Term Paper On

MUSLIM MINORITIES IN WESTERN EUROPE

Demographic, Political, Economic and Social Patterns of Behavior

Submitted To

Dr. Mohammad Waseem

By

Samee Ullah Khan Lashari

M.Phil. (2nd Semester)

Department of International Relations

Quaid-i-Azam University
Islamabad
1). INTRODUCTION

The relationship between Islam and Europe goes back centuries. Islam and
Europe have both constantly made and re-made each other in spite of the blood that has
been shed on both sides. From the European renaissance onwards Islam has been an
integral, vivid part of Europe. However the most visible migration of Muslims started
from within the colonies of Western powers, very after Second World War. This
migration has the historical routes. The masters of these colonies have been sucking
manpower from these colonies to boost their economic and industrial strength. The
present Muslim populations in these countries are generally of those countries that got
liberation after Second World War from their masters in which these populations are now
present.1
But migration did not end there after independence. On the contrary it boosted up.
The majority of the first generations of Muslim populations present in these countries
migrated in 1960s. Motive was the same: war-torned Western powers needed manpower
that was provided by their former colonies, mostly Muslims. So Germany asked Turkey
to send its manpower as ‘guest workers’; France got a well-sized population from its
African colonies and Muslims of commonwealth countries and of sub-continent origins
migrated to Britain.
The contemporary interactions of these immigrants with their ‘host societies’ are
of far reaching importance. Majority of the Muslim original immigrants called as ‘first
generation’ is almost out of scene as they are no more workers. There now exists
‘second’, and in a significant number of cases, even ‘third generation’. The overall
Muslim population has very profound effects on its ‘host societies’. As the world
globalizes, the role of Muslims, in Western Europe especially and in the overall West
generally, gets an immense importance. The contemporary global political developments
are deeply connected with these Muslim populations, and new dynamics are being
explored in these perspectives. This paper, written in this outlook, explores the
demographic, political, economic and social patterns of behavior of these Muslim
populations. Germany, France and United Kingdom have been chosen as the case studies.
 The first portion of the paper reveals the demographic patterns of Muslim
populations in these countries. The overall predictions reveal very interesting facts and
figures. According to various sources there are more than 23 million Muslims in the
West, nearly 5% of the total population. There numbers touch the figure of 90 million if
Turkey is included in Europe. The situation becomes more bleak by the fact that there
enter 500,000 immigrants, mostly of family re-union cases, and 400,000 asylum seekers
every year. The illegal immigrants are believed to be between 120,000 to 500,000 every
year. France is the most Muslim-populated country of Turkey-less Europe as there are
more than five million Muslims there. Germany has also four million Muslims. Britain
has more than two million Muslims. They are of diverse backgrounds. While 68% of
Muslim population of Germany comprises only Turks, there are other communities as
well that have their effective presence. France has majority of its population as of African
background but there are Arabs and Asian Muslims also in great numbers. While
Pakistanis are the 45% of British Muslim population, there are Bangladeshis, Indians,
Arabs and other communities as well. It is estimated that, if Muslim child-production
and arrival of new immigrants continue at the same speed and pattern, they will be 20%
of total European population at the mid of this century. The paper discusses all these facts
and tries to analyze the future prospects of Muslim immigrant as well as Muslim-
European population.2
The second portion of the book discusses the political patterns of the Muslim
populations in these countries. As the most marginalized and deprived group of
immigrants, Muslims are disenfranchised in true sense by the fact that majority of them
do not possess the nationality of their respective ‘host countries’. Lacking such a basic
and essential document divests them from participation in political processes. So they are
not included in political parties or pressure groups as they are virtually voice-less and
carry no importance. In a survey, discussed in the portion in detail as well, reveals that
Muslims are the most not-interested community in political processes. They do care more
about their social security and their other priorities that have economic and financial
gains at the top. Although there is gradual improved participation of Muslims in political
parties and now these parties are also listening to them, but the fact remains in its place
that they are highly under-represented community in realm of politics.
 ‘Economic patterns of behavior’ is the third portion of the paper. The most
prioritized interest of immigrant Muslims has been to finance themselves and their
families with them or back in their originating countries. So they cannot afford any sort
of disruption in the flow of money. Because of this fact, they do sacrifice their other even
due rights and bear discriminations in every realm of life. But there exists prejudice in
economics also that prohibits them from increase in their businesses or economic
activities. Because their such activities directly deal with general public, society or the
state (in very few cases), they are treated discriminatively against. Owing to such
frustrations, intensified by the fact that they have been disenfranchised politically, they
are found in trade and corporate unions, particularly in German context.
The last portion of the paper deals with the social patterns of behavior. Majority
of Muslim immigrants remain invisible as the ‘social fear of unknown’ on the behalf of
local population forbids them to be pro-active in society. They usually participate in their
own ethnic (diverse), religious (diverse) and cultural (also diverse) celebrations and
meetings. So they first of all interact more with the group of their own fellow countrymen
or individuals belonging to one region. They also do follow the family patterns of their
own culture. They live in joint family system and a very significant numbers of
newcomer immigrants have their spouses and children back in their originating countries.
Living in cheep, non-aesthetic, uncomfortable places, and afraid of anger, distrust and
social unlike of the majority, Muslim populations do remain introvert, socially shy, less
vibrant and less motivated for their due participation in state and social affairs.

