702-All PPT PDF (PQRM)

What Went Wrong?
In 1981, a small timing difference caused by a computer

program caused a launch abort.*
In 1986, two hospital patients died after receiving fatal
doses of radiation from a Therac 25 machine after a
software problem caused the machine to ignore
calibration data.**
Britains Coast Guard was unable to use its computers
for several hours in May 2004 after being hit by the
Sasser virus, which knocked out the electronic mapping
systems, e-mail, and other computer functions, forcing
workers to revert to pen, paper, and radios.***
Lec#2
Project Quality Management
Ghazala Amin
*Design News (February 1988).

**Datamation (May 1987).
***Fleming, Nic, Virus sends coastguard computers off course (http://news.telegraph.co.uk/news/
main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/05/05/ncoast05.xml) (May 15, 2004).
Why Quality?
Why Quality ?
A good definition of project success is getting the project completed;
Requirements
Within time
Within time and cost
Within time, cost and technical performance requirements
Within time, cost, performance and accepted by the customer/user.
Quality
Schedule
Cost
What is Quality?
The Quality Movement
Quality is:
the totality of characteristics of an entity which
bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied
needs
-ISO 9000 definition.
Quality is defined by the customer

Quality is linked with profitability
Quality has become a competitive weapon
Quality is now an integral part of strategic
planning process
Quality requires an organization-wide
commitment
Quality is not:
Excellence, Luxury, Prestige, or Grade
Other experts define quality based on:

Conformance to requirements: The projects processes and products meet written specifications.
Fitness for use: A product can be used as it was intended
5
What is Quality?
Difference between Quality and Grade?

Grade is a category or rank given to
entities having the same functional use
but different technical characteristics.
Other experts define quality based on:

Conformance to requirements:
The projects processes and products meet
written specifications.
Fitness for use:
A product can be used as it was intended
Low quality is always a problem; low

grade may not be.
7
Difference between Quality and Grade?

For example:
A software product may be of high quality
(very few defects, a readable users
manual etc.) but of low grade meaning it
has a limited number of features.
Dimensions of Quality for Goods
Or, a software product may be of low

quality but of high grade meaning it has
many defects but lots of customer features.
Operation
Reliability & durability
Conformance
Serviceability
Appearance
Perceived quality
Quality
Importance of Quality
Service Quality Attributes

Reliability
Responsiveness
Tangibles
Costs & market

share
Companys
reputation
Product
liability
International
implications
Competence
Understanding
Access
Security
Courtesy
1995 Corel Corp.
Credibility
10
Communication
11
Market Gains
Reputation
Volume
Price
Improved
Quality
Increased
Profits
Lower Costs
Productivity
Rework/Scrap
Warranty
12
Defining Quality -ities
Salability: Other Definitions
Salability: the balance between quality and cost

What makes for salability? "Find a need and fill it" is no
longer enough. "Build a need and fill it." It's like the
Internet where you can download free plug-ins and free
browsers to get you ever deeper into the cyberaddiction.
http://www.maxwideman.com/guests/cult/salability.htm
13
the quality of being salable or marketable

wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
Saleability (also called profitability) is a technical analysis term
used to compare performances of different trading systems or
different investments within one system. Note, it is not simply
another word for profit. ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salability
The extent to which something can easily be sold
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/salability
salable - capable of being sold; fit for sale; "saleable at a low
price"
wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
salable - Alternative spelling of saleable
en.wiktionary.org/wiki/salable
14
Produce ability: the ability to produce the product

with available technology and workers, and at an
acceptable cost
Flexibility: The ability of a product to be used for

different purposes at different capacities and
under different conditions.
Availability: the probability that the product, when
used under given conditions, will perform
satisfactorily when called upon
Social acceptability: the degree of conflict

between the product or process and the values
of society (i.e., safety, environment)
Operability: the degree to which a product can be
operated safely
15
16

Reliability: the probability of the product
performing without failure under given conditions
and for a set period of time.
(MTBF-Mean-Time-Between-Failure)
Maintainability: the ability of the product to be

retained in or restored to a performance level
when prescribed maintenance is performed
Lec#3
Ghazala Amin
(MTTR-Mean-Time-To-Repair).
17
Quality Specialist-Job responsibility

Responsibilities
Reports monitoring and measurement of processes and

services of different process areas to Quality Manager and
Information Security Manager of appropriate disposition
Assists in the facilitation of formulation, implementation
and follow-up of corrective and preventive actions (RCA)
related to customer feedback, audits, process and service
monitoring and measurement
Conducts periodic process audits for QMS and ISMS
Prepares and submits reports results of audits to QMS
Lead and Quality Manager
Coordinates with point of contacts of different process
areas regarding documentation of processes for QMS and
ISMS
Reviews and facilitates documentation of processes on a
regular basis
Facilitates review, approval, uploading, disposition of
documents using the organizations document control
system
Guides external auditors during the process of audits
Assists in gathering and processing data, as green belts in
some six sigma projects
Requirements
Preferably has experience in any productivity or

quality improvement projects
Preferably has experience being quality assurance,
quality control, or management system audit
Preferably has experience in a service-oriented
organization, specifically in HR BTO
Comprehensive knowledge of ISO 9001 and ISO
27001 requirements
Good knowledge of Companys Quality Policy,
Objectives/Metrics, and clients requirements
Basic knowledge on principles of management
system audit
Basic problem solving tools
Preferably, knowledgeable on Six Sigma
Methodologies
Good Communication Skills (Verbal and written)
Good analytical skills
Excellent presentation skills
Good organization skills
Excellent adaptability skills
Certified Internal Auditor (preferable by IRCA)
Six Sigma Green Belt
The processes required to ensure that the

project will satisfy the needs for which it was
undertaken.
Modern quality management complements
modern project management in that both
recognize the importance of customer
satisfaction and prevention over inspection.
19
20
http://ph.jobstreet.com/jobs/2008/8/i/20/1941336.htm?fr=J
Why Quality Management ?

Customer satisfaction:
A company dedicated to quality usually

provides training for all employees.
Understanding, managing, and influencing needs

so that customer expectations are met.
Requires a combination of conformance to
requirements and fitness for use. (the
product/service must satisfy real needs)
A company dedicated to quality has strategic

vision of quality.
Prevention over inspection:

the cost of preventing mistakes is always much
less than the cost of correcting the mistakes, as
revealed by inspection.
A company dedicated to quality has long term

vision and mission to stay in the market
place.
21
Why Quality Management ?
22
When Quality is not Managed ?
Management responsibility:
Failure to meet quality requirements effectively and

timely can have serious negative consequences for
the project stakeholders. For example:
success requires the participation of all

members of the team, but it remains the
responsibility of management to provide the
resources needed to succeed.
Meeting customer requirements by overworking the project

team may produce negative consequences in the form of
increased employee attrition.
Processes within phases:

the repeated plan-do-check-act cycle
according to Dr. Shewart and Dr. Deming.
(described later)
Meeting project schedule objectives by rushing planned

quality inspections may produce negative consequences
when errors go undetected.
23
Complete inspection for the products is expensive and time consuming 24
Goals of Quality Program

Customer satisfaction
the customers feelings about a product or
service
Quality Movement
Fitness for use

Is the product or service capable of being used?
Fitness for purpose

Does the product or service meet its intended
purpose?
Conformance to requirements
the condition of the product or service in relation
25
to the customers requirements
ISO 9000
26
ISO Standards
International Organization for Standardization( ISO),

based in Geneva, Switzerland is a consortium of
industrial nations and standards.
ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that:

Is a three-part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling,
and documenting quality in an organization.
ISO 9000 is not set of standards nor is it specific to

any industry
Provides minimum requirements needed for an

organization to meet its quality certification standards.
It is a quality system standard applicable to any

product, service or process in the world.
Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and

improve customer satisfaction.
ISO 9000 is an international standard for quality management systems

27
28
ISO 9000 series
ISO Standards
ISO 15504, sometimes known as;
SPICE (Software Process Improvement and Capability
dEtermination),
is a framework for the assessment of software processes.
29
ISO 9000
Defines key terms and acts as road map for standards within the series
ISO 9001
Defines model for quality system when contractor demonstrates
capability to design, produce and install products.
ISO 9002
Quality system model for quality assurance in production and
installation
ISO 9003
Quality system model for quality assurance in final inspection and
testing
ISO 9004
Quality mgmt. guidelines for organization wishing to develop and
30
implement a quality system.
ISO Quality Requirements
ISO -Wikipedia
ISO Requirements are centered around the Plan, Do, Check, Act
methodology.
Plan
Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in
accordance with customer requirements and the organizations policies.
Do
Implement the processes.
Check
Monitor and measure processes and product against policies, objectives,
and requirements for the product and report the results
Act:
Take actions to continually improve process performance
ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems.

ISO 9000 is maintained by ISO, the International Organization for Standardization
and is administered by accreditation and certification bodies.
The rules are updated, as the requirements motivate changes over time.
Although the standards originated in manufacturing, they are now employed
across several types of organizations. A "product", in ISO vocabulary, can mean a
physical object, services, or software.
Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008 (which is one of the standards in the
ISO 9000 family) include;
A company or organization that has been independently audited and certified to

be in conformance with ISO 9001 may publicly state that it is "ISO 9001 certified"
or "ISO 9001 registered". Certification to an ISO 9001 standard does not
guarantee any quality of end products and services; rather, it certifies that
formalized business processes are being applied.
31
32
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
Lec#4
ISO-Wikipedia
Ghazala Amin
References
^ "So many standards to follow, so little payoff". Stephanie Clifford. Inc
Magazine, May 2005.
^ a b c "Good Business Sense Is the Key to Confronting ISO 9000" Frank
Barnes in Review of Business, Spring 2000.
^ a b "The 'quality' you can't feel", John Seddon, The Observer, Sunday
November 19, 2000
^ "A Brief History of ISO 9000: Where did we go wrong?". John Seddon.
Chapter one of "The Case Against ISO 9000", 2nd ed., Oak Tree Press.
November 2000. ISBN 1-86076-173-9
^ "Is ISO 9000 really a standard?" Jim Wade, ISO Management Systems
MayJune 2002
^ a b "ISO a GO-Go." Mark Henricks. Entrepreneur Magazine Dec 2001.
^ The ISO Survey 2005 (abridged version, PDF, 3 MB), ISO, 2005
^ Abrahamson, E. (1996). "Managerial fashion." Academy of Management
Review. 21(1):254-285.
34
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality
management systems.
ISO 9000 is maintained by ISO, the International
Organization for Standardization and is
administered by accreditation and certification
bodies.
The rules are updated, as the requirements
motivate changes over time.
35
Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008 (which is

one of the standards in the ISO 9000 family) include;
a set of procedures that cover all key processes in
the business
monitoring processes to ensure they are effective
keeping adequate records
checking output for defects, with appropriate and
corrective action where necessary
regularly reviewing individual processes and the
quality system itself for effectiveness and
Facilitating continual improvement
36
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
A company or organization that has been

independently audited and certified to be in
conformance with ISO 9001
may publicly state that it is "ISO 9001 certified"
or "ISO 9001 registered".
Certification to an ISO 9001 standard does not
guarantee any quality of end products and
services; rather, it certifies that formalized
business processes are being applied.
Although the standards originated in

manufacturing, they are now employed
across several types of organizations.
A "product", in ISO vocabulary, can mean
a physical object, services, or software.
37
38
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Contents
ISO 9001:2008 Quality

management systems
Few hi-level Content requirements of ISO 9001
Requirements is a document
of approximately 30 pages
which is available from the
national standards
organization in each country.
SCOPE
QUALITY MANAGEMENTS SYSTEM
MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITY
QUALITY POLICY
RESPONSIBILITY, AUTHORITY AND COMMMUNICATION
MANAGEMENT REVIEW
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
INFRASTRUCTURE
WORK ENVIRONMENT
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
PURCHASING
CONTROL MECHANISM
AUDITING
ISO 9001 certification of a fish wholesaler in Tsukiji

