Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO
HEAT EXCHANGERS

1.1 Introduction
The need for heat transfer arises because it is a way to transfer energy from one media to
another. Some of the common applications requiring a transfer of energy in the form of
heat are heating a cooler fluid by using some hot fluid (e.g air preheating in gas turbine
power plants), reducing the temperature of hot fluid by using a cooler fluid (e.g cooling
water used in chillers), boiling a liquid using a hot fluid (e.g boiling of common water
from heavy water in steam generator of a nuclear reactor), and condensing a gaseous fluid
by using cooler fluid (e.g in condenser of a steam power plant).
A heat exchanger is a device that is used to transfer thermal energy (enthalpy) between two
or more fluids, between a solid surface and a fluid, or between solid particulates and a
fluid, at different temperatures and in thermal contact. In heat exchangers, there are usually
no external heat and work interactions.
1

Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are
at different temperatures, while keeping them from mixing with each other. Heat
exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating
and air conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production
in large plants. Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the
two fluids involved to mix.
Heat exchangers are manufactured in a variety of types and thus we shall start this chapter
with the classification of heat exchangers. Then we shall describe different flow
configurations of the heat exchangers. We shall also mention some major application areas
of heat exchangers. Towards the end of the chapter, we shall explain some of the basic
terminologies related to the shell and tube heat exchangers that is the main focus of this
subject.
Common examples of heat exchangers are shell-and tube exchangers, automobile radiators,
condensers, evaporators, air preheaters, and cooling towers. If no phase change occurs in
any of the fluids in the exchanger, it is sometimes referred to as a sensible heat
exchanger. There could be internal thermal energy sources in the exchangers, such as in
electric heaters and nuclear fuel elements. Combustion and chemical reaction may take
place within the exchanger, such as in boilers, fired heaters, and fluidized-bed exchangers.
Mechanical devices may be used in some exchangers such as in scraped surface
exchangers, agitated vessels, and stirred tank reactors. Heat transfer in the separating wall
of a recuperator generally takes place by conduction. However, in a heat pipe heat
exchanger, the heat pipe not only acts as a separating wall, but also facilitates the transfer
of heat by condensation, evaporation, and conduction of the working fluid inside the heat
pipe. In general, if the fluids are immiscible, the separating wall may be eliminated, and
the interface between the fluids replaces a heat transfer surface, as in a direct-contact heat
exchanger.
Not only are heat exchangers often used in the process, power, petroleum, transportation,
air-conditioning,

refrigeration,

cryogenic,

heat

recovery,

alternative

fuel,

and

manufacturing industries, they also serve as key components of many industrial products
2

available in the marketplace. These exchangers can be classified in many different ways.
We will classify them according to transfer processes, number of fluids, and heat transfer
mechanisms. Conventional heat exchangers are further classified according to construction
type and flow arrangements. Another arbitrary classification can be made, based on the
heat transfer surface area/volume ratio, into compact and non compact heat exchangers.
This classification is made because the type of equipment, fields of applications, and
design techniques generally differ. Additional ways to classify heat exchangers are by fluid
type (gasgas, gasliquid, liquidliquid, gas two-phase, liquid two-phase, etc.), industry,
and so on, but we do not cover such classifications in this chapter.

1.2 Classification of heat exchangers

Different heat exchanger applications require different types of hardware and different
configurations of heat transfer equipment. The attempt to match the heat transfer hardware
to the heat transfer requirements within the specified constraints has resulted in numerous
types of innovative heat exchanger designs.

There are different ways to classify the heat exchangers.

a) Classification based on construction and function.
b) Classification based on flow configuration.
c) Classification based on interface between streams
d) Classification based on type of temperature change pattern.

1.2.1 Classification based on construction and function

Following are some of the main types of heat exchangers based on their construction and
equipment;
1. Double pipe heat exchanger
2. Shell and tube heat exchanger
3. Plate heat exchanger
4. Plate fin heat exchanger
5. Compact heat exchanger
6. Regenerative heat exchanger
7. Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger
8. Phase change heat exchanger
DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
It is the simplest type of heat exchangers, consisting of two concentric pipes of different
diameters. One fluid in a double pipe heat exchanger flows through the smaller pipe while
the other fluid flows through the annular space between the two pipes. Double pipe heat
exchangers have the lowest heat transfer surface area for a given length of the exchanger.
They have a very low pressure drop. This type of heat exchanger finds its application in a
variety of industries for purposes such as material processing, food preparation and airconditioning.

Figure 1.1Double pipe heat exchanger

SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Shell and tube heat exchanger is the most commonly type of heat used in industry today.
This is due to a number of advantages that they have over other types of heat exchangers.
They are relatively simple and have the ability to handle a large variety of working fluids.
Shell and Tube heat exchangers are typically used for high pressure applications with
pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260C.
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes contains
the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are
being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A
set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain,
longitudinally finned, etc.
A shell and tube heat exchanger is a modification of double pipe heat exchanger. This is a
common form of construction, common and robust. However it is heavier than a double
pipe heat exchanger.

Figure 1.2 Shell and tube heat exchanger

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER

The plate heat exchangers consist of a series of plates that are arranged one over the other
and connected together so as to provide strength to the assembly. They normally have flow
ports in all four corners and are clamped together in a frame that carries bushes or nozzles
lined up with the plate ports and connected to the external pipe work that carries the two
liquid streams.
The plate heat exchanger is particularly suitable for heat recovery duties in the chemical,
petroleum, food, dairy, and brewing industries.
There are at least three different configurations that fall into the category of plate heat
exchangers, (a) Plate-and-frame or gasketed plate exchanger, (b) Spiral plate heat
exchanger and (c) Lamella (Ramen) heat exchanger

Figure 1.3 Plate fin heat exchanger

PLATE FIN HEAT EXCHANGER

Plate fin or matrix heat exchangers represent about the most compact form of heat transfer
surface, at least in the usual case that the fluids must be kept separated. These exchangers
are constructed of multiple layers of matrix or sandwich-folded metal sheets, separated by
parting sheets.
This type of heat exchanger consists of alternate hot and cold passages in between parallel
plates and having fins on them to enhance the heat transfer process. Fins are used on one
side for only for liquid to gas heat transfer and on both sides for gas to gas heat transfer.
This type of heat exchangers is used commonly for waste heat recovery applications.
COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGER
This type of heat exchanger is designed specifically to realize a larger heat transfer surface
area per unit volume. The ratio of heat transfer surface area to volume is called the area
density. A heat exchanger is classified as compact heat exchanger if it has an area density
equal to or greater than 700 m2 / m3. This type of heat exchanger finds application in car
radiators, glass-ceramic gas turbine heat exchangers and the regenerator of a Stirling
engine.

Figure 1.4Compact heat exchanger

REGENERATIVE HEAT EXCHANGER

In this type of heat exchanger, the heat (heat medium) from a process is used to warm the
fluids to be used in the process, and the same type of fluid is used on either side of the heat
exchanger (these heat exchangers can be either plate-and-frame or shell-and-tube
construction). These exchangers are used only for gases and not for liquids.

Figure 1.5 Regenerative heat exchanger

ADIABATIC WHEEL HEAT EXCHANGER

The adiabatic heat exchanger uses an intermediate solid or liquid to serve as a heat transfer
medium. The intermediate solid passes alternately through the hot and cold fluid streams.
On its pass through the hot fluid it absorbs thermal energy in the form of sensible resulting
in an increase in temperature of it. This thermal energy is returned to the cold fluid when
the wheel passes through it.
Two examples of this are adiabatic wheels, which consist of a large wheel with fine threads
rotating through the hot and cold fluids, and fluid heat exchangers.

PHASE CHANGE HEAT EXCHANGER

In addition to dealing with single phase applications, heat exchangers also find their
application in dealing with two phase mixtures. Phase change heat exchangers can either
be condenser type converting vapors to liquid or evaporator type vaporizing liquid to
vapors.

1.2.2 Classification based on flow configuration

A major characteristic of heat exchanger design is the relative flow configuration, which is
the set of geometric relationships between the streams. It must be emphasized that the
configurations described represent idealizations of what truly occurs; it is never possible,
in practice, to make the flow patterns conform to the ideal.
Based on the flow configuration, the heat exchangers can be classified as:
1. Parallel Flow
2. Counter Flow
3. Cross Flow
4. Cross Counter Flow
5. Multipass Shell and Tube Flow
PARALLEL FLOW

In parallel flow heat configuration, the two fluids flow parallel to each other, in the same
direction.
This type of arrangement can not make effective use of temperature difference between the
two fluid streams. However, this arrangement gives more uniform wall temperature
distribution than most of the other flow configurations. Parallel flow arrangement is not
preferred in cases where efficiency is the factor of prime importance.

Figure 1.6 Parallel flow configuration

COUNTER FLOW
In counter flow configuration, the two working fluids flow parallel to each other, but in the
opposite direction.
Counter-flow exchangers are most efficient, in that they make the best use of the available
temperature difference, and can obtain the highest change of temperature of each fluid.

Figure 1.7 Cross flow configuration

CROSS FLOW
10

In this arrangement, the two fluids flow at right angles to each other. The cross flow
arrangement is shown schematically in the figure 1.8. From efficiency point of view, this
configuration lies in between the parallel and counter flow arrangements. They are easier
to construct. An example of cross flow is the car radiator.

Figure 1.8 Cross flow configuration

Figure 1.9 Cross counter flow configuration

CROSS COUNTER FLOW
Sometimes, real heat exchanger flow configurations conform approximately to the
idealizations shown in Fig. They are termed cross-counter-flow exchangers. Two-, three-,

11

and four-pass types are represented; and, of course, the possible number of passes is
unlimited.
Cross-counter-flow exchangers can be regarded as compromises between the desiderata of
efficiency and ease of construction. The greater the number of passes, the closer is the
approach to counter-flow economy.

MULTIPASS SHELL AND TUBE FLOW

Parallel-flow and counter-flow features may be combined within the same exchanger, as
when tubes double back, once or more, within a single shell; and the same effect can be
achieved, with straight tubes, by the provision of suitably subdivided headers.
The U-tube, or hairpin, arrangement has the advantage of easy construction because only
one end of the shell needs to be perforated, not two.

Figure 1.10 Multipass shell and tube flow configuration

1.2.3 Classification based on interface between streams
The two working fluids in a heat exchanger interact with each other through some
interface. They are brought into contact in a variety of ways and hence the heat exchangers
can be classified accordingly.
12

The different types of fluid-interface types include:

1. Plain tubes
2. Finned tubes
3. Matrix arrangements
4. Films
5. Sprays

1.2.4 Classification based on type of temperature change pattern

According to the pattern of temperature change, heat exchangers can be classified as:
1. Single phase heat exchangers
2. Phase change heat exchangers

SINGLE PHASE HEAT EXCHANGERS

In a single phase heat exchanger all the heat flows in the form of latent heat only. There is
no latent heat involved at any point. The working fluid leaves the exchanger in the same
phase as it had entered it. In this case there is an appreciable change in the temperatures of
the two streams. Temperature of cold stream rises and temperature of hot stream falls, the
two being approximately equal at the exit.
Majority of the heat exchangers in used in practice are of single phase type.

PHASE CHANGE HEAT EXCHANGERS

Sometimes, it is required by the exchanger to change only the phase of the working fluid.
In this case latent heat is also involved which accompanies a change in phase of one of the
streams without causing an appreciable change in its temperature. This type of heat
exchangers is called as phase change heat exchangers.
13

Examples of phase change heat exchangers include condensers and evaporators or boiler.

1.3 Application Areas of Heat Exchangers

1.3.1 In General
Heat exchangers are widely used in:

Power plants

Steam and gas turbines

Steel factories

Space heating

Transformer stations

Refrigeration

Gas processing plants

Air conditioning

Chemical plants

Petrochemical plants

Cargo/chemical tanker ships

Petroleum refineries

Cruise ships

Natural gas processing.

Engines

1.3.2 In Industry
Heat exchangers are widely used in industry both for cooling and heating large scale
industrial processes.
Heat exchangers are used in many industries, some of which include:

Waste water treatment

Refrigeration systems

Wine-brewery industry
14

Petroleum industry

1.3.3 In Aircraft
In commercial aircraft, heat exchangers are used to take heat from the engine's oil system
to heat cold fuel. This improves fuel efficiency, as well as reduces the possibility of
freezing fuel.
In early 2008, a Boeing 777 flying as British Airways Flight 38 crashed just short of the
runway. In an early-2009 Boeing-update sent to aircraft operators, the problem was
identified as specific to the Rolls-Royce engine oil-fuel flow heat exchangers. Other heat
exchangers, on Boeing 777 aircraft powered by GE or Pratt and Whitney engines, are not
affected by the problem.

1.3.4 In Electronics

In Personal computers

In transformers

In amplifiers

In converters

In household appliances

15

Figure 1.11 Application areas of heat exchangers

16

Chapter 2
Basic Fluid Mechanics
And Heat Transfer

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Heat exchangers are flow devices, that is, they involve the flow of two working fluids relative
to some boundary. The transfer of heat takes place across this boundary. Therefore in dealing
with the heat exchanger design problems we should have knowledge of interaction between
the fluids and surface, fluid and surface properties that affect this interaction, the basic
mechanisms by which transfer of heat takes place and the factors that can be controlled to
improve this heat transfer.
The scope of this chapter is a brief introduction of the basic principles of heat transfer, study
of fluid properties that affect the rate of heat transfer and the basic mechanisms of heat
transfer in a heat exchanger. We shall study method to calculate overall heat transfer
coefficient for a heat exchanger. Towards the end of the chapter we shall explain the concepts
of log mean temperature difference and MDMT (mean design metal temperature), and derive
the expressions for effectiveness of a heat exchanger.

17

2.2 THERMODYNAMICS REVIEW

It is not the purpose of this thesis to supply all the knowledge of thermodynamics that a heat
exchanger designer will need, but rather to refresh the designers memory about the most
commonly needed concepts. Some of the basic definitions and terminologies that are
important from view point of our project are explained in the following paragraphs.

