SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

PART 1: SAFETY IN EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION OPERATIONS

J. E. Howard, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij BV, Carel van Bylandtlaan
30, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Abstract. Exploration and production activities are frequently carried out in a hostile environment and under
difficult conditions; however, safety is managed the same as any other aspect of E & P operations. The safety
and health of the workforce is an indispensable part of the activity and accident prevention, as it is addressed
by industry, is showing results in the downward trend of injuries. Similar concerns apply to safety in contractors
operations.
The offshore regulatory development has proceeded with a piecemeal approach, based in some cases upon
onshore regulations, and largely with a great deal of administrative confusion. Initiative to assist in the regulatory
field is evident in the roles played by industry agencies to interface with national and international bodies.
Contingency planning, emergency measures and safety training are ongoing means to equip operating staff
with the knowledge to understand hazards and to react with maximum responsibility.
The industry policy on health, safety and environmental conservation is clear and well defined. The manpower
resources to audit performance and to use both qualitative and quantitative techniques are available and the
industry is actively engaged in these pursuits.

Rsum. Les activits dexploration et de production sont souvent ralises dans un environnement hostile et
dans des conditions difficiles; cependant la gestion de la scurit est prise en considration de la mme faon
que tout autre aspect des oprations dexploration et de production. La scurit et la sant des travailleurs
sont une partie indispensable de lactivit, et la prvention des accidents, telle quelle est mise en oeuvre par
lindustrie, montre des rsultats dans la tendance la diminution des blessures. Des proccupations semblables
sappliquent la scurit dans les travaux contractuels.
La mise au point des rglements en mer sest effectue peu peu, parfois sur la base des rglements terre,
et pour la plupart avec beaucoup de confusion administrative. Une initiative daider dans le domaine des
rglements est vidente dans les rles jous par les agences de lindustrie pour servir dinterface avec les
organismes nationaux et internationaux.
Les plans durgence, les mesures de secours et la formation en matire de scurit sont des moyens en cours
pour doter le personnel dexploitation des connaissances permettant de comprendre les accidents et de ragir
avec la responsabilit maximale.
La politique de lindustrie concernant la sant, la scurit et la conservation de lenvironnement est claire et
bien dfinie. On dispose des ressources en main-doeuvre pour vrifier les performances et pour utiliser les
techniques la fois qualitatives et quantitatives et lindustrie sest engage activement dans cette voie.

physical conditions, rough seas and deep water. Much

of the activity is carried out in a frontier environment;
however, this has not prevented us from following
the basic principle that safety must be managed the
same as any other aspect of our operation. The fact
that some of the activity takes place in what is
frequently a hostile environment is a challenge t o
develop new nlethods of protecting the safety and
health of employees and creating higher standards
for design, operation and maintenance of our

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the last World Petroleum Congress held in
1979 worldwide exploration levels have reached new
highs. Off the US coast new prospects were leased at
water depths up to 7000 feet and a discovery was
made off southern California. A large gas discovery
was made off Norway and oil discovered off Abu
Dhabi, South Yemen, southeastern India and the
Chinese Continental Shelf was opened for bidding.
We, the exploration and production part of the
industry, continue to seek new sources of oil and gas

facilities.
Occupational safety and health rank high among
the major public issues of the day. Protection of the

throughout the world, often under unfavourable

237

238

SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

workforce is, and shall remain, a top item on the

social agenda. More recently much concern has been
stimulated by the accidents to the Alexander Kielland
and Ocean Ranger. Both of these catastrophes were
exceptional in the extreme, not only because of the
nature of the accident, but also because of the great
loss of life.
It is to prevent similar occurrences that the oil
industry, the drilling industry, contractors and service
companies are striving to assist in the development
of national and international standards.
We do not wish to understate the magnitude of
these accidents, but it is important to keep the proper
perspective. Working off shore carries with it the
potential hazards associated with maritime operations
and the international oil industry is concentrating its
efforts to reduce these hazards to a minimum.