2). DEMOGRAPHIC PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR

Muslims in the Western Europe are the diverse minority as they belong to almost
every part of the world. Their demographic patterns are of profound importance as they
are showing their presence in society. The characteristics of these Muslim populations are
very different from those of the local population. They are younger, more energetic,
culturally more conscious, socially dumber, and politically more disenfranchised. The
future estimates of their ever-increasing numerical presence in Western Europe show
dramatic upheavals in the population-setup there.
GERMANY
 Germany and Turkey, because of their historical relationships, signed an
agreement in 1962 according to which Turkey provided gastarbeiter or ‘guest worker’ to
the former. So the already extant movement and migration from Muslim countries
generally and Turkey especially enhanced many times. Because of match in both
countries’ interests, Turks as guest workers moved from their homelands and entered in
Germany. They were supposed to be leaving their ‘host country’ after a period of time.
This process continued till famous oil-embargo of 1973, which virtually shut down
western industries.3
Muslims in Germany were present even before this period. In First World War there were
15,000 Muslim prisoners on German soil, many of which remained in Berlin after the
tensions between the Weimar Republic and the newly founded Turkish state mitigated.
The first mosque in Berlin was constructed even in 1915.4
The contemporary Muslim population, approximately four million and 3.6% to
4.1% of total population, is a mixture of many cultural and ethnic entities. 5 Although
majority of it, 68% of total Muslim population, belongs to one national background,
Turkey, but the natural composition of theses Turks that existed at the start of ‘state-
sponsored migration’, is still present. There is a great majority of Arabic speaking
Muslim population.6 According to an estimate, there are more than 300,000 Arabic
speaking Muslim population. They are very diversified group as they include individuals
from Morocco (79,838), Lebanon (57,827), Iraq (60,913), Syria (25,982), Tunisia
(24,243), Algeria (17,308), Egypt (14,025), Jordan (10,922), Sudan (4,289), Libya
(2,791), Yemen (1,751), Saudi Arabia (773), and others as Qatar, Bahrain, UAE, Kuwait,
Oman, and Brunei (1080). There are 17,203 Palestinians also in Germany. After the fall
of Berlin wall they increased in numbers. Nearly 100,000 Germans have entered in Islam
also due to preach and bi-national marriages.7
The majority of Muslims, almost one-third, is concentrated in Ruhrr industrial
area. They are also in significant numbers around Berlin.
As stated in coming lines, the majority of the population came due to financial
incentives. So, generally speaking, economic uplift has been the most important motive
for them to stay, even away from their families. This trend continued till some of them
started to live and adopt German citizenship permanently. As they started doing it, the
demographic patterns and dynamics changed as the female population, mostly because of
family re-union cases, started increasing reasonably. New generation started appearing
and now there is even third-generation here in Germany particularly of those Muslims
who migrated in 1950s and early 1960s. Those who are young and relatively newcomers,
have their spouses in their originating countries, but are also following the erstwhile
settled pattern of ‘permanent settlement’ here.

FRANCE

France has the largest Muslim population in Europe. There are more than five
million Muslims here and comprise 7-10% of total population, which puts Islam at the
position of second largest religion, at least theoretically.8 They are mainly from Algeria
(1,550,000), Morocco (1,000,000) and Tunisia (350,000), or generally speaking, from
North Africa known as Maghreb as well. There are large populations from other regions
as well: 100,000 from Middle East, 315,000 from Turkey, 250,000 from Sub-Saharan
Africa, 100,000 Asians, 100,000 from various other regions, and 40,000 converts. There
are also approximately 350,000 asylum seekers and illegal workers who are believed to
be Muslims. An estimated three million are French citizens.9
Muslims are settled throughout the country but they are majorly concentrated in
the Ile-de-France (35%), Provence-Alpes-Coted’Azur (20%), Rhone-Alpes (15%), and
the Nord-Pas-de-Calais (10%).10
March 1999 census shows that there were 4,310,000 Muslims in France, 7.4% of
total population of that time.11 There population increase is double-speeded by the fact
that there is increase in child-production among Muslims on the one hand and decrease in
child-production among the local aging French population. These patterns, if generalized,
remain very effective by the fact that Muslim population in all over Europe doubled in
last three decades. The fact in French context is most important because France is the
‘reception place’ where immigrants come from North Africa, part of the world that has
the world’s second largest fertility rate. Perhaps this is the reason that the birth rate
among Muslims in overall Europe has increased thrice as compared to the birth rate of
local population. France’s share in this trend is, off course, much more as it is the largest
Muslim minority country of Europe. This tendency is likely to continue and the ‘child-
production-gap’ between the local population and immigrants is supposed to be
increasing as one-third of the younger Muslim generation is below 20 and the share of
Muslims among age group of 16-25 is more than 15%. It is estimated that if present
patterns and trends continue, Muslims will be one-fourth of the population by 2025, and
will out-number local population in 2050.12
The demographic patterns of Muslims of France are not more different as
compared to those of Germany. They are ghettoized and, although round about three
millions of them have got French citizenship, still two millions are not the legal citizens.
They are increasing gradually because there are new entries every day, legally or
illegally. Their integration has become a great problem for French government as one
expert stated that, “The immigration problem has been quickly transformed into a
reflection on the development of French society and its capacity for integration”.13