2.2.1 TEMPERATURE
For present purposes, temperature is that property of matter, differences of which are cause of
heat transfer. It is an intensive property. Its symbol in this book is T, and it is measured in
Kelvin (K) or degrees Celsius (C).
Design temperature
The temperature that a heat exchanger is designed to maintain (inside) or operate against
(outside) under the most extreme conditions.
Minimum design metal temperature
It is the lowest temperature at which a pressure vessel or a heat exchanger can be operated at
full design pressure without impact testing of its component parts. Some users have a standard
value for MDMT that has been chosen as the lowest temperature conditions at the site.
The temperature at which a vessel is Charvy impact tested is called test minimum design
metal temperature.
2.2.2 PRESSURE
Pressure is the force that the material or more specifically a fluid exerts on its surroundings,
normal to its surface, per unit area of that surface. Its units are Newton per square meter
(N/m2).
Design pressure
18

The pressure used in the design of a vessel component together with the coincident design
metal temperature, for the purpose of determining the minimum permissible thickness or
physical characteristics of the different zones of the vessel. When applicable, static head shall
be added to the design pressure to determine the thickness of any specific zone of the vessel.
Test pressure
It is the pressure at which hydrostatic test of a pressure vessel is carried out. Normally it is 1.5
times of the highest pressure encountered in service.
2.2.3 DENSITY
Density of a fluid is the mass of the fluid per unit volume; its units are kilograms per cubic
meter (k/m3).
2.2.4 SPECIFIC INTERNAL ENERGY
The specific internal energy u of a material is the extensive property which changes as a
consequence of heat and work transfers in accordance with the linear relationship

Where m stands for the mass of the material, signifies an increase, Q is the symbol for the
heat transferred to the material, and W is the external work done by it during the transaction.
The units of u are joules per kilogram (J/kg).
2.2.5 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY
The specific enthalpy h of a material is the extensive property that is related to the specific
internal energy U, to the pressure P, and the density by the relationship:

Like U, h is usually a function of two variables, for example, pressure and temperature; its
units are joules per kilogram (J/kg).

19

2.2.6 Specific Heat Capacity

In general, cv and cp for any particular substance are functions of temperature and pressure.
However, are often slowly varying properties and, over the range of temperatures likely to be
encountered in a heat exchanger, the variations can frequently be neglected.
Because steady flows, to which cp is more relevant than cv are so prevalent in heat exchanger
practice, the symbol c is sometimes used without subscript, to stand for the constant-pressure
specific heat capacity, cp.
2.3 HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one body at a higher temperature to another
body at a lower temperature by the virtue of temperature difference between them.
Heat transfer can be defined as a branch of science which deals with the transformation of
energy from one form into other forms, and the laws and principles governing these energy
transformations.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
There are five different ways of heat transfer to be found in industrial applications.

Conduction

Convection

Boiling

Condensation

Radiation

2.3.1 CONDUCTION
Conduction is a process in which heat is transferred by the physical contacts between the
particles. In conduction, regions with higher molecular energy will pass their energy to
regions with low molecular energy through direct molecular collisions. In metals, free
electrons moving within the structure also transfer heat through conduction.

20

Fourier's law is also called the law of conduction. It is an empirical law based on
observations.

Figure 2.1 Conduction through a plane surface

It states that the time rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, through a homogeneous solid is directly
proportional to the area, A, of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to
the temperature difference along the path of heat flow, dT/dx i.e.

Here k is the constant of proportionality known as thermal conductivity of the material.

2.3.2 CONVECTION
Convection heat transfer can be defined as the transport of heat from one point to another if a
flowing fluid as a result of macroscopic motion of fluid particles and the heat being carried as
internal energy.
Convection is the transfer of heat by the actual movement of the warmed matter. It is the
transfer of heat energy in a gas or liquid by movement of currents. (It can also happen in some
solids, like sand.) The heat moves with the fluid.
Convection is one of the major modes of heat transfer and mass transfer. Convective heat and
mass transfer take place through both diffusion, the random Brownian motion of individual
21

particles in the fluid, and advection, in which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale
motion of currents in the fluid. In the context of heat and mass transfer, the term "convection"
is used to refer to the sum of advective and diffusive transfer.
2.3.3 RADIATION
All the matter constantly radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The amount of
energy radiated depends strongly on the absolute temperature of the material and to some
extent on the surface characteristics ob the body. The magnitude of energy transferred by a
particular surface is governed by Stephen and Boltzmann law. This law states that the amount
of energy radiated by a body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature.
At normal temperatures, radiation heat transfer is relatively less significant conduction and
convection, though there are a few areas where it can make significant contributions e.g the
loss of heat from non insulated steam lines. At higher temperatures it becomes significant;
however, such temperatures are seldom encountered in heat exchanger applications.
2.4 FLOW BOUNDARY LAYER
Fluids flowing past solid bodies adhere to them, so a region of variable velocity is built up
between the surface and free stream as shown in the fig. This variable velocity region is called
boundary layer. The boundary layer is usually very thin in comparison to the overall
dimensions of the body immersed in fluid. Thickness of boundary layer is denoted by . The
boundary layer thickness is arbitrarily defined as
It is the approximate distance from the surface to a point at which the fluid achieves free
stream velocity.
The dimensional functional equation of boundary layer thickness on a flat surface is

Where

22

vm = free stream velocity

= density of fluid in kg/m3
= dynamic viscosity in kg/m.s
x = length along the surface at which boundary layer thickness is being evaluated
2.4.1 SINGLE PHASE FLOW
A single phase flow is the flow of a fluid in a single phase, i.e flow as either a liquid or a gas.
At no point in the path of flow a two phase mixture is formed.
Single phase flow must be characterized by both the geometry of the duct through which the
flow occurs and by the flow regime of the fluid as it goes through the duct. There are two
basically different types of duct geometry: constant cross-section, in which the area available
for flow to the fluid has both the same shape and the same area at each point along the duct,
and varying cross-section, in which the shape and/or the area of the duct vary with length,
usually in a regular and repeated way.
The type of flow in a duct can also be characterized by the flow regime; that is, laminar flow,
turbulent flow, or some transition state having characteristics of both of the limiting regimes.
All of the exact definitions of laminar flow are very complex, and illustration (Fig. 2.4) is
much more useful.

Figure 2.4 A comparison of laminar and turbulent flow

23

2.4.2 TWO PHASE FLOW

In the present context, two-phase flow will usually refer to the simultaneous flow of a liquid
and a gas or vapor through a duct.
Such a flow occurs when a vapor is being condensed or a liquid is being vaporized; less
commonly, a two-phase flow may involve a gas-liquid mixture (such as air and water) flowing
together and being heated or cooled without any appreciable change of phase.
The actual two-phase flow configuration, or regime, existing in a conduit in a given case
depends upon the relative and absolute quantities and the physical properties of the fluids
flowing, the geometric configuration of the conduit, and the kind of heat transfer process
involved, if any.
We may view the flow regime as a consequence of the interaction of two forces, gravity and
vapor shear, acting in different directions. At low vapor flow rates, gravity dominates and one
obtains stratified, slug-plug, or bubble flow depending upon the relative amount of liquid
present. At high vapor velocities, vapor shear dominates, giving rise to wavy, annular, or
annular-mist flows.
The analysis of heat transfer to or from a two-phase flow is quite complex, involving
properties, quantities, and fluid mechanics of both phases. The design correlations resulting
from these analyses are also subject to greater error than those for single phase heat transfer.

2.5 Thermal Boundary Layer

If the wall temperature tw is different from the fluid stream temperature tm, there exists a
thermal boundary layer of thickness t, different from thickness of flow boundary layer . This
thermal boundary layer plays an important role in determination of convective heat transfer
coefficient.

24

Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Shell and
Tube Heat Exchangers

3.1 Introduction
A shell and tube heat exchanger is a tubular vessel housing a set of tubes (called the tube
bundle) containing a fluid at some temperature and immersed in a different fluid at some other
temperature. The transfer of heat takes place between the two working fluids due to the
difference of temperature between them. The fluid flow inside the tubes is said to be tube
side fluid and the fluid flow external to the tubes is said to be shell side
Shell and tube heat exchangers in their various constructional modifications are probably the
most widespread and commonly used basic heat exchanger configuration used in process
industries. They are used in the process industries, in conventional and nuclear power stations
as condensers, steam generators in pressurized water reactor power plants, and feed water

25

heaters, as they are proposed of many alternative energy applications as ocean, thermal and
geothermal they are also used in some air conditioning and refrigeration systems.
The reasons for this general acceptance are several. The shell and tube heat exchanger
provides a relatively large ratio of heat transfer surface area to volume and weight. It provides
this surface in a form that is relatively easier to manufacture in a wide range of sizes and that
is mechanically rugged enough to withstand normal shop fabrication stresses, shipping and
field erection stresses and normal service operating conditions. There are several
modifications of the basic from that can be used for special services. The shell and tube
exchangers can be easily cleaned and those components most subject to failure gaskets and
tubes can be easily replaced. Finally, good design methods exist, and the expertise and good
shop facilities for successful design of shell and tube heat exchangers are available throughout
the world.

Figure 3.1

An example of a fixed tubesheet shell and tube heat exchanger

26

The simplest type of shell and tube heat exchanger is shown in Figure 3.1, where warm
kerosene enters the shell on its top side. The kerosene flow path is guided between the tubes
by baffle plates and it exits at the bottom shell side nozzle, cooled to the desired temperature.
The tube bundle is supported between two tubesheets with baffle supports placed at intervals
to support the brace and tubes. The tube side flow enters the tube bundle on bottom left side
and exits on top left side with a horizontal baffle plate separating the two tube side flows. This
type of arrangement is called a 1-2 exchanger, one shell-side pass and two tube-side passes.
Figure 3.2 shows a reboiler in which isobutene vapor is generated by heating liquid isobutene.
This type of reboiler is called a kettle type reboiler because of the excess area above the
tube bundle that is provided for vapor separation.

Figure 3.2

A U-tube kettle type reboiler

In another type of reboiler where shell and tube exchanger is mounted vertically alongside a
process tower. Here the heat energy of steam is used to separate the propane and propylene
liquid into a gas liquid two phase mixture. This type of arrangement is common in gas

27

processing industry. The supports of such an exchanger should be designed carefully, because
of the tube thermal expansions.

3.2 Classification of shell and tube heat exchangers

Shell and tube heat exchangers can be classified based on one of the following criteria:
A. Classification based on construction
B. Classification based on service
C. Classification based on shell configuration
D. Classification based on TEMA classes

3.2.1 Classification based on construction

Fixed tubesheet STHEs
U-tube STHEs
Floating head STHEs

Fixed tube STHE

A fixed-tubesheet heat exchanger has straight tubes that are secured at both ends to tubesheets
welded to the shell. The construction may have removable channel covers (e.g., AEL),
bonnet-type channel covers (e.g., BEM), or integral tubesheets (e.g., NEN).
Advantages
The principal advantage of the fixed tubesheet construction is its low cost because of
its simple construction. In fact, the fixed tubesheet is the least expensive construction
type, as long as no expansion joint is required.
The tubes can be cleaned mechanically after removal of the channel cover or bonnet.
Leakage of the shell side fluid is minimized since there are no flanged joints.
They require fewer gaskets than other configurations.
28

Disadvantages
A disadvantage of this design is that since the bundle is fixed to the shell and cannot
be removed, the outsides of the tubes cannot be cleaned mechanically. Thus, its
application is limited to clean services on the shell side. However, if a satisfactory
chemical cleaning program can be employed, fixed-tubesheet construction may be
selected for fouling services on the shell side.
In the event of a large differential temperature between the tubes and the shell, the
tubesheets will be unable to absorb the differential stress, thereby making it necessary
to incorporate an expansion joint. This takes away the advantage of low cost to a
significant extent.
Maximum temperature difference between fluids is approximately 200 oF with out the

inclusion of an expansion joint.

Figure 3.3

A fixed tubesheet shell and tube heat exchanger

U-tube STHE
As the name implies, the tubes of a U-tube heat exchanger are bent in the shape of a U. There
is only one tubesheet in a U tube heat exchanger. However, the lower cost for the single
tubesheet is offset by the additional costs incurred for the bending of the tubes and the
29

somewhat larger shell diameter (due to the minimum U-bend radius), making the cost of a Utube heat exchanger comparable to that of a fixed tubesheet exchanger.
Advantages
The advantage of a U-tube heat exchanger is that because one end is free, the bundle
can expand or contract in response to stress differentials.
The outsides of the tubes can be cleaned, as the tube bundle can be removed.
Lower cost than a fixed tub or floating head type exchanger
Internal gasketed joint is eliminated.
Tube bundle is removable and replaceable.
Disadvantages
The disadvantage of the U-tube construction is that the insides of the tubes cannot be
cleaned effectively, since the U-bends would require flexible- end drill shafts for
cleaning.
U-tube heat exchangers can not be used for services with a dirty fluid inside tubes.
The U Shaped tubes reduce the number of tubes that can be installed
Individual tubes are not replaceable.

Figure 3.4

A U-tube shell and tube heat exchanger

30

Floating head STHE

The floating-head heat exchanger is the most versatile type of STHE, and also the costliest. In
this design, one tubesheet is fixed relative to the shell, and the other is free to float within
the shell. This permits free expansion of the tube bundle, as well as cleaning of both the
insides and outsides of the tubes. Thus, floating-head STHEs can be used for services where
both the shell side and the tube side fluids are dirty making this the standard construction
type used in dirty services, such as in petroleum refineries.

Advantages
Ability to handle dirty fluids and high differential temperatures
Both head and tubes can be cleaned.
Individual tubes can be removed and replaced

Disadvantages
Cost more than fixed tube heat exchangers
More gaskets than fixed tube heat exchangers which can cause leakage.

Types of floating head construction

There are various types of floating- head construction. The two most common are
i.

Pull-through with backing device (TEMA S)

ii.

Pull through (TEMA T).

31

3.2.2 Classification based on service

Based on their function, shell and tube heat exchangers can be classified one of the following
types:
Reboiler it is a type of heat exchanger that transfers heat to a liquid to produce a two phase
gas liquid mixture used in a distillation column.
Thermosiphon Reboiler it is a type of heat exchanger that provides natural circulation of
the boiling fluid by a static liquid head.
Forced circulation reboiler a reboiler in which a pump is used to force the liquid through
the heat exchanger (reboiler) into the distillation column.
Condenser a heat exchanger that condenses the vapors of a liquid by removing heat from
them.
Partial condenser it is a heat exchanger designed in such a way that it only partially
condenses a gas to provide heat to another medium to satisfy a process condition. The residual
gas is recirculated through a heater and is recycled. A common application of partial
condenser on the distillation column is using excess steam to heat up a process fluid.
Final condenser - it is an exchanger in which all the gas is condensed and all the heat is
transferred to the other medium.
Steam generator it is a heat exchanger that generates steam, such as a boiler, to provide
energy for the process requirements. The most classic example is the old steam locomotive,
which is a shell and tube heat exchanger mounted on wheels with the steam used to power
the locomotive. (This unit is a fired vessel and its design is not governed by ASME section
VIII Division).
Vaporizer it is an exchanger that fully or partially vaporizes a liquid.
Chiller it is an exchanger in which a process medium is cooled by operating a refrigerant,
or by cooling and heating with little or no phase change.

