a trussed roof.

bend in the back of a hand-rail.
A convex
See Ramp.
APPENDIX.
Lactarium. The same as dairy, which see.

A cupola having windows in the sides for lighting an
Lantern.
apartment beneath.
Larmier.
The same as corona, which see.
A reticulated window for the admission of air, rather than
Lattice.
as in dairies and cellars.
Lever-boards.
Blind-slats
a set of boards so fastened that they
may be turned at any angle to admit more or less light, or to lap upon
each other so as to exclude all air or light through apertures.
Lintel.
piece of timber or stone placed horizontally over a door,
window, or other opening.
The same as fillet, which see.
Listel.
An enclosed space, or passage, communicating with the
Lobby.
principal room or rooms of a house.
A small house near and subordinate to the mansion. A
Lodge.
cottage placed at the gate of the road leading to a mansion,
A small narrow window. Loophole is a term applied to the
Loop.
vertical series of doors in a warehouse, through which goods are delivered by means of a crane.
Luffer -boar ding. The same as lever-boards, which see.
The same as dormer, which see.
Luihern.
light,
Mausoleum.
sepulchral building so called from a very celebrated one erected to the memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, by his
wife Artemisia.
The square space in the frieze between the triglyphs of
Metopa.
the Doric order.
Mezzanine.
story of small height
introduced between two of
greater height.
Minaret.
slender, lofty turret having projecting balconies, com-
mon
Mohammedan
countries.
A church to which an ecclesiastical fraternity has been
Minster.
or is attached.
An excavated reservoir of water, surrounding a house, casMoat.
in
or town.
of the richer orders, reModillion.
projection under the corona
sembling a bracket.
The semi-diameter of a column, used by the architect as
Module.
a measure by which to proportion the parts of an order.
to the reception of
Monastery.
building or buildings appropriated
tle
monks.
Monopteron.
enclosing wall.
circular collonade supporting a
dome
without an
A mode of representing objects by the inlaying

Mosaic.
cubes of glass, stone, marble, shells, &c.
Mosque.
Mullions.
A Mohammedan
The
o:
of worship.
temple, or place
which divide the lights
or bars,
upright posts
Gothic window.
A strong, fire-proof apartment for t
Muniment-house.
and preservation of evidences, charters, seals, &c., called
APPENDIX.
10
Museum. A repository of natural, scientific and literary, curiosities,

or of works of art.
Mutule.
A projecting ornament of the Doric cornice supposed to
represent the ends of rafters.
Nave. The main body of a Gothic church.
Newel. A post at the starting or* landing of a
Niche.
flight of stairs.
cavity or hollow place in a wall for the reception of a
&c.
statue, vase,
Wooden bricks.
Nogs.
The /ounded and projecting edge of a step in stairs.
Nosing.
Nunnery. A building or buildings appropriated for the reception of
nuns.
lofty pillar of a
rectangular form.
building with eight columns in front.
Odeum. Among the Greeks, a species of theatre wherein the poets
and musicians rehearsed their compositions previous to the public production of them.
Obelisk.
Octastyle.
See Cyma.
Ogee.
A gallery or building in a garden or parterre fronting
Orangery.
the south.
Oriel-window.
large bay or recessed window in a hall, chapel, or
other apartment.
Ovolo.
convex projecting moulding whose profile is the quadrant of a circle.
A temple or place of worship in India.

A fence of pales or stakes driven into the ground.
A small wall of any material for protection on the
Pagoda.
Palisade.
Parapet.
sides
of bridges, quays, or high buildings.

A turret or small building generally insulated and comPavilion.
prised under a single roof.
Pedestal.
square foundation used to elevate and sustain a co-
lumn, statue, &c.

