SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN VEGETABLES

1. TOMATO (Lycopersicum esculentus)

Botany: Tomato is a typical day neutral plant. It requires temperature of
15-20 C for fruit setting. Tomato is self pollinated crop. Self fertilization is
favoured by the position of receptive stigma within the cone anthers and the
normal pendant position of the flower.
Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.
Stages of seed production : Breeder seed 4 Foundation Seed I 4
Foundation Seed II 4 Certified Seed
Varieties :
Indeterminate varieties: Pusa Ruby, Solan Gola, Yaswant (A-2), Sioux,
Marglobe, Naveen, Ptom-9301, Shalimar- 1, Shalimar-2. Angurlata, Solan
Bajr, Solan Sagun, Arka Vikas. Arita Saurbh.
Determinate varieties: Roma (EC-13513), Rupali, MTH-15, Ptom-18,
VL-1, VL-2, HS 101, HS 102, HS 110, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Sheetal,
Floradade, Arka Meghli, Co.1, Co.2, Co.3 (Marutham), PKM.1, Py1,
Hybrids: COTH-1, Pant Hybrid-2, Pant Hybrid-10, Kt-4. Pusa Hybrid-l-4,
Arka Shreshta, Arka Vardan, Arka Abhijit, Navell 1 &2 (Sandoz), Rupali,
Sonali, MTH 6
Season : May - June and November - December
Land requirement : Selection of suitable land for tomato seed production is
important where the previous crop should not be the same variety to avoid
the contamination due to the volunteer plants.
Isolation requirement : For Seed production of tomato, varieties require
minimum of 50 M for foundation seed and 25 M for certified seed. For hybrid
seed production, it requires minimum of 200 M for foundation (parental line
increase) and 100 M for certified hybrid seeds.

Seed rate : For i) Varieties - 300- 400 g/ha ii) For F 1 hybrid - Male parent
25 g/ha; Female parent 100 g/ha.
Nursery : Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5
cm gap and covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient
to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg of DAP 10days before pulling out of
seedling.
Transplanting: Transplanting should be done with the seedlings are 20-25
days old, preferably at evening time. Spacing is 60 x 45 cm (90 x 60 cm for
female parent and 60 x 45 cm for male parent of hybrids).
Manuring : After thorough preparation of a field to fine tilth, apply 25 tons
of FYM per ha. Apply 100 : 100: 100 Kg of NPK/ha of which, 50% of the N is
applied as basal dressing and remaining 50% of N as top dressing in two
split doses at just before flowering and fruit formation stages.
Roguing : The roguing should be done based on the plant characters
(determinate / indeterminate), leaf, branching and spreading characters and
also based on fruit size, shape and color. The plants affected by early blight,
leaf spot and mosaic (TMV) diseases should be removed from the seed
production field.
Planting ratio: For hybrid seed production, the female and male parents
are normally planted in the ratio of 12:1 or 12:2.
Pest and disease management: The major pests attacking tomato crop
are leaf eating caterpillars and fruit borers, which can be controlled by
spraying. The major diseases in tomato are early blight and mosaic virus.
The early blight rot can be controlled by spraying Benlate or Dithane M-45.
Crossing (for hybrids): In tomato the hybrid seed production is normally
done by 'Emasculation and Hand Pollination'. However use of chemical
hybridizing agents (MH-1000 ppm) or CMS lines are also practiced.

Harvesting seed extraction and processing

The fruits are harvested after full maturity of the fruit when turn in to
red color. Fruits from first and last one or two harvests should not be used for
seed extraction. The fruits from in between 6-7 harvest should be used for
seed extraction. The seed viability is depends on the method on which the
seeds were extracted and hence, it is more important to choose proper
methods of seed extraction. Before seed extraction, the fruits are to be
graded for true to type and selection of medium to large size fruits for
getting higher recovery of quality seeds.
The acid method of seed extraction is the best method for tomato seed
extraction. In this method, the fruits are to be crushed into pulp and taken in
a plastic containers (or) cement tank. And then add 30 ml of commercial
Hydrochloric acid per kg of pulp, stir well and allow it for hour. In between
this duration the pulp may be stirred well for one or two times. This
facilitates the separation of seed and pulp. After hour, the seeds will settle
down at the bottom and then the floating fraction is to be removed. The
collected seeds should be washed with water for three or four times.
Table 1. Comparison of different seed extraction methods
Method

P
rocedure

Salient
features

Fermentation

Mix fruit pulp with

water - 24 - 48 h

Low cost.
Unskilled
labour.
More
Time
taken
Low
Seed
recovery
(0.5 to
0.6 %
Dull
seed
colour.

Acid

Alkali

HCl @10ml / Kg of pulp 20-30 minutes

Washing soda @
900mg/4 l of waterequal volume
overnight soak

Recovery 0.7 to 0.8

Cost is more.
Skilled labour
Lesser Time
High seed recovery
(0.8 to 1 %)
Bright colour market
value higher.
Seed borne pathogen
removed

per cent

Luster of the seeds

will be lost.
washing
leads to injury
to seeds

Improper

Seed..borne..
pathogens

Improper
washing leads
injury to seeds

to

While following acid method we must use only plastic or stainless steel
containers or cement tank. Care must be taken to avoid the usage of iron o
zinc containers, which will affect the viability potential of the seeds and as
well damage to the containers due to chemical reaction with acid.
For large scale seed extraction we can use the tomato seed extractor
developed by Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. The seeds extracted by
this machine may again be treated with commercial Hydrochloric acid @
2-3 ml/kg seed with equal volume of water for 3-5 minutes with constant
stirring. And then seed should be washed with water for to four times.
It is easy to dry the seeds extracted by acid method and also remove
the fungus growth over the seed coat, thus seeds possess golden yellow
colour and high vigour. The seed extracted by fermentation method posses
poor vigour and off colour due to fungal activity.

Hybrid seed production: Emasculation is done before the anthers

are mature and the stigma has become receptive to minimize accidental self
pollination. Thus emasculation is generally done in the evening, between 4
PM and 6 PM one day before the anthers are expected to dehisce or mature
and the stigma is likely to become fully receptive.
Emasculate the bud by hand with the help of needle and forceps.
Remove the calyx, corolla and staminal column or anthers, leaving
gynoecium i.e., stigma and style intact in the flower. Emasculated flowers
should be covered immediately with red coloured paper cover to protect
against contamination from foreign pollen and also for easy identification of
emasculated bud during dusting. Remove the red paper cover of the
emasculated bud and dust the pollen gently over the stigmatic surface using
cotton or camel brush, etc., After dusting, the emasculated flowers are again

covered with white or other coloured paper cover for two to three days.
Pollen collected from one male flower can be used for dusting 5 to 7
emasculated flowers.
Figure 1. Structure of tomato flower

Seed Yield : 100-120 Kg/ha

Specific requirements :
Factors
Off types - variety
Hybrid
Plants affected by seed borne

Foundation
0.1 %
0.01%
0.1 %

Certified
0.2%
0.05%
0.5%

Foundation
98%
2%
5/kg
None
70%
8%
6%

Certified
98%
2%
10/kg
None
70%
8%
6%

diseases
Seed standard (variety and hybrid)
Factors
Pure seed (mini)
Inert matter (maxi)
Other crop seeds (maxi) 5/kg
Weed seeds (maxi)
Germination (mini)
Moisture (maxi)
For vapour proof container

2. BRINJAL (Solanum melongena)

Botany: Brinjal is often cross pollinated crop. Brinjal flower opens mainly in
morning. A few flower open at 16 hr. Anther dehiscence occurs 15-20
minutes after flowers have opened. The period of receptivity ranges from a
day prior to flower opening to 4 days after opening. Brinjal produces 4 types
of flowers with different style length. (Long style, short style, medium style
and pseudo short style). For seed production and better yield, the long and
medium style is desirable. To increase the production of long and medium
style application of more nitrogen or spraying of growth regulators during
pre-flowering and flowering stages may be followed.
Figure 2 . Structure of Brinjal flower

Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

Stages of seed production : Breeder seed Foundation Seed
Foundation Seed II Certified Seed.
Varieties : Co.1, Co.2. MDU.1, PKM.1, KKM.1, PLR. 1. AU1, Pusa purple
long, Arka nidhi, Pant smart, Arka neelkanth, Arka shrish.

Hybrids: CoBH1,Arka Navneet (IIHR 22-1 x supreme), Pusa H-5, Pusa H-6,
MHB 10, MHB 39 (Mahyco), Azad Hybrid.
Season : The brinjal seed production can be taken up in the following 2
seasons. May-June and December- January.
Land requirement : The land should be free of volunteer plants.
Isolation : For varieties, 200 M or 100 M of isolation distance is required for
foundation and certified seed, respectively. For hybrid seed production
minimum of 200 M isolation distance should be maintained.
Seed rate :Varieties
Hybrids

- 400 - 500 g/ha

- 200 g/ha (Female)
- 50 g/ha (Male)

Nursery : Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5

cm gap and covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient
to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg of OAP 10days before pulling out of
seedling.
Transplanting: Seedlings are transplanted when they are 30-35 days old
(12-15 cm height) preferably in the evening time. Spacing of 75 x 60 cm
(non

spreading)

and

90 x 60 cm (spreading) varieties, 90 x 60 cm for female parent and 60 x 45

cm for male parent of hybrids.
Manuring : The field should be thoroughly ploughed for fine filth and apply
25 tons of FYM/ha. The other fertilizer requirement for brinjal variety and
hybrid are same as followed for tomato seed production.
Roguing: The roguing should be done based on the plant characters, leaf,
branching and spreading characters and also based on fruit size, shape and
color. The plants affected by Phomopsis blight, leaf spot and little leaf virus
disease should be removed from the seed production field.

Pest and disease management: The pests like fruit borer, shoot borer,
beetles, aphids, mealy bug and jassids can be controlled by spraying
Nuvacron or Methyl parathion. The red spider mite can be controlled by
spraying in Kelthane. The important diseases are damping off and little leaf
which can be controlled by spraying fungicide and systemic insecticides,
respectively. Powdery mildew, leaf spot and anthracnose diseases can be
controlled by spraying Benlate.
Hybrid seed production: The planting ratio of female and male parents
adopted for hybrid seed production is normally 5:1 or 6:1.For production of
hybrid seeds, crossing programme is done using emasculation and dusting
methods as followed in tomato.
Harvesting and processing : Harvesting is done when fruits are fully ripe
(when the fruits turn into yellow colour) i.e., 405 days after flowering. The
harvested fruits are to be graded for true to type and off type and fruit borer
infested fruits are discarded. The graded fruits are cut in 2-3 pieces or whole
fruits will be put in a cement tank with water and crushed manually and
then allow it for fermentation for 1-2 days. Then the floating pulp portions
are to be removed, the seeds settled at the bottom should be collected and
washed with water and then the seeds with equal volume of water is treated
with commercial Hydrochloric acid @ 3-5 ml/kg of seed. The mixture is kept
for 10-15 minutes with frequent stirring. Then the treated seeds are to be
washed with water for 3-4 times. Afterwards seeds are dried under shade
for 2-3 days over a tarpaulin and followed by sun drying for 1-2 days to
reduce the seed moisture content to 8 per cent. Then the seeds are cleaned
and graded with BSS 12 sieve. The processed seeds are treated with
fungicides or Halogen mixture @ 5g/kg of seed.
Seed Yield : 100-200 Kg/ha
Specific standards :
Factors
Off types Variety
Hybrid
Designated diseased plant

Foundation
0.1%
0.01%
0.1%

Certified
0.2%
0.05%
0.5%

The designated diseases in brinjal are Phomopsis blight caused by

Phomopsis vexans and little leaf caused by Datura virus -2.
Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)
Factors
Pure seed
Inert matter
Other crop seed
Weed seed
Germination
Moisture content
For VP Container
Genetic purity required for tomato & brinjal
hybrids is

Foundation & Certified

98%
2%
None
None
70%
8%
6%
90%

3. CHILLI (Capsicum frutescense)

Botany: Often Cross pollinated vegetable. The flower is protogynous. Anther
dehisces only half to 5 hr after stigma becomes receptive. Anthesis in
chilli occurs between 6.00 and 9.00 hr. Flower remains open for 2 to 3 days,
receptivity of stigma was the highest at the day of flower anthesis.
Method of seed production : Seed to seed
Stages

of

seed

production

Breeder

seedFoundation

seedCertified seed.
Varieties: K.1, K.2, K.3, Co.1, Co.2, PKM.1, MDU.1, Bagyalakshmi.
Hybrids: KT.1, (Pusa Deepti), Solar Hybrid 1, Solar Hybrid 2. Early Bounty,
Indira, Lario, Hira, Bharat.
Season : June-July, February-March, September- October.
Land requirement : There are no land requirement as of previous crops,
but the land should be free from volunteer plants. Generally areas affected
by wilt or root rot may be avoided. Crop rotation must be followed to avoid
endemic Solanaceous pests.

Isolation requirement : Minimum isolation distance of 400 M for

foundation and hybrid seed and 200 M for certified seed production are
necessary.
Seed rate : Seed required for one hectare is 500 g to 1 kg for variety; for
hybrids - Female = 200 g and male = 50 g
Nursery : Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of
5 cm gap and covered with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be
sufficient to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg of DAP 10 days before pulling
out of seedling.
Transplanting: The seedlings of 30-35 days old are ready for transplanting.
Transplanting may be done on the ridges in the evening.
Foliar spray: To arrest the flower drop, NAA (Planofix) can be sprayed @
4ml/L. Very light irrigation is also done arrest the flower drop.
Manuring : Apply 50 tones of FYM/ha for irrigated crop. Basal 0:70:70 kg of
NPK and 50 kg of N at 15 days after transplanting and 50 kg N at 45 th days
after transplanting.
Roguing: Field inspection and roughing should be done both for varieties
and hybrid at different stages based on the plant height and its stature,
flower colour and pod characters. The plants affected with leaf blight,
anthracnose and viral diseases should be removed from the seed field.
Pest and disease management: The important pest attacking chilli and
capsicum are thrips, aphids, pod or fruit borer and mites. The thrips and
aphids can be controlled by spraying Dimecron (systemic pesticide), pod
borer can be controlled by spraying Nuvacron and the mites can be
controlled by spraying Kelthane. The major diseases affecting the plants are
die back or fruit rot, powdery mildew and bacterial leaf spot. Spray Dithane
M-45 for control of die back, Karathane for powdery mildew and Agromycin
for leaf spot disease control.

10

Hybrid seed production: The crossing operation can be performed as per

the methods outlined for tomato and brinjal hybrid seed production.
However, hand emasculation and pollination is some what difficult since the
flowers are minute. Hence use of male sterile lines can also be employed for
hybrid seed production.
Figure 3. Structure of chilli flower

Harvesting and processing : Harvesting should be done in different

pickings. First and last one or two pickings can be harvested for vegetable
purpose. The well ripened fruits with deep, red colour alone should be
collected in each picking. After harvest, fruit rot infected fruits are to be
discarded. The harvested pods are to be dried under shade for one (or) two
days and then under sun for another 2 or 3 days. Before drying pods are to
be selected for true to type and graded for seed extraction. The seed are
extracted from graded dried pods. The pods are taken in gunny bag and
beaten with pliable bamboo sticks. The seeds are cleaned by winnowing and
dried to 10% moisture content over tarpaulin. Then seeds are processed
with BSS 8 wiremesh screens. For large scale seed extraction, the TNAU
model chilli seed extractor may be used.
Seed Yield : 50-80 Kg/ha
Specific standards :
Factors
Off types
Designated
diseased
plant

Foundation
0.1%
0.1%

Certified
0.2%
0.5%

11

Plants affected by diseases

The designated diseases are caused by Collertotictum capsici and leaf
blight caused by Alternaria solari.
Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)
Factors
Pure seed
Inert matter
Other crop seeds
Weed seeds
Germination
Moisture content
For VP Container

Foundation
98%
2%
5/kg
5/kg
60%
8%
6%

Certified
98%
2%
10/kg
10/kg
60%
8%
6%

4.BHENDI (Abelmoschus esculentus)

Botany: Anthesis is between 9 and 10 hr and is preceded by maximum
anther dehiscence between 8 and 9 hr. The stigma remains receptive on the
day of anthesis. Bhendi is an often cross pollinated crop. Cross pollination to
an extent of 12 per cent is due to protogynous.
Method of seed production : Seed to seed
Stages of seed production : Breeder seed Foundation seed
Certified seed.
Varieties : Co.1, MDU.1, Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, Pusa A-4, Pusa
Sawani
Hybrids:CO2,CO 3, Mahyco hybrid, Shoba
Season : June-July, September- October and February- March
Land requirement : Select field on which bhendi crop was not grown in the
previous season, unless the crop was of the same variety and certified. Field
should be free from wild bhendi (Abelmoschus sp.)

12

Isolation requirement : Seed field must be isolated from other varieties at

least 400 M for foundation and hybrid seed production and 200 M for
certified seed production.
Seed rate : Varieties
Hybrids

: 8-10 kg/ha
: 4 kg/ha (Female)
: 1 kg/ha (Male)

Manuring : Apply 12.5 tons of FYM/ha before ploughing. Apply 150:75:75

kg NPK/ha, of which 50% of the N should be applied as top dressing in two
split doses at flowering and 10 days later.
Planting ratio: For hybrid seed production, female and male parents are
normally planted in the ratio of 4:1.
Roguing: Minimum of three inspections for varieties and 4 inspections for
hybrids, one at Vegetative, two at Flowering, and one at Fruit maturity
stages. The rouging should be based on the plant characters, hairiness, fruit
character like fruit colour, number of ridges, fruit length etc., and the off
type and mosaic attacked plants should be removed from the seed field. Wild
bhendi if present should be removed before flowering.
Pest and disease management: The major pest attacking bhendi are
jassids, aphids and white fly, which can be controlled by spraying Rogar or
Dimecron or Endosulphon. The pod borer and red spider mites can be
controlled by spraying Endosulphon and Kelthane, respectively. The diseases
such as yellow vein mosaic and powdery mildew can be controlled by
spraying systemic insecticides and Karathane, respectively.
Hybrid seed production: In bhendi, since the flowers are large in size,
hand emasculation and pollination is the best suitable method for seed
production. The emasculation and dusting can be done as per the methods
outlined in tomato. The male and female parents are raised in blocks at the
ratio of 9:1 (Female : Male).

13

Harvesting and threshing : Fruits should be harvested when they have

dried (30-35 days after crossing). The pods which expose hairline crack and
turn to brown colour on drying alone are cut using sickle manually. The pods
are dried and threshed using pliable sticks. Separated seeds are winnowed
to remove plant debris and dried over a tarpaulin to 10% moisture content.
Dried seeds are subject to water floatation in which, good seeds sink while
poor seeds float. The floaters are removed, while sinkers are dried under
shade followed by sun drying. Then the seed are cleaned, dried and treated
with Captan/ Thiram.
Processing: Seeds are to be processed with BSS 7 wiremesh sieve.
Seed Yield : 1000-1200 Kg/ha
Specific standards :
Factors
Off types
Objectionable weed
Disease affected plants

Foundation
0.1%
None
0.1%

Certified
0.2%
None
0.5%

Objectionable weed : wild Abelmoschus sp., A. manihot and A.moschatus

Designated diseases: Yellow Vein Clearing Mosaic (Hybiscus virus-1)
Seed standards
Factors
Pure seed
Inert matter
Other crop seed
Total weed seed
Objectionable weed
Other Distinguishable Varieties
(ODV)
Germination
Moisture
For VP Container

Foundation
99%
1%
None
None
None
10/kg

Certified
99%
1%
5/kg
None
None
20/kg

605
10%
8%

65%
10%
8%

14

ONION (Allium cepa)

Botany: Onion is the biennial crop and takes two full seasons to produce
seeds. In the first year bulbs are formed and in the second year stalks
develop and seed is produced. It is a long-day plant. The day length
influences bulb onion, but has little effect on induction of seeding. It appears
to be day-neutral for seed production. It requires cool conditions during early
development of the bulb crop and again prior to and during early growth of
seed stalk. Varieties bolt readily between 10 to15 degree C. In the early
stages of growth, a good supply of moisture is required and temperatures
should be fairly cool. During bulbing, harvesting and curing of seed, fairly
high temperatures and low humidity is desirable. Seed production is widely
adapted to temperate and sub-tropical regions.
Stages of seed production : Breeder seed Foundation seed
Certified seed
Varieties : Bellkary Red, Rampur local, Pusa white, Kalyanpur, Punja 48,
Pusa red, Pusa Madhvi, Arka, Nikertan, Arka Kalyani
Season : The optimum sowing season is middle of June to Middle of July in
the plains.
Isolation Requirements
Onion is largely cross-pollinated crop with up to 93 per cent natural
crossing but some self-pollination does occur. It is chiefly pollinated by
honey-bees. For pure seed production, the seed fields must be isolated from
fields of other varieties of onion and fields of the same variety not
conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification atleast by 1000
metres for foundation seed production and 500 metres for certified seed
production.
Method of Seed Production
There are two methods of seed production

15

1. Seed to seed method. In this method, the first season bulb crop is left to
over-winter in the field so as to produce seed in the following season.
2.Bulb to seed method. The bulbs produced in the previous season are
lifted, selected, stored and replanted to produce seed in the second year.
Mostly the bulb to seed method is used for seed production because of the
following advantages over the seed to seed method.
a) It permits selections of "true-to-type" and healthy bulbs for seed
production.
b)Seed yields are comparatively very high. The seed to seed method,
however, can be practiced for varieties having a poor keeping quality.