32

Figure 3.6

TEMA shell configuration

33

3.3 Construction details for shell and tube heat exchangers

It is essential for the designer to have a good working knowledge of the mechanical features
of STHEs and how they influence thermal design. The principal components of an STHE are:

Shell

Shell cover

Tubes

Channel

Channel cover

Tubesheet

Baffles

Nozzles.

Tie-rods and spacers

Impingement plate

Pass partition plates

Longitudinal baffle

Supports

Foundation

34

Figure 3.7 Nomenclature of shell and tube heat exchanger components

37

3.3.1 Shell
The shell is simply the container for the shell-side fluid. The shell normally has a circular
cross section and is commonly made by:
Rolling a metal plate of the appropriate dimensions into a cylinder and welding
the longitudinal joint (these are called "rolled shells").
Small diameter shells (up to around 24 inches in diameter) can be made by cutting
pipe of the desired diameter to the correct length ("pipe shells").
The roundness of the shell is important in fixing the maximum diameter of the baffles
that can be inserted and therefore the effect of shell-to-baffle leakage. Pipe shells are
more nearly round than rolled shells unless particular care is taken in rolling, In order to
minimize out-of-roundness, small shells are occasionally expanded over a mandrel; in
extreme cases, the shell is cast and then bored out on a boring mill.
In large exchangers, the shell is made out of low carbon steel wherever possible for
reasons of economy, though other alloys can be and are used when corrosion or high
temperature strength demands must be met.

3.3.2 Tubes
The tubes are the basic component of the shell and tube exchanger, providing the heat
transfer surface between one fluid flowing inside the tube and the other fluid flowing
across the outside of the tubes.
Tubes should be able to withstand the following:
a. Operating temperature and pressure on both sides.
b. Thermal stresses due to differential thermal expansion between the shell and the
tube bundles.
c. Corrosive nature of both shell side and tube side fluid.

Classification of tubes
38

The tubes may be classified according to one or more of the following:

Means of fabricating tubes
a. Welded tubes
b. Seamless tubes
Shape of tubes
a. Straight tubes
b. U-tubes
Structure of tubes
a. Plain (bare) tubes
b. Extended surface (singly finned) tubes
c. Corrugated (doubly finned) tubes
Plain or bare tubes
Plain or bare tubes are most common in shell and tube design. These tubes come in two
basic types:
a. Solid wall construction
b. Duplex construction
The solid wall tube is what the name implies, a simple tube of solid wall construction.
The duplex design consists of a tube within a tube in which the outer tube is mechanically
drawn over the inner tube.
Finned tubes
Extended or enhanced surface tubes are used when one fluid has a substantially lower
heat transfer coefficient than the other fluid. Doubly enhanced tubes, with enhancement
both inside and outside, are available that can reduce the size and cost of the exchanger.
Extended surfaces, (finned tubes) provide two to four times as much heat transfer area on
the outside as the corresponding bare tube, and this area ratio helps to offset a lower
outside heat transfer coefficient.
Shell and tube heat exchangers employ low finned tubes to increase the surface area on
shell side when the shell side heat transfer coefficient is low compared to the tube side
39

coefficient. The low finned tubes generally have helical or annular fins on individual
tubes with fin height slightly less than 1.59mm.
Corrugated tubes
A corrugated tube has both inside and outside heat transfer enhancement. It may be a
finned tube which has integral inside turbulators as well as extended outside surface or
tubing which has outside surfaces designed to promote nucleate boiling.
Tube material
Tube metal is usually low alloy steel, low carbon steel, stainless steel, copper, admiralty,
cupronickel, inconel, aluminum (in the form of alloy), or titanium. Other materials can
also be specified for specific applications.
Tube size
Tube size is specified by its outside diameter and wall thickness.
Tube diameter
Tube diameter is its outside diameter. Selection of a specific diameter tube is made on
specific requirements. From the heat transfer point of view, smaller diameter tubes yield
higher heat transfer coefficient and result in a compact heat exchanger. Large diameter
tubes on the other hand are easier to clean, more rugged and are necessary when the
allowable tube side pressure drop is small. Almost all heat exchanger tubes fall within the
range of 3/4in (20mm) to 2in (50.8mm).
Tube wall thickness
Tube wall thickness is generally specified by the Birmingham wire gauge (BWG). Tube
wall thickness must be checked against the internal and external pressure separately, or
maximum pressure differential across the wall. However in some cases the pressure is not
the governing factor in determining the wall thickness. Except when pressure governs,
the wall thickness is selected on following basis.
1. Providing an adequate margin against corrosion.
40

2. Fretting aid wear due to flow induced vibrations.

3. Axial strength. Particularly in fixed tubesheet exchangers.
4. Standardized dimensions.
5. Cost
Tube count
To design a shell and tube heat exchanger, one must know the total number of tubes that
can fit into a shell of given inside diameter. This is known as tube count. A mathematical
approach using number theory is suggested to predict the tube count present tube count
for various combinations of tube layout parameters. This method eliminates the
disadvantage of drawing the tube layout pattern and can accommodate any pattern.
The tube count depends on the flow rate of fluid and the available pressure drop. The
number of tubes is selected such that tube side velocity for water and similar liquids
range from 3 to 8 ft/sec (0.9-2.4 m/s) and the shell side velocity ranges from2 to 5 ft/sec
(0.6-1.5 m/s). The lower velocity limit is desired to fouling, the higher velocity is limited
to avoid erosion- corrosion on tube side, and impingement attack and flow induced
vibrations on shell side. When send, silt and particulates are present, the velocity is kept
high enough to prevent settling down.
Tube pitch
Tube pitch is defined as the shortest distance between two adjacent tubes. Designers
prefer to employ the minimum recommended tube pitch, because it leads to the smallest
shell diameter for a given number of tubes. However, in exceptional circumstances, the
tube pitch may be increased to a higher value, for example, to reduce shell side pressure
drop. In most shell and tube heat exchangers, the minimum ratio of tube pitch to tube
outside diameter is never less than 1.25.
Tube layout
There are four tube layout patterns,
Triangular (30),
Rotated triangular (60),
41

 Square (90)
Rotated square (45).
A triangular (or rotated triangular) pattern will accommodate more tubes than a square (or
rotated square) pattern. Furthermore, a triangular pattern produces high turbulence and
therefore a high heat-transfer coefficient. However, at the typical tube pitch of 1.25 times
the tube O.D., it does not permit mechanical cleaning of tubes, since access lanes are not
available. Consequently, a triangular layout is limited to clean shell side services.
For dirty shell side services, a square layout is typically employed. However, since this is
an in-line pattern, it produces lower turbulence. Thus, when the shell side Reynolds
number is low (< 2,000), it is usually advantageous to employ a rotated square pattern.

Figure 3.7

Tube layout pattern

3.3.3 Baffles
Baffles are used to support tubes, enable a desirable velocity to be maintained for the
shell side fluid, and prevent failure of tubes due to flow-induced vibration.
Classification of baffles
The baffles are classified into following main categories:
42

1. Transverse baffles
a. Plate baffles
i.

Segmental baffles

ii.

Disk and doughnut baffles

iii.

Orifice baffles

b. Rod baffles
2. Longitudinal baffles
Segmental baffles
Segmented baffles may be single-segmental, double-segmental, or triple-segmental as
shown in the figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8

Single, double and triple segmented baffles

The most common baffle shape is the single segmental. The segment sheared off must be
less than half of the diameter in order to insure that adjacent baffles overlap at least one
full tube row. For liquid flows on the shell side, a baffle cut of 20 to 25 percent of the
diameter is common; for low pressure gas flows, 40 to 45 percent (i.e., close to the
maximum allowable cut) is more common, in order to minimize pressure drop.
The main features of double and triple segmented baffles include:

43

1. The flow on the shell side is split into two or more streams as per the number of
baffle segments, namely, double, triple, multiple etc. hence the danger of shell
side flow induced vibrations is minimum.
2. The baffle spacing should not be too small; otherwise it results in a more parallel
flow with significant low stagnant areas.
Disk and doughnut baffles
The disk and doughnut baffle is made up of alternate disk and doughnut baffles. This
baffle design provides a lower pressure drop as compared to a single segmental baffle for
the same unsupported tube span.
Orifice baffles
In an orifice baffle, the tube-to-baffle-hole distance is large so that it acts as an orifice for
the shell side flow.
Rod baffles
The rod baffles consist of rods that run through a series of circular rings as shown in the
figure. On this type of arrangement, the rods break up thus damping the vibrations. The
rods also reduce turbulence to below resonant levels of the natural frequency of the tubes
and hence reduce fluid elastic vibrations.
Longitudinal baffles
Longitudinal baffles divide the shell into two or more sections, providing Multipass on
the shell side. This type of baffles should not be used unless the baffle is welded to the
shell and tubesheet.

44

Figure 3.9

Different types of plate baffles

45

Figure 3.9

Rod baffles

Baffle spacing
Baffle spacing is the centerline-to-centerline distance between adjacent baffles. It is the
most vital parameter in STHE design.
The TEMA standards specify the minimum baffle spacing as one-fifth of the shell inside
diameter or 2 in., whichever is greater. Closer spacing will result in poor bundle
penetration by the shell side fluid and difficulty in mechanically cleaning the outsides of
the tubes. Furthermore, a low baffle spacing results in a poor stream distribution as will
be explained later.
The maximum baffle spacing is the shell inside diameter. Higher baffle spacing will lead
to predominantly longitudinal flow, which is less efficient than cross-flow, and large
46

unsupported tube spans, which will make the exchanger prone to tube failure due to flowinduced vibration.
Baffle cut
Baffle cut is the height of the segment that is cut in each baffle to permit the Shell side
fluid to flow across the baffle. This is expressed as a percentage of the shell inside
diameter. Although this, too, is an important parameter for STHE design, its effect is less
profound than that of baffle spacing. Baffle cut can vary between 15% and 45% of the
shell inside diameter.

Figure 3.10

Baffle Cut

3.3.4 Tube sheet

a tubesheet is an important component of a heat exchanger. It is the principal barrier
between the shell side and tube side flows. Proper design of a tubesheet is important for
safety and reliability of heat exchanger. The sheets are mostly circular with uniform
pattern of drilled holes.
Classification of tube sheets
Tube sheets come in two basic types
1. Single tube sheet
2. Double tube sheet
The double tubesheet can further be categorized into two categories:

47

a. Conventional double tubesheet design, in which two individual tubesheets are

placed side by side at each end of the tubes.
b. Integral double tubesheet design, in which a single plate is first drilled and then
grooved midway between the faces.
Single tubesheets are much more common than double tubesheets because of process
applications and economy.
Tube to tubesheet attachments
Tubes are attached to the tube sheets by one of the following methods:
Rolling
Welding
Rolling and welding
Explosive welding
Brazing
Expansion of tubes into tubesheets is most widely used and is satisfactory for many uses.
However, when stresses are higher, or where pressures are such that significant leakage
can occur, or where the contamination between the fluids is not permitted, the tubes are
welded to the tubesheet.
3.3.5 Tube bundle
A tube bundle is an assembly of tubes, baffles, tubesheets, spacers, tie rods and
longitudinal baffles, if any. Spacers and tie rods are required for maintaining the space
between baffles.
3.3.6 Channel Covers
The channel covers are round plates that bolt to the channel flanges and can be removed
for tube inspection without disturbing the tube-side piping. In smaller heat exchangers,
bonnets with flanged nozzles or threaded connections for the tube-side piping are often
used instead of channels and channel covers.
3.3.7 Pass partition plate
A pass partition plate or a pass divider is needed in one channel or bonnet for an
exchanger having two tube-side passes, and they are needed in both channels or bonnets
48

for an exchanger having more than two passes. If the channels or bonnets are cast, the
dividers are integrally cast and then faced to give a smooth bearing surface on the gasket
between the divider and the tube sheet. If the channels are rolled from plate or built up
from pipe, the dividers are welded in place.
The arrangement of the dividers in multiple-pass exchangers is somewhat arbitrary, the
usual intent being to provide nearly the same number of tubes in each pass, to minimize
the number of tubes lost from the tube count, to minimize the pressure difference across
any one pass divider (to minimize leakage and therefore the violation of the MTD
derivation), to provide adequate bearing surface for the gasket and to minimize
fabrication complexity and cost.
There are some limitations on how the different types of heat exchangers can be
partitioned to provide various numbers of passes. These are summarized in the following
lines:
1. For fixed tubesheet exchanger, any practical number of passes, even or odd, can
be used. For Multipass arrangements, partitions are to be built into both front and
rear heads.
2. For U-tube exchangers, minimum two passes are required. Any practical even
number of tubes can be obtained by building partition plates in the front head.
3. With pull through floating head (T head) type and split backing ring exchanger (S
head), any practical even number of passes is possible. For single pass operation,
however, a packed joint must be installed on the floating head (P type). With this
arrangement only one or two passes are possible. With externally sealed floating
tubesheet (W type), there is no practical tube pass limitation.
4. Two phase flow on the tube side, whether boiling or condensing, is best kept with
a single pass or in U-tubes to avoid uneven distribution and hence uneven heat
transfer.

49

Figure 3.11

Typical tube pass layouts

50

3.3.8 Impingement plate

The inlet nozzle often has an impingement plate set just below to divert the incoming
fluid jet from impacting directly at high velocity on the top row of tubes. Such impact can
cause erosion, cavitations, and/or vibration.

Figure 3.12

Impingement plate

In order to put the impingement plate in and still leave enough flow area between the
shell and plate for the flow to discharge without excessive pressure loss, it may be
necessary to omit some tubes from the full circle pattern. Other more complex
arrangements to distribute the entering flow, such as a slotted distributor plate and an
enlarged annular distributor section, are occasionally employed.
3.3.9 Tube-Side Channels and Nozzles
Tube-side channels and nozzles simply control the flow of the tube-side fluid into and out
of the tubes of the exchanger. Since the tube-side fluid is generally the more corrosive,
these channels and nozzles will often be made out of alloy materials (compatible with the
tubes and tube sheets, of course). They may be clad instead of solid alloy.

Chapter 4

51

Maintenance of shell
And tube heat exchanger

4.1 Introduction
The structural integrity of a heat exchanger depends on proper mechanical design arrived
at after detailed stress analysis keeping in view all the static, dynamic, transient and steady
loads. Heat transfer efficiency and fabrication cost of a heat exchanger are directly
influenced by proper and functional mechanical design. Therefore an optimum mechanical
design of various components of a heat exchanger is of paramount importance.