39
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Certification
ISO does not itself certify organizations.
Many countries have formed accreditation bodies to
authorize certification bodies, which audit
organizations applying for ISO 9001 compliance
certification.
Although commonly referred to as ISO 9000:2000
certification, the actual standard to which an
organization's quality management can be certified is
ISO 9001:2008. Both the accreditation bodies and the
certification bodies charge fees for their services.
The various accreditation bodies have mutual
agreements with each other to ensure that
certificates issued by one of the Accredited
Certification Bodies (CB) are accepted worldwide. 41
40
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Certification
The applying organization is assessed based on an
extensive sample of its sites, functions, products,
services and processes; a list of problems ("action
requests" or "non-compliance") is made known to the
management. If there are no major problems on this list,
or after it receives a satisfactory improvement plan from
the management showing how any problems will be
resolved, the certification body will issue an ISO 9001
certificate for each geographical site it has visited.
An ISO certificate is not a once-and-for-all award, but
must be renewed at regular intervals recommended by
the certification body, usually around three years. There
are no grades of competence within ISO 9001: either a
company is certified (meaning that it is committed to
the method and model of quality management
described in the standard), or it is not.
42
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Advantages
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Advantages
It is widely acknowledged that proper quality management

improves business, often having a positive effect on
investment, market share, sales growth, sales margins,
competitive advantage, and avoidance of litigation.
ISO often gives the following advantages:
The quality principles in ISO 9000:2000 are also sound,

according to Wade and Barnes, who say that "ISO 9000
guidelines provide a comprehensive model for quality
management systems that can make any company
competitive implementing.
Create a more efficient, effective operation

Increase customer satisfaction and retention
Reduce audits
Enhance marketing
Improve employee motivation, awareness, and morale
Promote international trade
Increases profit
Reduce waste and increases productivity.
43
ISO 9000-Wikipedia-Problems
44
A common criticism of ISO 9001 is the amount of money, time and

paperwork required for registration.
According to Seddon, ISO 9001 promotes specification, control,

and procedures rather than understanding and improvement.
According to Barnes, "Opponents claim that it is only for

documentation. Proponents believe that if a company has
documented its quality systems, then most of the paperwork has
already been completed.
Wade argues that ISO 9000 is effective as a guideline, but that

promoting it as a standard "helps to mislead companies into
thinking that certification means better quality, ... [undermining] the
need for an organization to set its own quality standards."
Paraphrased, Wade's argument is that reliance on the
specifications of ISO 9001 does not guarantee a successful quality
system.
ISO 9001 is not in any way an indication that products produced

using its certified systems are any good.
While internationally recognized, most US consumers are not

aware of ISO 9000 and it holds no relevance to them. The added
cost to certify and then maintain certification may not be justified if
product end users do not require ISO 9000. The cost can actually
put a company at a competitive disadvantage when competing
against a non ISO 9000 certified company.
A company can intend to produce a poor quality product and

providing it does so consistently and with the proper
documentation can put an ISO 9001 stamp on it.
45
46
The standard is seen as especially prone to

failure when a company is interested in
certification before quality.
Certifications are in fact often based on
customer contractual requirements rather than
a desire to actually improve quality.
"If you just want the certificate on the wall,
chances are, you will create a paper system
that doesn't have much to do with the way you
actually run your business," said ISO's Roger
Frost.
47
Certification by an independent auditor is often seen

as the problem area, and according to Barnes, "has
become a vehicle to increase consulting services." In
fact, ISO itself advises that ISO 9001 can be
implemented without certification, simply for the
quality benefits that can be achieved.
Another problem reported is the competition among
the numerous certifying bodies, leading to a softer
approach to the defects noticed in the operation of the
Quality System of a firm.
Abrahamson argued that fashionable management
discourse such as Quality Circles tends to follow a
lifecycle in the form of a bell curve, possibly
indicating a management fad.
48
ISO 9000-Wikipedia
Summary
A good overview for effective use of ISO 9000 is
provided by Barnes:
"Good business judgment is needed to
determine its proper role for a company. Is
certification itself important to the marketing
plans of the company? If not, do not rush to
certification Even without certification,
companies should utilize the ISO 9000 model as
a benchmark to assess the adequacy of its
quality programs."
Lec#5
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Ghazala Amin
49
People and Quality Management
Employee Empowerment
Management defines type and amount of work

Management is 85% responsible for quality
The employee can only assume responsibility for meeting
the requirements of completing the work when the
employee:
Know whats expected to meet the specifications
Know how to perform the functions to meet the
specifications
Has adequate tools to perform the function
Is able to measure the performance during the process
Is able to adjust the process to match the desired
outcome
Getting employees involved in product &

process improvements
85% of quality problems are due to process &
material
Techniques
1995 Corel Corp.
Support workers
Let workers make decisions
Build teams & quality circles
51
Project quality team consists of:
52
Reviews & Audits
Senior Management
Project Manager
Project Staff
Customer
Vendors, suppliers, and contractors
Regulatory Agencies
Project Manager has the ultimate responsibility for Quality

Control and Quality Assurance.
Customer sets the requirement for acceptable quality level.
53
Management reviews determine the status, progress

made, problems, and solutions
Peer reviews determine whether proposed or completed
work meets the requirements
Competency center reviews are used to validate
documentation, studies, and proposed technical solutions
to problems.
Fitness reviews and audits determine the fitness of a
product or part of a project. (addresses specific issues)
54
Total Quality Management (Department of

Defense)
Total Quality Management is;

an ever improving system for integrating various organizational
elements into design, development and manufacturing efforts,
providing cost-effective products or services that are fully acceptable
to the customer.
Quality is key to maintain level of readiness
Externally;
TQM is customer oriented and provides ,meaningful customer
Quality is vital to our defense, requires a

commitment by all personnel
satisfaction.
Internally;
TQM reduces production bottlenecks and production costs,
enhancing product quality while improving organizational morale.
Quality is a key element of competition

55
Ways in Which Quality Can Improve

Productivity
Flow of Activities Necessary to

Achieve Total Quality Management
Sales Gains
Organizational Practices
Improved response
Higher Prices
Improved reputation
Improved
Quality
Reduced Costs
56
Reference/Source: Dr. Kerzners book, Chapter 23
Quality Principles
Increased
Profits
Employee Fulfillment
Increased productivity
Lower rework and scrap costs
Lower warranty costs
Customer Satisfaction
57
Organizational Practices
58
Leadership
Mission statement
Effective operating procedure
Staff support
Training
Yields: What is important and what is to be
accomplished
Quality Principles
Customer focus
Continuous improvement
Employee empowerment
Benchmarking
It involves comparing actual or planned project practices

to those of other projects (either within the performing
organization or external) to generate ideas for
improvement and to provide a standard by which to
measure performance.
59
Just-in-time
Tools of TQM
Yields: How to do what is important and to be
accomplished
60
Customer Satisfaction
Employment Fulfillment
Winning orders
Repeat customers
Yields: An effective organization with a
competitive advantage
Empowerment
empowerment requires workers to assume
greater responsibility
Organizational commitment
Yields: Employees attitudes that they can
accomplish what is important and to be
accomplished
61
TQM: A Project Management

approach
62
TQM: Primary strategies

Primary strategies to achieve Total Quality Management:
Solicit ideas for improvement from employees.
Encourage and develop teams to identify and solve problems.
Encourage team development for performing operations and
service activities resulting in participative leadership.
Benchmark every major activity in the organization to ensure
that it is done in the most efficient and effective way.
Utilize process management techniques to improve customer
service and reduce cycle time.
Develop and train customer staff to be entrepreneurial and
innovative in order to find ways to improve customer service.
Implement improvements so that the organization can qualify as
an ISO 9000 supplier
Total Quality management can be defined as:

Providing customer with right product at the right time
and right place.
Meeting or exceeding customer requirements and/or
expectations.
Less wastage and rework to satisfy the customers.
63
TQM: Secondary strategies
64
TQM: Objectives and focus areas
Secondary strategies to achieve Total Quality Management:

Maintain continuous contact with customers; understand and
anticipate their needs.
Develop loyal customers by not only pleasing them but by
exceeding their expectations.
Work closely with suppliers to improve their product/service
quality and productivity.
Utilize information and communication technology to improve
customer service.
Develop the organization into manageable and focused units in
order to improve performance.
Utilize concurrent or simultaneous engineering.
65
66
Malcolm Baldridge National Quality

Award (1987)
Malcolm Baldridge National Quality

Award (1987)
Malcolm Baldridge Award criterias include;
Leadership
Strategic planning
Customer and market focus
Information and analysis
Human resource development and management
Process management
Business results
The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act was

established in 1987.
Purpose of the act was to promote quality awareness; to recognize
quality achievements of U.S. companies, and to publicize successful
quality strategies.
Award is presented to companies that achieve world-class
competition through quality management of products and services.
IBM, General Motors, Corning Glass, Xerox, Kodak,

Federal Express, Ritz Carlton etc.
67
68
Baldridge Performance Excellence Award

From: Baldrige Performance Excellence Program [mailto:baldrigeprogram@nist.gov]
Sent: Tuesday, October 05, 2010 1:50 AM
Subject: New Names for a New Era
We are pleased to announce that, effective today, our name is changing from the Baldrige National Quality Program to the Baldrige
Performance Excellence Program and the Award name is changing to the Malcolm Baldrige Award.
As you know, over the more than 20 years since the inception of the program and the Award, the field of quality has evolved from a
focus on product, service, and customer quality to a broader, strategic focus on overall organizational quality. In line with this concept
of overall organizational excellence (which some people refer to as big Q quality), the Baldrige Criteria have evolved to stay on the
leading edge of validated enterprise management practice and needs. This commitment to evolution is a key reason that the Criteria are
increasingly seen as the standard for organizational performance excellence worldwide. It is also the reason that the Baldrige
Community has embraced performance excellence as the term that best reflects who we are and what we do, as indicated in an
independent branding study in 2007 that supported the changing of the Award and Program names.
With this in mind, the Obama Administration and our Congressional oversight committee made the name changes a part of an overall C
realignment that takes place this month. The public announcement of the realignment takes place today, so we are pleased to announce
the new names to you and other program stakeholders.
In the coming days, weeks, and months, you will see our new names appearing on our Website, in our publications, and in other public
communications.
To learn more about the name change, please visit us at www.nist.gov/baldrige. If you have any questions, feel free to contact us at
baldrige@nist.gov or 301-975-2036.
Sincerely,
The Outreach and Communications Team
Baldrige Performance Excellence Program
Lec#6
Total Quality Management
Ghazala Amin
69
Quality Experts
Quality Gurus
Deming, Juran, Crosby
71
Deming was famous for his work in rebuilding

Japan and his 14 Points for Management.
Juran wrote the Quality Control Handbook and ten
steps to quality improvement.
Crosby wrote Quality is Free and suggested that
organizations strive for zero defects.
Ishikawa developed the concepts of quality circles
and fishbone diagrams.
Taguchi developed methods for optimizing the
process of engineering experimentation.
Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality
control.
72
Demings Cycle for Improvement
Demings quality plan for management

Approximately around 1927-1950 timeframe
Poor quality is because, management is preoccupied with
today rather than worrying about future.
85% quality problems require management initiative to
change process, only 15% can be controlled by the workers
on the floor.
Example: poor quality of raw material result in low quality
product due to managements decision to procure low cost
bid. So, improved quality needs change in purchasing policy
and procedures.
Common cause of quality issues;
Immediate remedies
Future Actions
Objectives
Methods
Act
Plan
Check
Do
Against Objectives
How methods are executed
Low quality raw material, poor design, unsuitable work condition,

equipment cannot meet design tolerances etc.
Train
Execute
Deming believed in ceasing mass inspections and ending awards based on price
73
74
Dr. Juran's Quality Philosophy

1.
2.
3.
4.
Create constancy of purpose for improvement of product and service.

Adopt the new philosophy.
Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality.
End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone. Instead,
minimize total cost by working with a single supplier.
Improve constantly and forever every process for planning, production, and
service.
Institute training on the job.
Adopt and institute leadership.
Drive out fear.
Break down barriers between staff areas.
Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for the work force.
Eliminate numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical goals for
management.
Remove barriers that rob people of workmanship. Eliminate the annual rating or
merit system.
Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone.
75
Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.
Demings 14 Points for Management
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Quality Improvement, Planning & Control
Manufacturer Vs. Customer views:

Adherence to Specs Vs. Fitness for Use
Legal Implications of Quality:

Criminal, Civil, Appropriate Corporate Actions
and Warranties
Jurans definition of quality believed in products fitness for use
76
Crosbys Four Absolutes of

Quality
Jurans 10 steps to Quality Improvement

1.
2.
3.
Juran Trilogy (Approximately 1954 in Japan ):
Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.