Bulbs To Seed Method

Production and storage of bulbs (first year)
1.Sowing time (nursery). Middle of October to middle of November in the
plains and April to June in the hills. 1/20 hectare nursery is sufficient for
raising seedlings for one hectare.

16

2.Seed rate. Eight to ten kilogrammes per hectare.

3.Fertilisation. Add 20 tonnes of well-rotted farmyard manure at the time of
land preparation and 250 kg superphosphate (single) and 45 kg potassium
sulphate at the time of planting. 250 to 375 kg. of ammonium sulphate or
CAN may be applied as top-dressing in two to three doses during the growing
period.
4.Transplanting. Eight to ten weeks old seedlings are planted in small beds
in well-prepared fields. January is the best period.
5.Spacing. Spacing depends upon variety and bulb size and varies from 10
to 15 cm.
6.Irrigation. Fortnightly irrigation during winter weekly irrigation during hot
weather. Irrigate sparingly during maturity.
7.Interculture. Keep field free from weeds. Frequent inter culture is
essential for good bulb development. For controlling weeds, post-emergence
application of tenoran at 2 kg per hectare in 800 litres of water, two to three
weeks after transplanting, is recommended. Oxadiazon one kg active
ingredient per hectare has also given effective control of weeds.
8. Insect and disease control
Insect
Onion thrips
Dust with 5% BHC dust at 25 to 30 kg per hectare, or spray malathion 50 EC
at 600 to 700 ml per hectare or thiodan 35 EC at 600 to 700 ml per hectare.
Three to four applications may be required. Onion maggot Spray sevimol
Diseases

17

Damping-off
Use treated seed. In cases of seedlings mnortality, drench nursery with 0.3
per cent captan, or thiram,or dithane Z-78 at weekly intervals.
Purple blotch
Spray with copper fungicides such as blitox 50 at 0.2 per cent.
9.Harvesting and curing of bulbs. Well-matured bulbs should be
harvested. Maturity is indicated by the tops drooping just above the bulb,
while the leaves are still green. After harvesting, the bulbs should be topped
leaving an half inch neck. Before storage, a thorough selection and curing of
bulbs should be done. The length of time required for curing depends largely
on weather conditions and may take three to four weeks.
Storage. The essentials of successful storage are:
a) The bulbs should be well-matured, dried and cured before storage.
b) Storage should be well-ventilated.
c) Storage should be done in shallow trays with perforated bottoms.
d) Storage temperatures should range 0 to 4.5 degree C until three to four
weeks prior to planting, when the temperature should be increased to around
10 degree C.
Planting of bulbs and seed production (second year)
1. Time of planting bulbs. The best time for planting Bulbs is the second
fortnight of October.
2.Preparation of land. Prepare the field to good tilth. One deep ploughing,
followed by three to four harrowings and land levelling are enough.
3. Seed rate. The seed yield is affected by the size of the bulb. The bigger
the bulb size, the higher is the seed yield. However, very large sized bulbs, if
used, will needa very high seed rate. If bulb size of 2.5 to3 cm diameter, is
used for planting, approximately 15 quintals of bulbs per hectare are
required if the bulb diameter is 3 to 4 cm.
4. Fertilization. Same as described for first year.

18

5. Method planting and spacing. Selected bulbs are planted 8 to 10 cm

deep in the soil at a distance of 45 x30 cm. The size of beds depends upon
the source of irrigation. The sprouted bulbs are planted as such. In
unsprouted bulbs, the upper half portion should be removed, leaving the
disc-like stem and roots intact. The removal of the upper tops hastens
sprouting.
6.Interculture. Insect and disease control. Same as described for first year.
Roguing
First year. It is desirable to begin roguing in the field before bulbs are
harvested, since it is then possible to detect any plants having a different
foliage colour, or plant type, or late maturing bulbs. After harvesting, the
bulbs should be carefully rogued for colour and such off-types as thick-necks,
doubles, bottlenecks, as well as any other types which do not conform to
varietal type. Second year, plant only selected true-to type bulbs and
remove plants not conforming to varietal characters before flowering.
Harvesting and processing : The maturity of seed ready for harvest is
indicated when (April-May) On full maturity, the seeds turn into black colour.
The matured seed bunches are harvested before shattering and dried .under
shade. Normally two to three harvest are required depends up on the
maturity of the seed. Harvest the seeds at intervals by cutting the seed head
with 10-15 cm of stem attached. The harvested umbels are heaped for a few
days for drying before threshing. This helps in proper curing of seed then the
seeds are separated from the capsules by hand threshing or using pliable
sticks. The seeds are cleared, graded by using 10 x 10 BSS sieve, dried to
6-8 % moisture contend and treated with Bavistin / Thiram @ 2-3 g/kg of
seed.
Seed Yield
The average seed yield varies from 850 to 1000 kg per hectare.

19

CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES
Land Requirements: There are no land requirements as to previous crop,
but the land should be free of volunteer plants. Generally the soil should be
well drained and aerated.
Isolation Requirements: Most of the cucurbits are monoecious in
character and a few are dioecious. A number of hermaphrodite and
andromonoecious cultivars are also available in some crops. Pollination is
largely done by insects. For pure seed production and isolation distance all
around seed field is necessary to separate it from fields of other varieties,
fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for
certification, from wild cucurbit species, and to separate musk melon from
long melon and vice versa, and pumpkin from summer and winter squashes
and vice versa as follows
Class

Minimum distance (meters)

Foundation

1000

Certified

500

Seed production details in Cucurbitaceous vegetables

Particulars
Isolation
distance
Season
Varieties

Seed rate /
ha
Treatment
for increase
female flower
Spacing (cm)
Fertilizers /
(NPK g/pit)

Bittergourd

Ashgourd
/ Pumpkin
Foundation seed 1000 m and certified seed 500 m

CO1, MDU1,
Coimbatore
long green
and
Coimbatore
long white
2.5

Snakegourd

Ribbedgourd

June - July and Feb March

CO1, CO2,
CO1, CO2,
PKM1, MDU1
PKM 1

2.5

2.5

CO1, CO2

2.5 / 1.0

Spraying of Ethrel 200 - 250 ppm at two true leaf stage

and after a week of 1st spray
Take pits of size 45x45x45 cm at 2.5x2.0 m distance
6:12:6
12:24:12
9:15:9
6:12:6

20

Physiological
maturity

Change of fruit colour in any

part or 1/3 of fruit tip to
yellow to red

Complete
drying
fruits

Processing

Hand
picking

Hand picking

BSS 4 wire
mesh sieve

Fruit to seed
recovery (%)
Seed yield
(kg/ha)

30

15-16

13-14

Change of
fruit colour
to
orange
brown
in
pumpkin
and
ashy
coating and
metallic
sound
in
ashgourd
16/64
round
perforated
sieve
1.0-1.3

120-150

220-250

200-250

120-150

of

SNAKE GOURD
Snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina L) is also called as Chicinda.
Varieties: CO 1, CO 2, MDU 1, PKM 1 and APAU Swetha.
Season
June-July ; December -January
Pre-sowing seed treatment
Pre germination of seeds by soaking in double the volume of water for
4 hours enhances the seed germination.
Seed rate
1.5 kg /ha.
Spacing
Dig pits of size 45 x 45 x 45 cm at 2.5 x 2.0 m spacing .
Isolation distance
FS
1000m
CS 500m
Manuring
100 g of the mixture (6:12:12) per pit as basal and 10 g N/pit at 30
days after sowing.
Foliar application
Maleic hydrazide @ 400 ppm at 2 leaves stage and 5 leaves stage
enhances the seed yield and quality or application of ethrel @ 100 to 200
ppm at weekly intervals from 4 th leaf stage for four times. During the course
of fruit development apply urea @ 12 kg / ha, super phosphate 4 kg /ha,
potash 2 kg /ha and micronutrients 400 g/ha.

21

Harvest
Fruits can be harvested at visible yellow to orange skin initiation stage.
Seed extraction
Manually the immature seeds can be removed as water floaters during
wet extraction. After drying the seeds the immature and small sized seeds
should be removed as air blown rejects. 16/64" round hole sieve may be
used or BSS 4 x 4 (6.2 mm).
Storage
Seeds dried to 7 to 8 % moisture content and dry dressed with
thiram / captan 75% wettable powder or halogen mixture @ 3 g / kg of
seeds, can be stored in cloth bag up to 10 months and over 18 months in
moisture vapour proof containers.
BITTER GOURD
Bitter gourd (Memordica Charantia L) is also called as Balsom pear.
Varieties: CO 1 and MDU 1.
Season
June July ; January - February.
Sowing
Sowing pre-germinated seeds to maintain optimum field population,
the seeds are soaked in water for 24 hours. Then place the seeds in
moistened sand and cover the seeds with sand and left for 3 days. Maintain
the sand in wet condition. After 3 days the seeds with protruding radicle are
separated and used for sowing.
Seed rate
1.8 kg /ha
Spacing
45 x 45 x 45 cm at 2.5 x 2 m. dip 3 seeds per pit.
Isolation distance
FS
1000m
CS 500m
Manuring
Apply 10 kg FYM per pit.
Top dressing
i.
Urea 22 g / pit during 1st flowering.
ii.
Urea + potash 18 + 5 gm/pit at 20 days after flowering.
iii.
Urea 18 gm + potash 5 gm/ pit at 40 days after flowering.
Isolation distance
FS
400m
CS 200m

22

Foliar application
Spray ethrel 200 ppm from 4 leaves stage onwards at 1 week interval
for 4 times.
Harvest
Change of fruit colour to orange.
Seed extraction
Cut the fruits longitudinally, then remove the seeds along with
mucilaginous material. Then wash the seeds with water.
Drying
Dry the seeds under shade for one or 2 days. Then dry under sun to
7-8% for storing in cloth bag and 6% for moisture vapour proof containers.
Grading
Grade the seeds using BSS 4 x 4 size .
Storage
Captan or thiram 4 gm/kg of seeds or halogen mixture @ 5 g/kg of
seeds.
ASH GOURD
Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida cogn) is otherwise called wax gourd.
Varieties
CO1, CO 2, APAU Shakthi and S 1.
Season
January February ; June - July.
Seed rate
1.5
kg / ha.
Spacing
45 x 45 x 45 cm at 2.5 x 2 m. dip 3 seeds per pit.
Isolation distance
FS
1000m
CS 500m
Manuring
100 g of the mixture (6:12:12) per pit as basal and 10 g N / pit 30
days after sowing.
Foliar application
Maleic hydrazide @ 400 ppm at 2 leaves and 5 leaves stages enhances
the seed yield and quality or ethrel @ 100-200 ppm at weekly intervals from
4 leaves stage for 4 times.
During the course of fruit development apply urea 12 kg / ha, super
phosphate 4 kg/ha, potash @ 2 kg /ha and micronutrients 400 g / ha.
Harvest

23

Fruits can be harvested 80-85 days after anthesis when stalk becomes
dry and ashy coat prominent. Fruits weighing < 2.5 kg should be rejected.
Seed extraction
Fresh fruits can be used for extraction.On fresh extraction immature
seeds can be removed as floaters. Cutting the fruits into longitudinal bits and
soaking in concentrated HCl acid at 1 part acid in 6 parts water for 30
minutes and wash the seeds with water 2 to 3 times to remove the acid.
Grading
Using 16 / 64" round perforated metal sieve or BSS 4 x 4 wire mesh
sieve grade the seeds.
Storage (Fruit & seed storage)
i.
Half matured fruits available at the last harvest can be removed and
stored over sand bed at ambient conditions. On dry storage seed
develops and can be used for seed extraction. Facilitate early field
release.
ii.
Fruits weighing not less than 2 kg without bruishes and proper
protection from insect pathogen and rodents can be stored over sand
for more than 6 months. The loss in fruit weighing amount to 35%
with germination of 80-90%
iii.
Seeds should be dried to 8% moisture and treated with thiram 4 g kg -1
of seeds or halogen mixture 5 g / kg and stored in moisture vapour
proof container for longer storage.

HARVESTING METHODS, TYPES, INDICES

Harvesting
It is the process of removal of economic produce from the mother
plant.

24

Harvesting Methods
Based on the species and types of fruits, the harvesting may be single (once
over harvest) as in the case of rice or multiple harvesting ( pickings) as in
the case of cotton and vegetables.
Single harvest
Manual harvest when a seed crop is raised in a small area eg. Nucleus
seed production. It is done by either removal of entire plant or by harvesting
the ear heads or panicles i.e. matured economic part alone can be harvested.
Mechanical harvest - Combined harvester can be employed for harvesting
the seed crop when it is raised in large and vast area with a single variety.
Multiple harvest
Mostly done manually. As and when the economic part comes to maturity it is
harvested . eg. Cotton the well busted bolls are picked once in week or
twice in a week. In Pulses, the matured pods are plucked and dried under
sun.
The maturity is of two types depends on the purpose. If the crop is for grain
production, it is enough to harvest the crop during harvestable maturity
(HM). But when the crop is meant for seed purpose it is advisable to harvest
the crop during physiological maturity (PM).
Difference between HM and PM
Physiological maturity
First stage prior to HM
Moisture content maximum
compared to HM
The stage at which the seed attained
maximum vigour and dry matter
production
Metabolic activities minimum
Optimum stage to harvest seed crop
How to identify the maturity?

Harvestable maturity
After PM and followed by field
maturity
Moisture content minimum when
compared to PM
vigour

Optimum stage to harvest grain crop

Based on some indices the stage of maturity is identified. The indices are
broadly classified into a. physical

b. physiological

c. biochemical

Physical indices
Changes in color, size, texture and moisture content.

25

Colour : Most of the crops the fruits or grains color changed from green to
yellow or brown or black. Eg. Rice at PM golden yellow color
Size : it attains maximum size at PM
Texture : In dry seeds the seed attains hardness upon maturity
Moisture content : get decreased and dry weight accumulation is more
Physiological changes
The seeds attain the germination capacity, accumulated with maximum dry
weight and vigour
Biochemical
Enzymes minimum activity
Electrical conductivity minimum
Protein maximum
Oil high
Carbohydrates High
Secondary metabolites decreased; If the secondary metabolites are
maximum, the seeds attain the dormancy state and minimum seeds can
germinate.
Maturity indices for agricultural crops
Crop
Rice

Days from
flowering
28 31

Wheat
Sorghum

38 44

Maize

35 40

Pearl Millet

30 40

Pigeon pea
Black
gram
Green
gram
Soybean

50
30
25
24

Maturity indices
Turing of 90% of seed to straw or golden yellow
colour and associates with moisture content of 20%
for short and medium duration varieties and 17% for
long duration varieties.
Seeds become hard and straw coloured and become
dry and brittle.
Leaves turn yellow and present a dried up
appearance. Black spot formation at the chalazal
end, leaves turn yellow and present a dried up
appearance seeds are hard and firm.
Cob sheath turning yellow and dry. Seeds become
fairly hard and dry. Black layer in the chalazal
region.
Leaves turn yellow and present a dried appearance
seeds are hardened.
Dry brown pods.
Leaves become dry and the colour of the pods and
seeds turn from green to black.
Leaves are dried. Pods turn black and seeds to dark
green and hard.
Yellowing and shedding of leaves and pod drying.
Colour of seed and pod changing from green to

26

Sunflower

30 35

Groundnut
Cotton

30
52

yellow.
Dropping peduncular receptacle turning lemon or
pale yellow and seeds becoming black in colour.
Inner side of pod shell turning black.
Cracking of bolls and kapas bursting.

Maturity indices for horticultural crops

Crop
Maturity indices
A. Dry seeds
Chillies
Turning of fruit colour from green to red, yellow or brown.
Bhendi
Pods become grey or brown, hard according to cultivar
Beans
Earliest pods dry and parchment like and remainder have turned
yellow
Broad bean
Pods become relatively dry, sponginess and is usually proceeded
by a general blackening
Carrot
Secondary and 3rd order head turn brown
Radish
Brown pods and parchment like when the seeds are near
maturing
Cabbage
On ripening, plants become dry and turn brown / light yellow
Onion

Seeds become black on ripening in silver coloured capsules. Ten

percent heads expose black seeds
B. Wet flesh fruits
Tomato
Skin colour changes to red and softness of fruits
Brinjal
Turning fruit colour to yellow / straw
Capsicum
Green coloured fruit changes to red or yellow depending on
variety
Cucumber
Fruit develops external ripening colour, stalk adjacent to the fruit
withers. For confirming actual seed maturity, several fruits are
cut longitudinally and mature seeds separate easily from the
interior flesh
Bittergourd, Fruit and seed become red
Snakegourd

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

This phase of seed production attains important as the heterogeneous
seed lot are homogenized only at this juncture for better performance either
in sowing or at storage. The series of operations in post harvest handling of

27

seed includes threshing, temporary storage, specific extraction techniques,

grading, upgradation, treating, packing and storage. The conveying system
of seed in these operations assures importance in determination and
preservation of seed quality.
Seed processing involves cleaning, drying, grading, treating, testing
and other operations, which will improve the physical and physiological
quality of the seeds. By seed processing the quality of the seed is upgraded
by eliminating the unwanted materials like weed seeds, small seeds,
damaged, broken and shriveled seeds, straw, chaff, leaves, twigs, stones, soil
particles, other crop seeds and seeds affected by insects and fungi.
Cob sorting:
In maize, before shelling, cobs should be examined for off types and
off colored kernels. Individual cobs should be examined with reference to its
varietal characters. The cobs of off types and off colored kernels should be
rejected. Similarly those seeds which have been shattered before the cobsorting inspection should be discarded. Like other field inspections, a report
on cob sorting has to be prepared and submitted.
Class
Foundation (inbred
and single cross)
Certified ( hybrid)

line Off
Off
Off
Off
Both
foundation
and Off
certified (composite and Off
open pollinated varities)

Factor
types
colored kernals
types
colored kernals
types
colored kernals

Maximum
permissible level %
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0

Groundnut pod verification

On receipt of the groundnut pods at the unit, the Seed certification
officer should examine the physical purity of the lot. For this purposed he will
take a sample of one kg of pods by adopting the sampling procedures. From
this one Kg of pods, find out the percentage of ill-filled pods by number. The
ill-filled pods should not exceed 4%.
Groundnut pod inspection

28

The groundnut pod inspection should be done within one month from
the date of final field inspection and reported in the inspection report form.
During this inspection the varietal characters shall be verified based on
reticulation, presence or absence of beak, constriction and depth of the
constriction. If the other variety seed is more than one percent in the
Foundation seeds class lot and two percent in certified seed lot, the seed lot
will be recommended for rejection.
Paddy float test
While undertaking processing of paddy, the quality of processing has
to be evaluated at regular intervals. Four hundred processed seeds will be
taken and put into a tumbler of water. Floating seeds will be counted and
maximum number of floats admissible is 5%. If the floating seeds exceed the
limit, adjust the airflow or feeding to perfect the processing.
Kapas inspection
It is nothing but verification of the cotton seed kapas produced from
the passed seed plot in the growers premises. This has to be conducted by
the Seed Certification Officer (SCO) within 45 to 50 days from the date of
final inspection.
During kapas inspection, the SCO has to evaluate and assess the
actual Kapas available. This is considered as an additional inspection for the
cotton seed farms and should be reported in inspection report form. Before
kapas inspection the kapas should be upgraded by removing the off-colored,
trash material and pieces of bracts (inert matter) and unopened kapas.

THRESHING AND SEED EXTRACTION METHODS

Basic steps and sequencing of seed extraction and processing
Fruit and seed harvesting

29

Pre-cleaning, moisture estimation air, drying (pre-curing)

Seeds extraction from fruit
Hard woods

Soft woods

Artificial drying

Soaking

Shaking

Draining

Seeds extracted
Drying
Dewinging
Cleaning
Separating and upgrading
Germination testing, X-radiography
Treating and bagging
Storage

Shipping

Threshing: The seed removal in dry fruits is known as threshing while that
of wet fruits is known as extraction. Method of extraction will vary with the
type of fruit.
Dry fruits

30

The seed removal from the dry fruits is known as threshing or dry
extraction. It is done either manually or mechanically. Manual extraction is by
beating the bearing structures with seed pliable bamboo sticks or by beating
the fruit structures against a hard surface. Threshers and used for
mechanical extraction. While using threshers, care should be taken to avoid
mechanical injury e.g., all agricultural crops.
Dry extraction: Dry extraction is done either manually or mechanically.
Manual extraction is beating with pliable bamboo stick or by beating against
a hard surface or by rubbing, rolling or walking on etc., Hand threshing may
be done in the following ways:
a.

Rubbing: Rubbing seed materials with a pressure in an open ended

trough lined with ribbed rubber (bamboo container). This method is
quite suitable for pod material such as brassicas and radish.

b.