52

FACTORS
AFFECTING
EXCHANGERS

PERFORMANCE

OF

HEAT

For effective heat transfer, the heat exchange system should be

clean and healthy. If the metal surfaces are fouled or corroded,
proper turbulence is not introduced for heat dissipation, cooling
fluid itself is not cold enough to absorb desired heat or the flow of
fluids is not sufficient enough, the heat duty of the exchanger
would reduce. This drop in heat duty is reflected as deteriorated
performance of the heat exchange equipment.
Major factors reducing heat exchangers performance are;
i.
Fouling
ii.
Corrosion and Leakages
iii.
Scaling
iv.
Fluid Temperature
v.
High P
vi.
Low Fluid Velocity and Restricted Flow
Fouling:
Deposition of insoluble, porous and loose material, present in
water, at the surface of heat exchange equipment is called
fouling.

These materials include particulate matter from air, migrated

corrosion product, silt alloys and sand, organic contaminants
(oils), biological matter, extraneous material (leaves, twigs &
wood).
Affects:
Performance
deteriorations
of
heat
experienced due to following factors:

exchangers

is

Restricted cooling water flow.

Heat exchanger tubes are plugged by flocks reducing heat

transfer area.

Fouling initiates and propagates under deposit corrosion,

which threatens equipment health.
53

Sludge deposition in cooling

contributes periodic cleaning.

water

basin

that

re-

Cleaning:
Fouled surfaces could be clean both mechanically and
chemically. However, the mode of cleaning is subjected to the
characteristics and extent of fouling.

Mechanical (Physical) Treatment:

Filtration of suspended solids of make-up water is carried
out through side stream filters. ~ 80% SS are removed
consequently at 5-8 cycles of concentration.

Deposits are physically wiped out as well with scrapers,

brushes, balls and water jets.

Chemical Treatment:
Synthetic polymers called dispersants are used to disperse
the foulants. These included polyacrylate, polymaretes,
partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides and their copolymers
Natural dispersants, such as tannirs, liguin sulforate, and
carboxymethyle cellulose are also used but are lesser
effective than synthetic dispersants.
The major sources of organic fouling are oils and biological
species. However, the most detrimental fouling is the
biological fouling due to its peculiar fouling and corrosion
characteristics.

Biological fouling:
The presence and growth of lining organic matter is referred to as Biofouling.
Bio-fouling interferes with the flow of water through heat
exchangers and other conditions. This inhibits heat transfer
and contributes to under-deposit corrosion and general
deterioration of the entire cooling system.
Recalculating cooling water system are ideal incubators for
promoting the growth and proliferation of microorganism due
54

to saturated oxygen, exposure to sunlight, maintained

temperature (+30C) and pH (6-9). The build-up of a biofilm
is initiated with the adsorption of organic material on the
metal surface from the bulk water. The microorganisms
attach to the surface and grow through the assimilation of
nutrients.
Bio-film reduces heat transfer because of its insulating
properties. The soft elastic ripple surface absorbs kinetic
energy from the flowing water and increased pumping energy
is required to overcome the frictional resistance of the film.
Though the bio-films are 95-98% water, they produce
significant pressure drop.
There are 03 major classes of microorganism, which are
associated with re-circulating cooling water system:
i. Algae
ii. Fungi
iii. Bacteria
Algae:
Algae range from unicellular (single cell) plants to multicellular species. The latter include diverse forms and
shapes, including slimy masses, composed of several cells
or long stands (filaments) of algae. All algae contain colour
pigments, the most important of which is chlorophyll. Algae
usually flourish on wet surfaces such as cooling tower
lumber, mist eliminators, screens and distribution trays,
which are exposed to oxygen and sunlight.

Algae severely corrode metal surfaces. Large slime mass

contributes to crevice corrosion and pitting. Massive growth
also inhibits proper water distribution by plugging screens,
restricting flow, and interfering with pump suction.
Fungi:

55

Fungi are similar to algae but do not contain chlorophyll.

Major fungi are molds and yeast. They require moisture and
air but not sunlight. They flourish on water nutrients such as
bacteria and algae, to which they are attached. Mold fungi
are filamentous in form, but yeasts are unicellular. Certain
species of fungi consume wood components, causing
serious surface deterioration and internal decay of wood rot.
Bacteria:
Bacteria are unicellular microscopic plant like organisms
similar to algae but lack chlorophyll. They exist in three
basis forms:
i. Rod-Shaped (Bacillus)
ii. Spherical (Coccus)
iii. Spiral (Spirillus)
Water or wet environment, high in organic content is suitable for
the proliferation of bacterial slime. Such shines significantly
reduce heat transfer efficiency and aggravate under deposit
corrosion. Aerobic bacterial flourish in oxygen environment where
as Anaerobic bacterial grow in the absence of oxygen. Under
deposit corrosion flourishes with heavy bio-fouling.

Iron depositing bacteria oxidize water soluble ferrous ion

(Fe+2) into insoluble ferric oxide (Fe2O3), which deposits on
the inside of the piping, reduce flow and aggravate crevice
corrosion.
Shine forming bacteria form dense, sticky biomasses that
impede water flow and sustain the growth of other
organisms, contributing to fouling, thereby.

Corrosion:
The deterioration of metal (or its properties) caused by the
reaction with its surroundings environment is termed as
corrosion.

56

For corrosion reactions to occur in water services, a potential

difference should occur between metal and surrounding
environment and also between different areas on the surface.
This causes the passage of electrical current through the
metal from the area of low potential to high potential.

Types of Corrosion:
There are two main types of corrosions:
1. Chemical corrosion
2. Electro-chemical corrosion
Chemical corrosion involves a chemical reaction between
the metal surface and its surroundings without any
transportation of electrons.
Flow of electrons due to reduction oxidation reaction and
potential difference across the metals surface is the peculiar
characteristic of corrosion type known as electro chemical
corrosion.
Most common forms of corrosion that have been observed
heat transfer equipment are following:
i. General / Uniform corrosion
ii. Galvanic corrosion
iii. Erosion corrosion
iv. Crevice corrosion (concentration cells)
v. Pitting corrosion
The acid by-products of some bacteria also corrode the heat
exchange metals. Amongst them is sulphate reducing
bacteria known as SRBs. They convert dissolved sulphur
compounds (SO4-2) to hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Carbon steel,
stainless steel and copper based alloys are severely corroded
by H2S. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans is the most prevailing
sulphate reducing bacteria, which mainly exists under
deposits that are devoid of oxygen.

57

The form of corrosion attack on carbon steel, by these

bacteria, is quite distractive; it is recognizable by the smooth,
disc shaped concentric rings formed on the metal surface.
10H+ + SO4-2 + 4Fe
4H2O
H2S + Fe+2

4Fe+2 + H 2S +
FeS + 2H+

The formation of black iron sulphide deposits, accompanied by an odor of

rotten egg, is the peculiar characteristic of attack by SRBs.
The aerobic sulphur bacteria, Thiobacillus oxidizes sulphur,
sulphides and sulphates in to sulphamic acid. Localized pH
depression is experience at locations where these organisms
contact the metal. Several general thinning of steels is
observed, consequently.
Nitrifying bacterial oxidize ammonia into nitrate, which
decreases pH.
NH3 + CO2

HNO3 + H2O

Repaid general thinning of steels and copper based alloys

occurs. The nitrate based corrosion inhibitors also become in
effective due to their oxidation into nitrate by this specie of
bacteria.
Affects of Temperature on Corrosion:
Corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon. It is not
surprising that an increase in temperature will cause an
increase in corrosion rates. Temperature plays a dual role
with respect to oxygen corrosion (Fig-1). In open recirculating
cooling water systems, corrosion rates increase linearly with
temperature up to a maximum value. Beyond this point, the
rates decrease because of reduced oxygen solubility at the
much higher temperatures. For closed systems in which
oxygen cannot escape, corrosion rates increase steadily with
temperature.

58

An unusual temperature effect, known as thermo-galvanic

attack, can occur with copper alloy. Temperature differences
of at least 65C between the ends of copper conduits will
cause the cold end to be cathodic to the hot end. Copper ions
will dissolve (corrode) at the hot end and migrate to the cold
end. At the cathode, copper ions will plate out, but at the
anode, the surface will become rough and will pit.
Scale Deposition:
Water-formed deposits commonly referred to as scale, can be defined as a
crystalline growth of an adherent layer (barrier) of insoluble salt or oxide on a heat
exchanger surface. The rate of formation is a complicated function of many
variables including temperature, concentration of scale-forming species, pH, water
quality, and hydrodynamic conditions.
The normal solubility of scales increase with temperature, but a few, such as
calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate, have the opposite trend. Unfortunately, these
scales are commonly found in cooling water systems. In the hottest areas, calcium
carbonate and calcium sulfate will precipitate and form a thick barrier deposit.
Calcium carbonate is perhaps the most common scale found in cooling water
systems. Calcium and bicarbonate alkalinity are both needed to form this extremely
tenacious scale (alkalinity is the concentration of HCO3-, CO32- and OH- ions present
in the water). An increase in heat and/or pH will cause the bicarbonate ion to
decompose to carbon dioxide and calcium carbonate.
Ca(HCO3)2

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O

The greatest concentration of CaCO3 will occur at the hottest areas along the heat
transfer surfaces.
Many methods have been proposed to predict the formation of calcium carbonate.
However, they are all based upon the thermodynamic equilibria of carbonic acid
and alkalinity corrected for temperature and dissolved solids (ionic strength).

59

Calcium sulfate can exist in various forms in cooling water systems, the most
common being gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). The hemihydrate and anhydrite forms are
much less common. Their solubility, as a function of temperature, is shown in
Fig.-2. Gypsum is more soluble than calcium carbonate by at least a factor of 50.
This phenomenon provides the basis for sulfuric acid addition to control CaCO3 in
recirculating cooling water systems. The normal upper limit for calcium and sulfate
concentrations in the absence of an inhibitor is expressed by:

[Ca2+] x [SO42-] = 500,000

Where the bracketed values are the ionic concentrations
expressed in milligram per liter (ppm).
Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) scale has become more common in recirculating
cooling water systems. The increases in pH, calcium concentration, and amount of
phosphate common to many accepted chemical treatments has increased the
potential for calcium phosphate deposits on heat transfer surfaces. Other water
sources also have contributed to increased levels of phosphate. Surface makeup
waters containing agricultural runoff and sewage plant effluents can have high
levels of orthophosphate ions.

The solubility of calcium phosphate decreases as pH

increases. It has minimal temperature dependency (from 25
to 75C). These deposits are usually amorphous and
eventually transform to the more crystalline hydroxyapatite
Ca5(PO4)3OH. Because of the low solubility of calcium
phosphate (about
10 -30), deposits can form easily in
waters containing 5 mg/L of orthophosphate ions and 300
mg/L of calcium ions at pH 7 to 7.5. The scale-forming
tendency of calcium phosphate is a complex function of pH,
calcium hardness, orthophosphate concentration, ionic
strength, and temperature. Currently, there are no rule-ofthumb relationships between these variables. Also, in the
absence of any orthophosphate deposit, the orthophosphate
ions can contribute to the corrosion inhibition of carbon steel.

60

Calcium silicate (CaSiO3) and magnesium silicate (MgSiO3) scales tend to

develop under more alkaline cooling water conditions, in which the pH is
approximately 8.5 or greater. These scales are very tenacious, dense, and difficult to
remove from heat transfer surfaces. Although the solubility of silica (SiO 2)
increases with pH, the solubility of the alkaline silicates decreases as pH increases.
An upper limit for the silica concentration is 150 mg/L as SiO2 in most recirculating
waters, although other factors affect this limit. Magnesium silicate can precipitate
on heat transfer surfaces with magnesium concentrations as low as 50 mg/L and 150
mg/L SiO2. A rule-of-thumb "pseudosolubility" product of Mg2+, (mg/l as CaCO3)
and SiO2, (mg/l as SiO2 ) less than 35,000 has been developed. The addition of
chemical treatment as a preventative measure is essentially nonexistent. The most
effective method of control is to keep the silica concentration in the

recirculating cooling water below the 150 mg/L limit.

Fluid Temperature:
Temperature difference is the driving force by which heat is transferred from
a source to a receiver.
When the two fluids travel in opposite directions along a pipe, they are in
counter flow. Whereas fluids traveling in the same direction are in parallel /
co-current flow. The temperature of the inner pipe fluid in either case varies
according to one curve as it proceeds along the length of the pipe, and the
temperature of the annulus fluid varies according to another. The temperature
difference at any length from the origin where L = 0 is the vertical distance
between the two curves. The flow pattern and curves are attached
High Pressure Drop:
The flow of all fluids is based on two parameters.
Potential for flow
Resistance to the flow

61

Disturbing anyone of these two parameters upsets the flow of the fluids. As the
systems pressure drop increases, the resistance to flow increases and consequently,
the flow is restricted. The pressure drop could be due to mechanical failure or
damages in the system such as broken baffles, twisting of equipment that leads to
fluid channeling, broken plug or gate of valves etc.
Fouling and deposition may also raise the system pressure drop. Tubes plugging
due to dirt accumulation in tubes, deposition of corrosion products and fouling in
piping are few examples due to which system pressure increases. Scaling also
imparts additional pressure drop by restricting the fluid flow.

Low Fluid Velocity And Restricted Flow:

Along with temperature difference, heat transfer is also enhanced by fluid
turbulence. If the velocity of fluids is lower than a bear minimum and flow is
restricted, not only the effectiveness of heat dissipation is affected, but other
problems such as fouling and corrosion are introduced into the system due to fluid
stagnation.
When water travels slowly through a tube, dirt and slime resulting from microorganic action adheres to the tubes, which would be carried away if there were
greater turbulence. As a standard practice, the use of cooling water at velocities less
than 3 fps (feet/sec) should be avoided, although in certain localities minimum
velocities as high as 4 fps are required for continued operation.
The mechanical design involves the design of pressure retaining and non pressure retaining
components and equipments to withstand the design loads and the deterioration in service
so that the equipment will work satisfactorily and reliably throughout its service life. A
selected heat exchanger must satisfy the process requirements with the allowable pressure
drop until the next scheduled maintenance of the plant. The basic logical structure of
design of a shell and tube heat exchanger is given in the following figure 4.1.

62

Maintenance Procedure of Shell and Tube Heat

Exchangers:
For performing maintenance activity on heat exchanger we can
follow these steps.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

For performing any type of activity first step is work permit.

Isolate the heat exchanger
Remove channel head cover, channel head
Remove Floating head cover, floating head
Pull out bundle
Clean the bundle with the help of rotary lances or flexible lances
Clean the bundle from out side and shell from inside with the help of hydro jetting

gun
8. Inspect by inspection
9. Box up heat exchanger by following opening steps
10. Hydro test the exchanger on 1.5 percent of design pressure
11. Remove blinds
12. Hand over to operations.