UNITED KINGDOM

The immigrants in UK have a historical presence in Great Britain and most of

them belong to its former colonies. They have increased many times now. According to
2001 Census, when the religious question was asked for the first time, there are one
million Muslims in Britain. While other sources predict that they number 1.6 million. 14 It
is estimated that the contemporary population of Muslims is round about two million.
Majority of this minority group belongs to Sub-Continent countries – Pakistan,
Bangladesh and India. But there are Muslims of other nationalities also. There are
Algerians, Bosnians, Jordanians, Kurds, Lebanese, Mauritanians, nationals of the Gulf
Emirates, Nigerians, Palestinians, Sudanese, Syrians, and Tunisians. The numbers of the
local converts are believed to be as high as 5,000.15
The age distribution, given in 1991 Census, shows that the Muslim population is
composed of comparatively young individuals. The two major Muslim minority groups,
Pakistanis and Bangladeshis, have 43% and 47% of their respective populations under 16,
as compared to the white population that has only 19% individuals in the same age group.
Conversely, only 2% Pakistanis and 1% Bangladeshis are over 65, compared with white
population that has 17% in this age group.16 It is also perceived that one-third of over all
Muslim population in here is under 15. Because of historical presence here in Great
Britain, 52% of Pakistanis and 44% of Bangladeshis are born here. 17
There exists gender imbalance also as females are far less as compared to the
male population. This imbalance is far higher in Muslim population of Middle Eastern
background. Reasons include the fact that majority of male do come here for financial
motives and to save more and more money they prefer their families to be in originating
countries. It is proved by the fact that while 47% males from Algeria, Iraq, and Jordan are
married, approximately one-third of them have no families in Britain. Muslims of Sub-
Continent origin have minor gender imbalance. Egyptians and Saudis are relatively more
family-based.
The vast majority of Muslims live in England. In Greater London they are 50% of
total Muslim population and 10% or more of the total local population. There are sizeable
Muslim groups elsewhere also. In Scotland there are 40,000 to 60,000 Muslims.
According to recent surveys, there are 4,000 in Northern Ireland. There are 50,000
Muslims in Wales also who are 1.7% of local population there.
Ethnic lines are also pursued in there demographic concentrations. 53% of total
Bangladeshi Muslims live in Greater London, while 43% are in Tower hamlet. Pakistanis
are mainly found in the industrial West Midlands, the ‘mill towns’ of Lancashire, Greater
Manchester and West Yorkshire. Pakistanis are also in north-east and west London,
Slough, Buckinghamshire and Oxford. Small numbers of Arabs, Turks and Iranians are
present in larger Scottish cities, and in Newport and Cardiff in South Wales. Middle
Eastern Muslims are relatively scattered. 18

CONCLUSION

Muslims in Western Europe do have some very important distinguish

characteristics that distinct them from the local population in vital perspectives. Their
‘diversified reunion’ in terms of ‘awarded concept of one-ness’ by the West itself, is of
crucial nature. Keeping their contact with both cultures, their demographic patterns and
trends will be more profoundly sorted out in the coming days. In contemporary global
developments they do carry great importance.
3). POLITICAL PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR

Muslims in the West are the marginalized minority in terms of their participation
as well as their acceptance in political processes and institutions. They are systematically
resisted and not allowed to participate in politics beyond a certain limit. Although there is
awakening mobilization among Muslims in western European countries to get involved
in politics, they are still under-represented and under-estimated for their capabilities to
meet the standards of democracy that is regarded as the beacon for the rest of the still
autocratic, theocratic and despotic countries of Third World, most of which are Muslims.

GERMANY

Most of the Muslims, as mentioned earlier, are immigrants or have an immigrant

background, coming mostly from Turkey. Because of restrictive legislations the majority
of Muslims have not been able to get German citizenship. It has practically restricted
their participation in political processes and marginalizes their participation in
parliamentary politics. In a survey about Turkish Muslim’s participation in political
parties, 96.5% of the respondents responded in NO. This ratio was more in females as
98.2% of female respondents responded in NO. It is not possible to make a final
assessment on political preferences of Muslims in Germany. There are no comprehensive
studies on the topic. According to a study 30% Muslims with Turkish backgrounds have
an invested interest in politics. It can be assumed that such tendency can remain in
Muslims of other background.19 During some last years German foreign policy towards
Muslim countries as Afghanistan and Iraq might have also influenced the political
preferences. Muslims seem to be more interested in organizations and parties of their
countries of origins, as compared to become a member in any German political party. The
increasing number of national naturalizations has led the political parties to turn to
Muslim groups. Candidates frequently visit mosques and Islamic culture centers. Parties
have established organizations of members with ethnic background. For example
German-Turkish Forum was established in the conservative CDU party in 1997.20
 Since 1990s growing Muslim participation in political parties can be observed.
They are found in social Democratic and Green parties as well as in the left-wing party of
Democratic socialists. Turkish Muslims are comparatively more successful to influence
foreign policy as SDP and Green Party try to influence issues related to Turkish state.
Although there are some politicians with Muslim backgrounds in high levels of political
parties, they have yet to influence the political interests of the Muslim communities on
the party platforms.
On the other hand they widely participate in trade unions and professional
associations. This is because they have been granted complete rights in this realm of
political participation. So Muslims are not under-represented in trade unions and
professional institutions. This verity is connected with the fact that most of the Muslims
are immigrants and tend to need a higher level of protection. Another fact in this regard is
because Muslims lack citizenship because of restrictions so they enter in trade and
professional unions to get their civil and social rights voiced.
Muslims are also participating in the fields of civil and human rights
organizations. In this regard there exists traditional organizations such as Turkish
Federation of Berlin. Other new in this field include Federation of the Associations of
Immigrants from Turkey, and Federation of Social Democratic People Associations from
Turkey in Europe. These groups have strong links with their country of origin.
Despite growing participation of Muslims in German politics, this political
articulation remains marginal. Because of restrictive German legislation on citizenship
and naturalization, most Muslim people do not have the German citizenship and so are
excluded from political processes. The liberalization of the citizenship by the government
of Schroeder represents a progress in this regard but still situation seems bleak.

