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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT.
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
APPLIED ENGLISH GRAMMAR
-v
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A TEXT-BOOK
OF
BY
EDWIN HERBERT LEWIS

Ph.D., Professor of English in the Lewis Institute, Chicago.
Author of " An Introduction to the Study of Litera-
iure,"
"A
First
Manual
of Composition," btc.
ft*
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1902
All rights reserved
CO., Ltd.
Tfc* w
,U+
THrLlBRARY OF
CONGRESS,
Two Copies Received
JUL.
1U
1902
.Copyright entry
Class ^xxc.
No.
COPY
COPYEIGHT, 1902,
By
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set
up and electrotyped July,
LC Control
tmp9 6
1902.
Nimtbej
027691
Norfoootr ^ress
J. S.
Cushing & Co.
Norwood
Berwick & Smith
Mass. U.S.A.
"\
PREFACE
The
study of English in the upper grades

should and does include something of many
handwriting, spelling, pronunciation,
subjects
oral reading, elementary composition, litera:
grammar. The amount of time required

in any year to produce definite results in all
these subjects would be very great.
The time
ture,
now given
even the best schools is wholly

inadequate, programmes being crowded and
in
Most phases of the subject now

be slighted, and some, like the training
classes large.
have to
of the speaking voice, are practically ignored.
But large classes are at present an unavoidable circumstance of democracy.
We must be
grateful that nearly everybody's child gets to
and must obtain the best results we can

by correlation and a wise economy of minutes.
Under such conditions, what phases of gramschool,
mar should be assured attention? Certainly

there must be some systematic view of elementary grammar the subject is too difficult
to be taught incidentally amid miscellaneous
;
VI
PEEFACE
language lessons.
But what should be empha-
sized? and
what should stand
first
in the order
of presentation?
Elementary correctness in oral usage should

be the first result aimed at in teaching grammar
to children. At all events, it is the result most
difficult to
class
produce.
The teacher
of a large
cannot easily diagnose the habitual faults
of each individual, or easily cure those diag-
She can patiently correct sporadic aintfs

and wa'nfs, but the habits usually persist. It
is sometimes said that school cannot counteract
a bad linguistic environment
but it is a mistake for any teacher, however discouraged, to
School, with all its opportunities for
say that.
fixing attention and insuring vivid impressions,
can work miracles in a child's usage. But miracles are not wrought " incidentally "
there
must be organized and prolonged drill, of a sort
which to-day is called old-fashioned. Nor need
nosed.
there be a fear that learning to say isn't will
be less educative than distinguishing "object
complements" from " objective complements."

Next in importance to elementary oral correctness we may place a working knowledge
of what a sentence is.
This knowledge is
purely grammatical in
lies
all
work
its
nature, but
in composition.
It
is
it
under-
attained
by applying the theory of independent and
PREFACE
vii
dependent statements to the actual problems

of punctuation.
nite,
The theory
even arbitrarily
so,
perfectly defi-
is
and has nothing
to do
with rhetorical theories of unity.

Believing that elementary oral correctness
and an elementary sentence-sense should be
the
first
objects of
grammar
study, the present
writer has devoted Part First of his book to

a few cardinal principles of conversational
lish,
and
to the definition of the sentence.
Eng-
The
exercises of this part are very numerous, but
often each
member
of the class should
quired to recite the entire exercise
be
re-
for example,
17, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39, 43, 48, 50,
52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61.
From time
to time each
His written
usage can be discovered from his handling of
such tasks as that of section 300.
His oral
usage can be tested once a week by having
student's usage should be tested.
him retell some story to the class, or recount

some experience of his own. He should not be
corrected during his speech, but his mistakes
should be silently " set in a note-book, conned,
and learned by heart," to be (most gently and

kindly) cast into his teeth next day.
small
note-book, with a page for each student, can
be used throughout the hour without

embarrassing the speakers. Conversation should
silently
be encouraged, and the faults similarly noted.
PREFACE
Vlll
In Part Second a more systematic treatment

of English grammar is given, with further
The elements
applications to usage.
the
of
sentence are treated before the inflections.
If
The book
is
meant
anything
is
omitted,
it
only these would
of analysis or parsing, but
good deal
two
years.
should be the " Anal-
Part Second.
ysis Exercises" of
who omitted
to be used for
student
know nothing
would have received
of blind practise in the correct use
of the vernacular.
In Part First there are but few definitions.