Cleaning of Heat Exchanger Tube Bundle:

1. Mechanical Cleaning
2. Chemical Cleaning
3. Self Cleaning

Mechanical Cleaning:
In mechanical cleaning Hydro jetting machines are used for Internal
cleaning of tubes Rotary lances and flexible lances are used and for
external cleaning of tubes bundle Hydro jetting guns are used.

Equipment are Used for Mechanical Cleaning:

Hydro Jetting Machine:
63

Tube cleaning procedures for shell and tube heat exchangers are
performed off-line, the most frequently chosen and fastest method
being mechanical cleaning. Among other off-line methods is the use of
very high-pressure water but, since the jet can only be moved along
the tube slowly, the time taken to clean a heat exchanger can become
extended. Great care must be taken to avoid damaging any tube sheet
or tube coatings which may be present; otherwise the successful
removal of fouling deposits may become associated with new tube
leaks or increased tube sheet corrosion, which are only revealed after
the unit has been brought back on-line
Accessories:

Gunning, or Gun Jetting, involves the use of a jetting gun, a portable

combination of operators control valve, lance and nozzle; normally
resembling a gun in arrangement various nozzles may be used:

64

 Rotajet nozzle: used for larger areas; has good cutting effect and broad
span
Straight jet nozzle (or pin nozzle): used for shot gunning and cutting.
Fan jet nozzle: used for broad areas, but because of a limited cutting
effect, is suitable only for washing.
Gunning may be used for large or external surfaces, for example tube bundle faces, tank
walls, structural steel and valves. Shot gunning is the term used for blasting deposits out of the
end of a pipe or tube, prior to flex-lancing or pipe-cleaning. When gunning, the hand-held nozzle
can be directed virtually in all planes of operation. The lance man is not shielded from the
reflected high-pressure stream. Also, if the barrel is too short, there is potential for the operator to
strike his feet with the high-pressure water.

1. Rotary Lance
The apparatus receives hot pressurized water and sprays the water downwardly onto the
surface to be cleaned through a rotating manifold of spray nozzles. The manifold is
mounted within a push able cart or chassis, similar to a lawnmower chassis, for rotational
movement in a plane parallel with the surface to be cleaned. Nozzles of the spray
manifold are tilted at an angle such that water sprayed from the nozzles provides an
65

angular momentum to the manifold. The apparatus is also provided with a mechanism for
raising or lowering the height of the nozzles above the surface and for setting a minimum
selected height.
HORIZONTAL MULTI LANCING POSITIONER
This lancing system was designed to effectively clean tubes in heat
exchangers and evaporators. It is used with rigid lance and nozzle tip.
The water exits through small orifices in nozzle tip as high velocity
water jets that are capable of unplugging and removing scale in tubes.
Air or hydraulic motors supply rotation and feed power.
Since the lance are continuously rotated, a fewer number of larger,
more powerful jet are used to completely clean the inside of the tubes.
Larger jets will also penetrates tougher deposits more effectively then
many smaller, non rotating jets. Rotation of the tip also makes this tool
effective for polishing tube walls. Nozzle tips with cutting edges can
also be used to combine the advantages of mechanical cutting with
water blasting. The powered feed allows all the jet power to be used in
attacking the material ahead of the tip.

Chemical Cleaning:
Synthetic polymers called dispersants are used to disperse the
foul ants. These included polyacrylate, polymerases, partially
hydrolyzed polyacrylamides and their copolymers
Natural dispersants, such as tannirs, liguin suffocate, and
carboxymethyle cellulose are also used but are lesser effective
than synthetic dispersants.
The major sources of organic fouling are oils and biological
species. However, the most detrimental fouling is the biological
fouling due to its peculiar fouling and corrosion characteristics.

66

Self cleaning
SHEs are often used in the heating of fluids which contain solids and thus have a
tendency to foul the inside of the heat exchanger. The low pressure drop gives the SHE its
ability to handle fouling easier. The SHE uses a self cleaning mechanism, whereby
fouled surfaces cause a localized increase in fluid velocity, thus increasing the drag (or
fluid friction) on the fouled surface, thus helping to dislodge the blockage and keep the
heat exchanger clean. "The internal walls that make up the heat transfer surface are often
rather thick, which makes the SHE very robust, and able to last a long time in demanding
environments." They are also easily cleaned, opening out like an oven where any build up
of foul ant can be removed by pressure washing. Self-Cleaning Water filters are used to
keep the system clean and running without the need to shot down or replace cartridges
and bags.

Chapter 5
Mechanical Design of shell
and tube heat exchanger

67

Flow diagram: Mechanical Design of shell and tube heat exchanger

68

Figure 4.1

Basic logical structures for process heat exchanger design

In this chapter we will restrict ourselves to the mechanical design of heat exchanger i.e we
will study only the final level of the above given diagram. The series of steps within the
dotted rectangle are concerned with process design and are generally the function of a
process or a chemical engineer.

69

4.2 Fundamental requirements of mechanical design

A certain minimum amount of information is required for mechanical design of a shell and
tube heat exchanger. These requirements have been listed below:
1. Thermohydraulic deign details in the form of TEMA or an equivalent specification
sheet.
2. TEMA class (R, C, B), type of TEMA shell (shell types are specified in chapter 3)
and channels/ heads.
3. Shell side and tube side passes.
4. Number, type, size and layout of tubes.
5. Design temperatures and pressures.
6. External pressure if the requirement is to design under external pressure or under
internal vacuum.
7. Diameter and length of shell channel/ head, and its configuration.
8. Worst case coincident conditions of temperature and pressure.
9. Nozzle, wind, seismic loads and impact loads (including water hammer if any).
10. Superimposed loads due to insulation, piping and stacked units etc.
11. Corrosion properties of the fluids and the environment in which the unit will be
installed and the expected service life. This in turn will determine the corrosion
allowance or help in better material selection.
12. Materials of construction, except tube material, which is already decided at thermal
design stage.
13. Fouling characteristics of the streams to be handled by the exchanger.
14. Flow rates to size the nozzles and determine whether the impingement protection is
required or not.
70

15. Special restrictions imposed by the purchaser on available space, piping layout,
location of supports, types of material and servicing conditions etc.

4.3 Contents of mechanical design

The designer of a heat exchanger has to make many decisions during the design process.
He has to select between alternative options or choose a method from different possible
ways. In general one has to make the following decisions:
1. What design standards are to be followed in designing of any given componentsTEMA, ASME Section VIII Division II, BS 5500, IS:2852-1969, ISO/DIS-2694,
The pressure vessel code (Japan), GOST (USSR), CODAP, SNCT (France).
2. What type of connections are to be made (welded, flanged or packed) at front head,
tube sheet and rear head.
3. What types of weld joints are to be made at what specific locations-butt welds, lap
welds.
4. Which type of welding is to be done at different locations-TIG welding SMAW,
MIG etc.
5. What types of flanged joints are to be selected-loose type of flanges, integral type
flanges, optional type flanges.
6. What types of gaskets are to be used-ring type gaskets or full face gaskets.
7. What types of closures are to be used at ends-elliptical, hemispherical, torispherical
or conical.
8. What combination of loads will govern the pressure parts design-shell side
pressure, tube side pressure, differential thermal expansion, self weight, mechanical
vibrations and seismic vibrations.
9. Type and style of openings.
10. Details of vent and drain designs.
71

11. Minimum bend radii for U-tubes.

12. Whether to use an expansion joint or not. If yes then what type of joint is to be
selected?
During the process of mechanical design, the following parameters are decided keeping in
view the loadings and the performance of the exchanger.
1.

Shell thickness

2.

Shell flange and channel flange design.

3.

Dished end calculations.

4.

Design of openings and nozzles.

5.

Tubesheet thickness.

6.

Shell longitudinal stress and bending stress.

7.

Tube longitudinal stress, both inside and outside the periphery.

8.

Channel longitudinal stress and bending stress for given loading conditions.

9.

Tube-to-tubesheet joint load.

10.

Flat cover thickness

11.

Design of supports.

4.4 Mechanical design procedure

The mechanical design of a heat exchanger can be divided into the following main steps:

Identify all the applied loadings.

Determine the stresses induced in the material as the result of applied load.

72

Determine the codes and standards to be used in design process.

Select materials of construction.

Compute pressure parts thickness and reinforcements.

Select appropriate welding details.

Design non pressure parts.

Design saddles and other supporting elements.

Specify inspection methods and carry out inspection accordingly.

4.4.1 Applied loadings

The mechanical design of heat exchangers begins with consideration of the service loads
and a determination of their values. Loads may be subdivided into two categories,
depending on their cause and on their variation with time.
In the first category, the following types should be considered:

Distributed mechanical load, for example, internal or external pressure.

Mechanical load concentrated on a small area, for example, self-weight loading applied
at a column or saddle support or load applied at an anchor by a pipe.

Thermal loading caused by differential expansion of the shell-and-tube bundle, by the

thermal expansion of the heat exchanger on its supports, by temperature gradients
through the thickness of a plate or shell, or by differences between thermal expansion
coefficients in the junction between two elements.

In the second category shock loads that may occur in an accident-for example, thermal
shock due to direct impingement of cold fluid on a hot surface are included. These loads

73

may be maintained throughout the whole life of the heat exchanger, change only a few
times, or undergo a cyclic variation.
4.4.2 Stress analysis
Stress analysis is the determination of the relationship between the external forces applied
to the vessel and the corresponding stresses produced in the vessel.
Once the loads normally occurring in service and those anticipated in possible accidents
are characterized, the next step is to find the stress distribution, assuming elastic behavior.
As in the case of loads, elastic stresses may be subdivided into several categories,
depending on both their origin and the effect they have on the strength of the structure.
The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code categorize the stresses into a number of
groups in accordance with detailed rules that are not always unequivocal. A simple
classification is the following:
Type 1 stress
Stress distributed uniformly through the thickness caused by internal or external pressurein general, any stress not limited by a displacement and capable of causing widespread
yielding and ultimately plastic collapse of the structure. The pressure-induced stress in a
cylindrical shell is a typical example.
Type II stress
Bending stress caused by mechanical loading. The bending stress in a tube plate, under the
effect of the difference in pressure between the tube side and the shell side is an example of
this stress, whose value may be permitted to exceed the yield point of the material without
producing plastic collapse of the plate.

74

Type III stress

Stresses caused by constraints at junctions or by thermal loading. Limited by displacement,
these stresses cannot by themselves bring about ultimate plastic collapse.
Type IV stress
The previous stresses affect a wide area. A type IV stress, on the other hand, is
concentrated in the immediate vicinity of a notch, a sharp reentrant corner, a threaded
connection, and so on. Such notch-type stress raisers need be considered only when the
material used is brittle or when cyclic variations of the load can lead to fatigue failure.
In some design codes, stresses are classified into five types. These are:

Primary membrane stress, Pm

Primary bending stress, Pb

Local membrane stress, PL

Secondary stress, Q

Peak stress, F

Primary membrane stress, Pm

The component of primary stress (a stress developed by the imposed loading that is
necessary to satisfy the laws of equilibrium) that is obtained by averaging the stress
distribution across the thickness of the pressure vessel is referred to as the primary
membrane stress. Examples of primary membrane stress are:

Circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal (meridian) stress due to internal or external

pressures.

Stress due to vessel weight.

Longitudinal stress due to bending of horizontal vessel over the supports.

75

Membrane stresses in the nozzle wall within the area of reinforcement due to pressure
or external loads.

Stresses caused by wind and seismic forces.

Primary bending stress, Pb

In contrast to cylindrical shells, certain structural shapes cannot resist external loading
without bending, and the resultant stress produced is called primary bending stress.
Primary bending stress is capable of causing permanent distortion or collapse of the vessel.
Some examples of primary bending stress are:
Bending stress due to pressure in a flat cover.
Bending stress in the crown of the torispherical head due to internal pressure.
Local membrane stress, PL
Local (primary) membrane stress is produced by either pressure load alone or by other
mechanical loads. It has some self limiting characteristics.
Secondary stress, Q
Secondary stress is a normal or shear stress arising because of the constraint of adjacent
material or by self constraint of the structure.
Secondary stresses can be divided into two major categories,
1. Load actuated secondary stresses
2. Temperature actuated secondary stresses
Peak stress, F

76

Peak stresses are the additional stresses due to stress concentration in highly localized
areas. They are caused by both mechanical and thermal loads and they apply to both
limiting and non limiting loads.
Some examples of peak stresses are

Thermal stresses in a cladding or a weld

Thermal stresses in a wall due to sudden thermal shock.

Stress at a local structural discontinuity.

4.4.3 Design standards

The pressure parts of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger are designed in accordance with a
pressure vessel design codes. Different countries of the world have different design codes
for pressure vessel and heat exchanger design. Some of the codes are accepted
internationally. These standards are made by different organizations working around the
globe. The following table lists the national standards for different countries.

TEMA
A pressure vessel design code alone cannot be expected to deal with all the special features
of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. To give guidance and protection to designers,
fabricators, and purchasers alike, a supplementary code is desirable that provides minimum
standards for design, materials, thicknesses, corrosion allowances, fabrication, tolerances,
testing, inspection, installation, operation, maintenance, and guarantees for shell-and-tube
heat exchangers.
Table 4.1: National design standards for unfired pressure vessels

77

National Standard

Country

ASME section VIII, Division II USA

BSS 5500

UK

SNCT

France

A.D. Merkblatter

Germany

ANCC

Italy

Stoomwenzen

Dutch

ISO/DIS-2694

International

IS: 2825-1969

Netherlands

GOST

USSR

JIS B 8243

Japan

One universally accepted code that does this is the Standards of Tubular Exchanger
Manufacturers Association, known as TEMA. Although TEMA is designed specifically to
supplement the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1, a large
portion of it may be used to supplement other pressure vessel codes if required. TEMA is
applicable to shell-and-tube heat exchangers with the following limitations:

Shell diameter not exceeding 1 524 mm

Pressure not exceeding 2 1 MN/m2

Product: shell diameter X pressure not exceeding 10 500 (mm X MN/m2)

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII

This code gives minimum requirements for the design, fabrication, inspection, and
certification of vessels with design pressures between 1.03 bar g (15 psig) and 206 bar g (3
000 psig). The code consists off three divisions, namely Division I, Division II, and
Division III. Division I is normally used for most of the cases in heat exchanger design,
however Division II is preferred for high stress applications.