FRANCE

There are some signs of growing strength of the Muslim electorate in France.
Different political notables are also providing due attention to them. For example all the
right-wing candidates in the 2002 presidential elections tried to attract the North African
electorate, particularly through their stance on the situation on Middle East.21
 Several mainstream political parties as well as the trade unions and civic
organizations have expressed a growing interest in the problem of discrimination and
unequal treatment among religions.
There are very few Muslims in positions of political power and responsibility.
However there are signs that the recent emergence of a new middle class of French
Muslims is already effecting changes in the spheres of business and higher education,
through the institution of strong community networks. There is growing movement to
ensure representation of the interests of Muslims in local structures, including trade
unions and political parties. However these associations normally promotes pluralism or
diversity rather than the interests of the Muslim community. 22
State authorities have encouraged and sought to facilitate political participation
and representation of Muslims at national level, at least in theoretical terms. However
there is often resistance to the idea of extending special recognition and rights to Islam,
and secularism or laicite is increasingly conceptualized and advanced in terms of
Republican values rather than constitutional principles, politicizing perceptions of Islam
and Muslims.

UNITED KINGDOM

The level of political incorporation of Muslims in mainstream politics has been

less than that of the majority population. However growing numbers of Muslims have
come to regard formal political mechanism as an effective way of getting their political
problems voiced, if not solved.
Muslim political participation has taken a variety of forms including voting, party
membership and sending as candidates for election. The number of Muslim registered
voters increased heavily since 1970s. By 1991 there were only 15% South Asians as non-
registered. Relatively fewer Pakistanis and Bangladeshis – the predominant Muslim
groups in Britain – turned out at the 1997 general elections to cast vote (76% and 74%
respectively as compared to 82% Indians and 79% white people). However as compared
to previous cases this turn out was encouraging.
Muslim participation in election in terms of candidacy also increased since 1970s.
A record 53 Muslim candidates stood in 2001 general elections. For the first time in
history, a Muslim, Mohammad Sarwar, was elected from a Scottish constituency to the
British parliament in 1997. There are at present two Muslim MPs and one Muslim
member of European Parliament, Bashir Khanbhai, Conservative, from Eastern Region.
There are also four Muslim peers: Lord Nazir Ahmed, Lord Ali, Lord Patel and Lord
Baroness Uddin.23
Despite of this advancement, there have still been no Muslim leaders of local
councils, and only a handful of deputy leaders. Some councilors have occupied high
profile but largely ceremonial roles such as mayor ships etc etc. Discriminatory attitude
has played a role in this regard as Muslims have faced resistance in selection processes
because of negative stereotyping, including their assumed lack of professionalism and
ideological commitment to democratic practices. The main British political parties appear
to be reluctant to advance ethnic minority participation beyond certain ‘acceptable
limits’. They have acknowledged that Muslims have the potential to influence electoral
outcomes in a number of constituencies, but the fear of a ‘white backlash’ has
discouraged these parties from selecting Muslim parliamentary candidates. Although
Muslims of Britain have proved their commitment to the principles of democracy and
pluralistic society, still they are observed with skepticism for their ability to meet
challenges of pluralistic society in essence.

CONCLUSION

The situation of Muslims in Germany, France and United Kingdom reveals that
there is very visible political mobilization in Muslim communities here. But the state
authorities, political parties, political notable actors, general negative public attitudes,
stereotyped perceptions of lack of professionalism among Muslims, and most of all the
internal hurdles of Muslims such as their interests in businesses and other fields, are some
of the very important causes of their marginalization and under-representation in politics.

4). ECONOMIC PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR

Majority of Muslims who migrate from their countries and move towards the
West has the dream and motives of economic nature. They have been coming here to earn
more and more since long ago. Their most visible migration started after Second World
War generally and in 1960s particularly. Having dreams of earning, they have tried to
pursue it as the most prioritized interest. But many of them have now settled there and
have adopted the nationality of their respective ‘host country’. In spite of all this, they
still are economically the most marginalized and deprived class of the society. They are
systematically discouraged to enhance their economic interests and society, public and
state do not allow them to act ‘beyond certain limits’.