Set goals for improvement.
Organize to reach the goals (establish a quality council, identify
problems, select projects, appoint teams, designate facilitators).
Provide training.
Carry out projects to solve problems.
Report progress.
Give recognition.
Communicate results.
Keep score or keep track.
Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the
regular systems and processes of the company.
Quality means conformance to requirements

Quality comes from prevention
Quality means that the performance standard
is zero defects
Quality is measured by the cost of nonconformance
Crosby believed that zero defects in a product is achievable
77
78
Crosbys 14 steps to Quality Improvement

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Make it clear that management is committed to quality.

Form quality improvement teams with representatives from each department.
Determine where current and potential quality problems lie.
Evaluate the cost of quality and explain its use as a management tool.
Raise the quality awareness and personal concern of all employees.
Take actions to correct problems identified through previous steps.
Establish a committee for the zero-defects program.
Train supervisors to actively carry out their part of the quality improvement program.
Hold a zero-defects day to let all employees realize that there has been a change.
Encourage individuals to establish improvement goals for themselves and their groups.
Encourage employees to communicate to management the obstacles they face in attaining
their improvement goals.
Recognize and appreciate those who participate.
Establish quality councils to communicate on a regular basis.
Do it all over again to emphasize that the quality improvement program never ends.
Concepts of Project Quality

Management
79
80
Continuous Improvement Process

(CIP)
Do the Right Thing Right the First

Time (DTRTRTFT)
A concept which recognizes that the world is constantly

changing and any process that is satisfactory today may well
be unsatisfactory tomorrow.
Implies that it is easier and less costly to do

the work right the first time than it is to do it
the second time.
A sustained, gradual change to improve the situation.

Rather than manage the output of the project, the focus is on
managing the total process and sub processes.
Entails the training of personnel to ensure

sufficient skills and tools to correctly complete
the work.
The process is held constant only after it has been proven

capable of the work. Hence, the product naturally meets the
requirements.
81
82
Continuous Improvement Process

(CIP)
Continuous Improvement
CIPs four steps:
Represents continual improvement of

process & customer satisfaction
Involves all operations
& work units
Other names
Define and standardize processes (and sub

processes).
Assess process performance.
Kaizen (Japanese)
Zero-defects
Six sigma
Improve processes.
1984-1994 T/Maker Co.
83
Measure progress.
84
The Customer is the Next Person

in the Process
Zero Defects
The internal organization has a system that ensures

the product or service is transferred to the next
person in the process in a complete and correct
manner.
Implies that there is no tolerance for errors

within the system.
The goal of all processes is to avoid defects
in the product or service.
The product or service being built is transferred to

another internal party only after it meets all the
specifications and all actions at the current work
station.
Similar to six sigma: almost zero defects

85
Avoids incorrectly assembled components and poor

workmanship.
Resolving Customer Complaints

Best Practices
Quality Circles
Group of 6-12 employees from same

work area
Meet regularly to solve work-related
problems
4 hours/month
Facilitator trains & helps
with meetings
1995 Corel Corp.
86
Make it easy for clients to complain

Respond quickly to complaints
Resolve complaints on the first contact
Use computers to manage complaints
Recruit the best for customer service jobs
87
Just-in-Time (JIT)
88
Just-in-Time (JIT)
Relationship to quality:
Pull system of production/purchasing
JIT cuts cost of quality

JIT improves quality
Better quality means less inventory and better,
easier-to-employ JIT system
Customer starts production with an order
Involves vendor partnership programs to

improve quality of purchased items
Reduces all inventory levels
Inventory hides process & material problems
Improves process & product quality

89
90
Just-In-Time (JIT) Example
Just-In-Time (JIT) Example

Reducing inventory reveals
problems so they can be solved.
Work in process inventory level

(hides problems)
Unreliable
Vendors
Scrap
Capacity
Imbalances
Unreliable
Vendors
Scrap
Capacity
Imbalances
91
92

(Slide Repeated)
The processes required to ensure that the
project will satisfy the needs for which it was
undertaken.
Modern quality management complements
modern project management in that both
recognize the importance of customer
satisfaction and prevention over inspection.
Lecture #7
Quality Processes
Ghazala Amin
A company dedicated to quality usually provides training for all employees

94
Quality Leadership
Who is responsible for Quality?
Reference:
95
Dr. Harold Kerzners PROJECT MANAGEMENT A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND CONTROLLING
Page 915: QUALITY LEADERSHIP
96
PMBOK Area: Quality Management
Principles of Quality Management Program at

Sprint
Project Quality Management includes the

processes for ensuring that the project
satisfies the needs and requirements for
which it was undertaken in the first place.
Teamwork
Strategic Integration
Respect for people
Customer Focus
Management by Fact
Structured Problem Solving
Project Quality Management addresses both

the project output (goal-focus) as well as the
management of the project (process-focus).
It recognizes the importance of customer
satisfaction, prevention over inspection,
management responsibility and continuous
improvement.
Processes covered under Project Quality
Management are quality planning, quality
assurance performance, and quality control.
97
Project Quality Management Processes
Project Quality Management Processes (per PMBOK);
Processes include:
Quality planning: Identifying quality requirements and/or
standards relevant to the project and documenting how
the project will demonstrate compliance.
Quality assurance: Periodically auditing overall project
quality control measurements to ensure that appropriate
quality standards are used.
Quality control: Monitoring and recording specific project
quality activities to assess performance and recommend
necessary changes.
Quality Planning
Quality Assurance
Quality Control
Process Groups Initiation
Planning
Execution
Control
Quality
Planning
Quality
Assurance
Quality Control
Closing
Knowledge
Areas
Quality
Management
Project managers are ultimately responsible for quality management on their projects
99
Quality Planning
100
Quality Planning
Quality planning should be performed regularly
and in parallel with other project planning
processes. For example:
Quality planning involves identifying

which quality standards are relevant to
the project and documenting how the
project will demonstrate compliance.
The changes in the project product/service required to

meet identified quality standards may require cost or
schedule adjustments.
The desired product/service quality may require a
detailed risk analysis of an identified risk source.
Quality should be planned in, not inspected in.

101
102
Quality Planning
Quality Planning - Inputs
Implies the ability to anticipate situations and

prepare actions to bring about the desired
outcome.
Some mandatory inputs to quality planning

should be;
Quality policy
Project Scope statement
Product description
Standards and regulations
Other process outputs
Important to prevent defects by:

Selecting proper materials.
Training and indoctrinating people in quality.
Planning a process that ensures the appropriate
outcome.
For example, procurement planning may identify

contractor quality requirements.
103
104
Quality Policy Statements
Quality Policy
Quality Policy is the overall quality intentions and

direction of an organization with regard to quality as
formally expressed by top management. (ISO-8402)
Project management team is responsible for ensuring
that the project stakeholders are fully aware of the
quality policy.
Example
Providing best available health care facility to the patients

at affordable price. Medical facilitys quality policy.
We at HCL are committed to provide

our products and services in
conformance to the Quality &
Environmental Standards satisfying
our clients requirements.
http://www.husnain.com.pk/images/fl
ash/ISO14001.htm
105
Quality Policy Statements
106
Quality Planning Methods

Some commonly used tools & techniques
employed for Quality planning are;
WATEEN SOLUTIONS Project Delivery is

committed for delivering projects on time,
within budget, meeting the requirements
and striving for excellence in all
endeavors in achieving total customer
and stakeholder satisfaction".
http://solutions.wateen.com/AboutUs/Poli
cies.aspx
Benefit/cost analysis
Benchmarking
Flowcharting
Design of experiments
Cost of Quality
107
108

Some commonly used tools & techniques employed for

Quality planning are;
Benefit/cost analysis
Must consider benefit/cost tradeoffs during quality planning.
The primary benefit of meeting quality requirements is less
rework which translates to higher productivity, lower costs,
and increased stakeholder satisfaction.
The primary cost of meeting quality requirements is the
expense associated with project quality management
activities.
Understand that the benefits of the quality management
discipline outweigh the costs.
Benchmarking
It involves comparing actual or planned project
practices to those of other projects (either within
the performing organization or external) to
generate ideas for improvement and to provide a
standard by which to measure performance.
109
110
Some commonly used tools & techniques employed

for Quality planning are;

Best practices for benchmarking;
Flowcharting
Determine what to benchmark

Form a benchmark team
Identify benchmarking partners
Collect and analyze benchmarking
information
Take action to match or exceed the
benchmark
a technique which creates a diagram that displays how various

elements of a system relate.
Can assist the project team with anticipating what and where
quality problems may occur and with developing approaches
for addressing the problems.
111
112

Flowcharts commonly used in quality management
include:
Cause-and-effect diagrams: illustrate how various factors
may be linked to potential problems or effects. (also
referred to as Ishikawa or fishbone diagrams)
Some commonly used tools & techniques employed for Quality planning
are;
A statistical method that helps identify which factors might
influence specific variables.
Is applied most frequently to the product of the project .
Example: automotive designers may wish to determine which
combination of suspension and tires will produce the most
desirable ride characteristics at a reasonable cost.
System or process flow charts: show how various

elements of a system interrelate.
113
114


Can also be applied to project management issues such as
cost and schedule
tradeoffs.
Example: senior engineers will cost more than junior engineers
but will usually complete the assignment in less time. An
appropriately designed experiment which computes project
costs and duration for various combinations of senior and
junior engineers will often yield an optimal solution from a
relatively limited number of cases.
Cost of Quality
Refers to the total cost of all efforts to achieve
product/service quality.
Includes all work to ensure conformance to
requirements as well as all work resulting from
nonconformance to requirements.
115
116

Some commonly used tools & techniques employed
for Quality planning are;
Quality Planning - Outputs

Quality Planning results in ;
Quality management plan
Operational definitions
Checklists
Inputs to other processes
Cost of Quality
Three types of incurred costs:
prevention,
appraisal, and
failure (where failure is)
internal cost
external costs.
117
Lecture #8
Quality Management Plan
Ghazala Amin
118
Quality is never an
accident, it is always the
result of an intelligent
effort
John Ruskin
120
Quality Management -Wikipedia
Basic Quality Function
The term quality management has a specific meaning

within many business sectors. This specific definition,
which does not aim to assure 'good quality' by the
more general definition, but rather to ensure that an
organization or product is consistent, can be
considered to have four main components: quality
planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality
improvement.[1] Quality management is focused not
only on product/service quality, but also the means to
achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality
assurance and control of processes as well as
products to achieve more consistent quality.
1. DEFECTS / REJECTS
2.
COMPLAINTS
3.
CONSISTENCY
4.
PRECISION
5.
ACCURACY
6.
VARIATION
121
Quality Management -Japan
Quality Evolution in Japan
In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese goods were synonymous

with cheapness and low quality, but over time their quality
initiatives began to be successful, with Japan achieving very
high levels of quality in products from the 1970s onward.
For example, Japanese cars regularly top the J.D. Power
customer satisfaction ratings.
In the 1980s Deming was asked by Ford Motor Company to start
a quality initiative after they realized that they were falling behind
Japanese manufacturers.
A number of highly successful quality initiatives have been
invented by the Japanese (for example : Genichi Taguchi, QFD,
Toyota Production System. Many of the methods not only
provide techniques but also have associated quality culture (i.e.
people factors). These methods are now adopted by the same
western countries that decades earlier derided Japanese
methods.
123
Quality Management Cycle
http://perspectives.avalution.com/2009/what-is-management-system/
122
Determining the customers

needs before the customer
becomes aware of them
Fitness to Latent
Requirements
Fitness to
Cost
To build a product that
meets the needs of
customer.
Fitness to
Use
Obtain high quality & low cost by