78

BS 5500
This recently introduced code replaces BS 1500 and BS 1515 and is intended to unify the
U.K. requirements for ail pressure vessels. Materials other than those listed in the code
may be used by agreement between purchaser and manufacturer provided that they are
covered by a written specification as comprehensive as the BS specification for the
equivalent material and that the design stresses are determined in a manner consistent to
BS.
A. D. Merkblatter
The A. D. Merkblatter W series of specifications lists acceptable materials that can be used
for a specific design. However other materials may be authorized with the agreement of the
inspecting authority. In the latter case the W specifications give requirements that must be
satisfied.
These regulations are in the form of data sheets covering different aspects of vessel design
and construction, and are produced by a group of associations. Revisions are made from
time to time to keep up with advances in the knowledge. Some aspects of vessel and
exchanger design are not covered, and the method is agreed upon by the purchaser,
inspecting authority, and designer. The code references used refer to the 1977 edition of A.
D. Merkblatter.
4.4.4 Material Selection
The selection of materials of construction for heat exchangers is in many instances
influenced by the design of the equipment. Less often the properties of the required
material dictate the type of design that can be used. The need for economy in material on
the one hand, and for efficient heat transfer on the other, requires that when metals are used
the heat exchange takes place across relatively thin sections, and this in turn means that the
selected material must have sufficient corrosion resistance to operate for a reasonable time
without perforation.

79

The design codes and standards discussed in Sec. 4.4.3 list materials that may be used in
heat exchangers. Other materials may be used subject to agreement between purchaser,
inspecting authority, and the manufacturer; in general, design codes and standards specify
minimum qualities of materials.
General Considerations
This is a brief information guide for a vessel engineer who must be familiar with
commonly used construction materials to be able to specify them correctly on engineering
drawings or in material specifications for a particular job.
The selection of construction materials for Code pressure vessels has to be made from
Code approved material specifications. A metallurgical engineer usually specifies the most
economical materials of low first cost and for low future maintenance cost that will be
satisfactory under operating conditions and will meet other requirements.
There are many factors supported by experience and laboratory test results that must be
considered in selecting the most suitable materials. They include the following:

Corrosion resistance in the service corrosive environment,

Strength requirements for design temperature and pressure,

Cost,

Ready market availability,

Fabricability,

Quality of future maintenance.

Generally, process equipment is designed for a certain minimum service life under specific
operating conditions. Based on a corrosion rate in mils (0.001 in.) per year (MPY) a total
corrosion allowance is established which is added to the calculated required thickness.
Typical design lives are given below for several types of petrochemical equipment.

80

20 years: Fractionating towers, reactors, high-pressure heat-exchanger shells, and other

major equipment, which is hard to replace.
10-15 years: Carbon-steel drums, removable reactor parts, and alloy or carbon-steel tower
internals.
5-10 years: Carbon-steel piping, heat-exchanger tube bundles, and various process column
internals.
The selected material must be suitable for services of different levels of severity from the
standpoint of pressure, temperature, corrosive environments, cyclic or steady operations,
etc. Obviously, a number of divisions is possible. However, since the choice of material for
a vessel depends primarily on the service environment, it would seem practical to classify
construction materials according to service: non-corrosive, with corrosion rates negligible
or very low and definitely established (for carbon steel, a maximum of V* in. total;
otherwise an alternative material with a better corrosion resistance is used); or corrosive,
requiring special materials other than carbon steels low-alloy steels.
Non-Corrosive Service
In addition to corrosion resistance, the fundamental material selection criteria are design
temperature and design pressure.
In the range of cryogenic temperatures (from -425 F to -150 F) carbon and low alloy
steels are brittle and austenitic stainless steels or non-ferrous metals like aluminum alloys
that do not exhibit loss of the impact strength at very low temperatures must be employed.
(For a cryogenic engineer the dividing line between the cryogenic and low temperatures is
usually -240 F, below which temperature only so-called permanent gases remain in the
gaseous state. This distinction is not of practical significance here.) The temperature range
at which a material changes gradually from ductile to brittle is called the transition
temperature and is readily determined from Charpy impact tests conducted over a range of
temperatures. The designer of Code low-temperature equipment must base his
computations on the Code approved properties of the material at room temperature.
81

However, for some Code materials (ULT 23) the higher yield and tensile strengths of alloys
at very low temperatures can be used to reduce weight and cost where possible. Because of
the low reactivity of most chemicals al very low temperatures, corrosion problems are few.
At low temperatures (from -150 F to +32 F; the Code upper limit is -20 F) low-alloy
and fine-grain carbon steels tested for notch toughness are found to perform satisfactorily.
In the range of intermediate temperatures (from +33 F to about +800 F) low-carbon
steels are sufficient. Up to about 800 F they behave essentially in an elastic manner; that
is, the structure returns to its original dimensions when applied forces are removed and
maximum stress is below the yield point. The design allowable stress is based on the yield
strength or the ultimate strength obtained from short time rupture tests, supplemented by
fatigue or impact tests, where fluctuating or shock stresses are involved.
At elevated temperatures (above 800 F) marked changes in mechanical properties occur in
steels. They begin to exhibit a drop in ultimate and yield strengths and cease to be elastic,
becoming partly plastic. Under a constant load, there is a continuous increase in permanent
deformation, called creep. The creep rate is measured in percent of a unit length per unit
time. Actually, some creep begins at temperatures over 650 F, but it does not become an
important factor for carbon steels until temperatures over 800 F are reached. The design
allowable stress is then based on two criteria:
a. The deformation due to creep during the service lifetime must remain within
permissible limits, and
b. A rupture must not occur. The allowable stresses are obtained from long-term creep
tests and from stress rupture tests at elevated temperatures. Few data, if any, are
available on high-temperature endurance limits.
Steels used in vessel construction for elevated temperatures can be classified into five
general types:

82

Carbon Steels
These vary in strength at temperatures below 650 F because of small differences in carbon
content, but they all have similar properties in the creep range. Where their use is not
limited by sulfur corrosion or hydrogen attack, they usually represent the most economical
material for intermediate as well as for elevated temperatures at low pressures. Not only
are they relatively cheap per pound, they are also comparatively easy to fabricate. Each
additional alloying element increases the cost of the steel, and often the difficulty of
fabrication and welding as well. The final overall cost of a carbon steel vessel may be
much less than the cost of an alloy steel vessel.
Carbon-molybdenum steels
Low chromium molybdenum alloy steels (up to 3Cr-l Mo) and intermediate chromiummolybdenum alloy steels (up to 9Cr~l Mo), some of these can be used up to 1200 F,
where resistance to graphitization and hydrogen attack is required. These steels have better
creep-rupture properties and high temperature strength than carbon steels, and there is an
economy in using them for pressure vessels subjected to high pressure at temperatures over
650 F. Furthermore, these steels may be required to resist oxidation sulfidation, or
hydrogen attack.
Ferritic (straight chrmium) stainless steels
These are used in sonic applications.
Austenitic stainless steels
These are the only steels assigned allowable stresses in the Code for temperatures higher
than 1200 F up to 1500 F. A decrease in oxidation resistance limits their usefulness above
this temperature.

83

Special high-temperature-resisting alloys

These are used for temperatures above 1500 F. They include type 310 stainless steels and
Incoloy.The following tables provide a list of materials that can be used in corrosive and
non corrosive environments:

Table 4.2: Materials of construction for non corrosive service

Table 4.3: Materials of construction for corrosive service

84

85

4.5 General Procedure for Mechanical Design of a Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger
The process of design of a heat exchanger on the basis of complete stress analysis of all the
components is very complicated and a tedious practice. Therefore it is a common design
practice to follow some rules that have been specified in different design standards. The
rules given to size a particular component have an analytic basis. These rules have
generally been adapted as a result of experience over the years, and the analytic
background is sometimes hidden. The following section aims to explain the rules and
standards that are used in the design of various components of a shell and tube heat
exchanger.
4.5.1 Cylindrical shell
The shell barrel must be straight and have no out-of-roundness, as a tightly fitting tube
bundle must be inserted in it. Standard pipe less than 450 mm in diameter is usually
available, and this will be used for the shell and head barrels instead of rolled plate.
Depending on the fabricators roll capacity, at thicknesses of the order of 80 mm and
greater or large thickness/diameter ratios, it may be necessary to use forged instead of
rolled barrels.
Most shell and head barrels greater than about 450 mm in inside diameter are rolled from
plate, and a complete shell barrel may comprise several smaller barrels, or strakes,
welded together end to end. If there is any out-of-roundness, individual strakes are
rerolled after welding the longitudinal seams. The longitudinal seams of adjoining strakes
are always staggered. The inside diameter of a rolled shell should not exceed the design
inside diameter by more than 3.2 mm (1/8 in) as determined by circumferential
measurement. All internal welds must be made flush.
For internal pressure, the thickness of the shell is calculated from the hoop stress formula.
The equation is modified so that either internal or external cylindrical radius can be used.
The design formulae in the code are derived by equating the maximum membrane stress to

86

the allowable stress corrected for weld joint efficiency. As per ASME codes, the thickness
of cylinder wall should not be less than as computed by the following formulae:
Table 4.4: ASME code formulae for thin cylindrical shell to withstand internal pressure
Member

Thickness, t

Maximum

internal Limitation

pressure, p
Longitudinal joints
Circumferential
joints
In terms of outside
radius

t = PR / (SE- 0.6P)

P = Set / (R+ 0.6t)

t = PRo/ (SE + 0.4P) P = 2St / (R 0.4t)

t = PRo/ (SE + 0.4P) P = St / (Ro 0.4t)

P<= 0.385SE
t<= 0.5 R
P<= 1.25SE
t= 0.5R
P<= 0.385SE
t<= 0.5 R

Following ASME and TEMA standards govern the design of shell.

TEMA
Minimum fabricated thickness

RCB-3.13

Post weld heat treatment of CS channel

RCB-9.14

ASME
Minimum thickness of shell

UG16 (b)

Internal pressure thickness

t = PR/ (SE 0.6P),

UG27(c)

Where E = weld joint efficiency

Uw12

Vacuum check (External pressure thickness)

UG28

Tolerance on out-of-roundness

UG80

Good practice regarding linings

APP- F

Clad-shell design thickness

UCL23

87

4.5.2 Dished head

The analysis of hemispherical heads is straightforward, and all code rules are based on the
following equation:
= PR2 (1-) sin / 2tE
For ellipsoidal and torispherical heads, the analysis is more complex, and in recent years,
experimental and theoretical studies have examined the local stresses existing throughout
these heads. Dished head channels are cheaper than those with bolted flat heads.
The thickness and maximum pressure for dished heads of different shapes are given in the
following table:
Table 4.5 ASME formulae foe determination of dished heads
Head type

Thickness, t

Maximum

Ellipsoidal
Torispherical
Hemispherical
Conical

t = PD / (2SE 0.2P)
t = 0.885PL / (SE 0.1P)s
t = PL / (2SE 0.2P)
t = PD / 2cos (SE 0.6P)

pressure, P
P = 2ESt / (D + 0.2t)
P = Set / (0.885L + 0.1t)
P = 2Set / (L + 0.2t)
P = 2SEtcos / (D
1.2tcos)

Following ASME and TEMA standards govern the design of dished head:
TEMA
Minimum fabricated thickness

RCB-3.13

Bonnet inside depth for Multipass channels

RCB-9.12

Post weld heat treatment of C.S. channels

RCB-9.14

ASME
Minimum thickness

UG16 (b)

Internal pressure thickness of semispherical,

2: 1 ellipsoidal and 6% torispherical

UG32

Internal pressure thickness of other ellipsoidal

88

internal

and torispherical heads

UA4

Tolerance on shape

UG8 1

Attachment welds to cylinder

UW13

Vacuum check

UG 33

4.5.3 Flat head

With simple edge conditions, a flat plate under pressure is a straightforward bending
component. The junction with the cylindrical shell is either welded or flanged, and this
junction disturbs the simple stress distribution. The resultant stress-concentration factor is
accommodated in the code rules by a factor modifying the basic flat-plate formula. With
bolted heads an edge moment is added by the adjacent flange bolting and a modifying
factor is again used.
The minimum thickness of flat head, cover and blind flanges shall be calculated by the
following relation:
t = d (CP/SE)
Following ASME and TEMA standards govern the design of flat head:
TEMA
Partition groove considered as corrosion allowance

RCB-1.514

Bolted channel cover thickness

RCB-9.21

Depth of partition groove

RCB-9.22

ASME
Acceptable types of flat heads

Fig. UG34

Flat head thickness

UG34(c) (2)

Thickness at edge gasket groove

UG 34 (d)

Reinforcement of opening

UG 39

4.5.4 Floating head components

The floating head is composed of three components:

89

1. The floating head cover-a dished or flat head

2. The floating head flange-attached to the cover
3. The backing ring-usually split to allow withdrawal of the tube bundle
Design of floating head is governed by the following ASME and TEMA standards.
TEMA
Minimum inside depth of floating-head covers

RCB-9.12

Post weld heat treatment of CS floating head covers

RCB-9.14

Materials and corrosion allowance

RCB-5.13

Tube bundle support plate at floating end

RCB-5.14

ASME
Dished head thickness, internal pressure

UA6 and UG32

Dished head thickness, external pressure

UG33

Flange ring thickness

UA6

Split-backing-ring thickness

UA53

4.5.5 Tubes
Tubes in fixed tube sheet exchangers are subjected to and loads as wells as an internal
and external pressure. Longitudinal tensile stresses arte treated the same way as pressure
tensile stresses, but longitudinal compresses stresses may cause the tube to buckle as a
column. Tubes are also subjected to end loads which effect the tube end fixing. In
thickness calculation minimum tolerances should be taken into account.
Following ASME and TEMA standards govern the design of tubes:
TEMA
Standard length

RCB-2.1

Standard diameter and thickness

RCB-2.2

Minimum thickness before forming U bends

RCB-2.31

Longitudinal stress (fixed tubesheet)

RCB-7.23/4

Tube joint loads

RCB-7.5

Tube maintenance

E-4
90

ASME
Thickness for internal and external pressure

UG31

Tube end fitting

APP. A

4.5.6 Tubesheet
Tubes sheets are most complex exchanger component and 15 variables can be listed that
affect the loading. TEMA in 1941 first gave rule for the design of U and floating-Head
tubesheets based on modified plate formulae. Although empirical, these formulae gave
satisfactory results and a form of them is still is used in current TEMA rule .An analytical
approach for U and floating Head tube was provided by Gardener by treating the tube sheet
as a modified solid plate.
Following ASME and TEMA standards govern the design of tubesheet:
TEMA
Effective thickness of tubesheet

A.12

Clad tubesheets-

A.122 and 7.9

Tube hole clearances

RCB-7.4

Expanded tube joints

RCB-7.5

ASME
For tubesheet extended for edge bolting, the thickness at the
periphery can be checked as for the outer edge of a flat plate,

Fig. (i) UG34 (d)

Attachment weld between shell and tubesheet

UW13 (e)

Tube end fixing, the maximum end load is dependent on code

stress, c.s.a., and type and testing of expanded or welded joint

APP. A

4.5.7 Nozzles
For nozzle design, the principal codes illustrate two approaches. The traditional method of
nozzle reinforcement by area replacement is used by ASME VIII Div. 1, in which the
cross-sectional area of the reinforcement equals the cross-sectional area of the metal
91

removed from the shell. This reinforcement is added as a pad, a thickened branch, or a
thickened shell.
A limited amount of plastic deformation in local areas is accepted during initial operating
cycles, but a residual stress distribution is established and the subsequent behavior is
completely elastic. This shakedown behavior is achieved by limiting the maximum stress
in the nozzle. For branches in spherical shells this maximum is set at 2.25 times the
allowable stress in the non reinforced shell. For branches in cylindrical shells the allowable
stress concentration factor is calculated from the estimated shakedown factor for the nozzle
geometry.
Design of nozzles is governed by the following ASME and TEMA standards:
TEMA
General requirements
Vent and drain connections
Pressure and temperature connections
Split flange design
Nozzle loadings

RCB-9.1
RCB-9.31
RCB-9.3213
RCB-9.5
RCB-9.6

ASME
General requirements
Maximum nozzle diameter in cylinder using compensation
rules is one half of shell diameter up to 1 524 mm
Maximum nozzle diameter in heads is one-half of shell diameter
Recommendations for large nozzles

UG36

Large nozzles require proof test

Reinforcement area required
Limits of reinforcement
Reinforcement of multiple openings (i.e., pitch < 2 X Dav)
Minimum nozzle neck thickness

UGl0l
UG37 (b)
UG40
UG42
UG45

UG36 (b) (1)

UG36 (b)(2)
UA7

4.5.8 Supports
Supports for heat exchangers are usually of two types:

Saddle supports for horizontal units, one fixed and one sliding, with support angle
usually greater than 120.