The words defined in Part Second are in bold
Sentences containing such words should
type.
usually be committed to memory.
with those who believe
that a little technical grammar, sympathetically taught, is within the normal powers and
The
writer holds
interests of
grammar
he thinks
the only permanent cure for bad
it
Also
school students.
boy may learn to punctuate

by instinct after his written work has been
but
pointed for him over and over again
without some clear notion of principal and
punctuation.
subordinate clauses he will never be sure of

himself.
Yet
it is
of formal
only too easy to overdo the teaching
grammar.
not for children.
Subtleties of analysis are
When we
reflect that
gram-
PREFACE
IX
matical terms are but figures of speech,
can only pity the lad
who
we
has to apply them
were divinely ordained. When we

that the purpose of every predicate is to
as if they
realize
modify the hearer's notion of the subject that

every word but one in a sentence is a modifier,
a complement, an adjunct, a limiter, an in;
that every
creases a definer of the subject;
word
name
something else that

in many sentences the only important thought
lies in some subordinate element
that personal pronouns may mean more than persons'
names, which are often but unimportant propronouns, and that pronouns may stand for
a
is
as well as
verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
we
reflect
that
and sentences
what we
call
the
when
parts
of
speech are the result of at least three disparate
methods
of classification,
and that a
strict defi-
any
wonder that technical grammar is strong meat
for babes ?
If the boy thinks about what
he studies, he gets mixed up. If he does not
think, he parses accurately from memory till a
visitor arrives, and then covers himself and his
teacher with confusion by calling a verb a
nition of any
noun.
One
is
logically impossible,
is
it
recalls Sweet's story of the assem-
grammarians who could not agree

whether cannon in cannon ball is an adjective
or not. Finally, one thinks with grim humor of
blage
of
PREFACE
Browning's poetic license
in declaring that his
grammarian had " settled hotis business." Hotis

business will never be settled while articulate-
men
fathom the miracle of

what Newman liked to call "the twospeech
fold logos, the thought and the word."
speaking
strive to
kindly fortune has lately given the writer
the benefit of
many
grammar
Director George N. Carman
discussions of
with three friends

of the Lewis Institute, Professor
:
W.
W.
A. Heidel
Shipley of
Iowa College, and Professor F.
Washington University. Fortune would have
been still kinder had it permitted the writer to
submit the proofs of his book to the same
of
critics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Preface
Introduction
PART FIRST
Book One
EXAMPLES OF GRAMMATICAL USAGE
CHAP.
1.
Grammatical Usage Defined
2.
Correct Use of Singular and Plural Verbs
3.
Correct
Forms
of the
Verb
"
To Be
4.
Correct
Forms
of the
Verb
"
To Have "
2b
5.
Correct
Forms
of Certain
Verbs of Action
35
6.
Subject and Object Forms of Personal Pronouns

xi
"
13
20
71
CONTENTS
Xll
Book Two
the definition of the sentence
PAGE
CHAP.
Word
1.
General Meanings of the
2.
Statements and Not-state men ts
3.
Statements that
may be
4.
-Statements that
may
"
Sentence "
written as Sentences
.84
.
116
The Sentence
as a
Union
of Subject
and Predi129
cate
6.
Compound
93
not be written as Sen-
tences
5.
81
Subjects, Predicates,
and Sentences
150
CONTENTS
Xlll
PART SECOND
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE, AND FORMS
OF WORDS
PAGE
Introduction
167
CHAP.
1.
Verbs
169
2.
Nouns
175
3.
Verbal Nouns
187
4.
Pronouns
193
5.
Adjectives
207
6.
Verbal Adjectives
216
7.
Adverbs
227
8.
Prepositions
238
9.
Conjunctions
250
10.
Summary
11.
Punctuation
12.
Forms
of
of Sentence-Elements
Words
259
266
284
CONTENTS
XIV
PAGE
CHAP.
13.
Forms
of
Nouns
14.
Forms
of
Pronouns
15.
Forms
of Adjectives
16.
Forms
of
17.
Form-Combinations
319
18.
The Older
349
Index
Verbs
Style
287
and Adverbs
....
300
304
313
355
A TEXT-BOOK
OF
APPLIED ENGLISH GEAMMAE

INTRODUCTION
One
1.
mals
is
reason
why men
are superior to ani-
that they can express their thoughts
to each other better
men
able to tell their thoughts,
help one another.
Being
than animals can.
Men grow
are
able
to
wise and strong
by learning from one another.