effective designing of both the
product & processes.
Fitness to
Standards
To build a product that meets the
specifications set by the designer.
Courtesy Ali Sajid : Quality in Project Management
124
125
http://perspectives.avalution.com/2009/what-is-management-system/
126
Quality Management
All activities of the overall management
function that determine the quality
policy, objectives and responsibilities
and implement planning, quality control,
quality
assurance
and
quality
improvement within the quality system
(ISO 840)
http://www.mamk.fi/instancedata/prime_product_julkaisu/mamk/embeds/mamkwwwstructure/eb245bc19a2177d0e943c128d91b7e2607c60110.jpg
127
128
Quality Management Plan document sets out the specific

quality practices, resources and sequence of activities
relevant to a particular product, service, contract or
project. (ISO-8402)
In ISO 9000 terminology, it should describe the project

quality system: the organizational structure, responsibilities,
procedures, processes, and resources needed to implement
quality management.
Provides input to the overall project plan and must address
quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement
for the project.
The Quality Management Plan is an integral part of any

project management plan. The purpose of the Quality
Management Plan is to describe how quality will be
managed throughout the lifecycle of the project. It also
includes the processes and procedures for ensuring quality
planning, assurance, and control are all conducted. All
stakeholders should be familiar with how quality will be
planned, assured, and controlled.
May be formal or informal, highly detailed or broadly framed,

depending on the requirements of the project.
129
130
Quality Management Plan -Template
Achieving quality takes planning and hard work, but once

achieved it's something you can be proud of and others will
appreciate.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Following Quality Management Plan Document will get you

off on the right track.
Project Managers, Sponsors, customers and stakeholders
will praise you if your projects deliver quality products.
By starting out with a plan to manage quality, and the
fortitude to practice good quality management throughout
the project, delivering exceptional quality will come naturally.
131
INTRODUCTION
QUALITY MANAGEMENT APPROACH
QUALITY REQUIREMENTS / STANDARDS
QUALITY ASSURANCE
QUALITY CONTROL
QUALITY CONTROL MEASUREMENTS
http://www.projectmanagementdocs.com/project-planning-templates/quality-management-plan.html132
Lecture #9
Quality ProcessesQuality Assurance and Quality Control
Ghazala Amin
Focusing on customers is not just

a quality issue in any project;
it is sound business practice.
Customer Satisfaction translates
directly into increased profits.
134
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MEET

CUSTOMER EXPECTATIONS?
Quality Assurance
Needs of customers have to be met

Understanding of ones customers leads to
customer satisfaction
Japanese relate quality to customer satisfaction
Inadequate internal facilities
Poorly designed processes
Poor
Quality
Project
The process of evaluating overall

project performance on a regular
basis to provide confidence that the
project will satisfy the relevant
quality standards.
135
136
Quality Control
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality Control is the process of monitoring

specific project results to determine if they comply
with relevant quality standards
THERE ARE NO FACTS ONLY INTERPRETATIONS

-FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
Any action directed towards providing

consumers with products (goods & services) of
appropriate quality
The organizational unit that is assigned

responsibility for quality control.
137
138
Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance vs Quality Control
The organizational unit Quality Assurance team that is

assigned the responsibility for assuring quality.
Internal quality assurance:
assurance is provided to the project management
team and to the management team of the performing
organization.
External quality assurance:
assurance is provided to the customer and others not
actively involved in the work of the project.
Reference:
Page 988 and 989: QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL
140
139
Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance - Inputs
Quality assurance is the planned and systematic

activities implemented within the quality system to
provide confidence that the project will satisfy
relevant quality standards
Some mandatory inputs to quality assurance

should be;
Quality management plan should be used as a road
map to guide the QA team with enforcing processes
and procedures.
Project Manager can have greatest impact on the

quality of his project by establishing process and
procedures to assure that scope statement
conforms to the actual requirement of the customer.
Results of quality control measurements

records of quality control testing and measurement in
a format for comparison and analysis.
141
Quality Audit
142
Quality Audit
The method most commonly employed for enforcing the

Quality Assurance process is;
The objective of a quality audit is to identify

lessons learned that can improve performance of
this project or of other projects within the
performing organization.
Quality audits
A structured review of all quality management
activities.
May be scheduled or random; may be carried out

by trained in-house auditors or by third parties
such as quality system registration agencies.
143
144
Table 8-1. Table of Contents for a

Quality Assurance Plan*
Quality Assurance - Output

Quality Assurance Audits results in;
1.0 Draft Quality Assurance Plan

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Purpose
1.3 Policy Statement
1.4 Scope
2.0 Management
2.1 Organizational Structure
2.2 Roles and Responsibilities
2.2.1 Technical Monitor/Senior
Management
2.2.2 Task Leader
2.2.3 Quality Assurance Team
2.2.4 Technical Staff
3.0 Required Documentation
Quality improvement
Includes taking action to increase the effectiveness
and efficiency of the project to provide added benefits
to the project stakeholders.
In most cases will require preparation of change
requests or taking corrective action and will be
handled according to the procedures for integrated
change control.
4.0 Quality Assurance Procedures

4.1 Walkthrough Procedure
4.2 Review Process
4.2.1 Review Procedures
4.3 Audit Process
4.3.1 Audit Procedures
4.4 Evaluation Process
4.5 Process Improvement
5.0 Problem Reporting Procedures
5.1 Noncompliance Reporting Procedures
6.0 Quality Assurance Metrics
Appendix
Quality Assurance Checklist Forms
*U.S. Department of Energy

145
146
Quality Control
Quality Control
Technique to Control & Check

Quality
Quality Control is the process of monitoring

specific project results to determine if they comply
with relevant quality standards
The organizational unit that is assigned

responsibility for quality control.
147
Quality Control
148
Quality Control
Quality control involves monitoring specific project

results to determine if they comply with relevant
standards and identifying ways to eliminate causes of
unsatisfactory results
Some Inputs to the Quality Control Process

are;
Project Team members with specific technical expertise

setup process and procedures to ensure each step of
project provides quality output from design and
development through implementation and maintenance.
149
Work results
Operational definitions
Checklists
150
Quality Control
Quality Control
Inspection:
Some Tools & Techniques used are;
Includes activities such as measuring, examining,

and testing undertaken to determine whether
results conform to requirements.
May be conducted at any level (e.g., the results
of a single activity may be inspected or the final
project product).
May be called reviews, product reviews,
audits, and walkthroughs.
Inspection
Control charts
Pareto diagram
Statistical sampling
Flowcharting
Trend analysis
151
Quality Control - Outputs
152
Quality Control - Outputs
Results in;
What is Rework?
Quality improvement
Acceptance decisions
Rework
Action taken to bring a defective or nonconforming
item into
compliance with requirements or specifications.
Rework, especially
unanticipated, is a frequent cause of project overruns
in most application areas.
The project team should make every reasonable effort
to minimize rework.
Decisions to either accept or reject the inspected

items.
Rejected items may require rework.
Rework
153
Quality Control Outputs
154
Scope Verification vs Quality

Control
Scope Verification
Process adjustments
Immediate corrective or preventive action
as a result of
quality control measurements. In some
cases, the process adjustment may
need to be handled according to
procedures for integrated change control.
155
Scope verification is primarily concerned with the

acceptance of work results
Quality control
Quality Control is primarily concerned with the
correctness of work results.
156
The Seven QC Tools

Identification
Analysis

Cause
and
Effect
Analysis
Data
Tables
QA and QC Tools & Techniques

Lec#10
Pareto
Analysis
Histograms
Scatter
Diagrams
Trend
Analysis
Control
Charts
Ghazala Amin
157
158
Data Table
Tools of TQM
Tools for generating ideas

Check sheet/Data Table
Scatter diagram
Cause and effect diagram
Tools to organize data

Pareto charts
Process charts (Flow diagrams)
Tools for identifying problems
Defects
Proces
sA
Proces
sB
Proces Proces
sC
sD
Total
Incorrect Invoice
Incorrect Inventory
Damaged Material
Incorrect Test doc.
10
Total
13
34
Histograms
Statistical process control chart
159
Cause and Effect - Fishbone

Chart
Cause
Time
Machine Method
160
Sample Fishbone or Ishikawa Diagram
Effect
Material
Major
Defect
Energy
Measure
People
Environ.
Identify major and minor causes for the defect

Classify in related groups
Visualize the group with the most causes
161
162
Pareto Analysis - Definition
Scatter Diagram
Y
Plot the results of two variables. Used to determine the

relationship between two or more pieces of corresponding
data. The data are plotted on an X-Y chart to determine correlation
Show distribution around Central tendency
Highlight Exceptions (out of tolerance condition)
Source of data for the Pareto Chart
163
Pareto Diagram - A histogram ordered by

frequency of occurrence that shows how
many results were generated by each
identified cause.
Pareto Law - A supposition that states that a
relatively small number of causes will
typically produce a large majority of the
problems or defects.
Commonly referred to as the 80/20 principle
in which 80% of the problems can be
attributed to 20% of the causes.
Pareto Analysis
Pareto Diagram
Pareto analysis involves identifying the vital

few contributors that account for the most
quality problems in a system.
Primary Purpose:
Focus improvement efforts on the most important causes
164
15
10
Also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80

percent of problems are often due to 20
percent of the causes.
5
0
Noise
Pareto diagrams are histograms, or column

charts representing a frequency distribution,
that help identify and prioritize problem areas.165
Pressure
Other
of the defects
166
Acceptance Sampling
Sample Pareto Diagram
167
Ranks defects in order of frequency of occurrence to depict 100% of the defects.
Wobble
Pareto's rule:
A large number of defects are the result of a small number of causes. Fix the problems
that are causing the greatest number of defects first. Does not account for severity
Used when expensive and time-consuming to test 100%.
Random sampling may be used to check the characteristics and attributes of a

given lot of goods.
Determines whether or not the lot conforms to the specifications or standards

necessary to support the overall project requirements.
Inspection and test standards must be established to ensure that procedures are
adequate to determine whether a lot is conforming or nonconforming to
specifications.
Important to select a sample size that will provide sufficient information about the
larger lot of goods without costing a great deal of money.
Must determine in advance the number of allowable defects before the lot is
rejected.
168
Statistical Sampling
Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a
population of interest for inspection.
Prevention
Keep Errors out of production
Keep defects from reaching customers
The size of a sample depends on how

representative you want the sample to be.
Be sure to consult with an expert when using
statistical analysis.
Example: QA team randomly selected 8 drawings from
80 engineering drawings generated during the planning
and design phase for inspection. This exercise of
Attribute Sampling
Conformance or non-conformance
random selection is Statistical sampling.
169
170
Quality Control Charts

Control Charts - A graphic display of the
results, over time and against established
control limits, of a process.
The charts are used to determine if the
process is in control or in need of
adjustment.
Common Vs. Special Causes

Common -- Normal process variation
Special -- Unusual events
Tolerances
Acceptance range (product is acceptable or not)
Control limits (process is in or out of control)
171
172
Quality Control Charts

A control chart is a graphic display of data that
illustrates the results of a process over time.
The main use of control charts is to prevent defects,
rather than to detect or reject them.
Quality control charts allow you to determine whether a
process is in control or out of control.
When a process is in control, any variations in the results of the
process are created by random events; processes that are in
control do not need to be adjusted.
When a process is out of control, variations in the results of the
process are caused by non-random events; you need to
identify the causes of those non-random events and adjust the
173
process to correct or eliminate them.
Control Chart
Number of defects - Process A
Upper Specification Limit
Upper Control Limit
Mean
Lower Control Limit
Lower Specification Limit
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
Time
Process results over time
Process is in control when the number of defects fall within
upper and lower control limits.
Process adjustments are immediate corrective actions based on
QC measure.
Process can be improved to meet tighter control limits:
Processes in control should not be adjusted.
174
Sample Quality Control Chart
Quality Control Charts and the Seven Run Rule