Support feet for vertical units

92

Design of supports is governed by the following ASME standards:

ASME
Good practice regarding supports.
Material for supports
Loads to be considered
Fitment of supports

App. G
UG6 (b)
UG 22
UG 82

4.5.9 Flanges
Flange design is perhaps the most complicated and tedious process in the designing of a
shell and tube heat exchanger. In design practice one can select a standard flange from the
available options or one may completely design a new flange.
There are three types of flanges, namely, loose, integral, or optional. The type of flanges
to be used may depend on the availability of material, design conditions, the process
fluids, or manufacturing costs. For example, a carbon steel loose-type flange having a lap
joint could be used with a stainless steel shell.
Flanges and bolting for external joints shall be in accordance with Code design rules,
subject to the limitations set forth in the following paragraphs.
TEMA
Minimum bolt size

R11.1, C11.1, B11.1

Bolt circle layout

RCB-1.2

Minimum recommended wrench and nut clearances

RCB-11.3

ASME
Rules for bolted flange connections with ring type gaskets

App. 2

Basic gasket seating width

UA-49.2

Gasket and flange material selection

UA-52

4.5.10 Non pressure parts

Design of non pressure parts is mostly taken into consideration by TEMA and there are
no hard and fast rules specified by ASME in this regard.
Following are some of the standards that govern the design of such non pressure parts.
These standards are according to TEMA 1978 Edition.
93

Transverse baffles

R-4.1

Longitudinal baffles

R-4.42

Support plates

R-4.3, R-4.4

Tie rods and spacers

R-4.71

Impingement plates

R-4.6

4.6 Heat exchanger specifications sheet

By established practice, a majority of shell-and-tube exchangers are designed by the
manufacturers from specification sheets supplied by the user and partially filed out by the
designer. A typical such specification sheet, taken from EST heat exchangers company, is
reproduced in Fig. 4.2. Unfortunately, the information transferred from the user to the
designer and fabricator by these forms almost never contains sufficient information for a
really complete design, and the details of who is really responsible for what are rather
confused.
On the other hand, the user often imposes unnecessary constraints, such as specified tube
diameter and tube length, shell type and baffle type, and other design parameters, which
at closer examination are found to be rather arbitrary and prevent an optimum or a
good design. Specification of the maximum permissible pressure drop is probably the
most sensitive of the entries, as it for all practical purposes fixes the design by inherent
implications. Nevertheless, this crucial value is often based on rather arbitrary criteria.
Similarly fouling resistances are specified from experience values or are based on TEMA
Standards for lack of any better sources.

94

Figure 4.2

Sample heat exchanger data sheet

95

The frequent practice of using high fouling resistances as safety factors is dangerous, as
the amount of safety gained is relative and can be determined only after all the resistances
have been established. With the exception of very common fluids, the specification of
physical properties, especially for fluid mixtures, is not only a most time-consuming
chore, but also is subject to potentially great errors as sources of data are scarce. More
often than not, crudely estimated values are used in the absence of better answers.
Thus the practices and usage of the specification sheets is a rather sensitive problem, and
the designer should make sure that input of sufficient detail but without unnecessary
restrictions is available.
The recent trend, especially with large user companies, is to perform the thermohydraulic
design themselves and to let the manufacturer design the details of constructional
elements. This has the advantage that the user has more direct access to various aspects of
the process, checks for operation at other-than-normal conditions, usually a better supply
of physical properties data, and, last but not least, access to large, sophisticated computer
programs. But close cooperation between the user and the manufacturers remains a very
crucial element.

96

Chapter 5
Design Calculations

5.1 Introduction
This design example is for a shell and tube heat exchanger. The heat exchanger has a
fixed tubesheet on one side and a floating head on the other side. The measurements and
calculations are in SI units. The design conforms to the standards of TEMA 2007 edition
and ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division I, 2007 edition.

5.1.1 Specifications
Exchanger type

TEMA AJS

TEMA class

Design pressure shell side

2000 kPa

Design pressure tube side

500 kPa

Design temperature shell side

100oC

Design temperature tube side

15oC

Corrosion allowance shell side

3 mm

Corrosion allowance tube side

3 mm
97

Shell inside diameter

635 mm

Channel inside diameter

635 mm

Shell inlet nozzle nominal pipe size

203 mm

Shell outlet nozzles nominal pipe size

152 mm

Tube side inlet nozzle nominal pipe size

305 mm

Tube side nozzle outlet nominal pipe size

305 mm

Number of tubes

468

Tube outside diameter

19.05 mm

Tube wall thickness (14 BWG)

2.11 mm

Tube length

4.06mm

Tube pitch

23.812 mm

Tube pattern

30o

Number of tube passes

Number of baffle segments

Baffle spacing

380 mm

Baffle cut

25%

Impingement protection

none

Weld examination

spot

5.1.2 Material specification

Component

Form

Specification

Shell

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Channel

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Channel cover

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Shell cover cylinder

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Shell cover formed end

Plate

SA-5 15-70
98

Shell flanges

Forgings

SA-105

Channel flanges

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Shell cover flange

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Floating head cover flange

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Pass partition plate

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Tubesheets

Plate

SA-5 15-70

Tubes

Seamless tube

SA-210-Al

Shell side nozzle

Pipe

SA-106-B

Tube side nozzle

Pipe

SA-106-B

Bolts

Bar

SA-193-B7

5.1.3 Order of calculation

For a heat exchanger with a floating tubesheet, assuming that the tube layout is known, it
is advisable to design the floating-head cover first. This will confirm if there is sufficient
space within the shell and outer tube limit circle diameter to fit the required gasket. The
shell, channel, and shell cover cylinder thicknesses may then be calculated. The
remaining components may then be designed at random. For this design, the selected tube
wall thickness is checked, followed by the design of the flanges and end enclosures. The
tubesheet and nozzles calculations complete the calculations for components subjected to
pressure. Finally, the dimensions of the non pressure components are determined.

The units used for pressure are kPa, and for material stresses are MPa as specified in the
ASME nomenclature (1 Pascal = 1 newton per square meter).

99

5.2 Floating Head

5.2.1 Flange and dish
From ASME UA-6, the minimum dish thickness is the greater of the tube-side or shellside requirements.
For internal pressure
t
Where,
P = Pt = 500 kPa,
R = dish corroded inside radius
S = maximum allowable stress = 121 MPa.
Assume
Shell-to-floating tubesheet radial clearance = 5 mm
Gasket width, N = 13 mm

(TEMA minimum = 12.7 mm)

Then the flange corroded inside diameter, B

Where,
Di = Shell internal diameter
X = Radial clearance between flange and shell
N = Flange width
The flange uncorroded inside diameter is

100

Assume the dish uncorroded inside radius is 0.75 X 593 = 445 mm;

Then

So,
tfhd =

From TEMA R-3.13

Minimum allowable corroded plate thickness is 6.35 mm. Assume that tfhd = 7 mm
For external pressure
According to ASME UG-33(c), the procedure for design based on external pressure is as
fellows.

Step 1: Assume a head thickness t of 7 mm and calculate the value of factor A:

A

101

Steps 2, 3: Enter Fig. CS-2 at A value of 0.00195 and move vertically to material line for
700F. Move horizontally to the right and read B value of 14500 lbf/in 2. Multiply this
value with 6.895 to convert it into kPa.

Step 4: The maximum allowable external working pressure for the assumed head
thickness of 7 mm is:
Pa

This value is less than the shell side design pressure so assume a higher value of
thickness and repeat the procedure.
Assume t = 9 mm

A=

For this value of A,

102

= 104804
Now,
Pa

Since Pa of 2105 kPa is greater than the external design pressure P of 2000 kPa, the
assumed head thickness of 9 mm is be satisfactory.
So the dish uncorroded thickness can be found as;
Tfhd

Tfhd
Dish uncorroded inside radius is;

103

5.2.2 Flange design

The flange thickness is the greatest thickness of that required for gasket seating, tube side
pressure, shell side pressure or from geometric considerations to allow for the sufficient
crossover flow area. The positioning of dish cover relative to the flange centroid is an
important part of design calculations. There are several methods for this purpose one
which is being used here is presented below.

1. Calculate the flange thickness required for gasket seating.

2. Calculate the gasket thickness required for the crossover flow area.
3. Use the greater thickness of the two of the above and position the outer edge of
the flange of the dish at the back of the flange.
4. Calculate the loads and moments exerted on the flange by the tube side and shell
side pressure.
5. If the flange is overstressed, hold the dish position and equal increments to both
sides of the flange until an acceptable thickness has been achieved.
The general equation for flange thickness is given by ASME UA-6, where

In this equation,
F=

J=

(For internal pressure)

(For external pressure)
(For gasket seating)
For gasket seating

104

So,
, and
This gives,

Substituting the values in the expression for J:

J=

Now,

So,
t = 56.6 mm
t = 57 mm (approx)
For flow crossover area
For flow cross over area, from TEMA R- 8.12

There are 468 tubes, 19.05 mm OD and 2.1 mm wall thickness arranged in four passes.
Flow area per pass =

105

Flow area per tube per pass =

19.05 2 * 2.11)2

According to TEMA R-8.12, the total required crossover area is

If the effect of pass partition plate is neglected, the area available under the dish for
crossover per pass is

The depth of flange required for crossover flow area per pass is

For external pressure

F=

=
106

=8

J=

=
= 566.62 mm2
Now,

t = 48.38 mm
For internal pressure

F=

J=

107

=
= 415.64 mm2
Since

So,

t = 22.48 mm

So we will consider the greatest value of thickness. This value is for gasket seating. i.e:
t = 57 mm

5.2.3 Gasket and bolting conditions

For this design, flange design is as fellows:
Gasket material: soft steel jacket asbestos filled
625 mm OD x 599 mm ID x3, with pass partition webs 10 mm wide,
N = 13 mm
bo = N/2.
= 6.5 mm
For bo > 6.35 mm

108

b = 6.425 mm
From table 2-5.1,
m = 3.75 mm
y = 52.4 MPa

=
=

= 6.28 * 6.425 * 612.15 * 3.75 * 500

= 46,335N

= 0.785 * (612.15) 2 * 500

= 147,081N

= 174,081 + 46,335
= 193,416N

109

= 0.785 * (612.15) 2 * 2000

=588,322N
Am = Greater of A1 = Wm1 / Sb or A2 = Wm2 / Sa
= greater of 193,416 / 172 or 647,459 / 172
= 3764 mm2
Bolt specifications: 24 M20 bolts.
Ab = 24 * 214.89
= 5157 mm2

= 0.5 (3,764 + 5,157) * 172

= 767,206N
Gasket width check,
N > TEMA minimum width, Or Nmin1 or N min2
TEMA minimum width = 12.7 mm

= 5,157 * 172 / 6.28 * 612.15 * 3.75

= 4.4 mm

= 588,322 / 6.28 * 612.15 * 52.4

= 2.9 mm

110

=
= 41.44 degree
Gasket inside diameter, B = 599 mm
Bolt circle diameter, C = 660 mm
Gasket outside diameter, A = 702 mm

The moments involved in gasket design are summarized in the form of tables below:
Tube side operating conditions:
Load N
HD = 0.785 * B2 * Pt
= 0.785 * (599) 2 * 500
=140,889N

Lever arm, mm
hD = 0.5 (BCD - B)
= 0.5 (660 - 599)
= 30.5 mm

Moment, N-m
MD = HD* hD
= 140,889 * 30.5
= 4,295N-m

HG = Wm1 H
= Hp
= 46,335N
HT = H HD
= 147,081 140,829
= 6,252N
Hr = HD cot 1
= 140,889 cot (41.44)
= 159,515N

hG = 0.5 (BCD - G)
= 0.5 (660 612.15)
= 23.95 mm
hT = 0.5 (hD + hG)
= 0.5 (30.5 + 23.95)
= 27.225 mm
hr = 20.0 mm

MG = HG * hG
= 46,335 * 23.95
= 1,110N-m
MT = HT * hT
= 6,252 * 27.225
= 170N-m
Mr = Hr * hr
= 159,515 * 20.0
= -3190N-mm
Mo = 2,385N-m

Shell side operating conditions:

Load, N
HD = 0.785 * B2 * Ps
= 0.785 * (599) 2 * 2000
= 563,717N
HT = He HD
= 159,515 140,889
= 25,005N
Hr = HD cot 1

Lever arm, mm
h = hD hG
= 30.5 23.95
= 6.55 mm
h = HT HG
= 27.225 23.95
= 3.275 mm
hr = 20.0 mm
111

Moment, N-mm
MD = HD * h
= 563,717 *6.55
= 3,690N-mm
MT = HT * h
= 25,005 * 3.275
= 82N-mm
Mr = Hr * hr

= 140,829 * cot (41.44)

= 638,059N

= 638,059 * 20.0
= -12,761N-m
Mo = -8,989N-m

Gasket seating:
Load, N
HG = W
= 767,206N

Lever arm, mm
hG = 23.95 mm

Moment, N-mm
Ma = HG * hG
= 767,206 * 23.95
= 18,374N-m
Mo = 18,374N-m

5.2.4 Floating head backing device design

The backing device clamps the floating cover to the tubesheet. There are various types of
floating head, the one being used here is a single split ring type designed to ASME UG
53(a). The split ring is designed as if it were a solid flange without splits, using a value of
200% of the greater of Ma or Mo.
In this case since Ma is greater than Mo, the effective thickness is therefore,

Shape constant, K = A / B = 1.172

So from ASME Figure UA-51.1
Y = 12.31

Now
Ma = 18,374N-m
S = Sfa =121MPa
B = 599 mm

112

Substituting these values in the expression for floating head thickness,

tfhb = 79.0 mm

5.3 Cylindrical shell

The minimum, allowable thickness for cylindrical shell is the minimum of TEMA or
ASME requirements.
The minimum uncorroded thickness t is the greater thickness as obtained from the
formulae in ASME UG-27.
For circumferential stress (longitudinal joints),
t=
For longitudinal stress (circumferential joints),
t=
Where,
P = Design pressure for shell side = 2000 k pa
Ri = Inside radius of vessel = 635 mm
S = Allowable material stress at design temperature = 121MPa
E = Weld joint efficiency = 0.85

For circumferential stress

t=

113

=
t = 10 mm
For longitudinal stress
t=

=
t = 6.15 mm
For external pressure,
Assume t = 10 mm
Then,
A=

mm

For this value of A,

B = 16800 lbf/in2
= 16800 * 6.895
= 115,836 kPa
Now,
Pa =

114

=
= 3537 kPa
Since this value of pressure is more than shell side pressure, a thickness of 10 mm is safe.