Beating: The seed material is beaten with a tolerable force as the seeds
are separated but not broken as in chilly and bhendi.

c.

Flailing: Specially designed instruments are used for separating the

seeds from the plants. Eg., sweet corn.

d.

Rolling: Pods are rolled on threshing floor or tarpaulin repeatedly and

seeds are easily separated. Eg. Cowpea, Cluster bean.

e.

Walked on: The seed material is spread on the threshing floor and walk
on till the seeds are separated. Seeds which have been hand threshed
are usually still mixed with the plant debris and further separation is
done by winnowing or sieving.

Advantages

It is relatively cheap, easy and makes use of surplus local labour.

It can be usually adopted for high value vegetable seeds.
Mechanical admixtures can be avoided.

Disadvantages

It will take more time when compared to mechanical extraction.

It can be adopted for smaller quantity of produce only.

31

Mechanical extraction can be done by using threshers (LCT). In this, care

should be taken to avoid mechanical injury and varietal admixtures
Advantages

Extraction is quicker than manual method.

Labour requirement will be lesser when compared to manual
extraction.

Disadvantages

There is a chance for mechanical admixture.

Chance for mechanical damage.

Precautions

Machine

should

be

properly

cleaned

to

avoid

mechanical

admixtures.

The speed of the cylinder and the distance of the cylinder should
be properly adjusted to avoid the damage.

2. Specific extraction techniques

The extraction of seed from the reproductive part (fruit / pod / cone /
boll) varies with crop depending on the crop and embeddence of seed in the
reproductive part. Some of the special extraction techniques specific to crop
are as follows.
2.1. Shelling
The reproduction part of maize in known as cob and the extraction of
seed from the cob is known as shelling. Cob sheller is used in mechanized
way, while cob in gunny bag are threshed with bamboo stick and then the
unwanted material are blown in air. In cob sheller the moisture content of
cob should be 15-18 per cent, otherwise the drier cobs leads to splitting of
kernels, while cobs of higher moisture content will lead to crushing of seed.
Both lead to reduction of seed quality.

2.2. Ginning

32

Cotton seeds are embedded in the lint and fuzz. Removal of lint from
seed is known as ginning. It is normally done with ginneries. Cleaning of gins
before ginning of each seed lot is most important to maintain genetic purity.
2.3. Delinting
Ginned seeds are fuzzy and non-free flowering. Delinting is the
process, which make them free flowing and also aid in removal of insect
damaged and ill filled seeds. Delinting is done with commercial sulphuric
acid, which at large scale create soil degradation on disposal of used acid.
Gas delinting with hydrochloric acid fumes are nowadays practiced in cotton
delinting.
2.4. Decortication
It is a special operation specific to groundnut. Pods are considered as
seed. But on sowing decorticators are used for shelling of kernel from pod.
Pod verification is another post harvest handling operation specific to this
crop under certification programme.
Dry seed separation
Agricultura Dry seed separation
l crops
methods
Paddy
Thresher, Beating

Horticultur
al crops
Chilly,

Dry seed separation

methods
Beating, Chilly seed
extractor
Beating, Manual
splitting
Cutting from one side

Sorghum
Cumbu
Millets

Thresher, Beating

Bhendi

Trampling by cattle

Ridge gourd

Maize

Maize Sheller

Cutting from one side

Cotton
Pulse

Ginning machine
Pulse Thresher, Beating

Groundnut

Groundnut Decorticator

Sponge
gourd
Snake gourd
Brassicas
Radish
Amaranthus

Rape seed
Mustard
Sunflower

Onion

Flailing

Beans

Sesame

Flailing, Trampling by
animals & Tractors
Sunflower Thresher,
Rubbing, Beating
Shaking or Beating

Coriander

Rolling, Seed
extractors
Beating

Castor

Beating

Carrot

Flailing

Cutting from one side

Rubbing
Beating

33

Wet fruits : Removal of seeds from fleshy fruits eg. Tomato, brinjal
Tumbling of seeds
Tumbling is a process of preconditioning, which is by soaking or
dipping or mixing of fruits or sieves or pulp in order to facilitate the easy
separation during wet extraction.
Wet extraction: Seed extraction from wet/ flesh fruits can be done by the
following methods:
1. Manual method
2. Fermentation method
3. Mechanical method
4. Chemical method
Manual method
a.

Scooping: The fruit of bitter gourd, summer squash and long melon are
cut longitudinally and seed is scooped out while fruit of muskmelon
and pumpkin are cut into two pieces and seed is scooped out from
cavity.

b.

Maceration: In watermelon and ash gourd whole central portion are

manually scooped out and macerated to separate the seed from pulp.

c.

Crushing: It is followed for extraction of seeds from brinjal.

d.

Scrapping: This method is followed in cucumber.

Fermentation method: Steps to be followed in fermentation method are as

follows:
1.

Fruits with pulp and seed are squeezed.

2.

The content should be kept for overnight. (The seeds will settle down).

3.

Decayed pulp and immature seed will float.

4.

The settled seeds should be washed with more water.

5.

The seeds should be shade dried and then sun dried before using.

Advantages

It does not require any technically skilled persons.

Disadvantages

The seeds will be dull in color.

Care should be taken to avoid germination of seed during fermentation.

More chances for pathogen occurrence.

Speed of germination and vigour would get reduce. (Silva et al., 1982)

34

Mechanical method:
For large-scale seed extraction, mechanical seed extractors may be
used in tomato, brinjal, chilly, peas and beans.
Chemical methods
Alkali method:
This method is relatively safe and can be used for small quantities of seed in
cooler temperate areas where the fermentation method is not used. Steps to
be followed for alkali method are as follows:
Take the pulp containing extracted tomato seed

Add equal volume of 10 %sodium carbonate

Leave the mixture for 48 hrs at room temperature

Wash it out on a sieve and subsequently dry it

Advantages

This method can be followed where fermentation is not possible.

This is relatively safe method.

Handling is very easy when compared to acid method.

Disadvantages

This method is not suitable for commercial seed production, as

sodium carbonate tends to darken the seed coat.

Care should be taken on the concentration of the solution

Requires technical persons.

It is costlier method when compared to fermentation method.

It takes more time

Acid method: Steps to be followed for acid method are as follows:

1.

Add 30 ml of hydrochloric acid per litter of seed and pulp

mixture.

2.
3.

Stir it properly and leave it for half an hour.

Then wash the seeds thoroughly with water, sieve it and then
dry it

Advantages

Commercial seed producers often favour this method as it

produces bright clean seed.

35

Seed extraction and drying is done on the same day.

Higher seed recovery.

Removes external seed borne pathogens.

This method can be adopted for long-term storage.

Seed extracted by acid showed higher germination than that of

fermentation. (Proctor, C. H., 1947).

Disadvantages

Care should be taken during handling of acid.

Care should be taken on duration and concentration of the
chemical.
It requires technical persons.

36

SEED DRYING
Seed drying: The process of elimination of moisture from the seed to a safe
level through the process of evaporation is called drying.
Stage of moisture elimination
The moisture is eliminated in 2 stages
1. Surface moisture of the seed that initially removed by the drying air.
2. The removal of the moisture in the surface cause an imbalance in the
moisture potential in the surface of the seed and the inner portion of the
seed which leads to the migration of moisture from the inner organ to the
surface.
The migration of moisture to the surface is slower than the evaporation
and a moisture gradient is developed in the kernel. Elimination of moisture
from the seed depends upon the relative humidity and temperature of the
environment surrounding the seed. When RH of the atmosphere is less than
the seed, moisture is eliminated from the seed. While drying care should be
taken to minimize /prevent oxidation and decomposition and volatilization. In
this process there will be loss of dry weight of seed which is widened when
the processes take place when high temperature. Hence, high moisture seeds
should be dried at low temperature.
Equilibrium moisture content
A seed is in equilibrium with the environment when the rate of
moisture loss from the seed to the surrounding atmosphere is equal to the
rate of moisture gained by the seed from the atmosphere.
Drying temperature
Greater the seed moisture content lesser should be the drying
temperature and vice versa.
10% MC and below 110 o F (43.3o C)
10-18 % MC 100 o F (42.2 o C)
18-30 % MC 90 o F (32.2 o F)
The rate of drying depends on

Initial seed moisture content

37

Size of the bin and capacity

Depth of spread of seed

The rate of air blow

Atmosphere air temperature and relative humidity

Static pressure

Drying temperature

Different methods of drying

1. Physical drying (or) natural drying (0r) sun drying
2. Mechanical (or) artificial drying
Drying with forced natural air
Drying with forced artificially heated air
Drying with desiccants
Drying with infrared rays
Different types of dryers
1. Natural dryers
2. Artificial dryers
a) Batch bin dryers (or) Metal bin dryers
i) Rectangular metal bin dryer
ii) Circular metal bin dryer
b) Continuous flow dryer
i) Louisiana state university dryer
ii) Non mixing column dryer
I. Physical drying / Natural drying / Sun drying
This is the common conventional method in which drying of the
harvested crop is carried out in the field or threshing floor by the radient
energy of the sun. This does not involve any expenditure. To achieve uniform
drying the seed should be spread in thin layer. High MC seed with a moisture
content of more than 17% should be dried first under shade to reduce the
moisture content less than 17% and then dried under sun. Sun dried seeds
should not be allowed to remain open in the floor during night. Since seed
will absorb moisture from air. 2-4 days are needed to reduce the moisture
content to 10-20 %.

38

Advantages
1. The method is easy and cheap
2. Does not require any expenditure or fuel.

Disadvantages
1. The rate of drying is slow
2. Loss due to attack by insects, birds and animals.
3. Large floor area is required
4. Involves extra labour for collecting and spreading of seeds during the
day.
5. Sun drying cause checks or hot spots due to variation in
6. This checks or spots induce high amount of breakage while processing.
7. Dust, dirt and other foreign materials get admixed
8. High weather risks and damage by heavy wind and rains.
II. Mechanical drying or artificial drying
This involves the use of heated or unheated air or others which are
forced through a drier holding the seeds.
1. Forced natural air drying
Generally ordinary seed godowns are provided with two types of
ventilators for free movement of air circulation. In modern godowns
provisions are to be made for forcible circulation of air with the help of an
electronic blower. The outside air which is comparatively dry is circulated into
the seed bag in the godown. The seed get dried up in this process. This is
possible only in dry months.

39

2. Forced heated air drying

In this method the outside air is heated with the help of burner heater
and circulated into the godown for drying. This principle is employed in
several types of the modern dryers.
Dryers
I. Metal bin driers or batch bin driers
a) Circulated metal bin driers
Such dryers usually consist of perforated floor, fan, heater and seed
spreader. Here the seeds are spread in a thin layer over a perforated metal
sheet while the heated air is blown to pass through the seeds. This heated air
removes the moisture from the seed.
b) Rectangular metal bin driers
Basic principles of operation and construction are essentially the same
as for circular metal dryer. The mainly differ in the mode of air circulation and
seed movement in or out the bin. Metal screens are with opening not larger
than the size of the seed. Their capacity is limited by the strength of the
screens used.

C) Batch bin driers

In bin batch-dryers, the seed is placed in a (usually round) bin and
ambient or slightly- heated air is blown through it by a fan. The maximum
thickness of the seed layer in the bin depends on the initial moisture content,
the type of seed, the air temperature and relative humidity, and fan

40

horsepower. To obtain a uniform airflow through the seeds, a full perforated

floor is required.
After the seed in a bin has reached the acceptable average moisture
content, a moisture gradient will remain from the top to the bottom of the
seed. The surface layer will have a moisture content above the average and
the bottom layer of the bin will be lower than average. Thus, proper mixing
of the seeds is essential before further storage or packaging. This can be
addressed by installing one or more grain stirrers to mix the entire content of
a bin for 3 to 12 hours.

Bin Layer-Dryer
In the process of bin batchdrying, a batch of seed is placed in a bin
and the entire batch is dried. In bin layerdrying, the Seed is dried in layers;
successive layers of moist seed are added periodically to the drying bin after
the previous layers have been partially dried. The final seed depth in the
layer-drying bin is much greater than in a bin hatch-dryer.
Bin layerdrying requires a thorough understanding of the inbin
drying process, since the depth of the successive layers of seed to be added
to the drying bin depends on the type of seed and its moisture content, the
drying-air conditions, and the fan rating.
Column Batch-Dryer
In a column batch dryer, drying air is forced perpendicularly from an
air chamber through the wet seed held in a relatively thin column (0.25-0.45
m). The airflow ranges from 1 5-30 m of slightly-heated air per minute per m
of screen area. The temperature of the drying air should not exceed 35-40C.
After the seeds in a column batch-dryer have been dried to near the desired

41

average moisture content, the seeds are cooled by ambient air after turning
off the heating unit. The total time required for drying and cooling 20%
moisture seed in a column batch-dryer to down to 14% is about 3.5 hours,
depending on the seed type, the air temperature, and the airflow rate. As in
other batch-type dryers, the seeds in a column batch-dryer are not uniformly
dried. Thus, the seeds have to be well mixed prior to further storage or
packaging.

II. Continuous flow dryers

a) Louisiana State University dryer (L.S.U. dryers):
This is a continuous column heater air drier largely used for paddy. The
paddy seeds are fed from the top with the help of gravity force in zig zag
manner and heated air is blown from the bottom usually at right angles to
the direction of seed motion. This falling at right angles to the direction of
seed motion. The falling seeds get dried up by the heated air and this
process is repeated till we get a reduction of moisture content to the
expected level.
Advantages over bin dryers
1. Short drying period
2. Less damages or spoilage during wet weather
3. Drying is more uniform.

Continuous flow dryer

42

b) Non mixing column dryer

These dryers consist of a tall vertical column through which paddy
flows by gravity. No provision is made for agitating the paddy as it flows and
hence there is no attempt to drive the paddy from a straight path. Paddy
descends gradually between two parallel screens and heated air is forced
through the screens.

c) Rotary dryer
Rotary seed dryers are frequently batch-type units because of small lot
sizes. Dryers often consist of a perforated rotating drum in which the seeds
are

tumbled

while

being

heated

with

drying

air

which

is

injected

perpendicularly to the drum axis. A batch-type rotary dryer is particularly

suitable for drying small lots of high moisture vegetable and/or flower seeds.
Unlike in sun/bin/wagon/portable-batch dryers, seeds are dried uniformly in
rotary dryers. This is the great advantage of this dryer type. However, it has
relatively high fixed and maintenance costs.
Advantages of mechanical drying
1. Quick method, timely and uniform drying is possible
2. Makes early harvest possible
3. It reduces the chances of losses due to over ripening and shattering of
seed
4. Losses due to rodents and birds are prevented.
5. Less damage during processing operation.
6. Permits long time storage by preventing sun checks and other
damages.
Disadvantages
1. Initial cost of drying equipment's is high
2. Fuel is expensive
3. It produces possible fire hazards
4. Considerable supervision is necessary.

43

Tempering
Seed is usually dried in stages with heated air each stage consisting of
a pass through the drier. Between passes the seed is stored in bins for an
equilibrium period known as tempering period. This period of tempering
shortens the total in drying time. During drying surface moisture is removed
and internal moisture moves towards the surface is slower than evaporation,
and a moisture gradient develops in the kernel. The outside becomes drier
than the inside and evaporation rate decreased. During tempering moisture
concentration equalizes in the kernel and then evaporation of surface
moisture is nearly as rapid as at the start of drying.

44

PRINCIPLE, IMPORTANCE AND SEQUENCE OF SEED PROCESSING

The process of removal of dockage in a seed lot and preparation of
seed for marketing is called seed processing. The price and quality of seed is
inversely related to dockage, which should not exceed a maximum level
permitted for different crops for seed certification.
Due to the operation of processing the level of heterogeneity of seed
lot gets narrowed down. The heterogeneity occurs in a seed lot due to
following reasons:
1. Variability in soil for fertility, physical, chemical and biological
properties
2. Variability in management practices (irrigation, application of nutrients
etc.)
3. Variability in ability of the seedling for utilizing the inputs
4. Variability in pest and disease infestation
5. Position of pod or fruit in a plant or the position of seed in a pod.
Principle of seed processing: the processing operation carried out based
on the principal physical differences found in a seed lot.
Physical differences found in seed are
Physical difference

Suitable

machineries
1. Seed size varied from small to bold

Air screen cleaner cum

grader
2. Density- ill filled, immature to well matured,

Specific gravity separator

light weight to dense seed

3. Shape round to oval and different shapes

Spiral separator

4. Surface texture smooth to wrinkled and rough Roll mill / dodder mill
5. Colour of the seed light color to dark colors

Electronic color shorter

6. Conductivity of seed low to high

Electronic separator

45

Requirement in seed processing

-

There should be complete separation

There should be minimum seed loss

Upgrading should be possible for any particular quality

There should be have more efficiency

It should have only minimum requirement

Types of materials removed during seed processing

- Inert materials
- Common weed seeds
- Noxious weed seeds
- Deteriorated seeds
- Damaged seeds
- Other crop seeds
- Other variety seeds
- Off-size seeds
Sequence of operation in seed processing
Since, each crop seed possesses individual seed structure, sequence of
operations is based on characteristics of seed such as shape, size, weight,
length, surface structure, colour and moisture content. Therefore, sequence
of operation will be applied proper equipments.

However, it involves

following stages
- Drying
- Receiving
- Pre-cleaning
- Conditioning
- Cleaning
- Separating or Upgrading
- Treating (Drying)
- Weighting
- Bagging
- Storage or Shipping
Processing involved three steps :
Step 1. Pre-conditioning and pre cleaning

46

Pre -conditioning :

Isolation of seed from plant parts with which it was

harvested . eg. Shelling

Pre-cleaning: Removal of external materials like trash, stones, clods which
are either in larger size or lighter in weight. No pre cleaning is required for
hand harvested and winnowed seeds
The machineries involved in this operation are:
Scalper : Removes the larger inert matter from the seeds . If it contains a
single sieve it is called as scalpers, two sieves rough cleaners. The unit
consists of a vibrating or rotating screen or sieve having perforation large
enough to allow the rough seed pass through readily.
Debearders : The machine has horizontal beater with arms rotating inside a
steel drum. When the seeds pass through it do the action of rubing the seeds
and clip the seeds of oats, debeard barley, thresh white- cap in wheat,
remove awns and beards, de hull some grass seeds and polish the seed.
Huller scarifier : Have two rubber faced rough surfaces to rub the seeds.
Dehulling ( removal of outer coat or husk) and scarifier ( scratching the seed
coat) can be done simultaneously or separately.
Maize sheller :

1. high capacity power operated shellers - bulk

2. Hand shellers breeder or nucleus seed.

Step 2. Basic cleaning

The second stage of cleaning is carried out with air blasts and vibrating
screens and is applicable to all kinds of seeds. It is essentially the same as
scalping but more refined. It is performed mostly by one machine known as
air-screen cleaner.
Step -3. Cleaning and Grading
To obtain quality seed, it is necessary to clean the seed obtained from the
farm to get rid of inert materials, weed seeds, other crop seeds, other variety
seeds, damaged and deteriorated seed.

Different kinds of seeds can be

separated when they differ in one or more physical characteristics. Physical

47

characteristics normally used to separate seeds are size, shape, length,

weight, colour, surface texture, affinity to liquids, electrical conductivity, etc.
Step -4. Upgrading
Seed lots require further cleaning treatment to remove adulterants that are
similar to pure seed in size and shape, to be separated by air screen cleaner.
Removal of seeds larger or smaller than required size (sizing) and removal of
cracked, damaged or otherwise defective seeds (grading) is accomplished in
this final stage of processing.

48

SEED PROCESSING MACHINARIES

Cleaning and Grading
To obtain quality seed, it is necessary to clean the seed obtained from
the farm to get rid of inert materials, weed seeds, other crop seeds, other
variety seeds, damaged and deteriorated seed. Different kinds of seeds can
be separated when they differ in one or more physical characteristics.
Physical characteristics normally used to separate seeds are size, shape,
length, weight, colour, surface texture, affinity to liquids, electrical
conductivity, etc. The problem lies in identifying the most important property
and use the machine that separates seed using the identified property. Some
of the identified properties and machines operating by following the
properties are listed below:
Name of the
Separator

Property followed

Uses

Vibratory
separator
Spiral separator

Shape and surface Removal of weed seeds

texture
Shape or the degree Separation of damaged/flat and
of its ability to roll
wrinkled seeds from smooth
seeds. Separation of mustard,
rape, soybean and peas from
wheat, flax, oats, etc., and round
seeds from flat seeds.
Disk / Indented Length
Dissimilar material like wheat,
cylinder separator
rye, mustard, barley from oats
Electrostatic
Electrical property
Johnson grass from sesame
separator
seed
Electronic
colour Colour / brightness
Separation of off coloured seeds
sorters
Inclined draper
Shape and surface Separation of smooth or round
texture
seeds
from
rough
flat
or
elongated seeds
Magnetic separator Surface texture and Removal of contaminating weed
stickiness
seed from clovers, alfalfa seeds
and iron metals
Roll mill
Shape and surface Separation of smooth clover
texture
seed
Gravity separator Density or specific Removal of badly damaged,
or Destoner
gravity
deteriorated, insect damaged
crop seed and stones from good
seeds.