The seven run rule states that if seven data points
in a row are all below the mean, above the mean,
or are all increasing or decreasing, then the
process needs to be examined for non-random
problems.
You can use quality control charts and the seven
run rule to look for patterns in data.
A control chart helps prevent defects and allows you to determine whether a process is in control or out
of control
175
176
Out of Control States
Out of Control States
Visual patterns indicating out-of-control state or a condition that requires

attention:
Visual patterns indicating out-of-control state or a condition that requires

attention:
Outliers: a sample point outside the control limits (also referred to as

out-of-control)
Hugging control limit: a series (run) of points that are close to a control
limit. Requires correction to prevent data points from going outside the
control limit.
Rule of Thumb: Considered abnormal if two of three, three of seven,
or four of ten data points fall within the outer one-third of the chart.
Trend: A series of consecutive points which reflect a steadily increasing

or decreasing pattern.
Rule of Thumb: Considered abnormal when seven or more
consecutive data points reflect a steadily increasing or decreasing
pattern.
Run: A series of 7 or more consecutive points (observations) fall on the

same side of the average (mean)
Rule of Thumb: Considered abnormal if seven consecutive points,
ten of eleven, or twelve of fourteen data points are above or below
the process average.
Cycle: A repeating pattern of points.
177
Quality Testing in IT World
178
Testing Tasks in the Software Development Life Cycle
Many IT professionals think of testing as a stage

that comes near the end of IT product
development.
Testing should be done during almost every
phase of the IT product development life cycle.
179
180
Figure. Gantt Chart for Building Testing into a

Systems Development Project Plan
Types of Tests
Unit testing tests each individual component (often a
program) to ensure it is as defect-free as possible.
Integration testing occurs between unit and system
testing to test functionally grouped components.
System testing tests the entire system as one entity.
User acceptance testing is an independent test
performed by end users prior to accepting the
delivered system.
181
182
Testing Alone Is Not Enough

Watts S. Humphrey, a renowned expert on software quality,
defines a software defect as anything that must be changed
before delivery of the program.
Testing does not sufficiently prevent software defects because:

The number of ways to test a complex system is huge.
Users will continue to invent new ways to use a system that its developers
never considered.
Humphrey suggests that people rethink the software development

process to provide no potential defects when you enter system
testing; developers must be responsible for providing error-free
code at each stage of testing.
Assignment
Lec#11
Ghazala Amin
183
184
Quality Management Assignment
CRITICAL QUALITY
ISSUES IN
PAKISTAN
Select any one of the following case studies.

Create Quality Assurance Plan document.
List key issues and suggestions for improvement in
quality.
Draw a cause and effect diagram.
Come up with a quality policy statement for the
company dealing with issues in your selected case
study.
185
186
Education in Pakistan: The Key Issues, Problems and The New Challenges
Ghulam Rasool Memon,
Department of Education, University of Karachi
CITRUS EXPORT SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN

M. Athar Mahmood (Scientific Officer), and A. D. Sheikh (Director,
Technology Transfer Institute (PARC), Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, Pakistan
The Education Sector in Pakistan suffers from insufficient financial input, low
levels of efficiency for implementation of programs, and poor quality of
management, monitoring, supervision and teaching. As a result, Pakistan has
one of the lowest rates of literacy in the world, and the lowest among
countries of comparative resources and social/economic situations.
With a per capita income of over $450 Pakistan has an adult literacy rate of
49%, while both Vietnam and India with less per capita income have literacy
rates of 94% and 52%, respectively (Human Development Centre, 1998).
An educational system of poor quality may be one of the most important
reasons why poor countries do not grow.
Lack of storage facilities:

Very few factories have their own storage facility and their capacity is very limited.
Generally, exporters and traders store their consignments in traditional cold stores
available near fruit markets. When there is glut in the market, Kinnows are even
thrown on the roads which indicate the fact of poor storage facilities. The other
problems related to cold storage facilities are high rent and poor quality of storage.
Non-availability of quality packing:
Packing material available is of low quality with high prices. The cardboard boxes
cannot sustain the pressure of weight in the containers, so the packing gets loose
affecting the fruit quality. Poor quality packing fetches low price in international
market.
187
188
The Seven QC Tools
Effects of Poor Quality of Ground Water on Carrot Production: A Comparative Study,

KHUDA BAKHSH, MUHAMMAD ASHFAQ AND MUHAMMAD WAQAS ALAM
Department of Environmental and Resource Economics, and Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agricultural
Economics and Rural Sociology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad38040, Pakistan
Identification
Poor Carrot Production in Toba Tek Singh Cross-sectional data were used to determine the effects of ground water on carrot
production. Results of production function analysis indicated that poor quality of
ground water in Toba Tek Singh was significantly decreasing the carrot production.
The consistent use of poor quality water not only deteriorates chemical and physical
properties of soil (World Bank, 1994) but also results in loss of agriculture production
of the order of 14000 million rupees per annum (Pato, 1998)
The result indicates that one percent increase in application of poor quality of the
ground water could further decline carrot yield by 0.153%. Carrot crop is sensitive to
poor quality of the ground water and application of this type of water results in
substantial losses in carrot production.
Data
Tables
Pareto
Analysis
Cause
and
Effect
Analysis
Trend
Analysis
Analysis
Histograms
Scatter
Diagrams
Control
Charts
189
Cause and Effect - Fishbone

Chart
Cause
Time
Machine Method
190
Sample Fishbone or Ishikawa Diagram
Effect
Material
Major
Defect
Energy
Measure
People
Environ.
Identify major and minor causes for the defect

Classify in related groups
Visualize the group with the most causes
191
192
OVERVIEW OF QA PLAN
Quality Assurance (QA) Document

Doing a good job of quality assurance can have
the greatest impact on the quality of the project.
Quality Assurance Document is a very
comprehensive document.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Introduction
Reference Documents
Management Organization
Standards to be Used
Coaching & Mentoring Activities
Reviews & Audits
Feed Back & Reports
Problems Reporting & Corrective Actions
193
194
OVERVIEW OF QA PLAN
10. Tools Techniques & Methods

11. Supplier Control
12. Records Collection , Maintenance & Retention
13. Training
14. Risk Management
Lec#12
Project Quality Processes
Ghazala Amin
195
Quality Processes
196
Quality Processes
Process is a logical organization of people,

material, equipment and procedures into work
activities designed to produce a specified end
result.
From Pall, Gabriel A. Quality Process
Management
197
The quality of a system is highly influenced by the quality

of the process used to acquire, develop and maintain it.
This statement focuses on processes as well as the
product.
Established strongly in manufacturing industries.
Quality movement visible in not only manufacturing but
now common in service industries e.g. ISO standards,
CMMI etc.
It is now widely implemented and enforced in IT
development.
198
Quality Nodes
Requirements
People
Requirements
Quality
Quality
Schedule
Quality Nodes
Cost
Process
People
Quality
Quality
Technology
Process-People-Technology triad for product

development.
Schedule
Cost
Process
Technology
It is important to have motivated, quality work

force but even our finest people cannot
perform at their best when process is not
understood or is not operating at its best.
Process, people and technology are the major determinants

of any products cost, schedule, and quality.
199
200
When Quality process is

immature
When Quality process is

immature
Ad hoc processes are improvised by

practitioners and their management.
Processes are not followed or enforced
Performance is dependent on a particular
practitioner
Understanding the current status of project is
limited.
Heroes are accidental but not professional practitioners
What about your surgeon??
Immature processes result in fighting fires
201
When Quality process is mature
No time to improve
Constantly in reactive mode rather than proactive
Firefighters get burned easily !!!!
Embers may rekindle later.
A professional is a man who can do his best at a time when he

doesnt particularly feel like it.
- Alistair Cooke 202
When Quality processes is

implemented
Process descriptions are consistent with the

way work actually gets done.
They are defined, documented and continuously
improved.
Processes are supported visibly by
management.
Well controlled processes are enforced and
evaluated
Constructive use of process measurement
Technology is introduced in a disciplined
manner.
Thats the way we do things around here.

Organization contains effective, usable and
consistently applied processes.
Management nurtures the culture.
Culture is conveyed through role model and
recognition.
Processes stay well after the originators (people
who defined the processes) are gone.
Mature processes = Fire Prevention
203
204
Benefits of mature Project

Quality processes
Benefits of predicting
Project performance
Probability of success
Process improvements are made not processes from

scratch.
Causes less stress for human resources when they move
to different projects and work with different project
managers.
Project status for sponsors and teams are predictable.
Project control techniques are predictable.
Technology, tools and techniques can be introduced
systematically.
Project resources have more chance to develop their
potential and focus on professional growth and training.
a. Process is measured and controlled

a.
b. Process is institutionalized for projects

but is sometimes reactive.
b.
c. Process is poorly controlled, reactive and

unpredictable.
c.
Time/Rs.$/
205
206
Improving Project Quality
Early Process Improvement
Several suggestions for improving quality for projects

include:
The theories of quality process management are

synthesis of concepts of Deming, Crosby, Juran
and others.
Over the past decades, these theories have been
used to address problems common to many
organizations.
Solutions to some problems have been addressed
many still remain, some hidden and some untold!!
Many of these solutions have been used to build
process improvement models.
Establish leadership that promotes quality.

Understand the cost of quality.
Focus on organizational influences and workplace
factors that affect quality.
Follow maturity models.
207
208
Expectations and Cultural

Differences in Quality
Organizational Influences
Project managers must understand and

manage stakeholder expectations.
Expectations also vary by:
Organizations culture
Geographic regions
209
210
Organizational Influences,
Workplace Factors, and Quality
Study by DeMarco and Lister showed that organizational
issues had a much greater influence on programmer
productivity than the technical environment or
programming languages.
Programmer productivity varied by a factor of one to ten
across organizations, but only by 21 percent within the
same organization.
Study found no correlation between productivity and
programming language, years of experience, or salary.
A dedicated workspace and a quiet work environment
were key factors to improving programmer productivity.
Quality Process and Maturity

Model
What is a Quality Process

Model?
How is a Quality Process Model

used?
211
A process model is a structured collection of

practices that describe the characteristics of
effective processes.
212
A process model is used

To help set process improvement objectives
and priorities of the organization
Helps ensure capable and mature processes
Guide for improving upon existing processes
Use an appraisal method to diagnose state of
an organizational current practices.
Practices that are included in a process

model have been proven by experience to
be effective.
213
214
Maturity Models
Why is a Quality Process Model

important?
Maturity models are frameworks for helping organizations

improve their processes and systems.
A process model provides

A place to start improving
Common language and shared vision
Template for prioritizing actions
Benefit of prior experiences
What improvement means for the organization
The Software Quality Function Deployment Model

focuses on defining user requirements and planning
software projects.
The Software Engineering Institutes Capability Maturity
Model is a five-level model laying out a generic path to
process improvement for software development in
organizations.
215
216
CMMI-Capability Maturity Model

Levels are used in CMMI to describe the path for an
organization that wants to improve the processes it uses to
develop and maintain its products and services.
Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)

is a process improvement approach that provides
organizations with the essential elements of effective
processes that ultimately improve their performance.
CMMI can be used to guide process improvement across a
project, a division, or an entire organization
CMMI according to the SEI (Software Engineering
Institute), helps "integrate traditionally separate
organizational functions, set process improvement goals
and priorities, provide guidance for quality processes, and
provide a point of reference for appraising current
processes.
CMMI supports two improvement approaches;

Continuous-enabling an organization to incrementally
improve processes within a process area selected by the
organization.
Staged enabling the organization to improve a set of
related processes by addressing successive predefined
sets of process areas.
217
218
PMIs Maturity Model
PMI released the Organizational Project Management Maturity

Model (OPM3) in December 2003.
Model is based on market research surveys sent to more than
30,000 project management professionals and incorporates 180
best practices and more than 2,400 capabilities, outcomes, and
key performance indicators.
Addresses standards for excellence in project, program, and
portfolio management best practices and explains the
capabilities necessary to achieve those best practices.
219
220
Project Management Maturity Model
221
Reference:
Page 929: Project Management Maturity Model
222
Reference:
Page 941: Continuous Improvement
Bottom Line

Lec#13
Project Quality Processes
Process improvement should be done to help the business

not for its own sake.
Ghazala Amin
In God we trust, all others bring data.