FrequencyRate = No of Injuries x106

:il

1977

1978

1979

I980

1981

1980

$981

1976

2. COMPARATIVE ACCIDENT STATISTICS

AND TRENDS

The industry is conimitted to the concept that

accident prevention is an indispensable part of operations. From the practical point of view we are concerned about the well-being of the employee, where
successful operations depend on men working as a
team. When a member of that team is missing because
of injury, then morale, efficiency and productivity
suffer. Industry efforts towards providing safe working conditions in a difficult job and an uncompromising environment are expanding and those factors
which have a significant effect on the prevention of
accidents are being addressed by the industry.
Accident statistics show that these efforts bring
results.
There has been a downward trend in frequency of
accidents (accidents per million hours worked)
involving lost time injuries to personnel on drilling
rigs operated on the US Offshore Continental Shelf,
as is shown in Fig. 1 for the years 1976-1981.
During this period of time, the hours worked have
increased by 155%, but the accident frequency rate
has declined 45%, in spite of a situation which has
called for taking on and training new personnel.
This downward trend in accident rate has not been
confined to the US Offshore Continental Shelf and
can be generally observed in other areas of the
industry.
Although national data are not directly comparable
because of different reporting systems, it appears that
both UK and Norwegian offshore fatality and serious
injury rates have declined significantly in the period

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o
lOt
1
9
7
6

1977

1978

1979

1982

1982

Fig. 1. US offshore drilling lost time accident frequency

and hours worked.

1975-1982. A review of these data for the North Sea

has been compiled by the EP Forum (Fig. 2).
Further confirmation of this progress is expressed
in the 1981 report Safety and Offshore Oil prepared
for the US Geological Survey by the Committee on
Assessment of Safety of OCS (Outer Continental
Shelf) activities, a specially formed Committee of the
Marine Board of the Assembly of Engineering,
National Research Council, National Academy of
Sciences. One of the findings of this Committee was
'work on the OCS appears no more hazardous than
in similar industries ashore'. Also, 'the application of
effective workplace safety practices by responsible

t"

O7 h

-_____--__---

U.K. Manufacturing Industry (Average)

05

U.K.Sector

o.1

+Year

O
1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

I980

1981

1982

Fig. 2. Annual percentages of employees sustaining fatality

and serious injury, UK (actual) and Norwegian (estimated).

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SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

companies has provided a favourable overall safety

record, even though there is no single comprehensive
set of Federal Regulations being applied specifically
to workplace safety on the OCS.
3. REGULATORY DEVELOPMENT

Regulations covering our activities can be found

under the following general categories:
o Design and construction
Operation
Safety, health and welfare
Environment
Transport
Personal and group survival.
The ways in which these issues are treated by the
various national authorities are diverse. Legislation
tends to expand according to the nature, phase, extent
and scope of the developing operations. The historical
development of industrial legislation has on the whole
taken a piecemeal approach and is disaster orientated.
The time scale of offshore regulatory activity has been
relatively short and has proceeded with the introduction of regulations based on onshore statutes. The
speed at which these regulations have been introduced and amended. has created, in some instances,
administrative confusion. The way to avoid further
confusion in off shore regulatory activities is through
a rational and continuous process of effective consultation between industry and national authorities.
The general safety concerns for our activities
onshore and offshore cannot be held to be different.
Yet the level of detail encountered in regulations is
such that the offshore industry is becoming the most
burdened, without evidence that standards of safety
are any lower than in other industrial enterprises.
Government bodies promulgate regulations that
will encourage safety improvement, setting objectives
of performance and initiating enforcement practices
directed towards their achievement. Safety standards
and regulations should therefore be written in performance language or more appropriately to an achievement standard.
Operations in the North Sea have generated a
wealth of experience and guidance for safe exploration and production in hostile water. This should be
of immeasurable benefit to other nations and regions.
North Sea operations have also attracted the attention
of regional and international agencies which
endeavour to establish and promote harmonization
of safety standards. All concerned readily acknowledge that such stringent standards are not appropriate in the generally more tranquil areas of the world