49

Upgrading
Seed lots require further cleaning treatment to remove adulterants
that are similar to pure seed in size and shape, to be separated by air screen
cleaner. Removal of seeds larger or smaller than required size (sizing) and
removal of cracked, damaged or otherwise defective seeds (grading) is
accomplished in this final stage of processing.

AIR-SCREEN CLEANER CUM GRADER

The air-screen machine is the basic cleaner in most seed processing
plants. Almost all seed must be cleaned by air-screen cleaner before specific
specifications can be attempted. Machine size varies from small, two-screen
farm models to large industrial cleaners with 7-8 screens. Two-screen
models are used on farms, in breeder and foundation seed programs and by
experiment stations for processing small quantities of seed.
In most
machines separations are made on the basis of differences in only one
physical characteristic. The air-screen machine, however, effects separations
on the basis of differences in size and weight of seeds. This enables the airscreen machine to use three cleaning elements: aspiration, in which light
material is removed from the seed mass; scalping, in which good seed are
dropped through screen openings; but larger material is carried over the

50

screen into a separate spout; and grading, in which good crop seed ride over
screen openings, while smaller particles drop through.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY SEPARATOR

This method makes use of a combination of weight and surface
characteristics of the seed to be separated. The principle of floatation is
employed here. A mixture of seeds is fed onto the lower end of a sloping
perforated table. Air is forced up through the porous deck surface and the
bed of seeds by a fan, which stratifies the seeds in layers according to
density with the lightest seeds and particles of inert matter at the top and
the heaviest at the bottom. An oscillating movement of the table causes the
seeds to move at different rates across the deck. The lightest seeds float
down under gravity and are discharged at the lower end, while the heaviest
ones are kicked up the slope by contact with the oscillating deck and are
discharged at the upper end. This machine separates seeds of the same
density but of different size and seeds of the same size but of different
densities.
INDENTED CYLINDER
This helps to separate seeds according to the length. The equipment
consists of a slightly inclined horizontal rotating cylinder and a movable
separating trough. The inside surface has small closely spaced hemispherical
indentations. Small seeds are pressed into the indents by centrifugal force
and can be removed. The larger seeds flows in the centre of the cylinder and
is discharged by gravity.

51

Specific gravity separator

Indented cylinder separator

MAGNETIC SEPARATOR
The magnetic separator separates seed according to its surface texture
or related seed characteristics. First, seed is treated with iron filings, which
adhere to rough surface alone. The treated seed lot is passed over a
revolving magnetic drum and separated from smooth, uncoated seed. It may
help to add varied amounts of water while mixing seed and powder,
depending on the seed type. At any rate, the effectiveness of magnetic
separation depends on the components of the seed lot and on the powder
and water used in the treating operation. The greater the difference between
surface textures of the seed lots components, more effective will be the
separation.
FRICTION CLEANING
The air-screen combinations cannot remove debris that has a size and
density similar to the seeds. However, if the debris has a different surface
texture, it may be possible to remove by friction cleaning. Any object rolling
or sliding over a sloping surface encounters a certain friction depending on
the texture of itself and that of the sloping surface. Separation is made on a
velvet cloth or rubber belt with variable inclination, which ensures that the
slope necessary for the run off of the seed is different from the slope
necessary for run -off of the debris. The belt continuously moves upwards
and removes the debris while the seeds roll down the slope.
SPIRAL SEPARATOR
The separator, which classifies seed according to its shape and rolling
ability, consists of sheet metal strips fitted around a central axis in the form

52

of a spiral. The unit resembles an open screw conveyor standing in a vertical

position. The seed is introduced at the top of the inner spiral. Round seeds
roll faster down the incline than flat or irregularly shaped seeds, which tend
to slide or tumble. The orbit of round seed increases with speed on its flight
around the axis, until it rolls over the edge of the inner flight into the outer
flight where it is collected separately. The slower moving seed does not build
up enough speed to escape form the inner flight. Most spirals have multiple
inner flights arranged one above the other to increase the capacity.
COLOUR SEPARATOR
The colour separator is used to separate discoloured seed, greatly of
lower quality. Separation based on colour is necessary because the density
and dimensions of discoloured seed are the same as those of sound seed, so
other machines are not effective for separation. Electronic colour separation
uses photocells to compare the seed colour with background which are
selected to reflect the same light as the good seed. Seed that differs in colour
is detected by the photo cells, which generate an electric impulse. The
impulse activates an air jet to blow away the discoloured seed.
LIQUID FLOTATION
Cleaning by flotation relies on the principle that the density of the seed
of a given species is specific both for filled and ill filled seed. In this method,
liquids with a density or specific gravity between that of the full and empty
seed are used. The specific gravity of the liquids used is such that the full
seed sinks and the empty seed and light debris float.

53

SEED TREATMENT
Seed-borne and early season diseases and insects pose devastating
consequences to crop production if not managed. Seed treatments are
playing a significant role in improving the establishment of healthy crops
leading to better yields. Seed treatment is application of various physical,
chemical and biological agents and techniques on the seeds that provide
protection to the seed and plant and improves the establishment of healthy
crops.
Nothing will work upon a poor quality seed, no matter how lavishly
other inputs are spent on the crop established from such seeds. Assured
germinability and vigour are important parameters to be looked upon on the
seeds. Seed treatment insured both. A successful treatment should
bring about qualitative improvement in the seed
transform seeds as a carrier of basic inputs such as pesticides, herbicides,
nutrients etc.,
enable mechanised sowing
improve the field performance
enhance storability
History of seed treatment
Some of the first recorded uses of Seed Treatment are from the
Egyptian and Roman periods and involved a technique of using sap from
onion (Allium spp.). In the middle ages, Seed Treatments were made with
liquid manure and chlorine salts. Salt water treatments have been used since
the mid-1600s and the first copper products were introduced in the mid1700s. The still used today technology of hot water treatment is
documented from as early as 1765 in Wittenberg, Germany. Seeds were
placed in 45oC water for 2 hours, this provided control of certain fungal
pathogens on the outer surface of the seed.
A Time of Transition to Modern Seed Treatments
The seed industry is continuously in a time of transition and
improvement. Key milestones in the history of Modern Seed Treatment are
the introduction and ban of arsenic (used from 1740 until 1808), the
introduction and ban of Mercury (used from 1915 until 1982). The launch of
the first systemic compound in 1960; until then, Seed Treatments had been
only seed sterilants and did not move into the plant. During the 1970s, the
first systemic Seed Treatment fungicides for air-borne pathogens were

54

introduced. In the 1990s, new modern classes of fungicide and insecticide

chemistry were launched.
Todays Modern Seed Treatment
The objectives of modern Seed Treatment products are the superior
control of certain insects and diseases while improving crop safety leading to
good establishment of healthy and vigorous plants. Modern Seed Treatment
formulations must also contribute to improvements in farmers and workers
safety and stewardship of the environment.
Based on purpose, the types of seed treatments are
i)
pre-sowing
ii)
pre-storage and
iii)
mid-storage treatments.
PRESOWING SEED TREATMENT
For any crop, the time from sowing to seedling establishment is a
crucial period in which the seed is exposed to a wide range of environmental
stress that can adversely affect its performance. The pre-sowing treatments
help the seed to cope with such problems. The pre-sowing treatments are
classified hereunder.
i. Dormancy breaking treatments
1. Soaking in water
2. Mechanical scarification
3. Acid scarification
4. Bio scarification
5. Scorching
6. Warm stratification
7. Cold stratification
8. Electrical seed treatment
ii. Germination augmenting treatments
1. Seed fortification/infusion
2. Dry permeation
3. Seed hardening
4. Seed priming
5. Humidification
6. Irradiation
7. Magnetic seed treatment
iii. Seed coating treatments

55

1.
2.
3.
4.
iv. Seed

Seed pelleting
Seed coating / film coating
Seed colouring
Fluid drilling or gel seeding
protection treatments

1. Biological seed treatment

2. Seed dressing
DORMANCY BREAKING TREATMENTS
i) Soaking in water
It refers to soaking of seeds in cold or hot water for a period ranging
from few hours to several days. It is intended to break physical or chemical
dormancy. In the case of cold water soaking, seeds are soaked in cold
water for one to three days; but once in 12 h water should be changed to
avoid fermentation. Chemical dormancy caused by the presence of inhibitors
is overcome by leaching of the inhibitors.
Seeds can be soaked in running water for a day to leach out the
inhibitors eg., coumarin in coriander; hydrocyanic acid in sunflower. In the
case hot water treatment, seeds should be soaked in boiled water and
removed from the heat source for one to 80 minutes. Physical dormancy
caused by hard seed coat is overcome by softening of the seed coat.
ii) Mechanical scarification
This denotes rubbing or aberration of seeds against hard surface. It is
done to partially damage the hard seed coat. During the scarification the
seed coat is aberrated and thereby, the hard seed coat is made permeable to
water.
iii) Acid scarification
Treating the seeds in sulphuric acid for a pre- standardized duration is
done to overcome physical dormancy caused by hard seed coat. It is done by
soaking the seeds in concentrated or diluted sulphuric acid for a prestandardized duration with often stirring and washing the seeds for 5-10
minutes to remove all traces of acid and then shade dry the seeds.
iv) Bioscarification
It is subjecting the seeds to pretreatment by making use of animals
and insects as an important factor in the breakdown of seed coat
impermeability. It is done to break down seed coat impermeability.
a) Animals
Pods of Acacia nilotica are fed to penned sheep or goats and the
seeds are collected from the droppings. The combination of moisture, warmth

56

and chemical action of the digestive juices softens the hard seed coat and it
become permeable.

b)

Insects
Termites are an important agent for breaking down seed coat
dormancy in many parts of tropics as it feed and remove the exocarp eg.
Terminalias.
v.) Stratification
It is a method of exposing imbibed seeds to higher temperatures for a
period of time. It is done to overcome mechanical and morphological
dormancy. Soak the seeds in several times of their volume of cold water at
approximately 3-5C for 48 h. Drain off the water and mix the seeds with two
to four times their volume of a moistened medium such as sand, sand peat
mixture or vermiculite. Store at a warm temperature. A constant
temperature of 20-25C or alternating temperature of 20C and 30C is
suitable for many species. Open the containers weekly, mix seeds and if
surfaces show signs of drying, remoist with water spray. Periods of treatment
vary form 2 weeks to 16 weeks depending on species.
vi) Cold stratification
It is a method of exposing imbibied seeds to lower temperatures
for a period of time. It is done to overcome physiological dormancy. Seeds
should be soaked in several times their volume of water before prechilling at
3-5C for 48 h. After soaking, the water is drained off and moist seeds are
stored at 3-5C for the period appropriate to each species. Storage may be
without any medium i.e. seeds as such or the seeds may be mixed with 2-4
times of their volume of a medium such as moist sand, peat or a mixture of
these two. Containers shall be opened and mixed if surfaces dry off. eg.,
Abeis spp, Eucalyptus delegatensis etc.
GERMINATION AUGMENTING TREATMENTS
i) Seed fortification/infusion
It is process of enriching the seeds with bioactive chemicals for
improving the germination and seedling vigour. To the known volume of
seeds one third volume of the nutrient solution is added and allowed to
imbibe for short duration. The imbibed seeds should be dried under shade.
ii) Dry permeation
It is soaking of seeds in organic solvents like acetone, petroleum ether
and dichloromethane containing desired hormonal and non hormonal
chemicals for 2-3 h followed by evaporation of the solvent in air. It is an

57

approach to improve the germinability and vigour of the seed by infusion of

bioactive chemicals into the seed without altering seed moisture content.

iii) Seed hardening

It is the process of hydrating the seed to initiate the pre-germinative
metabolism followed by dehydration which fixes the biochemical events. It is
done in order to impart resistance against stress conditions viz., drought and
cold, to the emerging seedlings
Seeds or grains are allowed to take up a certain amount of water, and
then they are kept moist at 100 - 250C for several hours before drying in a
steam of air. The best results can gain in two - three cycles of wetting and
drying, although for some one cycle is sufficient. Different amounts of water
are recommended for different species and cultivars of seed or grain.
iv) Seed priming
It is the process of controlled hydration of seeds to a level that permits
pre-germinative metabolic activity to proceed, but that prevents actual
emergence of the radicle. Seeds are soaked in variety of solutes, including
solutions of various inorganic salts, sugars and polyethylene glycol (PEG) a
chemically inert, high molecular weight compound does not penetrate the cell
walls. The temperature suggested during priming is 10 0 - 150C. The duration
of priming varies with the crop. Heydecker et al (1973) used different terms
depending upon the methods adopted for priming.
(i) Osmopriming - Soaking the seeds in osmotic solutions
(ii) Halopriming - Soaking the seeds in salt solutions
(iii) Biopriming - Coating the seeds with biological agents like bacteria
(iv) Solid matric priming
This consists of mixing seeds with an organic or inorganic carrier and
water for a period of time. The moisture content of the matric is brought to a
level just below what is required for radicle protrusion. Seed water potential
is regulated by the matric potential of the seed and during priming the water
is largely held by the carrier. Seeds can imbibe water from the carrier till the
equilibrium is reached.
v) Irradiation
Presowing irradiation of the seeds is a novel measure to increase the
yield potential by improving germination and vigour. Air dried seeds are

58

irradiated by using experimental gamma units. The unit consists of a definite

configuration of irradiator such as a hollow cylinder or a linear or flat
irradiator and maintaining an accurate time exposure for conducting the
experiment.
In the process of the growth and development of plants raised from
irradiated seeds, beginning from seedling emergence and ending with the
ripening, there appears new, quite diverse changes manifested in the
acceleration of the cell division rate, enhancement of growth and
development, change of organogenesis, yield increase and its quality change,
ie., there emerges a very complicated sequence of changes which has been
termed as the effect of distant irradiation action.
vi) Magnetic seed treatment
It is a simple treatment which involves exposure of seeds to a
magnetic field to improve germination and vigour for specified duration.
Magnetically treated seeds respire slowly but register higher respiration
quotient values with increased enzyme activity viz., -amylase and nitrate
reductase
SEED COATING TREATMENT
i) Seed pelleting
It is the process of enclosing the seed inside a small quantity of inert
material just large enough to produce a globular unit of standard size. Seeds
are introduced into a coating drum or pan that resembles a cement mixer. An
amalgam of pelleting materials (clays, limestone, calcium carbonate, talc,
vermiculite) and cementing adhesives (gum arabic, gelatin, methylcellulose,
polyvinyl alcohol, polyoxylethylene glycol-based waxes) are used to form the
pellet and other compounds such as innoculants, fungicides, etc. may be
added to enhance seed performance.
As drum rotates, the seeds are first sprayed with water followed by the
addition of the pelleting materials with binder. The wet seed attracts and
becomes coated with the dry pelleting material and the pellet gradually
increases in size with each turn of coating drum . Longer rotation times with
greater amounts of pelleting materials lead to greater pellet size and
roundness. At the end of the pelleting process, a binder is added to harden
the outer layer of the pellet. The ingredients of the seed pellets exerts
respective positive influence on seed performance eg., Diammonium
phosphate stimulates prolific root growth.
ii) Seed coating / film coating
It is a process of applying useful materials to form a continuous layer of
this coating over seed without altering the shape or size. The advantage of

59

film coating over other coating process is the absence of dusting off problem
and improvement of seed flow in planting equipment. The application of seed
coating is very similar to the slurry seed treatment and similar equipment is
used, where in the seeds are sprayed or dipped in the dissolved additives and
immediately dried. Film coating involves application of additives dissolved in
a dyed solution of a sticky polymer and immediately dried. The ingredients
of the seed coating exerts respective positive influence of the on seed
performance eg., Bavistin protects the seedling from wilt disease
iii) Seed colouring
Colouring of seeds using natural or artificial dyes is done to
to prevent inadvertent use of treated seeds for food or feed
purposes
to identify the seeds eg., A line, Bline, Rline etc.,
to project their seed in the market eg. Private companies
The seeds are sprayed or dipped in the dissolved dyes.
iv) Fluid drilling or gel seeding
It is mixing of pre germinated seed in a viscous gel, which is sown with
an appropriate drill to maintain the seed moisture of the pre geminated
seeds and to prevent injury to the emerged radical. Seeds are germinated in
aerated water until radicle emergence and then they are mixed in a viscous
gel eg., alginate gel. The viscous gel provides a cushion to the emerged
radicle thus preventing any mechanical damage during drilling. The gel also
gives a protective covering to the seed against any moisture loss.
SEED PROTECTION TREATMENTS
i) Biological seed treatment
They are the treatments that use beneficial microorganisms to offer
the potential for sustained plant growth. It can serve two purposes viz., seed
protection and nutrient supplementation. Seeds are mixed with adhering
such as rice gruel, and coating with the specific biological strains in
appropriate proportions followed by surface drying.
Seed protection
Fungi such as
Trichoderma,
Pythium and Chaetomium controls
damping off and other diseases. The bacterium Clavibacter xylli counter acts
on European corn borer by producing an insecticidal protein.
Nutrient supplementation

60

The bacteria such as Rhizobium and Azospirillum enhance root

nodulation and increases nitrogen fixation.
Success is depends on
the efficacy of biocontrol,
the number of propogules added to the seed,
the method of application and
the control of other microbes in the application process.
ii) Seed dressing
It refers to the application of pesticides (fungicides, insecticides or a
combination of both) to seeds before sowing in order to protect the seeds
and young seedlings from soil borne pathogens. Seeds are thoroughly mixed
with required quantities of chemicals eg., Thiram and Captan @ 2 g/kg of
seeds or botanicals eg., leaf powder of Azadirachta indica and
Vitex
negundo.

61

SEED STORAGE
What is seed storage - preservation of seed with initial quality until it is
needed for planting.
Introduction
The ability of seed to tolerate moisture loss allows the seed to
maintain the viability in dry state. Storage starts in the mother plant itself
when it attains physiological maturity. After harvesting the seeds are either
stored in ware houses or in transit or in retail shops. During the old age days,
the farmers were used farm saved seeds, in little quantity, but introduction of
high yielding varieties and hybrids and modernization of agriculture
necessitated the development of storage techniques to preserve the seeds.
The practice of storing the seeds starts from the ancient days itself,
following simple and cheap techniques eg. Placing the seeds in salt or red
earth treatment to red gram etc. But the same practices are not hold good
for the present day agriculture, because
- large quantity to be stored
- exchange of varieties and species
- exchange of genes
The type of material to be stored decides the techniques to be followed
for safe storage. Now a day, storage technique changed from ordinary
godown storage to cryogenic tank storage and even gene storage.
Objective of seed storage
To maintain initial seed quality viz., germination, physical purity, vigour
etc., all along the storage period by providing suitable or even better
conditions.
Factors influencing seed storage
1. Biotic
2. A biotic
1. Biotic factors
a. Factors related to seed

62

Genetic make up of seed

Initial seed quality
Composition of seed
Seed Moisture content

b. Other biotics
- Insects
- Fungi
- Rodents
- Mishandling during sampling, testing
2. Abiotic factors
- Storage temperature
- Storage relative humidity
- Province
- Pre harvest weather condition
- Seed store sanitation
- Gaseous atmosphere
- Packaging material
a. Seed factors
1. Genetic factors
The storage is influenced by the genetic make up of the seed. Some
kinds are naturally short lived (e.g) onion, soybeans, ground nut etc., Based
on the genetic make up seeds are classified into
Microbiotic short lived
Mesobiotic - medium lived
Macrobiotic long lived
2. Initial seed quality
Barton (1941) found that the seeds of high initial viability are much
more resistant to unfavourable storage environmental conditions than low
viable seed. Once seed start to deteriorate it proceeds rapidly. The seed
which injured mechanically suffered a lot and loses its viability and vigour
very quickly. Generally small seeds escape injury whereas large seeds are
more likely to be extensively damaged (e.g) bean, lima-bean and soybean.
Spherical seeds usually give more protection than flat or irregularly shaped
seeds
3. Effect of provenance

63

The place where the seed crop was produced greatly influences the
storability. (e.g.) Red clover seeds grown in Canada stored for 4 years with
80% germination whereas seeds grown in England and New Zealand stored
only for 3 years with 80% germination. This is due to different climatic
conditions and soil types prevailing in different places.
Effect of weather
Fluctuating temperature during seed formation and maturity will affect
seed storage. Pre-harvest rain may also affect the viability.
Pre harvest sanitation spray
In pulses, insect infestation comes from field (e.g.) bruchids.
4. Seed moisture content
Most important factor influence the storability. The amount of
moisture in the seeds is the most important factor influencing seed viability
during storage. Generally, if the seed moisture content increases storage life
decreases. If seeds are kept at high moisture content the losses could be
very rapid due to mould growth very low moisture content below 4% may
also damage seeds due to extreme desiccation or cause hard seededness in
some crops.
Since the life of a seed largely revolves around its moisture content it
is necessary to dry seeds to safe moisture contents. The sage moisture
content however depends upon storage length, type of storage structure,
kind / variety of seed type of packing material used. For cereals in ordinary
storage conditions for 12-18 months, seed drying up to 10% moisture
content appears quite satisfactory. However, for storage in sealed containers,
drying upto 5-8 % moisture content depending upon particular kind may be
necessary.
Harringtons thumb rule on seed moisture content
For every one per cent decrease in seed moisture content the
life of seed will be doubled. This is again hold good between 4- 12 C. Based
on the tolerance and susceptibility of seeds towards moisture loss seeds are
classified into
Orthodox the seeds able to tolerate moisture loss and less seed
moisture favours the storage. i.e. decreased moisture increased storage
period. Eg. Rice, sorghum , and most of the cultivated species.