-W. Edwards Deming
223
224
Quality as an organizational goal

Creating
Customer
Value
Exceeding
customer
expectations
Employee
Empowerment
Role of Management and

Leadership
Not just doing

it well but
learning to do
it better
225
226
Courtesy: Ali Sajid-Cost of Quality in projects
Leadership
As Joseph M. Juran said in 1945, It is most
important that top management be qualityminded. In the absence of sincere manifestation
of interest at the top, little will happen below.
Cost Of Quality
A large percentage of quality problems are

associated with management, not technical
issues.
*American Society for Quality (ASQ), (www.asqc.org/about/history/juran.html).
227
228
The Cost of Quality

What is Cost of Quality?
Costs of poor quality are huge, but
the amounts are not known with
precision. In most companies, the
accounting system provides only a
minority of the information needed
to quantify this cost of poor quality
Quality is measured by the cost of

quality which is the expense of non
conformance the cost of
doing things wrong.
Courtesy: Ali Sajid-Cost of Quality in projects

229
Media Snapshot*
Juran on Quality by Design, The Free

Press (1992), p. 119
230
Poor Quality Cost
A 2004 study by Nucleus Research Inc. estimates that spam

will cost large companies nearly $2,000 per employee in lost
productivity in 2004 alone, despite investments in software to
block spam. Spam currently accounts for more than 70
percent of total e-mail volume worldwide.
In just one month (August 2003), at least 50 new Internet
viruses surfaced, and losses related to computer viruses cost
North American companies about $3.5 billion. Businesses
have suffered at least $65 billion in lost productivity because
of computer viruses since 1997.
1964, IBM published its first report - included

poor-quality cost for internal component mfg,
subassembly, final assembly, final machine test,
system test, & first 12 months at customer
location for 1620 system. called
Q-100 Report
During following months, report- expanded to cover
many other IBM systems.
*McGuire, David, Report: Spam Costs Are Rising at Work, Washington Post (June 7, 2004).
231
Quality is Free
232
The cost of Quality
For average company, the cost of

quality is about 25% of total sales
cost of prevention is a fraction of
cost of fixing mistakes after they
made
Investments in prevention can

drastically reduce total cost of
quality
233
234
Feigenbaums quality cost areas
Cost of Quality-Wikipedia
In process improvement efforts, quality costs or cost of quality is

a means to quantify the total cost of quality-related efforts and
deficiencies.
It was first described by Armand V. Feigenbaum in a 1956 Harvard
Business Review article.
Prior to its introduction, the general perception was that higher
quality requires higher costs, either by buying better materials or
machines or by hiring more labor.
Furthermore, while cost accounting had evolved to categorize
financial transactions into revenues, expenses, and changes in
shareholder equity, it had not attempted to categorize costs
relevant to quality, which is especially important given that most
people involved in manufacturing never set hands on the product.
By classifying quality-related entries from a company's general
ledger, management and quality practitioners can evaluate
investments in quality based on cost improvement and profit
enhancement.
Cost of Conformance- Wikipedia

Cost Areas
Quality Planning
Investment in quality-related
information
Quality training and workforce
Systems development and
management
Product design verification
Appraisal Cost
Arise from detecting defects via

inspection, test, audit
Test and inspection of purchased

materials
Acceptance testing
Inspection
Testing
Checking labor
Setup for test or inspection
Test and inspection equipment
Quality audits
Field testing
236
The Cost of Quality
Cost of Non-Conformance-Wikipedia
Description
Examples
Arise from efforts to keep defects

from occurring at all
235
Feigenbaums quality cost areas

Cost Areas
Description
Prevention Costs
Examples
Internal failure costs
Arise from defects

caught internally and
dealt with by discarding
or repairing the
defective items
Scrap
Rework
Material procurement
costs
External failure costs
Arise from defects that

actually reach
customers
Complaints in warranty
Complaints out of
warranty
Product service
Product liability
Product recall
Loss of reputation
Cost of quality is the total price of all efforts to achieve

product or service quality.
It includes work that conforms to the requirements as
well as the work resulting from nonconformance to
the requirements.
Quality programs also have costs which includes
Training programs
SPC (Statistical Process Control) Costs
Cost to build it right the first time etc.
237
The Cost of Quality
238
The Cost of Non Quality
Types of Quality Costs:

Internal Failure cost incurred to correct an identified defect
prior to shipment to the customer
External Failure - cost incurred due to errors detected by the
customer.
Appraisal - cost incurred to determine the condition of the
product
Prevention - costs incurred to reduce failure and appraisal cost
Measurement and Test Equipment capital cost of equipment
used to perform prevention and appraisal activities.
Cost of non-quality is estimated to be 12-20% of sales

versus the should cost of 3-5% of sales for a quality
program.
Waste of time and material
Rework of poor quality products and additional material
for rework
Delays in schedule
Product and service image
Corporate image
239
240
Conformance Vs. Non-Conformance

Conformance (Quality)
Planning
Training and
indoctrination
Product
Design/Validation
Process Validation
Test and Evaluation
Quality Audits
Maint./Calibration
Field Testing
These Two Main Areas Can Be Split Further As Shown Below:
Non-Conformance
Scrap
Rework
Material cost
(additional)
Warranty repairs
Complaint handling
Liability Judgments
Product recall
Field Service
Expediting
241
242
Total Failure Cost
Types of Quality Costs

Cost of Compliance
Preventive costs - prevent product defects
Appraisal costs - monitor & compensate
when prevention fails
Cost of Non-compliance
Failure costs
Internal losses - scrap, rework
External losses - warranty work, customer
complaint departments, litigation, product recalls
Profit lost by selling units as defects

Rework cost
Cost of processing customer returns
Cost of warranty work
Cost of product recalls
Cost of litigation related to products
Opportunity cost of lost customers
243
Three Areas to Improve Quality
244

Lecture # 14
Six Sigma
Quality of design
meet the customers needs
design for manufacturability
build quality in
Quality of conformance
minimize and control process variation to satisfy the
design specifications every time
Quality of service
The customer must come first
245
Ghazala Amin
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible
system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing
business success. Six Sigma is uniquely driven
by close understanding of customer needs,
disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical
analysis, and diligent attention to managing,
improving, and reinventing business processes.*
References
http://www.ge.com/sixsigma/SixSigma.pdf
*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The

Six Sigma Way, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. xi.
248
Basic Information on Six Sigma
Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a rigorous management discipline
that systematically reduces variations, eliminates
errors, improves processes and reduces cost.*
The target for perfection is the achievement of

no more than 3.4 defects per million
opportunities.
It is driven by close understanding of customer

needs, disciplined use of facts, statistical
analysis, and diligent attention to managing
improving and reinventing of business processes.
The principles can apply to a wide variety of

processes.
* Quality training classes advertisement for six sigma training.
Six Sigma projects normally follow a five-phase

improvement process called DMAIC.
249
DMAIC
250
DMAIC
DMAIC is a systematic, closed-loop process

for continued improvement that is scientific
and fact based.
DMAIC stands for:
DMAIC stands for:

Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and
customer requirements.
Measure: Define measures, then collect, compile, and
display data.
Analyze: Scrutinize process details to find improvement
opportunities.
Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the
problem.
Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements
and the predictability of the solution.
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
251
252
How is Six Sigma Quality Control Unique?

It requires an organization-wide commitment.
Six Sigma organizations have the ability and
willingness to adopt contrary objectives, such as
reducing errors and getting things done faster.
It is an operating philosophy that is customer
focused and strives to drive out waste, raise
levels of quality, and improve financial
performance at breakthrough levels.
253
254
Reference: http://media.techtarget.com/searchSoftwareQuality/downloads/SixSigmaContImprove.pdf
Six Sigma and Project Management
Examples of Six Sigma Organizations

Motorola, Inc. pioneered the adoption of Six
Sigma in the 1980s and saved about $14
billion.*
Allied Signal/Honeywell saved more than
$600 million a year by reducing the costs of
reworking defects and improving aircraft
engine design processes.**
General Electric uses Six Sigma to focus on
achieving customer satisfaction.
*Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh, The Six Sigma Way. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000,
p. 7.
**Ibid. p. 9.
255
Six Sigma Projects Use Project Management

The training for Six Sigma includes many project
management concepts, tools, and techniques.
For example, Six Sigma projects often use
business cases, project charters, schedules,
budgets, and so on.
Joseph M. Juran stated, All improvement takes place,

project by project, and in no other way.*
Its important to select projects carefully and apply higher
quality where it makes sense; companies that use Six
Sigma do not always boost their stock values.
As Mikel Harry puts it, I could genetically engineer a Six
Sigma goat, but if a rodeo is the marketplace, people are
still going to buy a Four Sigma horse.**
Six Sigma projects must focus on a quality problem or
gap between the current and desired performance and
not have a clearly understood problem or a
predetermined solution.
*What You Need to Know About Six Sigma, Productivity Digest (December 2001), p. 38.
256
**Clifford, Lee, Why You Can Safely Ignore Six Sigma, Fortune (January 22, 2001), p. 140.
Six Sigma and Statistics

The term sigma means standard deviation.
Standard deviation measures how much
variation exists in a distribution of data.
Standard deviation is a key factor in
determining the acceptable number of
defective units found in a population.
Six Sigma projects are done in teams; the project

manager is often called the team leader, and the
sponsor is called the champion.
257
Six Sigma projects strive for no more than 3.4

defects per million opportunities, yet this
number is confusing to many statisticians.
258
Figure. Normal Distribution and

Standard Deviation
Six Sigma Uses a Conversion Table

Using a normal curve, if a process is at six sigma, there
would be no more than two defective units per billion
produced.
Six Sigma uses a scoring system that accounts for time, an
important factor in determining process variations.
Yield represents the number of units handled correctly
through the process steps.
A defect is any instance where the product or service fails to
meet customer requirements.
There can be several opportunities to have a defect.
259
Table. Sigma and Defective Units

Specification Range
(in +/- Sigmas)
Percent of
Population
260
Six Sigma Conversion Table
Defective Units
Per Billion
Within Range
1
68.27
317,300,000
95.45
45,400,000
99.73
2,700,000
99.9937
63,000
99.999943
57
99.9999998
The Six Sigma convention for determining defects is based on the above
conversion table. It accounts for a 1.5 sigma shift to measure the number of
defects per million opportunities instead of the number of defects
per unit.
261
PRM 702
Project Risk Management
Ghazala Amin
262
Risk Definition
Project Risk:
An uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a
positive or a negative effect on a project objective.
It includes both threats to the project objectives and
opportunities to improve on those objectives.
PMBOK Guide, 2000
Project Risk
Management
Risk management should be a systematic process to

identify, analyze, treat and monitor all possible risks.
There are many different descriptions of
this systematic process, but they all have these
fundamental steps:
1. Identify
2. Analyze/Assess
3. Plan
4. Track & control
Risk Management
Processes
Project Risk
Management
1.
Identify making a list of all possible risks that could

happen.
2.
Analyze/Assess give each risk identified a probability

and impact it could have.
3.
Plan create risk management plan.
4.
Track & control continuously monitor the risk and

respond when it actually happens.
Risk Management
Plan
A Risk Management Plan summarizes the proposed risk

management approach for the project and is usually
included as a section in the business plan.
Risk Management Planning

Risk Identification
Qualitative Risk Analysis
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Risk Response Planning
Risk Monitoring and Control
The Risk Management Plan is dependant upon the

identification of the projects risks, their criticality, status,
strategy and status.
Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, 2000
Risk Management
Plan
Table. Topics Addressed in a

Risk Management Plan
The risk Management Plan describes:

the process which will be used to identify, analyze and
manage risks both initially and throughout the life of the
project;
how often risks will be reviewed, the process for review
and who will be involved;
who will be responsible for which aspects of risk
management;
how Risk Status will be reported and to whom; and
the initial snapshot of the major risks, current grading,
planned strategies for reducing occurrence and Severity
of each risk (mitigation strategies) and who will be
responsible for implementing them
Methodology
Roles and responsibilities
Budget and schedule
Risk categories
Risk probability and impact
270
Risk documentation
Risk Management Plan Contents