The triangular crowning part of a portico or aperture
Pediment.
which terminates vertically the sloping parts of the roof: this, in
is called a gable.
Penitentiary.
prison for the confinement
crimes are not of a very heinous nature.
Gothic architecture,
of criminals whose
This
square, open space surrounded by buildings.
improperly used to denote a portico.
A rectangular pillar without any regular base or capital.
Pier.
The upright, narrow portions of walls between doors and windows are
known by this term.
A square pillar, sometimes insulated, but more common
Pilaster.
in
a wall, and projecting only a part of its thickness.
ly engaged
Piles.
Large timbers driven into the ground to make a secure
foundation in marshy places, or in the bed of a river.
A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and alPillar.
Piazza.
term
is often
APPENDIX.
ways deviating from
between a
'_!
the proportions of the orders
whence
the distinc-
and a column.
A small spire used to ornament Gothic buildings.
Pinnacle.
The same as soffit, which see.
Planceer.
Phnih. The lower square member of the base of a column, pedes-
tion
tal,
pillar
or wall.
An
Porch.
exterior appendage to a
building, forming a covered
one of its principal doorways.
Portal.
The arch over a door or gate ; the framework of the gate
the lesser gate, when there are two of different dimensions at one en-
appioach
to
trance.
A strong timber gate to old castles, made to slide up

Portcullis.
and down vertically.
A colonnade supporting a shelter over a walk, or ambuPortico.
latory.
A building similar in its constitution to a monastery or

Priory.
abbey, the head whereof was called a prior or prioress.
Prism. A solid bounded on the sides by parallelograms, and on the
ends by polygonal figures in parallel planes.
A building with columns in front only.
Prostyle.
Purlines.
Those pieces of timber which lie under and at right angles to the rafters to prevent them from sinking.
An intercolumniation of one and a half diameters.
Pycnostyle.
Pyramid. A solid body standing on a square, triangular or polygonal basis, and terminating in a point at the top.
A place whence stones and slates are procured.
Quarry.
Quay. (Pronounced, key.) A bank formed towards the sea or on
the side of a river for free passage, or for the purpose of unloading
merchandise.
An external angle. See Rustic quoins.
Quoin.
Rabbet, or Rebate.
groove or channel
in the
edge of a board.
Ramp. A concave bend in the back of a hand-rail.

Rampant arch. One having abutments of different heights.
The band below the taenia in the Doric order.
Regula.
Riser.-*- In stairs, the V3rtical board forming the front of a step.
Rostrum.
audience.
Rotunda.
An
elevated platform from which a speaker addresses an
circular building.
wall built of unhewn stone.
The same as cable, which see.
Rudenture.
The stones placed on the external angle of a buildRustic quoins.
the face of the wall, and having their edges
beyond
projecting
ing,
Rubble-ivall.
bevilled.
A mode of building masonry wherein the faces of the

Rustic-work.
stones are left rough, the sides only being wrought smooth where the
union of the stones takes place.
APPENDIX.
12
Salon, or Saloon.
lofty
the height of two stories with
Sarcophagus.
Scantling.
tomb or
The measure
and spacious apartment comprehending

two tiers of windows.
coffin
to
made of one
stone.
which a piece of timber
is to
be or has
been cut.
The joining of two pieces of timber by bolting or nailing

Scarfing.
transversely together, so that the two appear but one.
The hollow moulding in the base of a column, between the
Scotia.
iillets of the tori.
carved curvilinear ornament, somewhat resembling in

a ram's horn.
A grave, tomb, or place of interment.
Sepulchre.
A drain or conduit for carrying off soil or water from any
Sewer.
Scroll.
profile the turnings of
place.
The
Shaft.
cylindrical part between the base and the capital of a
column.
Shoar.
piece of timber placed in an oblique direction to support
a building or wall.
The horizontal piece of timber at the bottom of framing ; the

Sill.
timber or stone at the bottom of doors and windows.
The underside of an architrave, corona, &c. The underside
Soffit
of the heads of doors, windows, &c.
Summer. The lintel of a door or window ; a beam tenoned into a
srirder to support the ends of joists on both sides of it.
An intercolumniation of two diameters.
Systyle.
The
Tcenia.
fillet
which separates the Doric
frieze
from the archi-
trave.
The
Talus.
slope or inclination of a wall,
among workmen
called
battering.
An area raised before a building, above the level of the

serve as a walk.
A curious pavement of Mosaic work, comTesselated pavement.
posed of small square stones.
A building having four columns in front.
Tetrasiyle.
Thatch.
A covering of straw or reeds used on the roofs of cottages,
Terrace.
ground,
to
barns, &c.
Theatre.
building appropriated to the representation of drama..c
spectacles.
thin piece or plate of