5.4 Shell cover (dished head)

The minimum allowable thickness for shell cover is the maximum value of TEMA and
ASME requirements. Shell cover used in this design is a 2:1 ellipsoidal head. According
to ASME UG-32, the minimum required thickness at the thinnest point is shall be the
greater of the thicknesses calculated by the formula for ellipsoidal head and the formula
for hemispherical heads divided by the joint efficiency of the head to shell joint.
Ellipsoidal head formula,
t=
Where,
P = Shell side design pressure
D = Shell cover cylinder diameter + 2 * corrosion allowance
= 718 + 2 * 3
= 724 mm
S=
= 0.85 * 121
= 102.85MPa
E = Weld joint efficiency = 1.0
Then,
t=

=
t = 7.05 mm
115

Hemispherical head formula,

t=
Where,
Le = D/2 = 362 mm
E = 0.85
Then,
t=

=
t = 4.15 mm
According to ASME UG-32, we will have to divide this thickness by weld joint
efficiency before using it in design calculations. So,
t = 4.15 / 0.85
t = 4.88 mm
So we will use the higher value, i.e t = 7.05 mm
Assuming a thinning allowance of 12.5% and including the corrosion allowance, the
minimum required thickness comes out to be,
t = 7.05 + 0.125 * 7.05 + 3.00
t = 10.93 mm
From TEMA R-3.2, the minimum required thickness comes to be,
t = 9.53 mm
Therefore rounding off to the nearest decimal, the plate thickness is 11 mm.

116

5.5 Channel cover

The channel cover is a flat plate, bolted to the channel at its front end. Its effective
thickness is the maximum of ASME or TEMA requirements.
From ASME UG-34, for the given operating conditions,

t=G
Where,
t = effective channel cover thickness
Cc = dimensionless factor = 0.3
P = Design pressure tube side = 500 kPa
S = Maximum allowable stress = 121MPa
E = Joint efficiency
W = Bolt load for gasket loading = 633,804N
Wm1 = Bolt load under operating conditions = 232,701 N-m
hG = radial distance from location of gasket load reaction to the bolt circle = 706
G = Diameter at point of location of gasket load reaction
db = Nominal bolt diameter = 20.0 mm
Ab = Actual total cross sectional area of bolts = 6.017 mm2
Substituting the values of variables in the above expression we get the value of cover
plate thickness,
t=

=
= 27.6 mm
For gasket seating, P = 0
So,

117

t=

=
t = 19.9 mm
From TEMA R-8.21

t=

=
t= 52.6 mm
The gasket has a compression factor m < 3.0. Therefore the thickness obtained by TEMA
formula can be reduced by 20%. Hence,
t = 0.8 * 52.6
t = 42.1 mm
The thickness calculated by TEMA formula is greater than the thickness calculated by
ASME formula, so the effective thickness is 42.1 mm. The cover overall thickness
rounded off to nearest decimal, including the gasket recess groove depth of 5 mm will
therefore be,
t = 48 mm
5.6 Tubes
Tube thickness is determined by using internal pressure formula as specified in ASME
UG-31. Wall thickness is specified in TEMA R-2.21.
t=
Where,
118

Pt = Tube side pressure = 500kPa

Rv = Tube inside radius = 7.415 mm
S = Maximum allowable stress = 121 MPa
E = Joint efficiency = 1.0
Then using the internal pressure formula,
t=
t = 0.031 mm
For external pressure, using the rules in ASME UG-28,
Assume tube wall thickness, t = 2.11 mm
Then,
A=

=
For this value of A,
B = 17,200 lbf/in2
= 17200 * 6.895
= 118,594 kPa
Now for the tube, the two pressures Pa1 and Pa2 will be calculated, the minimum of which
will give the maximum allowable pressure.
Pa1 =

119

= 18,610kPa
Pa2 =
Where,
S is lesser of two times the maximum allowable stress value (103 MPa) or 0.9
times the material yield strength (255 MPa)
S = the lesser of 2 X 103 = 206 MPa
Or
0.9 X 255 = 229.5 MPa
Therefore S = 206 MPa.
Pa2 =
= 40,573 kPa
The maximum allowable external pressure for the tube wall is therefore 18 610 kPa,
which is much greater than tube operating pressure of 500 kPa. Hence a tube wall
thickness of 2.11 mm will be satisfactory for both the tube-side and shell-side design
pressures.
t = 2.11 mm
5.7 Tubesheets
This heat exchanger contains two tubesheets, one of which is fixed and the other is
stationary. Both the tubesheets are considered gasketed without edge bolting. The
effective thickness is determined from TEMA R-7.
5.7.1 Stationary tubesheet
The effective thickness of stationary tubesheet is the greater of that required for bending
or shear.

120

According to TEMA R-7.132, thickness formula for bending is given by:

t=
Shear thickness is specified by TEMA R-7.133,
t=
Where,
P = Greater of shell side or tube side design pressure = 2000kPa
G = Mean diameter of the gasket at the stationary tubesheet = 678.28 mm
F = A constant = 1.0
S = Maximum allowable stress = 121MPa
do = Tube outside diameter = 19.05 mm
p = Tube pitch = 23.81 mm
In this case only bending will be the governing parameter as
P/S < 1.6(1-do/p)2
So putting the values in bending formula,

t=
t = 43.6 mm
The stationary tube sheet will have a raised face of 5mm thickness on each side for fitting
the gaskets. The minimum overall thickness rounded off to the nearest decimal is
therefore,
t = 43.6 + 2 * 5
t = 54 mm
5.7.2 Floating tubesheet
The effective thickness of the floating tubesheet will be the same as the effective
thickness of fixed tubesheet because the parameters P, S, F and G have the same value for
both the cases. The only difference between the two is that floating tubesheet will have a
raised face of 5mm thickness on only one side of it.
121

5.8 Nozzles and reinforcements

5.8.1 Nozzles
The nozzle wall thickness is calculated by using ASME UG-36 or TEMA R-9. The nozzle
will be of seamless pipe. Assuming that there are no external loads, from ASME UG-45,
the wall thickness of the nozzle may not be less than the smaller of the following.
1. The required thickness of the shell or the head to which the nozzle is attached plus
corrosion allowance provided in the shell adjacent to the nozzle.
2. The minimum thickness of standard wall pipe plus corrosion allowance on the
nozzle.
The formula used to calculate nozzle thickness is the formula for internal pressure,
t=
A summary of wall thickness calculations for all the nozzles is given in the following
table:
Tube side
Inlet / outlet
Inlet
Number of nozzles
1
Nominal size
305
P = Design pressure, kPa
500
R = Corroded inside radius 320.5
of mating shell or head, mm
S = Maximum allowable 121
stress, MPa
E = Joint efficiency
1
c =corrosion allowance, mm 3
t + corrosion allowance, mm 4.33
Standard wall thickness, mm 9.53
Standard
wall 11.34
thickness*0.785 + corrosion
allowance, mm
Min. allowable thickness, 4.33
mm
Pipe nominal thickness, mm 6.53
Pipe schedule
20

Outlet
1
305
500
320.5

Shell side
Inlet
1
203
2000
320.5

Outlet
2
152
2000
320.5

121

121

121

1
3
4.33
9.53
11.34

1
3
8.31
8.18
10.15

1
3
8.31
7.11
9.22

4.33

8.31

8.31

6.53
20

10.31
60

10.97
80

5.8.2 Nozzle reinforcements

When a hole has been cut in a shell or head to accommodate a nozzle, reinforcements
may be required to compensate for the metal that has been removed. The reinforcement
may be in the form of:

122

1. A forged neck nozzle, ASME UG-40

2. Reinforcing plate
The limits of reinforcement are given by the following relation,
tr =
And
trn =
Where,
P = Design pressure
Rn = Nozzle inside radius
R = Mating vessel inside radius
S = Vessel allowable stress = 121MPa
Sn = Nozzle allowable stress = 103MPa
E = Joint efficiency = 1.0
5.9 Non pressure parts
5.9.1 Transverse baffles
The baffle cut design is governed by TEMA R-4.1. It defines the baffle cut as the
segmental opening height expressed as a percentage of the shell inside diameter. The
maximum baffle to shell clearance is defines in TEMA R-4.3. Minimum baffle thickness
is specified in TEMA R-4.41.
ASME does not give any codes about the design of transverse baffles
The summary of baffle design calculations is given below:
Baffle diameter = 630.55 mm
Minimum baffle thickness = 4.76 mm
Baffle cut = 25%
Baffle to shell radial clearance = 2.225 mm
Number of baffles = 9
5.9.2 Longitudinal baffles
Longitudinal baffles are required to separate the fluid between passes. Thickness of
longitudinal baffles is specifies by TEMA R-4.42. The value is calculated to be 6.35 mm.
5.9.3 Support plates
Support plates are used to reduce the effect of the combined weights of the head cover
and tubesheet on the tubes in the horizontally mounted heat exchangers. According to
123

TEMA R-4.3 and R-4.4, support plates have same thickness and diameter as that of the
transverse baffles. The maximum unsupported tube length is specified in TEMA R-4.52.
There is one support plate, 631 mm OD x 5 mm thick in this heat exchanger.
5.9.4 Tie rods and spacers
Design of tie rods and spacers is governed by TEMA R-4.71, and it is summarized below:
Number of tie rods: 6
Diameter of rods: 10 mm
Length of tie rods: 3,840 mm
5.9.5 Saddle supports
Neither ASME nor TEMA gives a design method for the design of saddle supports.
5.10 Summary of main dimensions
Component
Fromt head cover
Front head barrel
Shell barrel
Shell cover skirt
Shell cover dish
Tubes (468)
Shell nozzle S1
Shell nozzle S2
Shell nozzle S3
Channel nozzle T1
Channel nozzle T2
Stationary tubesheet
Floating tubesheet
Baffles (9)
Support plate
Tie rods (6)
Cover bolts front (28)
Shell bolts front (28)
Shell bolts rear (28)
Floating head bolts (24)

Inside
Outside
diameter, mm diameter, mm
804.0
635.0
655.0
635.0
655.0
718.0
740.0
718.0
740.0
16.9
19.0
198.5
219.1
146.3
168.3
146.3
168.3
311.1
323.8
311.1
323.8
695.0
625.0
631.0
631.0
M10
M20
M20
M20
M20

124

Thickness,
mm
48.0
10.0
10.0
11.0
11.0
2.1
10.3
11.0
11.0
6.4
6.4
54.0
54.0
5.0
5.0

Length,
mm
640.0
3625
235
240
4060
180
180
180
180
180

3840
150
175
210
240

References
Books

Mechanical Design Of Process Systems, Vol 2, by Escope A. Keith, Gulf publishing

company, Houston, Texas, 1995
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, by Kuppan, Marcell Dekker Inc. New York,
1984
Heat Exchangers Selection, Rating And Thermal Deisgn, by Sadik Kakac and
Hongtan Liu, 2nd edition, 2002.
Process Heat Transfer by D. Q. Kern, 1965
A Heat Transfer Textbook, by John H. Lienhard IV / John H. Lienhard V, 3rd edition,
2003.
2007 ASME Boiler And Pressure Vessel Code Section VIII Division I, by The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Three Park Avenue, New York, NY 100165990
125

Standards Of The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, by Tubular

Exchanger Manufacturers Association, INC. 25 North Broadway Tarrytown, New York
10591, 9th edition, 2007.
Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, by D. Brian Spalding and J. Taborek,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, ISBN O-891 16-125-2
Optimum Design Of Shell-And-Tube Heat Exchanger, by Liljana Markovska, Vera
Mesko~Radmila Kiprijanova, Aleksandar Grizo, ISSN 350 0136
Heat exchangers Chapter 11, by Kevin D. Rafferty, P.E. Gene Culver Geo-Heat
Center Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601
Effectively design shell-and-tube heat exchangers, by American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, February 1998.
Heat and mass transfer, by Younus Cangel
Worked examples in Engineering Thermodynamics, by J. W Harris, Assistant
lecturer in Mechanical Engineering, Brighton Technical College England.

126

Internet

http://piping-designer.com/Shell_and_Tube_Heat_Exchanger
http://www.heatexchangers.ca/manuals.html
http://www.secplateandframe.com/manuals/sec-catalog-section-5-shell-and-tubemodels.pdf
http://wwww.dac-3d.com/DACTRNG/PRODMECH/288PHOT.HTM
http://www.dac-3d.com/DACTRNG/PRODMECH/286PHOT.HTM
http://www.jlhermon.com
http://www.heatexchangersonline.com/shellandtube.htm
http://www.heat-exchange.com
http://www.designofhe.com
http://www.EngineeringToolBox.com
http://www.hesco.com
http://www.gigapedia.com
http://www.altavista.com
http://www.wikipedia.com/heatexchanger
http://www.google.com
http://www.howstuffworks.com
http://www.sciencedirect.com
http://www.ebooks.com
http://www.studytogether.com

127

128