239

such as the Gulf of Mexico, the west coast of Africa

or offshoreBrazil, yet we find that attempts are made
to apply more stringent standards in areas where they
are not justified. Regulatory activity in these areas
should be guided by actual need and in the interests
of more efficient and less costly operations.
Improvements in safety, health and welfare can be
assisted by harmonized legislation. Harmonization
should mean the codification of best practical technology into internationally accepted standards for the
purpose of interchange of equipment and personnel
between sectors and it must be based on technological
solutions to safety objectives. Improvements to safety
and health can also be assisted by a common agreed
definition of type of accident, severity of injury and
statistical records of accidents and manpower
employed. Harmonization also implies collaboration
and consultation between industry and national
authorities to assist in the development of these goals.
It is only natural that governments resort to
detailed regulations when they sense a need for strict
control. The degree of control is usually influenced
by current circumstances surrounding national or
international politics, the national economy, industrial relations or public concern for the environmental
impact and the health and safety of the public or the
employee.
A responsible industry demonstrates a willingness
to learn by its own experience, and encourages technological development in the field of safety. It will
therefore need legislation that allows scope for flexibility, innovation and improvement based on
experience.
Recognizing this aspect in preparing regulations,
enforcement bodies should also differentiate in their
procedures and be able to overview the entire scene,
appreciating where substantial effort and significant
achievements have been made in the face of rapidly
advancing frontiers of technology.
It is all too easy to associate the tragic loss of life
arising from unique failures with the industry as a
whole. This tends to ignore the general excellent
safety regime which has been associated with the
industry for many years, as well as the positive
advances made in the last decade in operational safety
awareness and the sophistication of fail safe systems
to protect our operations.
4. INDUSTRY INITIATIVES TO IMPROVE THE
REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Governments worldwide have become increasingly

aware of their responsibilities to protect their citizens

SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

240

and environments against undue hazards and

pollution.
As a consequence, the regulatory field is in a state
of continual change, with standards, limits, codes of
practice or design, etc., proliferating, and sometimes
leap-frogging across the scene. The international oil
industry has created several agencies to formulate
and represent the industry position in international
developments. E & P FORUM*, OCIIVIF, and IADC
have come to play an important role in the safety
and environmental regulatory field. National representation is provided by national industry associations. In this development, industry has published
guidance documents which have been made available
to governments and public. (See Bibliography and
Appendix 1.)
Internationally, IMO, I L 0 and UNEP are the
leading world-wide agencies with regulatory impact,
with bodies like EEC and the North West European
Conference, forming a regional substructure.
IMO is a UN legislative body for maritime matters.
Located in London, it has a membership of some 132
governments. The oil industry through the E & P
FORUM and the OCIMF has observer status with
this body thus enabling industry to participate actively
in workgroups responsible for preparing regulatory
text for approval.
Recent issues addressed by IMO relating to exploration and production activity have been:
- Safety of life at sea; code for construction and
equipment of mobile offshore drilling units; safety
zones; emergency preparedness; survival training;
life-saving appliances; certification of crews; and
recommendations on maritime safety training of
personnel on mobile off shore units.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has contributed greatly towards Gulf of Mexico operations.
Their standards and recommended practices are used
throughout international E & P operations and the
organization has built up over the years a confirmed
reputation for technical competence.
ILO, the International Labour Office in Geneva,
is contributing mainly to the safety regulatory field,
safe conditions at the workplace, safety codes,
accident reporting and statistics. Industry has been
invited, and has been able, to actively contribute to
tripartite consultations. The most recent effort in this
direction resulted, in 1981, in publication of the I L 0
Code of Safe Practice entitled Safety and Health in
the Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations in the
Petroleum Industry.

* See list of

acronyms.

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Where possible, industry endeavours to provide

timely and technical recommendations. This is normally done through contributions from the E & P
FORUM, and IADC; however, there is also dedicated regional industry cooperation which can
address specific concerns.