Tile.
the external covering of a roof.
baked clay or other material used
for
Tomb. A grave, or place for the interment of a human body, including also any commemorative monument raised over such a place.
Torus.
A moulding of semi-circular profile used in the bases of
columns.
A lofty building of several stories, round or polygonal.
Tower.
The transverse portion of a cruciform church.
Transept.
The beam across a double-lighted window ; if the winTransom.
dow have no transom, it is called a clere-story window.
APPENDIX.
That part of a step which
and that of the riser above.
Tread.
riser
its
Trellis.
reticulated
screens, windows,
included between the face of
made of
thin bars of
wood
for
&c.
The
Triglyph.
framing
is
13
vertical tablets in the Doric frieze, chamfered on

in the middle.
two vertical edges, and having two channels
,he
A table or seat with three legs.

Tripod.
The same as scotia, which see.
Trochilus.
An arrangement of timbers for increasing the resistance to
Truss.
cross-strains, consisting of a tie, two struts and a suspending-piece.
A small tower, often crowning the angle of a wall, &c.
Turret.
Tusk
short projection under a tenon to increase its strength.

The naked face of a pediment, included between the
Tympanum.
level
and the raking mouldings.
Underpinning.
An
University.
senate,
The
wall under the ground-sills of a building.

assemblage of colleges under the supervision of a
&c.
Vault.
concave arched ceiling resting upon two opposite paral-
walls.
lel
Venetian- door.
door having side-lights.
A window having three separate apertures.

Venetian-window.
An awning. An open portico under the extended roof
Veranda.
of a building.
An apartment which serves as the medium of commuVestibule.
nication to another room or series of rooms.
An apartment in a church, or attached to it, for the pre-
Vestry.
servation of the sacred vestments and utensils.
an opulent person.
Villa.
country-house for the residence of
house for the cultivation of vines.
Vinery.
forms the principal feature of the
Volute.
spiral scroll, which
the
and
Ionic
Composite capitals.
Arch-stones
Voussoirs.
A
A
Wooden lining of walls, generally in panels.

Wainscoting.
The stone covering to the projecting foundation or
Water-table.
other walls of a building.
1
Well.T.\\e space occupied by a flight of stairs. The space
of the steps is called the well-hole.
ends
the
beyond
A small door made in a gate.
Wicket.
not parallel to each other.
In stairs,
Winders.
steps
which
ly
The same as frieze,

Zophonis.
Among the ancients, a portico of unusual length,
Zytos.
exercises.
appropriated to gymnastic
see.
common
TABLE OF SQUARES, CUBES, AND ROOTS.

(From Button's Mathematics.)
No.
APPENDIX.
No.
16
No.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX.
No.
17
Ifc
No.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
No.
19
20
No.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
Nn. Square.
21
APPENDIX.
22
ing table, as will divide it without a remainder ; then, the cube of the
quotient, multiplied by the cube of the number found in the table, will
give the answer.
Example, What is the cube of 2,700 ? 2,700, being divided by 900,
the quotient is 3, the cube of which is 27, and the cube of 900 is
729.000.000, therefore
27 X 729,000,000
19,683,000,000 the Ans.
To find the square or cube root of numbers higher than is found in the
Select, in the column of squares or cubes, as the case
Rule.
table.
may require, that number which is nearest the given number ; then
the answer, when decimals are not of importance, will be found directly opposite in the column of numbers.
Example. What is the square-root of 87,620 ? In the column of
therefore, 296, imsquares, 87,616 is nearest to the given number
mediately opposite in the column of numbers, is the answer, nearly.
What is the cube-root of 110,591 ? In the coAnother example.
lumn of cubes, 110,592 is found to be nearest to the given number ;
therefore, 48, the number opposite, is the answer, nearly.
To find the cube-root more accurately. Rule. Select, from the column of cubes, that number which is nearest the given number, and
add twice the number so selected to the given number ; also, add twice
the given number to the number selected from the table.
Then, as
the former product is to the latter, so is the root of the numbe* selected
to the root of the number given.
What is the cube-root of 9,200 ? The nearest number
Example.
in the column of cubes is 9,261, the root of which is 21, therefore
:
'
9261
9200
18522
9200
18400
9261
As 27,722
is
to 27,661. so is
21
to
21
27661
55322
27722)580881(20-953
55444
264410
249498
149120
138610
105100
20-953 4- the Ans.
APPENDIX.
23
To find
the square or cube root