GERMANY

Muslims are the marginalized community in Germany and situation does not
seem somewhat more different from that of the situation in other countries of the region.
Although there lack statistical facts and figures but it can be said that Muslims are
considered among the most marginalized minority group of the country. Situation
remains somewhat same in economic conditions where, because of lack of higher
qualifications and practical exposures, Muslims find it difficult to maintain a good
standard life. Germany has a general unemployment rate of 10.5%. Within all migrant
populations, the rate is approximately 19%, and for the people of Turkish background,
normally Muslims, the figure is higher at 23%. It is expected that the unemployment rate
within Muslims will rise because of the acute lack of vocational training places. In some
federal states, the unemployment rate within juvenile Muslim populations is estimated to
be up to 30%. Situation becomes more catastrophic for asylum seekers and
undocumented migrants who are almost totally excluded from labor market. Situation has
slightly improved since 2000 when asylum seekers were given opportunity to receive
work permits after a waiting period of one year.
The establishment of enterprises by individual of migrant background and
members of ethnic minorities in Germany has a long tradition. There are now some
60,000 Turkish business firms in Germany according to the Center for studies on Turkey.
They estimate a total investment capital of 2.6 billion Euros and an annual business
volume of 6.5 billion Euros. This area is, however, not excluded from problems majorly
because of insufficient knowledge of business management and commercial markets as
well as shortage of administrative skills in German context. Here also Muslims face
discriminatory policies and stereotyped attitudes from the public that sometimes become
so worst that Muslims have to shut their businesses. Although they are less violent but
their skeptic behavior becomes a pinch for Muslims. Rooted in German minds is the idea
that Turks are responsible for high unemployment and are spongers to boot. The
‘aggressive intolerance’ towards foreigners, for which Germany’s open-minded
president, Johannes Rau, publicly chides his compatriots, has turned the Turksish
community in on itself.

FRANCE

France has the maximum Muslim population in Europe comprising more than at
least five million. The pattern is not different from that of the rest of European countries.
The overall rate of unemployment among non-European foreign residents is 27.7%, three
times higher as compared to French local population itself, which is 9.4%.24 In this regard
possession of French nationality does not seem to prevent discriminatory practices, as
unemployment appears to strike the French population of immigrant origin in a way that
is comparable to foreign residents. Muslim leaders in this perspective claim that
discrimination is pervasive in hiring and in the workplace. According to one Muslim
association leader, “The Muslim community experiences employment discrimination
linked with national origin or religious membership which have no bearing on their
ability to exercise a profession.”25 Muslims have claimed that they are frequently
discriminated against on the basis of their name in access to certain professional
positions.
The veil-issue has also had an impact in the field of employment. In May 2000,
after several regional educational administrations decided to remove ‘religious symbols’
from official duties, mainly teaching staff, result was more unemployment as Muslim
females got it better to leave job as compared to be having veil-less jobs.
Muslims have been victimized in temporary employment as well because
employment agencies often receive specific requests from companies not to send Muslim
workers.
Self-employment and intra-community employment become the last two options
for Muslims to get themselves and their families financed. Here situation becomes
somewhat improved but the discriminatory public attitude they face restricts them from
expanding their businesses according to their desires and potentials. Another important
perspective in this regard is that there is intra-community jealousy, which prohibits a
Muslim of one ethnic background to get a work permit or job in firm of another Muslim
with different ethnic background.

UNITED KINGDOM

Unskilled with poor education, the majority of Muslim immigrants entered Britain
at the bottom of socio-economic ladder. The economic position of Muslim immigrants
has somewhat changed since 1960s. Many, mostly Pakistanis and Bangladeshis, are still
concentrated in semi-skilled and unskilled sectors of industry. These communities
experience unemployment, poor working conditions, poverty and low educational
qualifications. However Muslims have entered in some professional business ventures
such as property, food, services, fashion and small-scale enterprises. There exists large
population of highly skilled Arabs employed in professional positions as engineers,
professors, doctors and running businesses. Recent research suggests that there are
currently over 5,000 Muslim millionaires in Britain.26
Muslims have turned somewhat away from industrial employment to services,
technical and office work among many younger Muslims, particularly those of South
Asian origin. But their proportionality is very minor and unemployment rates are
expected to change very little in up-coming years.
The proportion of self-employed Muslim population, particularly from South
Asian background, has been considerably higher as compared to intra-white and intra-
African-Caribbean ethnic groups. This self-employment is mostly based on small
businesses to serve the requirements of Muslim communities themselves.
Muslim men of Pakistani and Bangladeshi backgrounds are currently more likely
to be unemployed than other ‘Asians’. Muslim men and women are less likely to be in
paid work as compared to the members of other religious groups. For example,
unemployed Indian Muslims are twice as compared to Hindus. Pakistani Muslims are
more than three times as likely to be unemployed as Hindus. Muslim men and women
both are over-represented in lowest income groups. Pakistanis and Bangladeshis have
also lowest rate of membership and very low presentation among post-holders. So they
lose their voice there also, contrary to German Muslims that are far more dynamic in
trade union politics.27

CONCLUSION

Majority of Muslim immigrant population in these countries have experienced

very tough lives. They do come to earn but cant earn much because of several reasons
including state policies, public pigeonhole attitudes and social standards that prevent
them from moving ahead. Because these Muslim immigrants have no or less-skilled
qualification, they usually remain unsuccessful to get a standard and attractive job.
Enhanced by social restrictions, these Muslim immigrants and their second generations
remain economically the marginalized communities of the society.