5. CONTINGENCY PLANNING AND

EMERGENCY MEASURES

To deal effectively with an offshore emergency,

contingency plans have been developed to set forth
the actions and priorities to be taken to achieve
effective response to an emergency.
These measures differ from safety measures pertaining to normal operations, nonetheless they are in
many aspects closely related and supplementary. The
first priority is always to protect human life and ensure
safe evacuation. Such plans are widely used by members of industry and often are approved and promulgated by the national authorities.
Some of the areas in which industry has gone to
great lengths to develop plans are:
- Emergency evacuation. A plan on how and when
to evacuate personnel in the event of an emergency.
- Plans for search and rescue. A major incident is
likely to be both sudden and unexpected and most
likely to occur outside the normal working hours
of all except those on the installation affected;
therefore a well thought out plan is required to
cope with arrangements for transport and communication.
Other contingency planning will include preparation
for:
- Emergencies caused by operational failures.
- Emergencies caused by nature.
- Emergencies caused by acts of third parties.
An example of a well exercised contingency action
which averted a potential disaster occurred when
Transworld 58, a semi-submersible production rig,
went adrift from its normal operating position over
a North Sea field during a severe storm. There were
no injuries and not a barrel of oil was spilled when
the rig was subjected to extremely severe weather
conditions, resulting in the evacuation of personnel.
Unfortunately, such incidents seldom reach the headlines; nevertheless, they illustrate the emergency
preparedness of industry.
The foregoing areas in which contingency planning
should be carried out are by no means comprehensive,
but serve to outline some of the major conditions for
which industry has established plans and procedures.

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SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

6. SAFETY TRAINING

It has long been the industry view that an employee

must know and respect the hazards of the job before
he can be expected to work safely. In order that the
employee has adequate knowledge and appreciation
of injury potential the following training is required:
Orientation. To provide the new employee with an
understanding of the common oil field hazards, e.g.
flammables, toxic materials, high pressures and the
use of common tools.
Specific job training. Throughout the employees
career, training is provided to ensure that the
knowledge and experience to do a job safely and
eff ectivek is acquGed.
Emergency procedures and drills. To ensure that
the employee will acquire knowledge to perform
and react in an emergency situation.
The isolated nature of an offshore installation gives
emphasis to survival and safety requirements to a
degree not normally encountered onshore; therefore,
well trained personnel are better able to understand
the hazards and the need to behave with maximum
responsibility at all times.
The basic aim of emergency training should be to
ensure personal safety. This involves providing information on the risk, and on procedures and equipment
so that personnel are able to properly discharge their
duties.
Training programmes may vary considerably from
one area to another; however, specific guidelines have
been set forth for such areas as the North Sea and
the Gulf of Mexico by both the individual operators
and the operators organizations. A few specific
examples of such cooperative effort are listed in
Appendix 1.
Dedicated and relevant training for operational
jobs is another must. When hazardous situations
develop, the competence of the operator is of decisive
importance. His analysis of the hazard and its causes,
his assessment of the possible consequences and his
overall judgement of the situation are instrumental
in taking the correct action and thereby preventing
accidents or mitigating their consequences.
To achieve such competence a thorough understanding of the process as well as extensive field
experience are necessary. Only in-depth training and
re-training, both theoretical and hands-on, can provide these. Such dedicated training is available to
operating staff at basic, advanced and specialist levels.
Regular exercises and drills on-site with simulated
deviations from normal operation are necessary
parts of this training.

24 1

7. MEASURES AND APPROACHES

TOWARDS ACCIDENT PREVENTION

Industry responsibility to society along with the

increasing complexity and diversity of our operations
calls for a dedicated management of safety. Our
industry, being increasingly aware of the accountability for the quality of its operation to the host society,
has issued policy guidelines on such matters as health,
safety and environmental conservation. One example
of such a policy is as follows.
7.1. Policy on health, safety and environmental
conservation

It is the policy of our industry to conduct activities

in such a way that the health and safety of our
employees and of other persons are safeguarded and
proper
regard
is paid to the conservation of the
.
environment. In implementing this policy we do not
merely comply with the requirements of the relevant
legislation, but promote constructive measures for
the protection of health, safety and the environment
for all who may be affected by our activities.
In following this policy we:
- seek to avoid harm to the health of, or injury to,
employees and others and to promote safety consciousness in employees and contractors;
- pay appropriate regard to the environment by acting to preserve air, water, soil and plant and animal
life from adverse effects of our operations;
- cooperate with governments, local authorities,
industry and academic and professional bodies to
promote workable and improved codes of practice,
and timely and practical regulations;
- encourage, support or conduct research directed
towards the improvement of safety and health at
work;
- keep employees, the relevant authorities and the
public well informed on improvements toward the
quality and safety of the working environment;
- recognize the importance of the involvement and
commitment of the employee in developing and
applying this policy.
The responsibility for the quality of the operations
within operating companies rests fully with the
management of those companies. Against the background of the available technology, the local culture
and the developments in the national regulatory
scene, local management is in the best position for
appropriate implementation of the above mentioned
guidelines.
In implementing the foregoing, we recognize the
responsibility to insist that contractors conduct their