of a whole number with decimals
Kule.
Subtract the root of the whole number from the
root of the next
higher number, and multiply the remainder
by the given decimal
then the product, added to the root of the
given whole number will
give the answer correctly to three places of decimals in the
squareroot, and to seven in the cube-root.
What
is
the
Example.
square-root of 1 1 14 ?
The
square-root of
3-3166, and the square-root of the next higher number, 12

3-4641, therefore :
is
is
3-4641
3-3166
1475
14
5900
1475
020650
3-3166
3-33725
the Ans.
(See page
tOJLES
3-2.
App.
FOR THE REDUCTION OF DECIMALS.
To reduce a fraction to its equivalent decimal. Rule. Divide the

numerator by the denominator, annexing cyphers as required.
What is the decimal of a foot equivalent to 3 inches ?
Example.
3 inches
is
3
T 7 of a foot, therefore
Tf
12) 3-00
Another example.
I
What
25 Ans.
....
the equivalent decimal of f of an inch

8) 7-000
is
875 Ans.
In
rfd-ce a compound fraction to its equivalent decimal. Rule.
accordance with the preceding rule, reduce each fraction, commencing at the lowest, to the decimal of the next higher denomination, to
which add the numerator of the next higher fraction, and reduce the
sum to the decimal of the next higher denomination, and so proceed to
the last'; and the final product will be the answer.
What is the decimal of a foot equivalent to 5 inches, -f
Example.
TV)
and TL of an inch
The
of a
fractions In this case are,
foot,
therefore
of an eighth, | of an inch, and fe
APPENDIX.
2)
I*
5
eighths.
8)* 3-5000
4375
inches.
5-
..
.
.....
12) 5-437500
453125 Ans.
The
process
may
be condensed, thus
write the numerators of the
the least to the greatest, under each other, and

given fractions, from
of its numerator, thus
place each denominator to the left
:
1-0
3-5000
5-437500
-fr
453125 Ans.
To reduce a decimal
equivalent in terms of lower denominations.

Rule.
Muhiply the given decimal by the number of parts in the next
less denomination, and point off from the product as many figures at
the right hand, as there are in the given decimal ; then multiply the
to its
figures pointed off, by the number of parts in the next lower denominaand point off as before, and so proceed to the end : thn 'h' ~everal figures pointed off at the left will be the answer.
tion,
Example.
What
is
the expression in inches of 0-390625 feet
Feet 0-390625
12 inches
in a foot.
Inches 4-687500
8
eighths
Eighths 5-5000
2
in
an inch.
sixteenths in an eighth
Sixteenth 1-0
Ans., 4 inches f and TVAnother example. What is the expression, in fractions of ap mch,
of 0-6875 inches ?
Inches 0-6875
8 eighths in an inch.
Eighths 5-5000
2
sixteenths
in
an eighth.
Sixteenth 1-0
Ans.,
and
^.
TABLE OF CIRCLES.
(From Gregory's Mathematics.)
From this table may be found by inspection the area or circumference of a circle of any diameter, and the side of a square equal to the
area of any given circle from 1 to 100 inches, feet, yards, miles, &c.
If the given diameter is in inches, the area, circumference, &c., set
opposite, will be inches ; if in feet, then feet, &c.
Diam.
26
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
Diam.
27
28
Diam.
APPENDIX.
APPENDIX.
29
Example. What is the circumference of a circle whose diameter is