5). SOCIAL PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR

Muslims in Western Europe are socially Introvert, invisible and less participant.
They often try to remain within their own communal activities. The family patterns of
these Muslims are somewhat matching with western standards and regarding their
traditional compulsions at the same time. So many families still are believed to be in
joint-family system and their relations with their rest of the relatives in their original
countries are strong as they often visit them and wish their off-springs, groomed in ‘host
societies’, to be married there. Their social activities are usually participation in cultural
festivals and religious celebrations. Their visibility in society ‘beyond a certain limit’ is
discouraged and resisted.

GERMANY

Germany is widely considered the area where ‘Clash of Civilizations’ may occur
because Muslims are being considered ‘New Jews’28 and Islam has become the third most
commonly practiced religion in the country after Catholicism and Lutheranism.29 The
fight between Islam and Europe, if there will be any, is pointed out to be taking place in
this part of the world as the tensions between local German population and Muslims are
the everyday stories in local and international media. Discriminations at social level
known as ‘ghettoization’ compels Muslims to remain isolated from rest of the society. As
the fear of unknown, both are afraid from one another and their mistrusts rather distrusts
are increasing gradually.30
The total number of Muslims in Germany is estimated to be between four Million
and the majority of them come from a Turkish migrant background. Correspondingly,
most available statistical information and research results refer to the first and second
generation of Turkish migrants. In reality, the configuration of Muslims as a group in the
German society is quite diverse. When talking about their social situation, this diversity
has to be considered, for example, by including the situation of refugees and asylum
seekers, many of whom are Muslims.
Generally, the migrant population in Germany has settled according to respective
labor market requirements. The spatial distribution of migrants varies, but the majority is
concentrated in western German metropolitan areas and in Berlin. As is the case in
Berlin, characteristically, a high concentration of former ‘guest workers’ and their
families live in inner city districts in old, un-renovated buildings.
In recent years, the overall material living situation of people of migrant
background has improved, but it is clear that they still face disadvantages in the housing
market. This is demonstrated by the fact the households from migrant background, when
compared to German nationals, occupy smaller, often over-crowded and more run-down
apartments. Further, within increasing competition for affordable housing, persons of
migrant background still experience discrimination in the housing market.31
Muslims have to obey family laws that are sometimes contrary to their religion
such as prohibition of polygamy.
Till 1970s, contrary to the rest of immigrants, Turks were not allowed to bring
their families with themselves. So they remain ‘double ghettoized and double isolated’.
Islam as a religion worked here to get these immigrants contacted with their fellow
countrymen. Through the establishment of prayer areas and assembly places the workers
could meaningfully bring their spare times utilized. In the same pattern there established
Islamic organizations to remove or lessen the socio-cultural aesthetic deprivations of the
immigrants. Even after they were allowed to be united with their families in Germany,
there still exists a very profound presence of Turks in these Islamic organizations.32
The concentration of Muslims in one area also follows ethnic lines. As the largest
ethnic Muslim group of immigrants comprises Turks so they do remain unite and
concentrated mostly in one area. Rest of Muslim immigrant populations also live in the
same pattern. The major reasons of it include sense of insecurity, general resistance,
negative public attitude, and resistant state policies that compel them to be in isolation
and ghettoized.33

FRANCE

Though there is very little research available, social and socio-economic

differences between the local French local population, immigrants and French citizens of
foreign origin, are reflected in everyday life. These differences rather discriminations are
underpinned and extracted by bigotry practices of public as well as government officials.
For an example Muslims claim to be treated discriminately against in screening and
selection of applicants for subsidized public housing in public sector. This pattern exists
in private sector as well. Social housing in the public sector has reflected the same trend,
leading to greater segregation.
Although theoretically Muslim citizens are not discriminated against with regard
to social protection, however, increasing restrictions have been placed on access to social
protection for Muslims and other non-citizen residents in recent years.
The social life of Muslims in France is somewhat not more different from other
two countries in view. They are virtually ghettoized and are not allowed to be located and
settled in one area more than the established figure. The general negative public attitude
compels them to remain invisible. This negative attitude of rejection of foreigners has
Arabs as the principle target. A report of the Louis Survey of March 2001, published in
2002 is interesting in this perspective. 70% of interviewees declared that they were
‘uncomfortable in the presence of persons originating from non-European countries’ with
63% stating that they felt ‘uncomfortable’ in the presence of Arabs in particular. Seven
out of ten respondents considered themselves as more-or-less racist. The existence of
such attitudes add to the fact that these attitudes lead to discriminatory practices,
particularly with regard to employment, public services such as healthcare, and business
opportunities.34
Muslims are discriminated religiously also and usage of insulting terms with
regard to Islam particularly after 9/11. Michel houellebecq, a well-known writer, during
an interview stated that ‘the most stupid religion is Islam’ and ‘Islam is a dangerous
religion’. There exist a lot of other cases because of which different Muslim associations
and mosque administrations use to complain legally against ‘anti-Muslim racism’.