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SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

operations efficiently and safely. Contractors are

expected to maintain an effective safety programme
and contractor performance is assessed as part of the
criteria in awarding contracts.
Audits of performance versus standards are conducted routinely in order to satisfy management of
the actual quality of its operation. When required,
the safety staff within an operating company can
obtain support from a substantial corporate safety
and health group which will include, safety, industrial
hygiene and environmental specialists, medical
doctors, toxicologists and research facilities.
7.2. Safety in engineering design

Traditionally, engineering design is based on sound

engineering judgement, using recognized standard
specifications, engineering codes, checklists and
guides. Despite this some 25% to 30% of our
accidents are due to technical fadure. It is in this
area that engineering design can make signifcant
contributions towards improved safety. For instance,
early identification of hazards will lead to their elimination through design change. Analysis of likelihoods
of failure of equipment will enable ranking of the
hazards and allow a well-considered judgement on
alternative designs or solutions.
In all such critical reviews, a systematic approach
is the key; therefore hazard assessment at facility
level can be achieved with several techniques:
- Qualitative approaches aimed at identifying faults
in the early design stage. HAZard and Operability
studies (HAZOPs) for instance, systematically
analyse the system components for their
behaviour/failure under circumstances widely
deviating from the normal, a so-called what-if
analysis.
- Quantifying any identified hazards by estimating
the likelihood of occurrence and the size of the
consequences takes hazard assessment a step
further.
When considering the hazards in E & P operations,
actual major accidents are (fortunately) few, so that
one would generally not have sufficient specific data
for a reliable statistical estimate of probability. In
most cases such quantification must be done bottomup, arriving at an aggregate probability from the
individual probabilities of component failure.
The industry publication API RP 14C, Recommended Practices for Analysis, Design, Installation
and Testing of Basic Surface Safety Systems on
OffshoreProduction Platforms, has proved most useful
in this regard. This document presents a standardized

method to design, install and test surface safety systems on offshore production platforms. It uses only
recognized systems analysis methods to develop
requirements for a safety system, and includes procedures to document the safety systems and to verify
conformance with internal and regulatory safety
requirements.
7.3. Human safety

In 70-75% of accidents human failure, sometimes

called the unsafeact, is a decisive factor. This encompasses inattentiveness, poor judgement or just plain
negligence. Everyone knows from experience
examples of such human weakness. Most times these
will be classified as operational errors or operational
accidents.
A diagnosis of the chain of events leading to such
accidents shows that many of these could have been
pre-empted by judicious design, by adequate procedures and precautions, or by dedicated training.
Safe operating procedures and their promulgation
and enforcement are vital to human safety. Manuals,
guidelines or checklists have been prepared and made
available for the entire range of E & P activities.
They specify existing standards and codes, industry
recommended practices, specify actions to be taken,
approaches to be followed, and identify hazards and
possible preventive measures.
In spite of improvement in accidents on the drill
floor this area continues to be of major concern to
the industry. Figure 3 further illustrates the
dimensions of the problem.

Activity

Accident frequency rate

1980
1982
~

Exploration & production

(excluding drilling)
Dri11ing
Refinery
Marine transport
Marketing

6.0
53.7
7.1
8.5
8.9

~~

5.3
48.9
7.0
5.6
10.1

Fig. 3. USA petroleum industry accident frequency rates

by industry activity (API Summary OSHA Reporting
Format).

Because so many activities in E & P operations are

considered routine, familiarity carries the risk of
complacency and non-alertness for the operator. In
addition to measures in design, procedural control
and training for safe practices, there is the need to

-- - _

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I
-

SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

promote safety consciousnessin all staff. This quality

is a personal attitude and best taught through supervisory example. To instil such an attitude requires a
continued inventive eff Ort from both technical supervisors and safety department, combined with visual
support from company management.
7.4. Safety audits