6J, or 6-125 inches ?
6-125, multiplied by 2, gives 12-25, one of the
diameters of the table, whose circumference is 38-484, therefore
:
2)38-484
Another example.
which
19-242 inches. Ans.

is the area of a
What
3-2 feet ? 3-2, multiplied by

201-0619, therefore
is
is
5,
circle, the diameter ot

gives 16, and the area of 16
25)201-0619(8-0424
feet.
Ans.
200
106
100
61
50
119
100
Note.
its
19
of a circle, multiplied by 3-14159, will give
the square of the diameter, multiplied by -78539,
The diameter
circumference
will give its area ; and the diameter, multiplied by -88622, will give
the side of a square equal to the area of the circle.
TABLE SHOWING THE CAPACITY OF WELLS, CISTERNS,. &C.

The gallon of the state of New-York is required to contain 8 pounds of pure water ; and
since a cubic foot of pure water weighs 62-5 pounds, the gallon contains 221-184 cubic
inches.
Upon these data the following table is computed.
One
foot in depth of a cistern of

3 feet diameter will contain
3$
4
do.
do.
do.
do.
4i
5
do.
do.
do.
do.
5$
do.
do.
do.
do.
61
7
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
9
10
12
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Note.
128.
To
reduce cubic
...
...
.
feet
to gallons, divide
55-223 gallons
do.
75-164
do.
98-174
do.
124-252
do.
153-39
do.
185-611
do.
220-893
do.
259-242
do.
300-66
do.
392-699
do.
497-009
do.
613-592
do.
883-573
by the decimal,
TABLE OF POLYGONS.
(From Gregory's Mathematics.)
*S
r2
<o
WEIGHT OF MATERIALS.
Ibs. in a
cubic foot.
Woods.
Apple,
Ash,
Beach,
Birch,
Box,
Cedar,
Virginian red cedar,
Cherry,
Sweet chestnut,
Horse-chestnut,
Cork,
Cypress,
Ebony,
Elder,
Elm,
Fir, (white spruce,)
Hickory,
Lance-wood,
Larch,
Larch, (whitewood,)
49
45
40
45
60
28
40
38
36
34
15
28
83
43
34
29
52
59
31
22
83
57
Logwood,
St. Domingo
45
mahogany,
Honduras, or bay mahogany, 35
47
Maple,
White oak,
43 to 53
Canadian oak,
54
Red oak,
47
Live oak,
76
White pine,
23 to 30
Yellow pine,
34 to 44
Pitch pine,
46 to 58
25
Poplar,
36
Sycamore,
40
Walnut,
Lignum-vitae,
Ibs.
in
cubic foot,
Wire-drawn
Sheet-copper,
Pure cast
gold,
Bar4ron,
Cast iron,
Milled lead,
Cast lead,
Pewter,
Pure platina,
Pure cast silver,
Steel,
534
506
.
549
1210
475 to 487
450 to 475
713
.
709
453
1345
654
486 to 490
456
439
-
brass,
Cast brass,
Tin,
Zinc,
Stone, Earths, fyc.
105
Brick, Phila. stretchers,
North river common hard
-
brick,
salmon brick,
Do.
Brickwork, about
Cast Roman cement,
Do. and sand in equal parts,
144 to
Chalk,
Clay,
Potter's clay,
112 to
Common
Flint,
95
earth,
to
'
...
-
Plate-glass,
Crown-glass,
Granite,
Quincy
158
.
Gravel,
Grindstone,
Gvpsum,
(Plaster-stone,)
Unslaked lime,
to
-
granite,
107
100
95
100
113
166
119
130
124
163
172
157
187
166
109
134
142
52
APPENDIX.
32
ffls.
in a
cubic foot.
Limestone,
Marble,
161
to
New
mortar, mortar,
Mortar with hair, (Plaster-
Dry
ing,)
Do.
Do.
Common
105
86
slate,
Paving
stone,
Pumice
165
171
100
180
151
56
148
170
171
stone,
Nyack brown
stone,
0'07
Pine-charcoal,
Oak-charcoal,
Pure quartz-sand,
Clean and coarse sand,
Welsh
tiles,
Birch-charcoal,
foot.
Crystallized quartz,
plain
Atmospheric air,
Yellow beeswax,
including lath
and nails, from 7 to 11
per superficial
Stonework, about,
Common
160
185
120
115
Silver-gray flagging,
do.
Ibs.
blue stone,
Sundries.
dry,
Ibs. in a
cubic foot.
198
177
107
90
11-8 to
Connecticut brown stone,