UNITED KINGDOM

Muslims of Britain are largely concentrated in areas of multiple deprivations.

They face disproportionate rates of unemployment, illness and disability. While longer-
settlers may face fewer problems and relatively an improved standard of life, it is true for
new asylum seekers, 30% of which are usually Muslims.
The vast majority of Pakistanis, 42%, are reported to be living in cheap terraced
houses, and 77% were owner-occupiers, with a much smaller proportion in public
housing. On the other hand only 45% Bangladeshis are owner-occupiers and 43% live in
council or housing association properties. The properties owned by Muslims in Britain
are usually at the very bottom of the housing market and often overcrowded too.35
Muslims do suffer institutional discrimination at local level. In a survey, two-
thirds of the Muslim organizations identified staff, policies and practices of local
authorities, housing associations and state agents as source of unfair treatment. 36
The legacy of these policies, that span over educational and other social
institutions as well, has created segregation between white and Muslim communities.
Oldham and Burnley, where the 2001 ‘riots’ took place, are deeply segregated towns as
poverty, unemployment and a corresponding lack of interaction have increased.37
This context of deprivation, combined with its alienating effects on an
increasingly frustrated youth, has pervaded by mutual distrust within the youth of white
and of Asian origin on the one hand and between the parents and children of Asian
origin, mostly belonging to commonwealth countries and Muslims, on the other. The
Muslim youth are becoming more aware of their rights compared with their migrant
parents, who often tolerated racial disadvantage and religious discrimination as a price
for settlement in the host country and in an increasing extent they claim the full rights as
full citizens.
Muslims in Britain are, because of these frustrations, comparatively more
introvert and try to utilize spare time within their community’s activities. So cultural and
religious organizations have flourished, getting some sort of positive response from
governments that are believed to believe in multiculturalism, at least at theoretical level.
They do hold religious, social, and cultural ceremonies such as celebrating the Basant
festivals and the independence days of their respective countries.
Media plays an important role in promoting and leveling the public opinion for
multiculturalism. Muslims, and also others dealing with the issues of multiculturalism,
often accuse the media for giving what they consider biased, stereotyped and wrong
pictures of Islam and Muslims. Family patterns, child rising and the situation of women
are pointed out as areas where the lack of understanding and intolerance for alternatives
are the most prominent. The presentation of Islam and Muslims in the media is indeed
often stereotyped, wrong and biased.

CONCLUSION

The majority of the Muslim community in these countries tends to be introvert

and act at intra-community level. Muslims do not open themselves to the society or vice-
versa. Although majority of them, particularly of first generation that migrated in 1960s
or earlier, has adopted respective nationalities, they are still attached with their
originating countries emotionally. They do love with their respective cultures. Because of
state policies, host societies’ cultural superiority and marginalization in other aspects
compels them to ‘remain in line’, they become stricter in their own social patterns and
standards. On the other hand, because their children groom and are educated in that very
culture, there exists a wide generation gap. On the other hand, the ‘host societies’
influence them to change their minds in accordance with their own standards, and failure
in doing so is equalized with inefficiency, rigidity, and ignorance. Over-generalization of
such believes create an atmosphere of mistrust and uncomfortablity for both populations.
Because of this pattern, there exists exploitation and social, cultural, and religious
discrimination of Muslims.
6). CONCLUSION