We have discussed the various measures by which

a high standard of safety may be achieved, but
included should be the means whereby industry can
enforce its standards, i.e. audits. Any good standard
will, in the long run, not be effective if it is not
enforced. People do not do what you expect, but
what you inspect.
The system, i.e. the procedures, should therefore
provide the tools for management to satisfy itself that
the companys activities are performed not only in a
technically competent way, but also safely and
efficiently. Several of the tools that management has
available are part and parcel of the ongoing operations:
- inspection of materials provided, construction jobs
done, services rendered, etc.;
- maintenance, in particular preventive maintenance,
to keep equipment in running order, reduce shutdowns, or pre-empt accidents;
- quality assurance, reviewing the quality of work
done, of adherence to procedures, of data transfer
across work-interfaces, of system integrity, etc.
Regular audits are an efficient management tool used
to establish the quality of our operations in the safety
field. During such audits the actual quality of the
engineering designs, including modifications, versus
safety and environmental requirements, operating
procedures and practices, together with training and
awareness programmes are reviewed and critically
examined.
In-house technical/safety audits should be carried
out as a regular performance-monitoring routine by
a team of qualified staff.As such they are an effective
tool for self-examination and improvement.
INDUSTRY TRAI NING
PROGRAMM ES/G UIDELINES/I NSTITUTIO NS

1. Recommended Practice on Safety Training, by

Norsk Industriforening For Operatorselskaper
(NIFO) .
2. Guidelines for Offshore Emergency Safety
Training on Installations, by UK Offshore
Operators Association Ltd. (UKOOA).

243

3. Guidelines for Offshore Emergency Drills and

Exercises on Installations, by UKOOA.
4. Petroleum Industry Training Board, U.K.
- Drilling and Production Technology Training
Centre, Montrose.
- Fire Training Centre, Montrose.
5 . Robert Gordons Institute of Technology.
- School of Mechanical and Offshore
Engineering.
- Offshore Survival Center.
6. Petroleum Training Association North Sea
(Petans).
- Offshore Installation Managers (OIM).
- Basic Survival.
- Advanced Survival.
- Fire Control.
- Radio Telephone.
7. Nautical College, Noorder Haks, Den Helder.
- Survival at Sea.
- Fire Fighting.
- First Aid.
8. American Petroleum Institute (API).
- (RPT-1) Recommended Practice for Orientation Program for Personnel Going Offshore
for the First Time.
- (RPT-3) Training and Qualification of Personnel in Well Control Equipment and Techniques for Drilling on Offshore Locations.
- Escape Techniques-16 mm film teaching
means and methods for abandoning offshore
oil installations.
9. Rogaland Regional College, Stanvanger.
- Training for Drilling Supervisors.
10. International Maritime Organization (IMO).
- Training and Qualification of Personnel
Serving on Mobile Offshore Units (STW 15).
11. EEC Working Party-Safety and Health Training for Personnel Employed in Offshore Oil and
Gas Extractive Industries.
GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS

A.P.I.
CONCAWE

E & P FORUM

E.E.C.

American Petroleum
Institute.
Oil Companies International
study group for Conserva;ion
of Clean Air and WaterEurope.
Oil Companies International
Exploration and Production
Forum.
European Economic
Community.

244

I.A.D.C.
I.L.O.
I.M.O.
I.P.I.E.C.A.

O.C.I.M.F.
U.N.E.P.

SAFETY IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

International Association of
Drilling Contractors.
International Labour Office.
International Maritime
Organization.
International Petroleum
Industry Environmental
Conservation Association.
oil Companies International
Marine Forum.
United Nations
Environmental Programme.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Safety and Offshore Oil. Comittee on Assessment of
Safety of OCS Activities, National Academy Press,
Washington D.C., 1981.
2. Guidelines for OffshoreEmergency Drills and Exercises
on Installations. UKOOA, 1982.
3. Guidelines for Offshore Emergency Safety Training on
Installations. UKOOA, 1980.
4. Charlie Report. International Association of Drilling
Contractors, Houston, Texas, U.S.A.
5. Safety Problems in the Offshore Petroleum Industry.
International Labour Office, Geneva, 1978.
6. Offshore Safety, Report of the Committee, Chairman
Dr. J. H. Burgoynge. Cmmd. 7841. HMSO, London,
1980.
7. Occupational Safety in the North Sea, A Review of
Fatalities, Injuries and Reporting Procedures in
Offshore Exploration and Production, 1975-1981. E
and P Forum, London.