64

Recalcitrant just opposite to the orthodox. Seeds not able to

tolerate moisture loss. Required high moisture for viability maintenance.
b. Microflora, Insects and Mites
The activity of all these organisms can lead to damage resulting in loss
of viability. The microflora activity is controlled by Relative Humidity,
temperature and moisture content of seed. Treated seeds with fungicides can
be stored for longer periods. Fumigation to control insects will also help in
longer period of stroage.
Fumigants - (e.g) methyl bromide, hydrogen cyanide, ethyline dichloride,
carbon tetra chloride, carbon disulphide and napthalene and aluminimum
phosphine.
Abiotic factors :
1. Relative humidity
Relative humidity is the amount of H 2O present in the air at a given
temperature in proportion to its maximum water holding capacity. Relative
Humidity and temperature are the most important factors determining the
storage life of seeds. Seeds attain specific and characteristic moisture
content when subjected to given levels of atmospheric humidities. This
characteristic moisture content called equilibrium moisture content.
Equilibrium moisture content for a particular kind of seed at a given
Relative Humidity tends to increase as temperature decreases. Thus the
maintenance of seed moisture content during storage is a function of relative
humidity and to a lesser extent of temperature. At equilibrium moisture
content there is no net gain or loss in seed moisture content.
2. Temperature
Temperature also plays an important role in life of seed. Insects and
moulds increase as temperature increases. The higher the moisture content
of the seeds, more they are adversely affected by temperature. Decreasing
temperature and seed moisture is an effective means of maintaining seed
quality in storage. The following thumb rules by Harrington are useful
measures for assessing the effect of moisture and temperature on seed
storage. These rules are as follows.
1. For every decrease of 1% seed moisture content the life of the seed
doubles. This rule is applicable between moisture content of 5-14%.

65

2. For every decrease of 5oC in storage temperature the life of the seed
doubles. This rule applies between 0oC to 50oC.
3. Good seed storage is achieved when the % of relative humidity in storage
environment and the storage temperature in degrees Fahrenheit add upto
one hundred but the contribution from temperature should not exceed 50
o
F.

Nomograph
Roberts (1972) developed formulae to describe the relationship
between temperature seed m.c. and period of viability. From these
relationships it was possible to construct a seed viability nomograph.
Nomograph is helpful in predicting the retention of seed viability in defined
storage environment for a particular period or to determine combinations of
temperature and moisture content which will ensure the retention of a
desired level of seed viability for specific period.
3. Gas during storage
Increase in O2 pressure decrease the period of viability. N2 and CO2
atmosphere will increase the storage life of seeds.
4. Seed storage sanitation or godown sanitation
Storage environment should be free from insects and rodents
Chemicals such as insecticides, fertilizers should not be stored along with
seeds.
Storage room should be kept cool and dry
Fumigation may be done whenever needed
Use wooden pallets for arranging the bags in cris-cross manner for effective
ventilation on all sides of the bags.
Seed bags should be stacked upto 6-8 tires depending upon density of
seeds
Restacking once in 3 months or less is important for prolonging seed
viability
Before storage disinfect the godowns by spraying malthion 50% E.C. @ 5 lit
/100 m2 area.

66

 If old gunnies, cloth bags and containers are to be used these should be
fumigated with aluminium phosphide.
Size of the stack should be 30x20 feet facilitate fumigation under gas proof
or polythene covers.
Periodical inspections should be carried out and control measures to be
taken i.e malthion 50% E.C. @ 5 lit /100 m 2 area should be applied in every
3 weeks
It must be borne in mind that fumigation, particularly repeated fumigation,
may seriously reduce the vigour and even the germination capacity of
seeds. Seeds with m.c. greater than 14% should be dried to below this
value before fumigation
Maintenance of viability in storage
1. Store well mature seeds
2. Store normal coloured seeds
3. Seeds should be free from mechanical injury
4. Seeds should be free from storage fungi or micro organisms
5. Seeds should not have met with adverse conditions during maturation
6. Storage environment or godown should be dry and cool.
7. Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content
8. Required R.H. and temperature should be maintained during storage.
9. Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage
10.Storage godown
periodically

should

be

fumigated

to

control

storage

insects,

11. Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.

PRE and MID STORAGE TREATMENTS

The treatments given to the seeds prior to or during storage to protect
the seed from deteriorative changes and from pest and diseases are called
pre storage treatments. The types of pre storage seed treatments are

67

1. Halogenation
2. Antioxidant treatment
3. Seed sanitation
4. Seed fumigation
i) Halogenation
a) Dry dressing
It is application of halogens like chlorine, bromine and iodine to seeds
before storage as dry dusting to stabilize the lipoprotein biomembrane.
Procedure : Calcium carbonate, fresh chalk, talc charcoal or activated clay
are first exposed to vapours of halogens and alcohols @ 2-5 g /Kg seed. An
alternative method is to add the chemicals directly to the carrier ( 50 500
mg of chemical added to 2-5 g carrier for treating 1 Kg seed) in a closed
container. Calcium carbonate has proved to be a good carrier. After
equilibrating the carrier- chemical mix the seed is thoroughly dressed with
the same and kept for 24-72 h in the closed container and thereafter stored
in the usual way .Bleaching powder ( calcium oxy chloride ) may be directly
mixed with the seed at the rate of 1-4 g / Kg seed.
b) Vapour treatment
Exposure of seeds to halogen vapour in a closed container for 16-72 h, to
very low concentrations of halogens The concentration of chemicals and the
time of exposure would depend on the material concerned.
ii) Antioxidant treatment
Application of antioxidants such as vitamin A,C,E, butylated hydroxyl
toluene (BHT) to seeds before storage as wet or dry treatments which delays
the physiological ageing.The seeds are applied with antioxidants through
soaking in respective solutions at particular concentration. Antioxidants such
as vitamin A,C and E provides hydrogen atom for quenching the lipid radical
thereby putting an end to free radical propagation and subsequent damage
to cell membrane and ultra cellular structures.
iii) Seed sanitation
The seed sanitation treatments refers to the application of pesticides
(fungicides, insecticides or a combination of both) to seeds to disinfest and
disinfect them from various seed borne and soil borne pathogenic organisms
and storage insect pests to safe guard the seed and seedlings against the
seed and soil borne pathogens..Seed borne pests and diseases may be
carried within seeds or on seeds or they may accompany the seed as free
living organisms or in debris.

68

The seeds are simply dipped or soaked in the chemical solutions and the
fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquid in recommended concentrations.

a) Seed disinfection
This refers to the eradication of fungal spores that have become
established within the seed coat or in more deep-seated tissues. For effective
control the fungicidal treatment must actually penetrate the seed in order to
kill the fungus that is present.
b) Seed disinfestation
This refers to the destruction of surface borne organisms that have
contaminated the seed surface but have not infected the seed surface.
iv) Seed Fumigation
It is a process of exposing the seeds to fumigants (gaseous form of
chemical) to control seed borne fungi and insects which cause seed
deterioration during storage. The seeds should be brought to equilibrium
moisture contents at 60 per cent RH, then they should be enclosed in air
tight containers and fumigated at temperature of 271.5 oC for required
durations. After fumigation seeds placed in cloth bags are aerated for 21
weeks under room condition. Subsequent second and third fumigations are
repeated after 3 and 6 months after first fumigation.
Examples of fumigants are ethylene oxide, aluminium phosphide,
calcium cyanide, ethylene dichloride and carbon tetrachloride, ethylene
dibromide, carbon disulphide or hydrogen phosphide. The toxic effects on the
fumigants bring about the control of fungi or insects. The fumigant can
penetrate into the seeds to control the deep-seated pathogens. Before going
for fumigation a thorough knowledge of seed moisture level and type of
infestation, choice of fumigant, its doses and exposure time and necessity of
number of fumigation is very essential.
MID STORAGE TREATMENTS
Seeds in storage accumulate damage to cell membranes during
senescence. Mid storage seed treatments are capable of reducing the age
induced damages and restoring the seed vigour to a certain extent besides,
the seed viability and productivity of stored seeds are also improved.

69

Hydration Dehydration (HD)

It is the process of soaking the low and medium vigour seeds in water
with or without added chemicals usually for short durations to raise the seed
moisture content to 25 30% and drying back the seeds to safe limits for
dry storage.

Types of H-D treatments

The wet treatments include soaking-drying, dipping-drying, sprayingdrying, stepwise hydration-drying, moisture equilibration-drying, moisture
equilibration soaking-drying, moist and conditioning-drying, etc. The choice
of the treatment depends upon the characteristics of seed and initial vigour
status of the seeds.
Soaking Drying (S-D)
Stored seed is soaked in water or solution of chemicals sufficient to
cover it and kept at room temperature for 2-6 hour depending on the
material with occasional stirring. The soaked seed is taken out and after
surface drying in the shade for some time, dried back to the original moisture
content Dilute solution of chemicals such as sodium or potassium phosphate
(di and mono basic), sodium chloride, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, p-amino
benzoic acid, oxalic acid, potassium lodide, etc can also be used at 10 -4 to 103
M concentrations. Fungicidal and insecticidal formulations can also be
incorporated in the soak water.
Dipping Drying (D-D)
Seeds are dipped in water or solutions of the aforesaid chemicals for
only 2-5 minutes and the wet seed is taken out immediately and kept
covered for 2 6 hours depending on the material, for absorption of surface
water followed by drying back in S-D. This treatment is effective in most high
and high-medium vigour seeds of rice, wheat, jute, summer and winter
vegetables
Spraying Drying (S-D)
Seeds are spread in a thin layer and then an amount of water
(approximately 1/5 to of the seed weight) is sprayed on to it in two equal
installments (turning over the seed layer after the first spray) and then kept
covered by a polythene sheet for 2-4 hours before drying back. This
treatment is similar to D-D in its efficacy and suitability.

70

Moisture equilibration drying (ME D)

Here, the seeds are placed in thin layers on trays kept on a raised
platform in a closed moisture saturated chamber lined internally with moist
blotters giving nearly 100% RH at room temperature. After 24-48 hours,
depending on the material and ambient temperature, the seed is dried back
in the usual way. For soaking injury prone seeds this treatment, which gives
a slow and progressive rise in moisture content, is very effective. ME-D,
however, difficult to practice on a large scale and is not advocated for low
vigour non leguminous seeds because of possible aging effect of the
treatment especially when given for prolonged periods.
Moist sand conditioning drying (MSC-D)
This treatment is similar to the moisture equilibration treatment but
easier to practice. For slow and progressive moisture uptake, the seed is
thoroughly mixed with pre-moistened sand, using 3 times the amount of air
dry sand than seed. Moisture content of sand is adjusted to 5-10 by adding
the requisite amount of water or solution of chemicals to previously washed
and dried fine grain building grade sand.
The addition of water should be so adjusted as to get the required
hydration effect without initiating the germination process. After mixing the
dry seed with the premoistened sand, the mixture is kept at room
temperature for 16 36 hours depending on the material and sand moisture
content. The seed absorbs moisture from sand and after incubation the
hydrated seed is separated from sand by sieving and dried back to the
original weight.
Mode of Action:
The main purpose of hydration is to raise the seed moisture content to
25 30% (wet weight basis) before drying back to safe limits for dry storage.
The hydration - dehydration treatment may improve the vigour by controlling
free radical reactions and consequent peroxidative damage to lipoprotein cell
membranes.
The hydration dehydration treatments
1. should be given only to stored seeds.
2. effective in low and medium vigour non- leguminous seeds,
3. the moisture equilibration and moist sand conditioning treatments in which
moisture is taken up by the seed in a slow and progressive manner, are

71

recommended for relatively high- vigour seeds and seeds of pulses and
leguminous vegetable crops
4. Direct soaking of leguminous seeds should be avoided.
5. would not make a seed germinable, which has already lost viability.

SEED CERTIFICATION
It is a legally sanctioned system for quality control and seed
multiplication and production. It involves field inspection, pre and post
control tests and seed quality tests.
Purpose of seed certification
To maintain and make available to the farmers, through certification,
high quality seeds and propagating materials of notified kind and varieties.
The seeds are so grown as to ensure genetic identity and purity.
Eligibility for certification of crop varieties
Seed of only those varieties which are notified under section 5 of the
Seeds Act, 1966 shall be eligible for certification. Breeder seed is exempted
from certification. Foundation and certified class seeds come under
certification.
Seed Certification Procedures or Phases of Seed Certification
1. Receipt and scrutiny of application
2. Verification of seed source
3. Field inspection
4. Post harvest supervision of seed crops
5. Seed sampling and testing
6. Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate
a. Application for registration

72

Any person, who wants to produce certified seed shall register his
name with the concerned Assistant Director of Seed Certification by remitting
Rs.25/- per crop, per season. There are 3 seasons under certification viz.,
Kharif (June - September),
Rabi (October - January) and
Summer (February - May).
The applicant shall submit two copies of the application to the ADSC
10 days before the commencement of the season or at least at the time of
registration of sowing report. On receipt of the application, the Assistant
Director of Seed Certification will verify the time limit, varietal eligibility and
its source, the class mentioned, remittance of fee etc., The application, if
accepted will be given an application no (e.g. Paddy / k/01-07-08 where
paddy refers the crops to be registered, K the season, 01-the application
number and 07-08 the financial year 2007-08). The original application is
retained and the duplicate is returned to the applicant.
b. Sowing report (Application for the registration of seed farm)
The seed producer who wants to produce certified seeds shall apply to
the Assistant Director of Seed Certification in the prescribed sowing report
form in quadruplicate with prescribed certification fees along with other
documents such as tags to establish the seed source. Separate sowing
reports are required for
a.
b.
c.

different crop varieties, different classes,

different stages
if the seed farm fields are separated by more than 50
meters.

d.
e.

if sowing or planting dates differ by more than 7 days and

if the seed farm area exceeds 25 acres.
The sowing report shall reach concerned Assistant Director of
Agriculture Seed Certification within 35 days from the date of sowing or 15
days before flowering whichever is earlier. In the case of transplanted crops
the sowing report shall be sent 15 days before flowering. The producer shall
clearly indicate on the reverse of sowing report the exact location of the seed
farm crops grown on all four sides of the seed farm etc., to facilitate easy
identification of the seed farm by the seed certification officer.
The Assistant Director, Seed Certification on receipt of the sowing
report, scrutinises and registers the seed farm by giving a Seed Certification
number for each sowing report. Then he will send
one copy of the sowing report to the Seed Certification officer,

73

 one to the Deputy Director of Seed Certification

third to the producer and
he retains the fourth copy.
Verification of seed source
During his first inspection of seed farm the Seed Certification officer
will verify whether the seed used to raise the seed crop is from an approved
source and correct class of seed.
Field inspection
The objective of conducting field inspection is to verify the factors
which can cause irreversible damage to the seed crop on genetic purity.

Inspection authority
The seed certification officer authorized by the registering authority
shall attend to field inspections
Stages of Inspection
The number of field inspections and the stages of inspection vary from
crop to crop and depend upon duration and nature of pollination of the seed
crop. If the crop is grown for hybrid seed production, the number of field
inspections during the flowering stage should be more than one.
The key points to be observed at each stage of inspection
Stage of crop
I. Pre flowering stage
(Vegetative Stage)

Key points to be observed at inspection

a. Verification of seed source
b. Confirmation of acreage given in the report.
c. Isolation distance
d. Planting ratio
e. Border rows
f. Guide the grower in identification of offtypes,
pollen shedder, diseased plants, shedding
tassels etc.,

II. Flowering Stages

a. Confirm the observation of prior inspection
(May
be
II
and
III b. Confirm whether grower had continued
inspections when 50%
thorough rouging, after the previous
of plants begin to
inspection.
flower).
c. Verify the removal and occurrence of
offtypes, pollen shedders, shedding tassels,
objectionable weed plants and diseased plants

74

III. Inspection during post

flowering and preharvesting stage.

a. Confirm the correctness of observations,

made in earlier inspections.
b. Guide the grower on rouging, based on
pods, earhead, seed and chaff characters
such as colour, shape and size.
c. Explain to the grower when and how to
harvest the crop and process.

IV. Inspection during

harvest
(This is the last inspection
conducted on a seed
crop).

a. Verify that male parent rows have been

harvested separately.
b. Ensure complete removal of offtypes, other
crops, weeds and diseased plants etc.,
c. Seal properly by the certification agency of
the threshed produce after initial cleaning
and drying.
d. Instruct the seed growers for safe storage
and transportation.

75

In hybrid seed production and variety seed production of cross pollinated

crops the inspection during flowering should be made without any prior notice of
the seed grower to judge the quality of operation undertaken by him to maintain
the genetic purity of the crop. If prior notice is given to the seed grower, it may not
be possible to detect the damage by the contaminants. But in the case of selfpollinated crop the seed grower may be informed about the date of inspection. Prior
notice will lead to improvement of the quality of the seed through rogueing.
Minimum number of field inspections required for different crops for
certification
Crop
Paddy and Wheat
SORGHUM
Hybrid

Min no. of
inspns
2

Stages of crop
Flowering to harvest

Ist before flowering

IInd and
IIIrd during flowering
IVth prior to harvest.

Varieties

Ist before flowering

IInd during flowering
IIIrd prior to harvest

MAIZE
Inbred lines
Single crosses
Other hybrids

Ist before flowering

Rest during flowering

Varieties

Ist before flowering

IInd during flowering

BAJRA
Hybrids

Ist before flowering

IInd and IIIrd during flowering
IVth prior to or during harvest.

Varieties

Ist before flowering

IInd during 50% flowering
IIIrd prior to harvest

Ist before flowering

IInd flowering and fruiting stage

Flowering to harvest

Ist before flowering IInd during flowering

IIIrd from fruit maturity to harvest

PULSES
Green gram,
redgram
Black gram ,
cowpea
Groundnut
Sesame

76

Sunflower
Rape and mustard

2
3

Flowering to harvest
Ist before flowering
IInd during flowering to fruiting
IIIrd from maturity to harvest

Soybean
Castor
Cotton (Varieties)
(Hybrids)

2
2
2

Flowering to harvest
Flowering to harvest
4 Flowering to harvest
Ist before flowering
IInd and IIIrd during flowering
IVth during harvest

Brinjal
Tomato
Chilli
Bhendi

Ist before flowering

IInd during flowering to fruiting
IIIrd during maturity.

Carrot

Ist early (20-30 days after sowing)

IInd when lifted and replanted
IIIrd during flowering

Cabbage

Ist before marketable stage

IInd when the heads have formed
IIIrd during flowering

Cauliflower

Ist before marketable stage

IInd during curd formation IIIrd when most
plants have formed curds
IVth during flowering

Onion (seed to
seed)

Ist during early vegetative stage IInd during

bulb formation
IIIrd during flowering

Field counts
The purpose of field inspection is to find out field standards of various factors
in the seed farm. It is impossible to examine all the plants in the seed farm. Hence,
to assess the field standards random counting is followed.
Points to be observed before counting
1. All plants falling in each count must be examined for each factor
2. In hybrid seed field the prescribed number of the field counts should be taken in
each parent separately.
Sources of contamination or factors to be observed

77

The contaminants are

1. Physical contaminants - inseparable other crop plants, objectionable weed
plants and diseased plants
2. Genetical contaminants -. Consists off-types, pollen shedders and shedding
tassels.
a. Off type -Plant that differs in morphological characters from the rest of the
population of a crop variety. Off type may belong to same species or different
species of a given variety. Plants of a different variety are also included under off
types.
b. Volunteer plant- plants from a previous crop
c. Pollen shedders presence of 'B' line in 'A' line.
d. partials - Some times 'A' line produce fertile anthers are called partials. These
partials are also counted as pollen shedders.
e. Shedding tassels
These plants which shed pollen in female parent rows. When 5 cm or more of
the entire spike, which shed or shedding are counted.
f. Inseparable crop plants
These are plants or different crops which have seed similar to seed crop
Crop
Wheat
Barely
Oats

Inseparable crop plants

Barely, oats, gram and triticale
Oats, gram, wheat and triticale
Barely, gram, wheat and triticale

Triticale

wheat, barely, oats, gram and rye

j. Designated diseases
The diseases which may reduce the yield and quality of seeds are termed as
designated diseases.

S.No.