The majority of Muslims are members of marginalized communities with diverse

backgrounds concentrated along ethnic lines. Their physical segregation from the white
population inhibits social interaction. A degree of ‘ghettoization’ exists. The fact that
they continue to experience relatively high levels of socio-economic disadvantage
reinforces patterns of exclusion among Muslim communities. Muslims migrating to these
countries have brought their religious identity to a new socio-cultural setting, which has
presented them with a range of challenges. Muslims born and raised here in these
countries, normally called as second-generation Muslims, have inherited an attachment to
their families’ countries of origin, as well as the problem of securing their own place
within these societies. They have had to work hard to sustain their religious beliefs and
practices, since the highly secular social structure of French and German societies, and
quasi-secular structure of British society, far from providing confirmation for a religious
worldview, has tended to make it increasingly irrelevant.38 Nevertheless, the more that
Muslim communities have become rooted in these societies, the more their members
have striven to put structures in place to enable them to live their lives according to their
own understandings of Islamic practice. Space in public life has been ‘stretched’ to
include Islam, at least at theoretical level, but practical facilities lack that may enable
Islam to be practiced.
In political terms, Muslim engagement with these societies has been antagonized.
Although Muslims have operated inside the political system, but the range of responses
includes very violent and systematic resistance. In the context of economic deprivation
and social exclusion, Muslims see mainstream politics as a betrayal and a part of the
process of cultural homogenization. Alienated, disaffected, frustrated and resentful, some
have lost faith in the wider, formal political structures. Instead, they pursue their diverse
interests. The high under-representation of Muslims in the ‘power houses’ reflects a lack
of recognition of their contribution to society.
However, it is fact that Muslim incorporation in the formal political system has
continued to grow gradually over the past few decades. Muslims have responded to the
challenges of living in a variety of ways. Alongside trends among some of them towards
greater secularization, other Muslims have become firmer in their religious convictions.
Critical of the ‘Islam of their forefathers’, which they perceive increasingly irrelevant in
the ‘host societies’ context, some younger Muslims in particular seek ‘true’ Islam
through their own interpretation of religious sources. Often feeling devalued, humiliated
and stigmatized by mainstream society, they explore strategies to resist the onslaught of
what they perceive as hegemonic ideology and political culture. Their reading of
religious texts has led them to seek solutions in what might be regarded as ‘religious
extremism’. Disaffected and disenfranchised, they are drawn to the appeal of Jihad.
These developments are taking place against the backdrop of a generally Islamophobic
environment, that further contributes to the disadvantage and discrimination experienced
by many Muslims.
A range of perspectives has evolved among Muslims, linked to age, ethnic
background, socioeconomic circumstances, education and gender. As Muslims have
acquired a much more established rather exaggerated presence, debates have intensified
and produced a certain amount of re-thinking of Islamic issues, and their effect and terms
of interaction with ‘western secular societies’.39
They have produced somewhat contrary effects. They have given rise to new
ideas about identity and citizenship, which means that many young Muslims perceive the
religious component of their identity more important than their ethnicity. They claim the
entitlements of citizenship that being ‘British’ ‘French’ or ‘German’ gives them. At the
same time, they may reject aspects of British-ness, French-ness or German-ness. Some
Muslims see themselves as Muslims first and then British, French or German; others have
an opposite view. There is no single, clearly defined perception of Muslim identity. On
the contrary, the notion is complex, diverse and equivocal. Taken as whole, Muslim
patterns of political and social engagement, together with the various approaches towards
the business of participating in public and cultural life that exist, reflect attitudes of their
originating country from which these Muslims belong.
END NOTES
1
http://muslim-canada.org/livingislam3.htm#integration see also
http://www.islamfor today.com/europe01.htm
2
Timothy M. Savage. “Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing’ in The Wasington Quarterly Summer 2004,
p-23-29
3
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad & Jane I. Smith (eds). (2002) “Muslim minorities in The West”, New York: Altimara Press. P-
175-181
4
www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/as_11_54/ai_86481299
5
www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35456.htm
6
www.geertwilders.nl/index.php?id=economist251104
7
Jochen Blaschke, (2003). “Tolerated but Marginalized – Muslims in Germany” p-41 see also
www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4495_129/ai_63837807 see also
www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2185/is_1_14/ai-96010652
8
www.geertwilders.nl/index.php?id=economist251104
9
“The Situation of Muslims in France”, Open Society Institute Report 2002. p-72
10
ibid p-72 see also Timothy M. Savage. “Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing’ in The Wasington
Quarterly Summer 2004, p-26-29
11
www.resentment.insee.fr
12
Timothy M. Savage. “Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing’ in The Wasington Quarterly Summer
2004, p-26-29 see also www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_17_54/ai-90888287 see also
www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_17_54/ai-86481299 see also Population Reference Bureau at www.prb.org
see also
http://techcentraslation.com/1051/printer.jsp?CID=1051-082603A
13
http://MondeDiplo.com/2002/06/09couscous
14
Humayon Ansari. (2003). “Muslims in Britain”, London: Minority Rights Groups International. P-7
15
ibid P-8
16
ibid p-10
17
Timothy M. Savage. “Europe and Islam: Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing’ in The Wasington Quarterly Summer
2004, p-25.
18
Humayon Ansari. (2003). “Muslims in Britain”, London: Minority Rights Groups International. P-7-10
19
Jochen Blaschke, (2003). “Tolerated but Marginalized – Muslims in Germany” p-118
20
www.mwlusa.org/presentations/speech_persec.html
21
http://www.ddm.gouv.fr/radio/dossier_theelection/panoradios.html
22
http://gisti.org see also www.mrap
23
Humayon Ansari. (2003). “Muslims in Britain”, London: Minority Rights Groups International p-18
24
“The Situation of Muslims in France”, Open Society Institute Report 2002. p-95
25
http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2000/03/NEGROUCHE/13405
26
‘5,000 Muslims make millions’, The Guardian, 1 Feb. 2002.
27
Humayon Ansari. (2003). “Muslims in Britain”, London: Minority Rights Groups International. P-10
28
www.theamericanmuslim.org/2003jan_comments.php?id=235_0_17_30_C
29
www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35456.htm
30
Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad & Jane I. Smith (eds). (2002) “Muslim minorities in The West”, New York: Altimara Press. P-
175-181
31
Jochen Blaschke, (2003). “Tolerated but Marginalized – Muslims in Germany” p-125-126
32
ibid p-128-129
33
www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35456.htm
34
http://www.bok.net/pajol/ouv/MoriceHM.html
35
www.shelter.orguk/housing/factsheets/ethnicity_and_housing.asp
36
www.oldham.gov.uk/borough_info/overview
37
Bright, M. and Harris, P., ‘Bitter harvest from decades of division’, The Observer, 15 July 2001, p.
14.
38
http://muslim-canada.org/livingislam3.htm#integration
39
http://www.islamfor today.com/europe01.htm