Both men and animals express themselves
by cries and motions, but men use words also.
Even the little child finds that crying and
pointing will not convey
watches his
elders,
as " Potato
for
2.
is
!
his wishes.
He
soon learns certain
commands
Words thus do
presently giving such

to me, potato
'"
!
him what gestures could never
Words
do.
are articulate sounds that other
people understand, and they

B
He
and observes that they
have names for things.

names, and
all
make up what
INTBOBUCTION
2
is
called
words,
language.
we think
of
When, however, we use

them as parts of state-
ments, or requests, or commands, rather than

as parts of language.
Language is spoken before it is ever

written.
The word language once meant that
which is formed by the lingua, or tongue. By
the time the word reached our forefathers in
their island of England it had come to mean
both oral and written speech.
3.
4.
Language
is
a subject
which every one
has to study from the time he

until he dies.
a year old
is
Whether he goes
to school or
not makes no difference in the necessity.
body has
to
to use language,
Every-
and has continually
study what he shall say.
If
he does not
study his words, he will always be in trouble.

,
In order to speak correctly and effectively,

it is
best to study language with some system.
Daily puzzling over words does
much
uneducated man, but he never can
for the
feel sure
speak well, we cannot be sure
Even if we
why we speak as
we do
called
that he
speaking correctly.
is
unless
1
we study what
is
Note the spelling of grammar.
grammar. 1
IN TB OB UCTION
Grammar is the sj^stematic study of language, and especially of the forms of words
and their combinations in sentences. In this
5.
book we can only begin the systematic study

of language.
are
called
We
have to do chiefly with what
"grammatically correct" ways of
speaking and writing.
6.
Our text-book
grammar, because
to apply
it
is
called a
book
of applied
attempts to show you
how
grammatical principles in your every-
day use of language.

exercises in the art of
correctly.
It offers a great
many
speaking and writing
PART
FIRST,
BOOK ONE
CHAPTER
GRAMMATICAL USAGE DEFINED

7.
Grammatical usage
using such " forms of
is
words," and such combinations of them in sentences, as are considered correct
by the best
writers and speakers.
Johns
is
form
of he; hegan
drown.
is
John ;
of
and begun,
combination
bination.
leaves is
8.
of begin; drowned, of
form of
Isn't is a correct
He
an incorrect form.
;
is
is
not; ain't
is
has begun
he has began
Leaves are
leaves, of leaf; him,
is
a correct
an incorrect com-
a correct combination,
an incorrect.
Vulgar usage.
All mistakes in
grammar
(whether incorrect forms or incorrect combinaVulgar means " pertain-
tions) are vulgarisms.
ing to the crowd."

of people have,
No man
as
The
yet,
has a right
to
great mass or crowd
but
little
despise
education.
uneducated
persons, for they are often the superiors of edu-
cated persons in character, in natural ability,

7
and
in force of expression.
Uneducated per-
sons say " I hain't done no such thing," merely
because they have never learned to say " I've
done no such thing," or "
done any
I haven't
Uneducated persons are usually

persons in the world to wish their
such thing."
the last
children to employ vulgar expressions.
9.
There are other vulgarisms besides mis-
takes in grammar.
bad pronunciation (as

Slang words are
jest for just) is a vulgarism.
usually vulgarisms, but not often mistakes in
grammar.
The following passages contain vulgarisms,

but only the
Point out
italic
all
words are
faults in
grammar.
expressions which seem to you
vulgar.
Oh, Daddy! They're gone. Wh at made you let
?
Oh, what made you? "
"Wa'al, Mandy sassed me, 'n' I told her 't I guessed
we c'd git along without her. This house ain't good
'nough fer her sence she's been to the city she wants
A.
"
them go
and picters an' things,

plain she might go an' stay
carpits
gittin' too fine fer us.
so I jes' told her right out

if
she wanted
to,
she was
I vow, I never see sech a sassy
girl."
"
Oh, Daddy
" Wa'al, I guess

it
You
quarrelled with
you kin
wa'rit nothin' else.
She's
Mandy ?
call it that if
ashamed
"
you want tew
of her brother
she

said so right out an' out,
I've seen it stickin' out a
and she's ashamed

good while, but I
me
o'
too.
hain't said
She don't want me to say much when her

comp'ny comes. She tole me so once. S'pose I don't
talk propei- 'nough to suit her.
It's hurt my feelin's
terrible, but I've kep' it to myself.
Didn't hev nobody to
m' father died
send me to school
when I was a boy
had to work
ter take care o' mother an' Dick."
A
cough grappled with a sob in the old man's throat as he
bent to hide the struggle and lay a stick of wood on the
dead ashes.
Eleanor C. Reed "The Battle Invisible."
nothin'.
" Beautiful night, ain't it
B.
" said Granville.