Crop

Name of the

Casual organism

78

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Wheat
Sorghum
Pearl millet
Cowpea
Greengram
Gingelly
SF loose smut
Brinjal
Chilli
Tomato

disease
Grain smut
Head smut
Ergot
Grain smut
Downy mildew
Anthracnose
Halo blight
Leaf spot
Downy mildew
Phomopsis blight
Leaf blight
Anthracnose
Early blight
Leaf spot
Tobacco mosaic virus

Ustilago tritici
Sphacelotheca sorghi
Sphacelotheca reiliana
Claviceps microcephala
Tolyposporium pencillariae
Scelerospora graminicola
Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum
Psedomonoas phasiolicola
Cercospora sesami
Plasmopara halsterdii
Phomopsis vexans
Alternaria solani
Colletotrichum capsici
Alternaria solani
Stemphylium solani (TMV)

h. Objectionable weed plants

These are weeds
1. Whose seeds are difficult to separate once mixed
2. Which are poisonous
3. Which have smothering effect on the main crop
4. Which are difficult to eradicate once established
S.No
Crop
Common name of the weed
1
Paddy
Wild rice
2
Wheat
Wild morning glory
3
Sunflower
Wild sunflower
4
Bhendi
Wild okra
5
Rape and mustard Mexican prickly poppy
6
Lucerne
Dodder

Botanical name
Oryza
sativa
var
fatua
Convolvulus arvensis
Helianthus spp
Abelmaschus spp
Argemone mexicana
Cuscuta spp

No. of counts :
It is necessary to take minimum of 5 counts upto 5 acres and an additional
count for every 5 acres or part of as given below.
Area of the field (in acres)
up to 5
5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25

6
7
8
9

79

Number of plants for a count

S.No
1
2

Crop
Soybean,
Jute,
Lucerne,
Mesta, Berseem
Beans,
cluster
beans,
cowpea, green gram, black
gram,
peas,
mustard,
sesame,
bengal
gram,
safflower, niger
Bhendi, brinjal, chilli, castor,
cole crops, cotton, cucurbits,
ground nut, miaze, potato,
red
gram,
tomato
and
sunflower
Bajra, barely, oats, paddy,
wheat, ragi, sorghum

Number of
plants / heads
per count
1000 plants

Closely planted crops

500 plants

Medium spaced crops

100 plants

Wide spaced crops

1000 heads

Tillering crops

Remarks

Double count
In any inspection, if the first set of counts shows that the seed crop does not
confirm to the prescribed standard for any factor, a second set of counts should be
taken for the factor. However, when the first set of counts shows a factor more than
twice the maximum permitted, it is not necessary to take a second count. On
completion of double count assess the average for the two counts. It should not
exceed the minimum permissible limit.
Land requirement
The field offered for certified seed production should not been grown in the
previous season with the same crop. If it was grown, the variety should be the
same. In that case, the field should be irrigated at least 3 weeks before sowing and
ploughed just prior to sowing, in order to destroy germinating seeds.
Isolation
Separation of seed fields from

fields of other varieties of the same crop,

same variety fields not confirming

requirements
other related species fields and

to

varietal

purity

80

 fields affected by diseases to prevent genetic and diseases

contamination.
The minimum distance to be maintained between the seed crop and the
source of contaminant is called isolation distance.
Inspection report
The seed certification officer after taking field counts and comparing them
with the minimum field standards, the observations made on the seed farm field
should be reported in the prescribed proforma to
1. Deputy Director of Agriculture (Seed Certification)
2. To the Seed Producer
3. Assistant Director of Agriculture (Seed Certification) and
4. Fourth copy retained with seed certificate officer
Assessment of seed crop yield
It is necessary to avoid malpractices at the final stage during harvest
operation. The seed certification officer is expected to fix the approximate seed
yield.
Liable For Rejection Report (L.F.R)
If the seed crop fails to meet with any one factor as per the standards, Liable
for Rejection report is prepared and the signature of the producer is obtained and
sent to Deputy Director of Agriculture Seed Certification within 24 hours.
Re-inspection
For the factors which can be removed without hampering the seed quality,
the producer can apply for re-inspection to the concerned Deputy Director of
Agriculture Seed Certification within 7 days from the date of first inspection order.
For reinspection half of the inspection charge is collected.
Post harvest supervision of seed crop
The post harvest inspection of a seed crop covers the operations carried out
at the threshing floor, transport of the raw seed produce to the processing plant,
precleaning, drying, cleaning, grading, seed treatment, bagging and post
processing storage of the seed lot.
Pre-requisites for processing
1. Processing report should accompany the seed lot
2. It should be correlated with the estimated yield

81

3. Seed should be processed only in approved processing unit.

4. ODV test for paddy should be done at the time of sealing and issue of
processing report or before processing. If the result exceeds 1% of the produce
may be rejected.
5. Field run seed should be brought to the processing unit within the 3 months
from the date of final inspection. Processing and sampling should be done within 2
months in oil seed crops and 4 months for other crops from the date of receipt in
the processing unit.
In cotton the kapas from the passed lot should be moved to the ginning
factory within 5 days from the date of issue of processing report. The ginning
should be done within 3 months from the date of final harvest inspection report.
Ginned seeds should be moved to seed processing unit within in 5 days of ginning.
Inspection and sampling should be done within 3 months after ginning.
Intake of raw produce and lot identification
The seed certification officer in-charge of the seed processing plant may,
after verification of the above stated documents and total amount of seed accept
the produce for processing. After verification he should be issue a receipt to the
seed grower. Each seed lot has to be allocated a separate lot number for
identification.
Seed sampling and testing
During packaging Seed Certification officer will draw samples according to
ISTA Procedure and send the sample to Assistant Director of Agriculture (See
Certification) concerned within a day of sampling. The ADASC will in turn send the
sample to the Seed Testing Laboratory within 3 days of receipt of the sample to
testing seed standards viz., physical purity, germination, moisture content and seed
health as prescribed. The Seed Testing Officer will communicate the result to the
ADASC concerned within 20 days. On receipt of the analytical report the ADASC will
communicate the result to the producer and Seed Certification officer.
Labelling, tagging, sealing and grant of certificate
After receiving the seed analytical report the Seed Certification officer will get
the tag from the ADASC and affixes labels (producer's label) and tags (blue for
Certified Seed and White for Foundation Seeds) to the containers and seals them to
prevent tampering and grants certificate fixing a validity period for 9 months.
Tagging should be done within 60 days of testing.

82

Resampling and reprocessing

When a seed lot does not meet the prescribed seed standards in initial test,
on request of the producer Seed Certification Officer may take resample. If the
difference in germination analysed and required is within 10, then straight away
resampling can be done. If it is >10, reprocessing and resampling may be done.
The producer should request the Seed Certification Officer concerned in
writing within 10 days from the receipt of the result. No charge is collected for
resampling. When a seed lot, fails even after free sampling reprocessing can be
taken upon special permission from Deputy Director Seed Certification. For such
reprocessing a fee of Rs.20/- Q and lab charges Rs.10/- Q is collected.
DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SEED CERTIFICATION OFFICER
1. Under take field inspection of all the foundation/certified class seed productions
alloted to him in time.
2. Undertake processing of seed lots.
3. Sampling the seed lot including resampling and sending to ADSCN.
4. Assigning lot number and assessing the required number of tags for each lot.
5. Undertake reinspection in time.
6. Undertake validation work in time.
7. Attending tagging, sealing of seedlots.
8. Prepare and maintain all the records.
9. Guiding the seed producer during seed production.
10.Conducting field level trainings, group contact, individual contact to promote or
increase area of certification and to inflict quality consciousness among producers.
11.Feed back of important field level problems and observations experienced by
him to the higher authorities.
12.Receiveing, scrutinising and forwarding applications for the approval of ginning
factories, processing plants.
13.Maintain pocket note book.
14.Any other items duties assigned to him by his higher officials.

83

SEED CERTIFICATION OFFICER (TECHNICAL), O/O THE DD(SCN).

1. Attending all tapals pertaining to technical matters.
2. Assisting the DD(SCN) in all technical matters and preparation of technical
reports.
3. Undertaking inspection of LFR fields on DD(SCN)'s instructions.
4. Maintainence of all technical registers.
5. Takingup surprise insepection of foundation seed farms and processing units as
per DD(SCN)'s instructions.
6. Assisting the DD(SCN) in arranging and conducting of training programmes to
seed producers and departmental staff.
7. Acting as an information bureau by providing charts, handbooks, photos exhibits
etc.
8. Maintaining morphological character of all released varieties and list of notified
varieties, and breeders names.
9. Any other items of duties entrusted by the higher officials.
SEED CERTFICATION OFFICER (TECHNICAL) AT O/O ADA(SCN)
1. Attending all tapals pertaining to technical matters.
2. Scurtinising the sowing reports, verifying the source, assigning S.C.No., fixing
due dates for inspection, for registration.
3. Assisting the ADA(SCN) in all technical matters and preparation of technical
reports.
4. Maintanence of all technical registers.
5. Performing surprise inspection of foundation class and certified class seed farms
and processing units as instructed by the ADA(SCN).
6. Verifying the processing report and tag requisition for issue of tags.
7. Assessing the tag and inspection book requirements.
8. Maintaining of morphological character of all varieties, notified variety list and list
of breeders name and list of producers.

84

9. Verifying the inspection reports and LFR reports personally.

10.Responsible for the display of publicity materials, programmes to seed growers.
11.Resposible for publicity, propaganda,
programmes to seed growers.

radio

talks

and

fixing

of

training

12.Conducting germination tests for time barred parental seedlots being used for
further multiplication.
13.Any other items of duties entrusted by the higher officials from time to time.

ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF SEED CERTIFICATION

1.Registering the producer
2.Registering the seed crop
3.Supply of tags
4.Permission for repacking and bulking
5.Permission to use time barred breeder seed
6.Withdrawal from certification
7.Revocation of certificate
8.Analytical result
9.Issuance of certificate for export of cultivated seeds ( Not breeder, foundation or
wild type - unnotified seeds)
DIRECTOR OF SEED CERTIFICATION
1.Appeal
2.Conversion of Certified Seed Stage I to CS stage II permission.
3.Validation - for seed lots certified by other State Agencies.
4.Confirmation of LFR
5.Reinspection permission
6.Downgrading of classes
7.Validation permission-Certified by Home state

85

8.Once used gunnies permission

9.Permission for certifying in the name of grower
10.Imparting Technical Training on Seed Cerfification
11.Processing Plant approval and renewal
12.For any special permission.
SEEDS ACT AND RULES
The seed is an important agricultural input and it plays vital plays vital role in
increasing production and productivity. There is a need to safeguard the farmers
with the supply of genetically pure and quality seeds. Any new variety produced by
the Scientist has to be multiplied to many times to meet the needs of the farmers.
In order to ensure the availability of quality seeds, Government of India have
enacted seeds act 1966 and seed rules, 1968. The seed (Control) order 1983
promulgated under essential commodities act, 1955 in order to ensure the
production, marketing and equal distribution of the seeds.
Seeds Act 1966.
The object of Seed Act is for regulating the quality of certain notified kind /
varieties of sees for sale and for matters connected therewith. The seed act passed
by the Indian Parliament in 1966 was designed to create a 'Climate' in which the
seeds man could operate effectively and to make good quality seed available to
cultivators. Seeds rule under the act were notified in September 1968 and the act
was implemented in its entirely in October 1969. This act extent to the whole of
India and it has 25 sections.
Seed legislation could broadly be divided into two groups
1. Sanctioning legislation
Sanctioning legislation authorises formation of advisory bodies, Seed
Certification Agencies, Seed Testing laboratories, Foundation and Certified Seed
programmes, Recognition of Seed Certification Agencies of Foreign countries
appellate authorities.
2. Regulatory legislation
Regulatory Legislation controls the quality of seeds sold in the market
including suitable agencies for regulating the seed quality. On quality control basis,
the Seeds Act could conveniently be divided into the following:
I. Minimum limit and lablelling of the notified kind / varieties of seed

86

a. Power to notify the kind / variety

b. Labeling provisions
c. Seed testing
d. Seed analyst
e. Seed inspectors
f. Penalty
g. General provisions
II. Seed Certification
III. Restriction of Import and Export of Seeds
I. Minimum limits and labelling
Quality control as envisaged in the Act is to be achieved through pre and post
marketing control, voluntary certification and compulsory labelling of the seeds of
noticed notified kind / varieties.
(a) Power to notify the kind / varieties
New varieties evolved by the State Agricultural Universities and ICAR
institutes are notified and release /notified respectively under section 5 of the seeds
act in consultation with the central seed committee and its sub committees
constitute under section 3 and 3(5) of the Seeds Act. As on date more than 2500
varieties and 130 varieties were notified and denotified under this section.
List of varieties notified and denotified from 1969 to 1965 are compiled and
made available in the form book called catalogue of varieties notified and denotified
under section 5 of the Seeds Act functions of the Central Seed Committee and its
sub-committee are defined in Clauses 3 and 4 of part II of seed rule.
(b) Labelling provision
Minimum limits for germination, physical purity and genetic purity of varieties
/ hybrids for crops have been prescribed and notified for labelling seeds of notified
kind / varieties under section 6(a) of the Seeds Act. Size of the label, colour of the
label and content of the label were also notified under sub clause (b) of Section 6 of
Seeds Act. Colour of the label is opeline green and size of the label is 10 cm x 15
cm or proportionate thereof. Responsibility for making labelling content of mark or
label, manner of marking, false / misleading statement on label etc., are defined
under clause 7,8,9,10,11 and 12 of part V of seeds rule.

87

Section 7 of the act regulates the sale of notified kind or varieties.

Accordingly no person shall keep for sale, offer to sell, barter or otherwise supply
any seed of any notified kind or variety, after the dates recorded on the container
mark or label as the date unto which the seed may expected to retain the
germination not less than prescribed under clause (a) of section 6 of the Act.
(c)Seed Testing
There is a provision to set up a central seed laboratory and state sees
laboratory to discharge functions under section 4(1) and 4(2) of the Seed Act, In
the year 1968 there were 23 state seed testing laboratories in the country. At
present there are 86 Seed testing laboratories functioning in the country. During
1995-96 these laboratories tested about 5 lakh samples. Seed testing laboratories
have been assigned certain important functions under part III (5) of Seed Rule.
(d)Seed Analyst
State Government could appoint the Seed Analysts through notification in the
Official Gazette under Section 12 of the Seed Act defining his area and his
jurisdiction. Seed Analyst should posses certain minimum qualification as prescribed
under clause 20 part IX of Seed Rule.
(e)Seed Inspectors
The State Government, under section 13 of the Act may appoint such a
person as it thinks fit, having prescribed qualification (Clause 22 part IX of Seed
Rule) through notification, as a Seed Inspector and define the areas within which he
shall exercise jurisdiction for enforcing the seed law. He will be treated as a public
servant with in a meaning of section 21 of the I.P.C. (45 of 1860).
He has power to examine records, register document of the seed dealer. He
will also exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the
purposes of this Act or rule made there under. Duties of Seed inspectors are defined
in clause 23 of part IX of Seed rule. He can issue stop sale order in case the seed in
question contravenes the provision of relevant Act and rules for which he can use
form No.III. When he seizes any record, register documents or any other material,
he should inform a magistrate and take his order for which he can use form No. IV.
(f)Penalty
If any person, contravenes any provision of the Act or Rule, or prevents a
seed inspector from taking sample under this Act or prevents a Seed Inspector from
exercising any other power conferred on him could be punished under section 19 of
the act with a fine of five hundred rupees for the fist offence. In the event of such
person having been previously convicted of an offence under this section with

88

imprisonment for a term, which may extend to six months or with fine, which may
extent to one thousand rupees of with both.
II. Seed certification
The object of the Seed Certification is to maintain and make available to the
public through certification high quality propagating material of notified kind /
varieties so grown and distributed as to ensure genetic identify and genetic purity.
The certified standards in force are Indian Minimum seed certification standards and
seed certification procedures form together for the seed certification regulations.
Seed of only Seed if only those varieties which are notified under section
under Section 5 of the seeds act shall be eligible for certification.
Breeder seed
Foundation seed
Certified Seed
Breeder seed
Breeder seed is a seed directly controlled by the breeder.
Breeder seed should be genetically so pure as guarantee that in the subsequent
generation.
Breeder seed could not come under the purview of seed certification as it is not
meant for public sale.
Breeder seed should be packed and supplied with breeder's golden yellow tag. It
is also the fact no standard for breeder seed have been prescribed.
Foundation seed
Foundation class of seed and certified class of seed are to be certified by the
Certification Agencies as per the Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards.
Section 8 of the Seeds Act provide state government or the Central Government
consultation with State Government may be notification in official gazette,
established certification agencies for the state to carry out the functions entrusted
to certification agency by or under this Act (Part IV, clause 6, part VI clause 14 of
Seeds Rule).

Certified seed

89

 Seed act section 9 provides any person desires of producing certified seed shall
register his name with concerned seed certification agency duly remitting the
prescribed fee in form No.1 for grant of certificate. Certificate could be granted in
form No.11 after meeting the requirement of certification agency prescribed under
Part VII clause 15, 16 and 17 of Seed rule.
It should have the minimum genetical purity of 99%
Certified seed may be the progeny of certified seed , provided this reproduction
does not exceed two generations beyond foundation seed and provided that if
certification agency determines the genetic and physical purity, if not be
significantly altered
In case of highly self pollinated crops certification of one further generation may
be permitted
Certified seed produced from certified seed, shall be eligible for further seed
increase under certification, except in case of highly self pollinated crops, where
certification of one further generation may be permitted
Certification tags issued once for certified seed not eligible for further seed
increase under certification
For paddy and wheat, certified seed produced from certified seed is eligible for
certification by NSC up to two generations from foundation seed
III. Restriction of Export and Import of Seeds
Seed (Control) order, 1983
There is a provision to restrict export and import of seeds of notified kinds or
varieties. The section 17 define as under
"No person shall for the purpose of sowing or planting by any person (including
himself) export or import or cause to be exported or imported any seed of any
notified kind or variety unless
a) It conforms to the minimum limits of germination and purity specified for that
seed under clause (a) of Section 6 and
b) Its container bears in the prescribed manner the mark or label with the correct
particular thereof specified for that seed under clause (b) of section 6.

Background of the case

90

The ministry of civil supply through an order dated 24.4.1983 had declared
the seed for sowing or planting of food crops, fruits, vegetables, cattle fodder and
jute to be essential commodities in exercise of power conferred by Section 2(a)
(viii) of Essential Commodities Act, 1955. It was followed by the issue of seed
(control) order dated 30th December 1983 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Dept. of
Agriculture and Cooperation in exercise of powers contained in section 3 of
Essential Commodities Act, which deals with Central Governments power to control,
and regulate production, supply and distribution of essential commodities.
The seed (control) order 1983 had been notified as per Gazette notification
G.S.R.832(E) dated 30.12.1983. The notification under reference holds good and
remains operative. Joint Secretary (Seeds), Government of India, Ministry of
Agriculture, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation has been appointed as Seed
Controller for implementation of seed (control) order.
Gist of the seed (Control) order 1983.
Issue of license to dealers
All persons carrying on the business of selling, exporting and importing seeds
will be required to carry on the business in accordance with terms and conditions of
license granted to him for which dealer make an application in duplicate in Form 'A'
together with a fee of Rs.50/- for license to licensing authority unless the State
Government by notification exempts such class of dealers in such areas and subject
to such conditions as may be specified in the notification. Based on such enquiry as
it thinks fit for licensing authority may grant in form 'B' or refuse in provisions of
the Order. The refusal to grant license shall be accompanied by clear recording of
reasons for such refusal.
Renewal of license
A holder of license shall be eligible for renewal upon and applicable being
made in the prescribed form 'C' (in duplicate) together with a feed of rupees twenty
before the expiry of license or at the most within a month of date of expiry of
license for which additional fee of Rs.25/- is required to be paid.
Appointing of licensing authority
The state government may appoint such number of persons as it thinks
necessary to be inspector and define the area of such Inspector jurisdiction through
notification in the official gazette.

Time limit for analysis of samples by Seed testing lab

91

Time limit for analysis of samples by seed testing lab and suspension /
cancellation of license may be done by Licensing authority after giving an
opportunity of being heard to the holder of license, suspend or cancel the license on
grounds of mis-representation of a material particular or contravention in provision
of the order.
Suspension / Cancellation of license
The Licensing authority may after giving an opportunity of being head to the
holder of license, suspend or cancel the license on grounds of mis-representation of
material particular or contravention in provision of the Order.
Appeal
The state government may specify authority for hearing the appeals against
suspension / cancellation under this order and the decision of such authority shall
be final. Any person aggrieved by an order of refusal to grant or amend or renew
the license for sale, export / import of seed may within 60 days from the date of
Order appeal to the designated authority in the manner prescribed in the Order.
The licensing authority may on receipt of request in writing together with
Rs.10/- from amend the license of such dealer. Every seed dealer are expected to
maintain such books, accounts and records to this business in order and submit
monthly return of his business for the preceding months in Form 'D' to the licensing
authority by 5th day of every month.
New seed policy
The Government of India evolved a new seed policy and which is
implemented from October 1, 1988. The policy laid a special emphasis on
- Import of high quality of seeds
- A time bound programme to modernize plant quarantine facilities
- Effective implementation of procedures for quarantine /post entry quarantine
- Incentives to encourage the domestic industry
Import of quality seeds
1. Bulk import of seeds of coarse cereals, pulses and oil seeds may replace (or)
displace the local productions.
2. Transfer of technology may not be actual one, because due to bulk import of
seeds or import of technology, instead we can import the germplasm of superior
variety if any and could be developed locally to meet the demand (i.e.,)
incorporate the advantages of exotic variety to the local types(or) even direct
multiplication's after adaptive trials.