Tarrytown blue stone, -
Solid gunpowder,
Milk,
...
...
Shaken gunpowder,
Honey,
Pitch,
Sea-water,
Rain-water,
Snow,
Wood-ashes,
60
34
21
17
109
58
00
64
71
64
62-5
8
58
ROOTS OF DECIMALS.
Seek
decimal in the column of numbers, and opposite in the

columns of roots will be found the answer, correct as to the figures, but requiring
RULE.
for the given
the decimal point to be shifted. The transposition of the decimal point is to be performed thus For every place the decimal point is removed in the root, remove it in
:
the
number two places
Example!-:.
By
for the square root and three places for the cube root.
the table, the square root of 86-0 is 9 2736, consequently,
-
rule the square root of 0-86
root of 0-09
No. 657.
And
is 0'3.
is
0-92736.
The square
For the square root of 0-0657
So, also, the square root of 0-000927
the square root of 8-73 (whole
No. 873.
The cube
root of 0'8
is
is
we
number with decimals)
0'928, found at No.
So also the cube root of 0'047
is
9- is 3',
0-030446, found opposite No. 927.
800
0-4308, found opposite No. 80, and the cube root of O'OOS
root of 8-0.
2-9546, found opposite

the cube root of O'OS is
is
is
0'2, as 2'0 is
the tul>e
0-36088, found opposite No. 47.
THE END.
by the
hence the square

have 0-25632 found opposite
root of
University of California
o
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\

THE MOST IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES

tfian titfee twnfcrct)

in the year 1844,

of the District Court of the Southern District of

intended for carpenters for masters,

tended for their instruction, are of a price so high as

upon wood, printed on good paper, answer

every useful purpose.

which plates but

engravings, too, can be

importance to the reader.

most careful examina-

been written out

from the figures themselves, and not taken from any

pressly for this book.

has been taken to

In doing this, the utmost care

nature of the case would admit.

thing as plain as the

attention of the reader

given points ; a rule to determine the projection of

nice to a larger given one

lengths and bevils of rafters for hip-roofs

proportion the rise to the tread in stairs

the true position of butt-joints in hand-rails

a general rule for scrolls,

the bevils for splayed-work

and new ones introduced.

has been bestowed upon the section on stairs, in which

would enable him

to excel in his vocation

he has been successful in that object, the book

PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION.

have received numerous testimonials of

practical value, from the very best sources, viz. from

workmen themselves who have used

to every question relating

the simpler operations of Carpentry or the

and abstruse problems of Geometry, those who

And, indeed, to the true workman,

source of profitable and

have placed it in the hands of their sons, who have

the use of the

estates, as a guide in their mechanical operations.

not, then, mistaken in

Articles necessary for drawing, 2

To bisect a line, To erect a perpendicular, To let fall a perpendicular,

square end of board,

To make equal angles, To bisect an angle, To .risect a right angle,

To find the centre of a circle,

without using centre,

To find the point of contact,

use the set-square,

To find a fourth point in circle,

circle by a set-triangle, Do. by intersection of lines,

To draw any polygon on

To copy any right-lined figure, 100

To find the area of a triangle,

Do. from conjugate diameters, 118

describe an ellipsis with

describe an ellipsis with

Definitions, axioms, &c.,

115 Parallelogram equal triangles,