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Scope and purpose of document
1.2 Overview of major risks
1.3 Responsibilities
2.0 Project Risk Table
2.1 Risk Identification
2.2 Description of all risks above cutoff
2.3 Factors influencing probability and impact
3.0 Risk mitigation, monitoring and management
3.1 Risk item #n
1.
Mitigation
2.
Monitoring
3.
Management
4.0 RM Plan Iteration Schedule
5.0 Summary
Risk IdentificationCategory
Category is the risk category based on:
Product size (PS)
Business impact (BU)
Customer characteristics (CU)
Process definition (PR)
Development environment (DE)
Technology (TE)
Staff size and experience (ST)
Risk Identification-Risk Register

The Risk Register illustrates all identified risks, including
description, category, cause, probability of occurring,
impact(s) on objectives, proposed responses, owners, and
current status.
Risk Identification
Typical Risk Categories
deliverable, project management,

organizational, external
schedule, cost, quality, scope
management, external, technology
high, medium, low
technical, market
Risk Identification-I &

L or P
Impact (I) indicates the likely effect on the project and the
resulting product:
catastrophic (show-stopper) 1
critical (delay, extra cost) 2
marginal (extra effort) 3
negligible (internal effort) 4

Probability is the current estimate of the likelihood of
occurrence
Risk Identification-Risk Register
While the risk register will become the comprehensive

output, Risk Identification process results in four entries in
the Risk Register:
1. Lists of identified risks Identified Risks with their root
causes and risk assumptions are listed.
2. List of potential responses Potential responses
identified here will serve as inputs to the Risk Response
Planning process.
3. Root causes of risk - Root causes of risk are
fundamental conditions which cause the identified risk.
4. Updated risk categories - The process of identifying
risks can lead to new risk categories being added.
Calculating severity
Table. Sample Risk Register

Risk
Description
Category
Root
Cause
Triggers
Potential
Responses
Risk
Owner
Probability
Impact
Severity
Problem
No.
Rank
R44
Status
Staff
R21
Late delivery of hardware
R7
Communication and Networks

problem
Project severity = expectation (1-10) * impact (1-10)

When should risk analysis be formed?
Is not a time activity
Periodic update and reviewed
Expectation
6
Impact
5
Severity
30
5
5
8
5
40
25
Project severity = expectation (1-10) * impact (1-10)

277
Risk Breakdown
Structure (RBS)
A source-oriented grouping of project
risks that organizes and defines the
total risk exposure of the project. Each
descending level represents an
increasingly detailed definition of
sources of risk to the project.
278
Risk Breakdown
Structure (RBS)
provides organization and structure
helps identify blind spots
facilitates understanding of types of risks and risk sources
indicates correlation of risks
allows for generic risk management plans to address
multiple risks
allows cross-project (portfolio) risk management
allows project ranking on basis of risk
Dr. David Hillson, The Risk Breakdown Structure as an Aid to Effective

Risk Management, PMI Europe, 2002
Risk Identification
Guidelines
Assemble SME s (Subject Matter
Experts)
Identify endemic risks
Create an environment that
encourages honest discussion
Risk Assessment
Guidelines
Use descriptors for Probability and Impact
Qualitative Risk Assessment is useful when you do not
have accurate numbers for Impact and Probability
Analysis is often unconscious rationalization of decisions
already made
Risk Scatter Diagram communicates the general risk
profile for a project or phase
Decision Trees can assess multiple probabilities
Risk Management
Tools
Risk Identification
RBS
Risk Map
Risk Assessment
Qualification model
Decision Tree Analysis
Monte Carlo Analysis

Risk Communication
Monte Carlo histograms
RBS, Risk Map, Risk Scatter Diagram
Critical Path Analysis, Sensitivity Analysis
PROJECT QUALITY
AND RISK
MANAGEMENT
PRM 702
LECTURE 20
GHAZALA AMIN
Lecture # 21
PRM 702
Lecture # 22
PRM 702
Ghazala Amin
Ghazala Amin
PRM 702
PRM 702
Project Quality & Risk Management

Risk Assessment Matrix
Project Quality and Risk

Management
Ghazala Amin
Ghazala Amin
PRM 702
Risk Assessment Table
Project Quality and Risk

Management
CONSEQUENCES
Likelihood
Ghazala Amin
Major
4
Almost Certain
4
16
Likely
3
Moderate
3
Minor
2
12
Insignificant
1
4
12
Possible
2
Unlikely
1
Risk Score
What Should I do?

Extreme
Immediate action required
16-12
9-8
High
Action plan required, senior management attention

needed
6-4
Moderate
Specific monitoring or procedures required,

management responsibility must be specified
3-1
Low
Manage through routine procedures
290

CONSEQUENCES
CONSEQUENCES
Likelihood
Likelihood
Major
4
Moderate
3
Almost Certain
4
Minor
2
Insignificant
1
Minor
2
Likely
3
Insignificant
1
Possible
2
Possible
2
Moderate
3
Almost Certain
4
Likely
3
Major
4
1
Unlikely
1
Unlikely
1
From Initial Risk Register

Risk Severity (Impact * Probability)
Lecture # 26
PRM 702
Project Quality and Risk Management
Ghazala Amin
After applying Risk Control Measures

Risk Severity (Impact * Probability)
291
292
What is Risk?
Risk and uncertainty are
equivalent
Three Definitions
DEFINITION
Risk
A possible future event which if it occurs

will lead to an undesirable outcome.
Project Risk
The cumulative effect of the chances of an
uncertain occurrence that will adversely
affect project objectives.
PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT IS THE ART AND SCIENCE OF

IDENTIFYING, ASSESSING, AND RESPONDING TO PROJECT
RISK THROUGHOUT THE LIFE OF A PROJECT AND IN THE
BEST INTERESTS OF ITS OBJECTIVES
PROJECT RISK IS THE CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF THE CHANCES OF
UNCERTAIN OCCURRENCES ADVERSELY AFFECTING PROJECT
OBJECTIVES
Risk Management
A systematic and explicit approach for
identifying, quantifying, and controlling
project risk.
ISSUES
RISK MANAGEMENT PURPOSE

IDENTIFY FACTORS THAT ARE LIKELY TO IMPACT THE PROJECT
OBJECTIVES OF SCOPE, QUALITY, COST AND TIME
A RISK SHOULD ONLY BE TAKEN WHEN THE POTENTIAL BENEFIT AND

CHANCES OF WINNING EXCEED THE REMEDIAL COST OF AN
UNSUCCESSFUL DECISION AND CHANCES OF LOSING BY A
SATISFACTORY MARGIN
QUANTIFY THE LIKELY IMPACT OF EACH FACTOR

GIVE A BASELINE FOR PROJECT NON-CONTROLLABLES
MITIGATE IMPACTS BY EXERCISING INFLUENCE OVER PROJECT
CONTROLLABLES
THE PMBOK ALSO POINTS OUT THAT RISK MANAGEMENT INCLUDES
MAXIMIZING THE RESULTS OF POSITIVE EVENTS AND MINIMIZING THE
CONSEQUENCES OF ADVERSE EVENTS.
NATURE OF RISK MANAGEMENT

WHEN SPEAKING OF RISK, THINK OF ONLY HAZARDOUS ONES
EVERYDAY COMMON DAY ONES ARE IGNORED
WHAT WILL BE GAINED?

WHAT COULD BE LOST?
WHAT ARE THE CHANCES OF SUCCESS (AND FAILURE)?
WHAT CAN BE DONE IF THE DESIRED RESULT IS NOT ACHIEVED?
IS THE POTENTIAL REWARD WORTH THE RISK?
POTENTIAL FREQUENCY OF LOSS
AMOUNT AND RELIABILITY OF INFORMATION AVAILABLE
POTENTIAL SEVERITY OF LOSS
MANAGEABILITY OF THE RISK
VIVIDNESS OF THE CONSEQUENCES
POTENTIAL FOR (ADVERSE) PUBLICITY
WHOSE MONEY IS IT?
PROJECT RISK MGMT IS PRO-ACTIVE

CLASSIC SYSTEMS METHODOLOGY:
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
RARELY DO WE SYSTEMATICALLY IDENTIFY ALL RISKS INVOLVED

HOWEVER, INCLINED TO CONSIDER RISK DIFFERENTLY RELATIVE TO
FAMILY - VERY PRECIOUS AND LOTS OF POTENTIAL
EXAMPLES:
SMALL CHILDREN - STAY AWAY FROM ROAD
HOW DID DAY GO? - DO MORE TO HELP THEM
FEEDBACK LOOP
THIS PROCESS VITAL TO EFFECTIVE PROJECT CONTROL, HOWEVER
- RISK ID & AVOIDANCE

- INFO FEEDBACK
THESE ACTIONS ARE ESTABLISHING THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF

MANAGING PROJECT RISK INTO OUR CHILDREN
RISK IS DIFFERENT - - HAS TO DO WITH:

UNCERTAINTY, PROBABILITY OR UNPREDICTABILITY, AND
CONTINGENT PLANNING
REACTIVE vs. PRO-ACTIVE

CRISIS MANAGEMENT -- REACTIVE MODE -- SELECT RESPONSE
PRO-ACTIVE -- ANTICIPATE AND PLAN TO AVOID
Positive and Negative Risk

Opportunities - Positive outcome
Threats - Negative outcome
RISK & DECISION MAKING:

TAKE RISK IF POTENTIAL BENEFIT AND CHANCE OF WINNING
EXCEEDS COST OF UNSUCCESSFUL DECISION AND CHANCES OF
LOSING BY A SATISFACTORY MARGIN (CLASSIC COST / BENEFIT
ANALYSIS)
Benefits of Risk Management

More and better information is available during
planning and decision making
Project objectives are verified
Improved communications
Higher probability of project success
Proactive approach
Project might be canceled
Why Organizations dont do

Risk Management
Can Do management style severely
inhibits risk management
Risk identification can make you look
like a whiner
Why Organizations dont do

Risk Management
Unwillingness to admit risks exist
Postpone the hard parts of the project until later
Risk management costs money
Up front investment of time
Cant prove its necessary
Think health insurance
Ways to Avoid
Risk Management
Managing risk is everybodys business
There is only one risk: The project
might fail. And were managing that by
working real hard to assure that doesnt
happen.
The Uncertainty Spectrum

NO
Information
Project Risk
Complete
Information
Partial
Information
(Known
unknowns)
(Unknown
unknowns)
GENERAL
TOTAL
UNCERTAINTY UNCERTAINTY
Integration
Communication
Scope
(Knowns)
SPECIFIC
UNCERTAINTY
Time
TOTAL
CERTAINTY
Project Risk
Quality
Cost
Procurement
SCOPE OF PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT*
Human Resources
*Note: in this range the information to be sought is known
INTEGRATING RISK
PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
INTEGRATION
Life Cycle and

Environment Variables
SCOPE
Expectations
Feasibility
Requirements
Standards
QUALITY
PROJECT
RISK
Time Objectives,
Restraints
TIME
INFORMATION /
COMMUNICATIONS
Ideas, Directives,
Data Exchange Accuracy
Availability
Productivity
A subset of project management that includes

the processes concerned with identifying,
analyzing, and responding to project risk.
HUMAN
RESOURCES
Services, Plant, Materials:

Performance
Cost Objectives,
Restraints
CONTRACT /
PROCUREMENT
COST
Risk Management Objectives

Reduce the number of surprise events
Minimize consequences of adverse events
Maximize the results of positive events
Risk Classification
Business risks vs. pure (insurable) risks

Classified by uncertainty (business risks)
Classified by impact on project elements
Classified by their nature
Classified by their source
Classified by their probability to occur and
amount at stake
Consequences of Risk Analysis
Consequences of Risk Analysis
Positives
Negatives
greater information is made available during the

course of planning and decision making
project objectives are verified
better communications
better probability that project realization will be
optimal
increased chance of project success
belief that all risks have been accounted for

project could be shut down
SUMMARY
Some Considerations
PROJECTS ARE LAUNCHED TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF OPPORTUNITIES,

BUT OPPORTUNITIES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH UNCERTAINTIES WHICH
HAVE RISKS ATTACHED
Real information is the key.