92

3. As we have superior varieties of international standard (e.g.) Maize, Sorghum,

Bajra or even in oil seeds like groundnut etc., the bulk import is not
necessitated. Instead we need varieties suitable to agro-climatic zones besides
higher yields.
4. Import of flower seeds could be encouraged in order to earn foreign exchange
through export of flours and it can be imported under (OGL) open general
license. But there is a fear of introduction of new pest and diseases as they are
coming without post entry quarantine checkup.
Strengthening of quarantine
Since, from 1st October 1988 only bulk import of seeds under taken without
any progress either in the strengthening of quarantine facilities.
Threat of pest and disease
Introduction of new pest and disease would pose a new problem due to bulk
import due to lack of post entry quarantine. To avoid this threat the imported seeds
should be subjected to testing and it should be done by one person from ICAR.
Entry of exotic variety without proper field testing may change the disease pattern
if that particular strain is becoming susceptible to existing pathogens.
(e.g.) Karnal burnt - which was not noticed in the previous years and because a
major disease on wheat after the introduction of Kalyansona.
Genetic erosion
It is another danger, due to introduction of similar strains there is a danger of
genetic uniformity and also eliminates local diversified strains which leads to
problem of non availability of improved strains if there is any out break of disease.
Incentives to domestic seed industry
Indigenous seed production / seed industry will be affected because of the
entry of multi nation diseases. Since the policy is allowing indiscriminate bulk
imports through private sectors at the same time the import duty on seeds has
been reduced to 15 cent. Import duty on advanced machines and equipment used
in seed production or processing has also been reduced and interest on post
shipment credit has also been slashed down to help importers. Income tax rebate
and deduction are available to the tax paying units on the revenue expenditure on
in house research and development. Incentives area also being provided to seed
with located in backward areas and growth centres.
SEED TESTING

93

SEED SAMPLING
Seed sampling is to draw a portion of seed lot that represent the entire seed
lot.
Introduction
Seed lot - It is an uniformly blended quantity of seed either in bag or -in
bulk.
Seed Size
Maximum quantity per
lot
Larger than wheat and paddy
20,000 kg
Smaller than wheat and paddy
10,000 kg
Maize
40,000 kg
Sampling intensity
a. For seed lots in bags (or container of similar capacity that are uniform in
size)
I.
Up to 5 containers
Sample each container
but never, < 5 Primary sample
6-30

Sample atleast one in every 3 containers but

never > than 5 P. S.

31-400

Sample atleast one in every 5 containers but

never < 10 P. S.

401 or more

Sample atleast one in every 7 containers but

never < 80.

II.When the seed is in small containers such as tins, cartons or packets a 100 kg
weight is taken as the basic unit and small containers are combined to form
sampling units not exceeding this weight e.g. 20 containers of 5 kg each. For
sampling purpose each unit is regarded as one container.
b. For seeds in bulk
Up to-500kg
501 - 3000 Kg

3001-20,000 Kg

20,001 and above

Atleast 5 Primary sample

1 Primary sample for each 300 kg but not less than
5 Primary sample
1 Primary sample for each 500 kg but not less than
10 Primary sample
1 Primary sample for each 700 kg but not less than
40 Primary sample

94

PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING
Sample is obtained from seed lot by taking small portion at random from
different places and combining them. From this sample smaller samples are
obtained by one or more stages. In each and every stage thorough mixing and
dividing is necessary.
Methods of sampling
a. Hand sampling
This is followed for sampling the non free flowing seeds or chaffy and fuzzy
seeds such as cotton, tomato, grass seeds etc., In this method it is very difficult to
take samples from the deeper layers or bag. To over come this, bags are emptied
completely or partly and then seed samples are taken. While removing the samples
from the containers, care should be taken to close the fingers tightly so that no
seeds escape.
b. Sampling with triers
By using appropriate triers, samples can be taken from bags or from bulk.
1. Bin samplers
Used for drawing samples from the lots stored in the
bins.
2. Nobbe trier
The name was given after Fredrick Nobbe- father of seed testing. This trier
is made in different dimensions to suit various kinds of seeds. It has a pointed
tube long enough to reach the centre of the bag with an oval slot near the pointed
end. The length is very small. This is suitable for sampling seeds in bag not in
bulk.
3. Sleeve type triers or stick triers
It is the most commonly used trier for sampling : There are two types viz.,
1. With compartments 2. Without compartments.
It consists of a hollow brass tube inside with a closely fitting outer sleeve or
jacket which has a solid pointed end. Both the inner tube as well as the outer tube
have been provided with openings or slots on their walls. When the inner tube is
turned, the slots in the tube and the sleeve are in line. The inner tube may or may
not have partitions.
This trier may be used horizontally or vertically. This is diagonally inserted
at an angle of 300C in the closed position till it reaches the centre of the bag. Then
the slots are opened by giving a half turn in clockwise direction and gently agitated
with inward push and jerk, so that the seeds will fill each compartment through
the openings from different layers of the bag, then it is again closed and with
drawn and emptied in a plastic bucket. This trier is used for drawing seed samples
from the seed lots packed in bags or in containers.

95

TYPES OF SAMPLES
1. Primary sample
Each probe or handful of sample taken either in bag or in bulk is called
primary sample.
2.Composite sample
All the primary samples drawn are combined together in suitable container
to form a composite sample
3. Submitted sample
When the composite sample is properly reduced to the required size that to
be submitted to the seed testing lab, it is called submitted sample. Submitted
sample of requisite weight or more is obtained by repeated halving or by
abstracting and subsequently combining small random portions.
4. Working sample
It is the reduced sample required weight obtained from the submitted
sample on which the quantity tests are conducted in seed testing lab.
Weight of submitted sample
The minimum weight for submitted samples for various tests are as
follows
1.Moisture test
100 gm for those species that have to be ground and 50 gm for all other
species. 2.For verification of species and cultivar
2. For verification of species and cultivars
Crop

Peas, beans, maize, soybean and crop seeds of similar

Lab only
(g)

Field plot
& Lab (g)

1000

2000

Barley, oats, wheat and crop seeds of similar size

500

1000

Beet root and seeds of similar size

200

500

All other genera

100

250

Size

3. For other tests like uri and count of other species

96

Crop

Size of
seed
lot
(kg)
25,000
25,000
40,000
10,000
10,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
20,000
20,000
20,000

Size of
submitted
sample

Size of
working
purity

Sample
count of
other
species
400
1000
1000
900
150
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
70
1000
250
1000

Paddy
400
40
Wheat
1000
120
Maize
1000
900
Sorghum
900
90
Bajra
150
15
Red gram
1000
300 .
Green gram
1000
120
Black gram
1000
150
Bengal gram
1000
1000
Cowpea
1000
400
Soybean
1000
500
Groundnut (pods)
1000
1000
Groundnut (kernels)
1000
600
Gingelly
70
7
Sunflower (variety)
1000
250
Sunflower (hybrid)
1000
125
Cotton linted
1000
350
(variety)
Cotton de-Tinted
20,000
350
35
350
(variety)
20,000
350
35
350
Cotton linted (hybrid) 20,000
250
25
250
Cotton de-Tinted
10,000
150
15
150
(hybrid)
10,000
150
15
150
Brinjal
20,000
1000
140
1000
Chillies
10,000
70
7
70
Bhendi
10,000
7
7
7
Tomato (variety)
10,000
100
10
100
Tomato (hybrid)
10,000
100
10
100
Cabbage
10,000
100
10
100
Cauliflower
Knolkhol
The samples taken may packed in bags, sealed and marked for
identification. For moisture testing the samples should be packed separately in
moisture proof polythene bag and kept in the container along with the submitted
samples.
Information to accompany the sample
Date
Kind
Variety
Class of seed
Lot No.
Quantity of seed in lot (kg)
Tests) required (1) Purity
(2) Germination

(3) Moisture

97

Senders Name and Address

Types of sample used in Seed Testing Laboratory
Service sample
- Sample received from the farmers
Certified sample
- Sample received from certification agencies or officers
Official sample
- Sample received from the seed inspectors.
Mixing and dividing of seeds
The main objective of mixing and dividing of seeds is to obtain the
representative homogenous seed sample for analysis by reducing the submitted
sample to the desired size of working sample.
Method of mixing and dividing
1. Mechanical dividing
2. Random cups method
3. Modified halving method
4. Spoon method
5. Hand halving method
1. Mechanical method
The reduction of sample size is carried out by the mechanical dividers
suitable for all seeds except for chaffy and fuzzy seeds.
Objective of mechanical dividing
To mix the seed sample and make homogenous as far as possible
To reduce the seed sample to the required size without any bias
The submitted sample can be thoroughly mixed by passing it through the
divider to get 2 parts and passing the whole sample second time and 3rd
time if necessary to make the seeds mixed and blended so as to get
homogenous seed sample when the same seeds passed through it into
approximately equal parts.
The sample is reduced to desired size by passing the seeds through the
dividers repeatedly with one half remain at each occasion.
TYPES OF MECHANICAL DIVIDERS
1. Boerner divider
It consists of a hopper, a cone and series of baffles directing the seeds into 2
spouts. The baffles are of equal size and equally spaced and every alternate one
leading to one spout. They are arranged in circle and are directed inward. A valve
at the base of the hopper retains the seeds in the hopper. When the valve is
opened the seeds fall by gravity over the cone where it is equally distributed and
approximately equal quantity of seeds will be collected in each spout. A
disadvantage of this divider is that it is difficult to check for cleanliness.

98

2. Soil divider
It is a sample divider built on the same principles as the Boerner divider.
Here the channels are arranged in a straight row. It consists of a hopper with
attached channels, a frame work to hold the hopper, two receiving pans and a
pouring pan. It is suitable for large seeds and chaffy seeds.
3. Centrifugal or Gamet Divider
The principle involved is the centrifugal force which is used for mixing and
dividing the seeds. The seeds fall on a shallow rubber spinner which on rotation by
an electric motor, throw out the seeds by centrifugal force. The circle or the area
where the seeds fall is equally divided into two parts by a stationary baffle so that
approximately equal quantities of seed will fall in each spout.
II. RANDOM CUP METHOD
This is the method is suitable for seeds requiring working sample upto 10
grams provided that they are not extremely chaffy and do not bounce or roll (e.g.)
Brassica spp.
Six to eight small cups are placed at random on a tray. After a preliminary
mixing the seed is poured uniformly over the tray. The seeds that fall into the cup
is taken as the working sample.
III. MODIFIED HALVING METHOD
The apparatus consists of a tray into which is fitted a grid of equal sized
cubical cups open at the top and every alternate are having no bottom. After
preliminary mixing the seed is pouted evenly over the grid. When the grid is lifted
approximately half the sample remains on the tray. The submitted sample is
successively halved in this method until a working sample size is obtained.
IV. SPOON METHOD
This is suitable for samples of single small seeded species. A tray, spatula
and a spoon with a straight edge are required. After preliminary mixing the seed is
poured evenly over the tray. The tray should not be shacked there after. With the
spoon in one hand, the spatula in the other and using both small portions of seed
from not less than 5 random places on the tray should be removed. Sufficient
portions of seed are taken to estimate a working sample of approximately but not
less than the required size.
V. HAND HALVING METHOD
This method is restricted to the chaffy seeds. The seed is poured evenly on
to a smooth clean surface and thoroughly mixed into a mound. The mound is then
divided into 1/2 and each half is mound again and halved to 4 portions. Each of
the 4 portions is halved again giving 8 portions. The halved portions are arranged
in rows and alternate portions are combined and retained. The process is repeated
until the sample of required weight is obtained.

99

SEED PURITY ANALYSIS

The purity test is the first test to be made. Seed samples can contain
impurities such as weed seeds, seeds of other crop species, detached seed
structures, leaf particles and other material. The object of purity analysis is to
determine the composition of the sample being tested by weight. To do this, a
purity test is conducted, in which the working sample is separated into the following
component parts:
i) Pure seed refers to the species under consideration. In addition to
mature, undamaged seed, it includes, undersized, shriveled, immature and
germinated seeds, provided they can be definitely identified as the species under
consideration, more over it includes pieces resulting from breakage that are more
than one half their original size Pure seeds includes the following:
A.

Intact seeds

B.

Achenes and similar fruits like caryopsis, schizocarpand mericarp with or

without pedicel, perianth and whether they contain true seed unless it is
apparent and when difficult to identify.

C.

Pieces of seeds, achenes, mericarp and caryopsis resulting from breakage

that is more than half the original size (Half seed rule). However, seeds of
Leguminosae, Cruciferae and Coniferae are considered as inert matter if their
seed coat is removed.

D.

Clusters of Beta or pieces of such clusters with or without seeds that are
retained by 200 x 300 mm sieve.

E.

Florets and caryopsis of Grammae.

*florests and one flowered spikelets with an obvious caryopsis containing
endosperm provided also that the caryopsis of particular genera and
species have attained minimum sizes.
*Free caryopsis
*All florets and caryopsis (except broken florets and caryopsis half or less
than half the original size and in the case of Dactylis glomerata excluding
one-fifth of the weight of multiple floret in which the sterile floret extends
to or beyond the tip of the fertile floret) remaining in heavy protein after
blowing at an uniform blowing speed.

With reference to specific species:

100

Allium sp., Capsicum sp., Cucumis sp., Lycopsersicon sp., : Seed with or
without seed except pieces of seed more than 1/2 the original size with or without
seed coat.
Arachis sp., Cicer sp., Glycine sp., Vigna sp. : Seed, provided a portion of
testa is attached, pieces of seed more than 1/2 the original size with or without
seed coat.
Daccus sp. : Schizocarp with or without pedicel unless it is obvious that no
seed is present Mericarp with or without pedicel unless it is obvious that no seed is
present. Pieces of mericarp more than 1/2 the original size unless it is apparent
that no seed is present. Seed with pericarp partially or entirely removed. Pieces of
seed larger than 1/2 the original size with the pericarp partially or entirely remove.
Gossypium sp.: Seed with or without lint, pieces of seed more than 1/2 the
original size.
Helianthus sp. : Achene unless it is obvious that no seed is present. Pieces
of achene larger than 1/2 the original size unless it is obvious no seed is present.
Seed with the pericarp partially or entirely removed. Pieces of seed large than 1/2
the original size partially or entirely removed.
Oryza sp. : Spilelet with lemma, palea and sterile glumes enclosing a
caryposis. Floret with lemma palea enclosing a cryopsis. Free caryopsis.

ii) Other seeds shall include seeds and seed like structures of any plant
species other than that of pure seed. iii) Inert matter includes seed units and all
other matters and structures not defined as pure seed or other seed. It includes,
seeds and seed like structures eg., achenes , caryopsis , mericarp and seeds of
leguminosae less than the original size with no seed coat.
To perform purity analysis, the working sample is kept over the purity work
board at the base end. A small quantity of sample is brought to the middle of the
board and split into two basic components as pure seed and inert matter. The inert
matter is further divided as pieces of seeds less than 1/2 the original size, stones,
pieces of leaves, weed seeds, other crop seed etc. The pure seed is further divided
into pure seed and other distinct variety (ODV) etc. The pure seed and inert matter
are weighed upto three decimals and percentage worked out. The weed seed, OCS,
ODV are counted and reported as number per kg.
INSTRUMENTS
1. Seed blower

101

It is used to remove the light weighted inert matter from the seeds. Working
sample is kept at the lower portion of the tube and the required uniform upward
flow of air is regulated upto prescribed period of time. Lighter matter is separated
from the sample by air flow and settle down in the partition provided in the tube of
the blower. The tube is removed and inert matter is collected.
2. Diapanascope
The purity work board is provided with light source in the background which
facilitates easy separation of different component. It also helps better distinguishing
of red pericarp from white percarb and short bold grains long slender grains from
medium types.
The percentage by weight of each of the component parts shall be calculated
to one decimal place. Percentage must be based on the sum of the weight of the
components not on the original weight of the working sample, but the sum of the
weights of the components must be compared with the original weight as a check
against loss of material or other error. The result shall be reported to one decimal
place and the percentage of all components must total 100. Components of less
than 0.05% shall be reported as Trace. If the purity is less than the standard
retirement the certification department will reject the seed.

SEED MOISTURE ESTIMATION

The moisture content of a sample is the loss in weight when it is dried in
accordance with the rules. It is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
original sample. The submitted sample shall be accepted for moisture determination
only if it is in intact, moisture - proof container from which as much air as possible

102

has been excluded. The determination shall be started as soon as possible after
receipt.
Procedures
Weighing shall be in grams to three decimal places. Seeds of larger size are
ground before drying unless its high oil content makes it difficult. After grinding, the
sample is passed through different sizes of sieves. Pre-drying before grinding is
required for samples having moisture content more than 17%. After pre-drying, the
sub-damples are reweighed in their containers to determine the loss in weight.
I. Low constant temperature oven method
The working sample must be evenly distributed over the surface of the
container. Weigh the container and its cover before and after filling. Place the
container rapidly, on top of its cover, in an oven maintained at a temperature of 103
2C and dry for 17 1 hours. The drying period begins at the time the oven
returns to the required temperature. At the end of the prescribed period, cover the
container and place it in a desiccator to cool for 30-40 minutes. After cooling, weigh
the container with its cover and contents. The relative humidity of the ambient air
in the laboratory must be less than 70% at the time of final weighing. ISTA
prescribes the low constant temperature oven method, for all tree species. Normally
oilseeds are subjected to low constant temperature oven method while cereals and
pulses are subjected to high constant temperature oven method.
II. High constant temperature oven method
The procedure is the same as above except that the oven is maintained at a
temperature of 130-133C, the sample is dried for a period of four hours for tree
species and no special requirement pertains to the relative humidity of the ambient
air in the laboratory during determination. The moisture content as a percentage by
weight shall be calculated to one decimal place by means of the following formula:
100
(M2-M3) x ---------M2 - M1
Where
M1 - is the weight in grams of the container and its cover,
M2 - is the weight in grams of the container, its cover and its contents before drying
M3 - is the weight in grams of the container, cover and contents after drying.