The relationship between uncertainty and information
is inverse.
For the project manager, conditions of relative
uncertainty (partial information) are the rule.
There is a natural resistance to formal risk analysis.
Risks should only be taken to achieve a project
objective.
When Should Risk Assessments be

Carried Out?
Risk assessments should be carried out
as early as possible and then continuously.
RISK CAN NEVER BE 100% ELIMINATED

FOR THE PROJECT TO BE VIABLE, THE EXPECTED VALUE RESULTING
FROM A FAVORABLE PROBABILITY OF GAIN MUST BE HIGHER THAN
THE CONSEQUENCES AND PROBABILITY OF LOSS
THEREFORE, THE RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH A PROJECT MUST RECEIVE
CAREFUL EXAMINATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ORGANIZATION'S
WILLINGNESS OR AVERSION TO TAKING RISKS
THIS IS THE DOMAIN OF PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT, WHICH FORMS
A VITAL AND INTEGRAL PART OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Dont take the risk if...
the organization cannot afford to lose.

the exposure to the outcome is too great.
the situation (or project) is not worth it.
the odds are not in the projects favor.
the benefits are not clearly identified.
there appear to be a large number of acceptable
alternatives.
Dont take the risk if...

the risk does not achieve the project objective.
the expected value from baseline assumptions is
negative.
the data is unorganized, without structure or pattern.
there is not enough data to understand the results.
a contingency plan for recovery is not in place should
the results prove unsatisfactory.
PRM 702
Lecture #27
PMIs Project Risk Management Processes

Ghazala Amin
What to Study
Reference study materials
Risks with various qualifiers

The three components of risk: Risk Event,
Probability of Risk Event and Impact of Risk
Probability-Impact Matrix
Risk assessment using decision trees and
expected monetary values
The relationship of risk and the project life cycle
A guide to the Project Management Body of

Knowledge (PMBOK Guide), Chapter 11
Study notes
Dr. Kerzners book, Chapter 17
339

Key Definitions
Certainty, Risk, Uncertainty
Business Risk, Insurable(Pure) Risk
Technical Risks, Project Management Risks,
Organizational Risks, External Risks, Internal Risks,,
Legal Risks
Known Risks, Unknown Risks
Expected Monetary Value (EMV)
Trigger (a.k.a Risk symptom or Warning sign)
Contingency Plan, Fallback Plan
Contingency Reserve, Management Reserve
Delphi technique
Workaround
340
What is a risk?
A risk is a potential event or a future situation that may negatively affect
the project.
Risks are identified, described and analyzed in terms of;
Probability that they will occur
Effects or consequences if they do happen
Time frame within which their consequences might occur
Examples of few risks to the project;
Technology not easily available
Resources not committed to the project
Sponsor does not show up for meetings
Unidentified end users etc. etc.
Source/Reference: IBM Learning Centre for development of PM Curriculum
341
342

Risk Management is the systematic process of
identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risk
Risk Management process include:

Formal planning activity,
Analysis to quantify the likelihood and predict impact on
the project,
Handling strategy for selected risks,
Ability to monitor progress in reducing these risk to the
level to minimize impact on the project.
It is continuous process of identifying, analyzing,

and planning for risks.
It is the most effective means of preventing and/or
minimizing exposure to your project.
Risks associated with project integration are usually the smallest during the projects
initiation and charter approval phase of the project life cycle.
343
344
Project Risk Management Processes (PMBOK)
Process Groups Initiation
Project Risk Management Processes (PMBOK)
Planning
Execution
Control
Closing
Knowledge Areas
Plan Risk Management

Risk Identification
Risk
Management
Risk
Managemen
t Planning
Risk
Monitoring
and
Control
Risk
Identificatio
n
Qualitative Risk
analysis
Quantitative
Risk
analysis
Risk Response
Planning
345
Project Risk Management is the process of being proactive rather than reactive.
346
Types of Risk Takers

Risk Preference and Utility Theory
Utility which can be defined as the amount of
satisfaction or pleasure that the project manager
receives from a payoff (This is also called project
managers tolerance for risk).
PM must use expert judgment and tools to deal with risks.
The ultimate decision on how the PM deals with risk is
based on his/her own tolerance for risk.
347
Risk Averter (Risk Avoider)

Utility rises at the decreasing rate
When more money is at stake, project managers
satisfaction or tolerance decreases
Prefers certain outcome and demand premium to
accept risks.
Risk Neutral
The slope of utility curve is constant
Risk Seeker (Risk Lover)
The utility rises at the increasing rate
The project managers satisfaction increases
when more money is at stake
Prefers uncertain outcome and willing to pay
penalty to take risks
348
Risk - Definitions
Decision Making Under Risk: Expected Value
Decision making falls into the following categories:
Expected value is the product of two numbers:

Risk Event Probability (states of nature)
Certainty
All information for making the right decision is available
Can predict the outcome with confidence
An estimate of the probability that a given risk

event will occur.
Risk
The totality of the occurrence can be described within
established confidence limit
Expected payoff can be mathematically calculated
Risk Event Value (Payoff for strategies)

An estimate of the gain or loss that will be
incurred if the risk event does occur.
Uncertainty
Meaningful assignments of probabilities are not possible
Management decision can be made applying one of 4
criteria
349
Decision Making Under

Uncertainty
Decision Making Under Risk: Expected Value

Expected monetary value
Mathematically:
Hurwicz Criterion (Maximax)

The decision maker is always optimistic and attempts to
maximize profits by a go-for-broke strategy
E i =j =1 Pij pj,
Where
E i = expected payoff for strategy i
P = Payoff element
p = Probability of event
E 1 = (50)(0.25)+40(0.25)+90(0.5) = 67.50
E 2 = (50)(0.25)+50(0.25)+60(0.5) = 55
E 3 = (100)(0.25)+80(0.25)+(-50)(0.5) = 20
Based on the Expected payoff value, Strategy 1 should
be used.
350
Wald Criterion (Maximin)

The decision maker is concerned with how much he/she
can afford to lose. In this criteria, a pessimistic approach
is taken
Savage Criterion (Minimax)

The project manager attempts to minimize the maximum
regrets
Laplace Criterion
351
Transforms decision making under uncertainty into

decision making under risk
352
Decision Tree - Example
Decision Trees
A decision tree is a diagram that depicts key
interactions among decisions and associated
chance events as they are understood by the
decision makers
The branches of the tree represent either
decisions (shown as boxes) or chance events
(shown as circles)
353
A product can be manufactured using Machine A or

Machine B
Machine A has a 40% chance of being used and
Machine B has a 60% chance of being used
When Machine A is selected, Process C is selected
80% of the time and Process D 20% of the time
When Machine B is selected, Process C is selected
30% of the time and Process D 70% of the time
What is the probability of being produced by the
various combinations?
354
355
PRM 702
Lecture #28
356
Risk management planning is the process of

deciding how to approach and plan the risk
management activities for a project.
The process of developing and documenting an
organized, comprehensive and interactive strategy
and methods
PMIs Project Risk Management Processes

II of II
Ghazala Amin
for identifying and analyzing risks,

developing risk response plans,
and monitoring and controlling how risks have changed.
358
Tools & techniques

Inputs
Planning meetings and analysis
Project scope statement

Cost management plan
Schedule management plan
Communications management plan
Enterprise environmental factors
Organizational process assets
359
360
Risk Identification
Outputs
Involves determining which risks might affect

the project and documenting their
characteristics.
Risk management plan
The process of examining

the program areas and each critical technical
process
to identify and
document the associated risk.
361
Inputs
Risk Identification
362
Risk Identification
Tools & techniques

Activity cost estimates
Activity duration estimates
Scope baselines
Stake holder baseline
Project planning documents
Enterprise environmental factors
Documentation reviews
Information gathering techniques
Checklists analysis
Assumption analysis
Diagramming techniques
Expert judgment
SWOT Analysis
363
Outputs
364
Plan Risk Analysis
Risk Identification
The process of examining each identified risk

to
Risks register
Estimate the probability

And predict the impact on the project.
It includes:
365
366
The process of assessing the impact and

likelihood of identified risks
Risk analysis includes
Evaluating
Probability that a risk would occur
Impact of the risk if it occurs
Time frame in which it might occur
Frequency of risk occurrence
Prioritizing
Prioritize to ensure right amount of
management attention
Inputs
Risk register
Project scope statement
367
368
Outputs
Tools & Techniques
Risk register updates
Risk probability and impact

Probability and impact matrix
Risk data quality assessment
Risk categorization
Risk urgency assessment
Expert judgment
369
370
Risk Rating System
Aims to analyze numerically the probability of

each risk and its consequence on project
objectives
High
Likely to cause significant disruption to schedule,
increase in cost or degradation of performance
Moderate
Has potential to cause some disruption as above,
will probably overcome difficulties
Low
Has little potential to cause disruption to
schedule, cost or degradation of performance
371
372

Tools and Techniques
Inputs
Data gathering and representation techniques

Quantitative risk analysis and modeling techniques
Expert judgment

Risk register
373
374
Process of developing options and determining

actions to enhance opportunities and reduce threats
to the projects objectives
The process that:
Outputs
identifies, evaluates, selects and implements

one or more strategies,
in order to set risk at acceptable levels given program
constraints and objectives.
This includes the specifics on
375
What should be done

When it should be accomplished
Who is responsible
And associated cost and schedule.
376
Risk response options include:
Opportunity response options include:
Acceptance
Avoidance
Mitigation
Transfer
Acceptance
Enhance
Exploit
Share
377
378
Inputs

Risk register
Tools & Techniques

Strategies for negative risks or threats
Strategies for positive risks or opportunities
Contingent response strategies
Expert judgment
379
380
Reserves
Outputs
Contingency Reserve

Risk related contract decisions
Project management plan updates
Project document updates
A separately planned quantity used to allow for

future situations which may be planned for only in
part
Also known as known unknowns
May involve cost, schedule or both
381
382
Insurance Strategies
Reserves
Management Reserve
A separately planned quantity used to allow for
future situations which are impossible to predict
Also known as unknown unknowns
May involve cost, schedule or both
383
Direct Property Damage

Indirect Consequential Loss
Legal Liability
Personnel
384
Inputs
Tools & Techniques
Risk register
Project management plan
Work performance information
Performance reports
Risk reassessment
Risk audits
Variance and trend analysis
Reserve analysis
Technical performance measurement
Status meetings
385

Outputs
Organizational process assets updates
Change requests
Project management plan updates
Project document updates
387
386

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What Went Wrong?

In 1981, a small timing difference caused by a computer

*Design News (February 1988).

Quality is defined by the customer

Excellence, Luxury, Prestige, or Grade

Other experts define quality based on:

Difference between Quality and Grade?

Other experts define quality based on:

Low quality is always a problem; low

Difference between Quality and Grade?

Dimensions of Quality for Goods

Or, a software product may be of low

Service Quality Attributes

Costs & market

Defining Quality -ities

Salability: Other Definitions

Salability: the balance between quality and cost

the quality of being salable or marketable

Defining Quality -ities

Defining Quality -ities

Produce ability: the ability to produce the product

Flexibility: The ability of a product to be used for

Social acceptability: the degree of conflict

Defining Quality -ities

Maintainability: the ability of the product to be

Quality Specialist-Job responsibility

Reports monitoring and measurement of processes and

Project Quality Management

Preferably has experience in any productivity or

The processes required to ensure that the

Project Quality Management

Why Quality Management ?

A company dedicated to quality usually

Understanding, managing, and influencing needs

A company dedicated to quality has strategic

Prevention over inspection:

A company dedicated to quality has long term

Why Quality Management ?

When Quality is not Managed ?

Failure to meet quality requirements effectively and

success requires the participation of all

Meeting customer requirements by overworking the project

Processes within phases:

Meeting project schedule objectives by rushing planned

Complete inspection for the products is expensive and time consuming 24

Goals of Quality Program

Fitness for use

Fitness for purpose

International Organization for Standardization( ISO),

ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that:

ISO 9000 is not set of standards nor is it specific to

Provides minimum requirements needed for an

It is a quality system standard applicable to any

Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and

ISO 9000 is an international standard for quality management systems

ISO 9000 series

ISO Quality Requirements

ISO 9000 is a family of standards for quality management systems.

A company or organization that has been independently audited and certified to

Some of the requirements in ISO 9001:2008 (which is

A company or organization that has been

Although the standards originated in

ISO 9001:2008 Quality