103

If the material is pre-dried, the moisture content is calculated form the

results obtained in the first (pre-dried), the second stages of the procedure. If S 1 is
the moisture lost in the first stage, and S 2 is the moisture lost in the second stage,
each calculated as above and expressed as a percentage, then the original moisture
content of the sample calculated as a percentage is
S 1 x S2
S1 + S2 - ----------100
Grinding requirements
Crop

Grinding

Mesh size

Paddy, wheat,
maize, sorghum,
cotton

Fine

50% ground material

is passed through 0.5
mm mesh

Pea, chickpea,
soybean, lathyrus

Coarse

50% ground material

is passed through 4
mm mesh

10% ground material

remain on 1.00 mm
mesh

Pre-drying requirements
Crop

Moisture
content

Temperature
required for
drying C

Duration

Maize

>25%

>0

2 - 5 hrs

Rice

>13%

130

5 - 10 min

Soybean

>10%

130

5 - 10 min

III. Universal moisture meter

Moisture estimation is made quick by the advent of digital moisture meters.
The principle involved is that electrical conductivity of moist material is directly
proportionate to the amount of moisture content in it.
Universal moisture meter is a popular and most dependable instrument for
moisture estimation. The following are its essential parts:

104

(i)

Compression unit

(ii)

Moisture meter dial

(iii)

Thermometer

(iv)

Compression knob

(v)

Cups of different volumes

A representative sample of prescribed weight or volume (Table) is obtained

and placed in the sample cup. It is fixed in the lower house of compression unit.
Meter is calibrated by pressing the button "CAL" and "BELL" with the help of
calibration knob. Sample is compressed as per requirement with the help of
compression knob and scale. At required compression the meter dial (M) is read by
pressing the knob "Read" and bell. Temperature (T) is observed by the
thermometer fixed in between meter dial and compression chamber. The reading M
and T are intercepted on the corelator dial (moisture meter dial) by turning the
temperature dial. On adjustment of both the reading mark of arrow on the outer
reading of temperature dial indicates the moisture percentage. For some crops
factor is also considered for estimation of moisture content (Table).
The moisture content must be reported to the nearest 0.1% in the space
provided on the Analysis Certificate. Seed lot with moisture content more than the
minimum seed certification standards (Table ) are recommended for drying

Determination of moisture content by universal moisture meter

Sample size
Weight (g) Volume*
FIELD AND FODDER CROPS
Barley
50
B
Maize
60
B
Crop

Compressi
on

Factor

0.600
0.560

105

Oat
30
Pearl millet
60
Rice
50
Sorghum
50
Wheat
30
Moong and urid
Chickpea
Horsegram
Lentil
Pigeonpea, fieldpea
Castor
Groundnut
25
Groundnut (kernel)
26
Safflower
15
Sesame
Soybean
60
Sunflower
30
Rape seed and
mustard
Cotton (linted)
30
VEGETABLES
Kidneybean
50
Okra
Cabbage
Cowpea
Cucumber
Lettuce
Onion
Tomato
25
Turnip
25
Watermelon
Coriander
* A,B and C - Container size

B
B
B
B
A
A
C
A
A
C
C

C
B

0.400
0.500
0.550
0.675
0.275
0.275
0.500
0.275
0.250
0.450
0.500
0.300
0.450
0.450
0.550
0.575
0.500
0.450

Add 1%
Add 1.5%
Subtrat 1%
x 0.7 + 3.5%
Multiplied by 0.5
Multiplied by 0.6
Multiplied by 0.56
Multiplied by 0.66
Subtract 0.5%
Subtract 2.5%
Multiplied by 0.6
Multiplied by 0.6

0.360

Subtract 5%

B
C
A
A
B
B
A
B

0.400
0.425
0.260
0.325
0.525
0.500
0.250
0.250
0.200
0.425
0.325

Multiplied by 0.6
Multiplied by 0.8
Multiplied by 0.8
Multiplied by 0.9
Subtract 2.5%
Multiplied by 0.8
Multiplied 0.8
Subtract 3.5%
Multiplied by 0.6

B
C

Minimum seed certification standard for moisture percentage

Crop

Sample in
vapour proof
container
FIELD AND FODDER CROPS
Castor, mustard, taramira
5
Groundnut, niger, sesame
5
Cotton
6
Rape seed
7
Linseed, horsegram, rajmash, safflower,
7

Sample not
in vapour
proof bag
8
9
10
8
9

106

sunflower, jute
Berseem, lucerne, Indian clover
Soybean
Moong, urid, chickpea, fieldpea, pigeonpea,
lentil, lathyrus, kidneybean, ricebean
Buffel, Dharaf, Dinanath, guinea, marvel,
setaria and stylo grass
Wheat, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, barley,
triticale, oat, minor millets, teosinte, forage
sorghum
Rice
VEGETABLES
Rat tail radish, radish, turnip
Cole crops
All cucurbits
TPS, brinjal, tomato, chilli, capsicum, onion,
fenugreek, lettuce, amaranth, asparagus
Carrot, celery, parsley
French bean
Cowpea, Indian bean, clusterbean, spinach,
sugarbeat
Okra

7
7
8

10
12
9

10

12

13

5
5
6
6

6
7
7
8

7
7
8

8
9
9

10

SEED GERMINATION TEST

Principles
Germination tests shall be conducted with a pure seed fraction. A minimum
of 400 seeds are required in four replicates of 100 seeds each or 8 replicates of 50
seeds each or 16 replicates of 25 seeds each depending on the size of seed and
size of containers of substrate. The test is conducted under favourable conditions of
moisture, temperature, suitable substratum and light if necessary. No pretreatment
to the seed is given except for those recommended by ISTA.
Materails required
A. Substratum

107

The substratum, serves as moisture reservoir and provides a surface or

medium for which the seeds can germinate and the seedlings grow.The commonly
used substrata are sand, paper and soil.
I. Sand
a. Size of sand particle
Sand particles should not be too large or too small. The sand particles
should pass thorough 0.80 mm sieve and retained by 0.05 mm sieve.
b. Toxicity
Sand should not have any toxic material or any pathogen. If there is presence
of any pathogen, found, then the sand should be sterilized in an autoclave.
c. Germination Tray
When we use the sand, germination trays are used to carry out the test. The
normal size of the tray is 22.5 x 22.5 x 4 cm. They tray may either zinc or stainless
steel.
B. Method of seed placement
1. Seeds in sand(s)
Seeds are planted in a uniform layer of moist sand and then covered to a
depth of 1 cm to 2 cm with sand.
2. Top of sand (TS)
Seeds are pressed into the surface of the sand
C. Spacing
We must give equal spacing on all sides of facilitate normal growth of seedling
and to avoid entangling of seed and spread of disease. Spacing should be 1-5 times
the width or diameter of the seed.
D. Water
The amount of water to be added to the sand will depend on size of the
seed. For cereals, except maize, the sand can be moistened to 50% of its water
holding capacity. For large seeded legumes and maize sand is moistened to 60%
water holding capacity.
II. Paper
Most widely used paper substrates are filter paper, blotter or towel (kraft
paper). It should be have capillary movement of water, at vertical direction (30 mm
rise / min.). It should be free from toxic substances and free from fungi or bacteria.
It should \ hold sufficient moisture during the period of test. The texture should be
such that the roots of germinating seedlings will grow on and not into the paper.
A. Methods
a. Top of Paper (TP)

108

Seeds are placed on one or more layers of moist filter paper or blotter paper
in petridishes. These petridishes are covered with lid and placed inside the
germination cabinet. This is suitable of those seeds which require light.
a. Between paper (PP)
The seeds are placed between two layers of paper
b. Roll towel method
The seeds are placed between two layers of paper and rolled in towels. The
rolled towels are placed in a water source and kept in germinator or
germination room
c. Inclined plate method
Germination on glass plate with germination paper and kept at an angle of
45 0
III. SOIL
Should be non-caking, free from large particles. It must free from weed
seeds, bacteria, fungi, nematode and other toxic substances. Soil is not
recommended for reuse.
B. TEMPERATURE
Normally most of the seeds germinat between 20-30 0 C
C. LIGHT
Light required seeds provided with light eg. Lettuce

GERMINATION REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT CROPS

Crop

Substr
atum

Temp

20-30

First
count
( Days)
5

Final
count
(days)
14

PAddy

BP,TP,S

MAize
Bajra

BP,S
TP,BP

20-30
20-30

4
3

7
7

Sorghum

TP,BP

20-30

10

Pre - treatment

Pre heat (500 C) soak

in water for 24 hours
0.2% KNO3 92-3
hrs) /prechill
-

109

Redgram
Blackgram
Greengram
Bengalgram
Cowpea
Peas
Castor
Groundnut
Sunflower
Sesame
Cotton
Brinjal

BP
BP
BP
BP
BP
BP
BP
BP
BP
TP
BP,S
TP,BP

20-30
30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20
20
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30
20-30

4
4
5
5
5
5
7
5
4
3
4
7

6
7
8
8
8
8
14
10
10
6
12
14

Tomato
Chillies

TP,BP
TP,BP

20-30
20-30

5
7

14
14

Bhendi
Onion
Carrot
Radish
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Ash gourd
Biter gourd
Bottle
gourd

BP,S
TP,BP
TP,BP
TP,BP

20-30
15-20
20-30
20-30

4
6
7
4

21
21
14
10

TP
S
BP,S
BP,S '

20-30
30-35
20-30
20-30

5
5
4
4

10
14
14
14

-Reithove shells
EthreI (25 ppm) 48
hrs.
(Hot water 85 C 1
min)
KN03
KN03
Prechill
prechill
Prechill, KN03
light
-

GERMINATION APPARATUS
1. Germination Cabinet /
Germination
This is called chamber where in temperature and relative humidity are
controlled. We can maintain the required temperature
2. Room germinator
It works with same principle of germinator. This is a modified chamber of
larger one and the worker can enter into it and evaluate the seedlings.
Provisions are made to maintain the temperature and relative humidity. This
is used widely in practice.
3. Counting Board
This is used for accurate counting and spacing of seeds. This consists of 2
plates. The basal one is stationary and top one is movable. Both top and basal
plates are having uniform number of holes viz., 50/100, when the plates are in

110

different position. After taking the sample, the top plate is pulled in such a way that
the holes are in one line so that the fixed number of seeds fall on the substratum.
4. Vacuum Counter
Consists of a head, pipe and wall. There are plates of 50 or 100 holes which
can be fitted to the head. When vacuum is created the plate absorbs seeds and
once the vacuum is released the seeds fall on the substrate.
5. Impression Board
Made of plastic / wood with 50 or 100 holes/pins. Here the knobs are
arranged in equal length and space. By giving impression on the sand it makes
uniform depth and spacing for seed.
D. Seedling Evaluation
ISTA classified the seedlings into different categories based on the
development of essential structures
CATEGORIES OF SEEDLINGS
1. Normal seedlings
2. Abnormal seedlings
3. Hard seeds
4. Fresh ungerminated seeds
5. Dead seeds
1.Normal seedlings
Seedlings which show the capacity for continued development into normal
plant when grown in favorable conditions of soil, water and temperature.
Characters of normal seedling
1. A well developed root system with primary root except in certain species of
graminae which normally producing seminal root or secondary root
2. A well developed shoot axis consists of elongated hypocotyls in seedlings of
epigeal germination.
3. A well developed epicotyl s in seedlings of hypogeal germination.
4. One cotyledons in monocots and two in dicots
5. A well developed coleoptile in graminae containing a green leaf
6. A well developed plumule in dicots
7. Seedlings with following slight defects are also taken as normal seedlings.
Primary root with limited damage but well developed seminal root system in
leguminosae (Pisum), graminae (maize), cucurbitaceae (cucumis) and
malvaceae(cotton)

111

8. Seedlings with limited damage or decay to essential structures but no damage

to conducting tissue
9. Seedlings which are decayed by pathogen but it is clearly evident that the
parent seed is not the source of infection.
II. Abnormal Seedlings
Seedlings which do not show the capacity for continued development into
normal plant when grown in favorable conditions of soil, water and temperature
Types of abnormal seedling
A.Damaged seedlings
Seedlings with any one of the essential structures missing or badly damaged
so that the balanced growth is not expected. Seedlings with no cotyledons, with
splits, cracks and lesions or essential structures and without primary root.
B. Deformed seedlings
Weak or unbalanced development of essential structures such as spirally
twisted or stunted plumule or hypocotyls or epicoptyl, swollen shoot, stunted roots
etc.
C. Decayed seedlings
Seedlings with any one of the essential structures showing diseased or
decayed symptoms as a result of primary infection from the seed which prevents
the development of the seedlings.
III.Hard seeds
Seeds which do not absorb moisture till the end of the test period and
remain hard (e.g.) seeds of leguminosae and malvaceae
IV.Fresh ungerminated seeds
Seeds which are neither hard nor have germinated but remain firm and
apparently viable at the end of the test period.

V. Dead seeds
Seeds at the end of the test period are neither hard nor fresh'or have
produced any part of a seedling. Often dead seeds collapse and milky paste comes
out when pressed at the end of the test.
Retesting
If the results of a test are considered unsatisfactory it shall not be reported
and a second test shall be made by the same method or by alternative method
under the following circumstances.
1. Replicates performance is out of
tolerance
2. Results being inaccurate due to wrong evaluating of seedlings or counting or
errors in test conditions.

112

3. Dormancy persistence or phytotoxicity or spread of fungi or bacteria. The

average of the two tests shall be reported.
Use of tolerances
The result of a germination test can be relied upon only if the difference
between the highest and the lowest replicates is within accepted tolerances.
To decide if two test results of the same sample are compatible again the
tolerance table is used.
Reporting results
The results of the germination test is calculated as the average of 4 x 100
seed replicates.It is expressed as percentage by number of normal seedlings.The
percentage is calculated to the nearest whole number. The percentage of abnormal
seedlings, hard, fresh and dead seeds is calculated in the same way. These should
be entered on the analysis of certificate under appropriate space.If the result is nil
for any of these categories it shall be reported as '0'.

Seed standards for germination

S.No.
1
2

3
4
5
6

Crop
Paddy
Maize (inbreds)
Single cross
Double cross
Variety
Sorghum (variety)
Hybrids
Cumbu
Ragi
Black gram

Class of seed
Foundation Seed
Certified seed
80
80
80
80
80
90
90
90
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75

113

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

Bengal gram
Green gram
Horse gram
Peas
Pigeon pea
Castor variety
Ground nut
Sesame
Soybean
Sunflower
Cotton
Jute
Gourds
Brinjal
Chillies
Bhendi
Tomato
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Carrot
Radish
Beet root

85
75
80
75
75
70
70
80
70
70
65
80
60
70
60
65
70
70
65
60
70
60

85
75
80
75
75
70
70
80
70
70
65
80
60
70
60
65
70
70
65
60
70
60

QUICK VIBILITY TEST

The relative long periods of time required for completion of germination
tests delays the seed marketing. This necessitated the development of rapid
methods for estimating the germination capacity of seeds. This test was developed
by Lakon (1942) in Germany.
Principle
It is a biochemical test, in which living cells are made visible by reduction of
an indicator dye. The indicator used is 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride. Within
the seed tissues, it interferes with the reduction processes of living cells and
accepts hydrogen from the hydrogenases. By hydrogenation of the 2,35 - tri phenyl
tetrazolium chloride; a red stable and non difficusable substance, triphenyl
formazan is produced in living cells. The reaction is as follows.

114

N - N - C6H5

N - NH - C 6H5

C6H5 - C

2H + 2e-

C6H5 -C

+ HCl

dehydrogenase
N = N+ - C6H5

NADPH
NADH

Cl

NADP

N = N - C 6H5

NAD

2,3,5 Triphenyl Tetrazolium Chloride

2,3,5 Triphenyl Formazan

Hydrochloric acid

(colourless)

(red)

This makes it possible to distinguish red coloured living parts of seeds from
the colourless dead ones. Staining of seeds determines whether seeds are to be
classified as viable. Completely stained seeds are viable partially and completely
unstained seeds are non-viable
Field of application
This test is not valid for previously germinated seeds
Method of Tetrazolium testing
A. Testing sample
A representative sample of 50(or) 100 seeds is usually sufficient. However,
200 seeds, in replicates of 100 seeds is recommended.
B. Preparation of solutions
1% solution is used for seeds that are not bisected thro' the embryo, while
0.1% solution is used for seeds in which the embryo is bisected. The pH of the
solution should be between 6 and 8 for best staining. If the pH of the water is not
in the natural range, the TZ salt should be dissolved in a phosphate buffer
solution. The buffer solution is prepared as follows
Solution -1- Dissolve 9.078 g of KH2 P04 in 1000 ml of water
Solution -2- Dissolve 11.876 g of Na2HP04. 2H20 in 1000 ml water.

115

Take 400 ml of solution 1 and 600 ml of solution 2 and mix them together. In
litre of buffer solution prepared as above, dissolve 10 gms of TZ salt. This gives 1%
TZ solution of pH 7.0. This may be further diluted to give lower concentrations. The
solution should be stored in brown bottle to prevent deterioration from light.
Methods of preparation for tetrazolium testing
The seeds are first prepared for staining then stained and evaluated for viability.
Method 1 : Bisect longitudinally
(e.g) maize, sorghum, small grains, large seeded grasses. Soak the seeds in
water for 3 to 4 hours. Bisect the seeds by cutting longitudinally thus exposing the
mains structures of the embryo. Use one 1/2 of each seed for testing.
Method 2 : Bisect laterally
(e.g.) Small seeded grasses
The seeds are cut laterally near the centre of the seed above the embryo.
Place embryo end in TZ solution.
Method 3 : Pierce with needle
(e.g.) Small seeded grasses
Puncture the seeds by piercing thro' the seed into the endosperm near the
embryo, but avoid injury to the embryo.
Method 4 : Remove seed coat (e.g) seeds with seed coats impermeable to
tetrazolium.
Soak the seeds in water for 3-4 hours and then the seed coats and place the
seeds in the TZ solution. In some crops like cotton a thin membrane adhering to
the cotyledons is also removed in addition to the seed coat.
Method 5 : Conditioning only
(e.g) Large seeded legumes
Seeds of soybeans and other large seeded legumes may swell so rapidly
and irregularly when placed directly in water or TZ solution that the seed coats
burst. Hence, it is preferable to condition these seeds slowly in moist paper towels
overnight before staining, so that they absorb moisture slowly without any damage
to the seed.
METHOD 6 : NO CONDITIONING OR PREPARATION
(eg.) Small seeded legumes
Seed coats of these seeds are permeable to TZ and embryos usually will stain
without conditioning.
Staining
The prepared seeds should be placed in suitable container (small beakers,
petridishes etc.,) and covered with TZ solution. Place the containers in an incubator
at dark warm conditions of 40C.The staining time varies for different kinds of
seeds, different kinds of seeds, different methods of preparation, and different
temperatures (< 1 hr to 8 hrs). When the sample has stained sufficiently the TZ
solution should be discarded and the seed sample covered with water immediately.

116

Seed samples can also be kept for 3 days at 10C for interpretation. A normal TZ
stain appears cherry red.
Evaluation of Samples :
MONCOTS
Non-Viable
1. All structures unstained
2. Shoot largely unstained
3. Scutellar node unstained
4. Major areas of coloeptile unstained
5. Central area of scutellum unstained
6. Insect, mechanical or other injuries causing essential structures non functional.
DICOT SEEDS
Non-viable
1. Embryo completely unstained
2. More than extreme tip of radical unstained
3. More than 1/2 of cotyledon tissue unstained.
4. Deep - seated necrosis at cotyledon and embryonic axis juncture or on radicle
5. Fractured radical.
Advantages of TZ test
1.Quick estimation of viability
2.When the seed is dormant, the TZ test is extremely useful
3. Seeds are not damaged (in dicot) in anlaysis therefore they could be
germinated.
Disadvantages of TZ Test
1. It is difficult to distinguish between normal and abnormal seedlings.
2. It does not differentiate between dormant and non- dormant seeds.
3. Since the TZ test does not involve micro organisms harmful to germinating
seedlings are not detected.
Grow-out test
This is a field test to know the genetic purity of the seed lots. A separate
seed sample is drawn by seed certification officials from the seed lot and sent for
conduct of grow-out-test in the field. In a plot area, minimum of 400 plants are
grown along with a authenticated reference sample crop for verification of the
genetic purity. All the 400 plants will be observed at critical stages for the presence
of various morphological characters as notified by the breeder. The percentage of
off types and other genetic contaminants will be worked out based on the
observations made in the grow out test. If the lot confirms to the standard, it will
be declared as certified and permitted for marketing.

117

Central seed testing lab

This is the apex lab for whole of the country as a referral lab in case of any
disputes. CSTL is situated at Varanasi, UP state.
State seed testing labs
Seed testing at state level is carried out by various State seed testing
laboratories established at different locations with in each state.

SEED VILLAGE CONCEPT

There is always a shortage of certified seeds in the country. To overcome this
shortage, seed village programme was initiated. The basic concept of seed village is
to get the seed produced of the appropriate varieties of various crops locally. The
basic idea is to supply the seed of improved varieties to the farmers at a reasonable
price. The following steps may be taken to ensure that the Seed Village Programme
is implemented effectively.

As far as possible, seed village should be organized in a compact area

comprising of few villages.
The area selected for seed village should produce enough seed to meet the
requirements of the particular area i.e., block or district for which seed village
has been organized.
Selection of the area should be made well in time and the area selected for seed
village programme may not be changed every year but it should be kept
permanent at least for 5-10 years.

118

The selected farmers should be provided training in seed production so that they
are in a position to take all possible care.
Area selected for seed village should have the facility to provide irrigation in
case it is needed at critical stages.
Area selected should be suitable for growing both kharif and rabi crops so that
seed production becomes a continuous activity with the farmers.
If the selected areas fall in the rainfed zones, such areas should be selected
which are covered by watershed so that there could be a possibility to give
protective irrigation.
For production of certified seed, efforts should be made to supply the foundation
seed.
In case shortage of foundation seed is there for a particular crop and variety,
production programme may be organized from certified stage I to certified seed.
The selected farmers should be progressive and willing to make requisite
investment, eligible for crop loans
Minimum limit of area and number of beneficiaries may be fixed for eligibility of
village to become the seed village
Most crucial aspect on which the success of seed production depends in
procurement of seed, their cleaning and storage.
Implementing agencies
In most of the States, this activity has been entrusted to the State Seeds
Corporation (SSC) as a result of which desired increase in production of seeds is not
there. The SSCs claim the assistance provided under the programme without much
addition in the production of seed. It would be desirable, if the State entrust this
responsibility to another State Agency like State Agro-Industry Corporation, Oil
federation or any other Cooperative Organizations who could provide this service.
If sincere efforts are made by state seed corporations (SSCs), it may result into the
additional production of seed and it will be possible to wipe out the shortage of
seed. Krishi Vigyan Kendras also play a key role in giving training to farmers under
seed village programme and organizing seed production.
Financial assistance
The major difficulty, which might come in the way, is of supply of credit. State
may find some solution to this either by linking it up with cooperative banks or with
NABARD or with commercial banks. This would facilitate in the prompt payment to
the farmers for supply of seed. Financial assistance should be provided to the
selected farmers under seed village. This assistance is to meet the expenses of
certification, rogueing and loss in cleaning, etc. Farmers are advised to create
infrastructure facilities like godowns, threshing floor, etc., of their own out of this
money. Financial assistance should be provided to the procuring agencies such as

119

state Seeds Corporation, agro-Industry Corporation, etc., to meet the handling cost
and to create processing facilities.
IMPLICATIONS OF SVC
Seed Village is the only programme which can wipe out the shortage of
pulses seeds in implemented faithfully specially in case of gram, peas, lentil, arhar,
moong and urd as the demand for these seeds is very high. Larger scale crop
demonstration with improved varieties in local village as well as in cluster of villages
will be highly useful in disseminating and popularization of improved varieties. The
selected farmers who adopted the technology, disseminated it horizontally among
other farmers of the village.

Seed Industry:

Refer PDF file attached separately.

120