i
Ellen noticed that Granville said " ain't " instead of
according to the fashion
"isn't,"
of
his
own
family,
from the High

She also noted that Granville presently
although he was recently graduated

School.
said
"wa'n't" instead of
ma' n't
it ?
"Hot
"wasn't."
yesterday,
" said he.
was very warm," replied Ellen. That " wa'n't "

seemed to insert a tiny wedge between them. She would
have flown at any one who had found fault with her
father and mother for saying " wa'n't," but with this
young man in her own rank and day it was different.
She wanted to reproach him sharply to ask him if he
had ever been to school.
Mary E. Wilkins "The
" Yes,
it
Portion of Labor."
man is born
or where he was raised

whether
he's got anythat puts him in any class. It's
thing under his hat. I seen too many of these boys kind
o' jump in from the country, and make a lot o' city boys
look like rabbits. You see, Mr. Miller, when a guy comes
Here, I'm goin'
in from the country he figures it out
against a tough proposition, and I've got to hump myself
He's willin' to learn a few things and do
to keep up.'
the best he can. If he feels that way, he stands to win
C. " It ain't where a
'
10
But
out.
game
It's
in
he comes canterin' into town to be a dead-
if
sport,
and
pace for
set a
a small town, but
it's
all
from the country and scare
don't last."
10.
of the
treme
books.
usage.
George
Ade
Literary usage.
the boys, he don't
too big for any one boy to
Them sporty boys
it.
" Artie."
Vulgar usage
At
uneducated masses.
is
last.
come
is
the usage
the other ex-
the language of the few
who
write
The language of books is called literary

But so many people write books nowa-
days that literary usage varies a great deal.
What may
be called scholastic usage never per-
mits such shortened forms as cant, dont, doesn't,

isn't, aren't.
There are subjects so serious and
formal in their nature that in treating them
it
would sound out of place to use can't for cannot,

and dont for do not. On the other hand, some
of the best books are not scholastic in tone, but
sound
like the conversational
cated persons.
language of edu-
In conversational literary usage
the short forms given above often appear.
Con-
versational literary usage does not admit slang
except in rare instances.
The language
partly
because
of
it
books
teaches us
forms of written English.

punctuate, capitalize,
spell.
is
important to us
the
mechanical
It teaches us
italicize,
how
to
paragraph, and
The language used
Conversational usage.
11.
by educated persons in conversation

conversational usage.
such contractions as can't^don't,

it
is
called
It is correct in all essen-
matters of grammar, but
tial
11
often admits
it
isn't,
Tve
no,
sometimes admits fresh and kindly slang.

Conversational usage
is
and
1
the proper model for
students to follow in their oral use of English.
very often the proper model for them to
It is
follow in their written work.

ness letter there
slang,
and
and none
But
isn't.
In a formal busi-
no place for even the best of
is
for contracted
forms like
can't
we write in
we shall seem
in friendly letters
the conversational tone, so that

to be talking.
12.
The
chief mistakes
in
grammar occur
through ignorance of the best conversational
The
usage.
actual
number
not very large, but each
man
is
No
educated
sit,
or has went for has gone.
of such mistakes is
considered serious.
says aint for
from such expressions
isn't,
If a
or set for
person
is
free
as these, he is at once
The instructor will be interested in Professor Thurston

Peck's words about slang, in the essay called "The Little
Touches.
short passage is quoted in the present writer's
" Second Manual of Composition. "
1
'
12
recognized as having some education.

astonishing to see
how
far a
It
knowledge
is
of a
dozen correct forms of expression will carry a
man
in the opinion of the educated.
son
who
passes
pronounces words
as
educated
with
airs
is
of
The
per-
not he
who
superiority.
The man who passes as educated is

who never says ain't.
The next few chapters are devoted
the
to a
important matters of conversational usage.
man
few
CHAPTER
II
CORRECT USE OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL VERBS

13.
Verb
Usually
asserts.
defined.
it
verb
in
words
are,
is,
is
word which
asserts an act, as in burns,
runs, strikes, but sometimes

as
is
it
merely
asserts,
Sometimes a group
were.
of
used as a verb, for example has burnt,
will run, can strike.
With every verb, usually before it, goes a word to show who is
acting or is spoken of.
This word is called
14.
Subject defined.
In " Birds
the subject of the verb.

subject
is birds.
Sometimes
one person or thing, as

a
" singular"
more than
one, as
this subject
bird.
subject.
birds,
fly "
It is
Sometimes
in
the
means
then called
it
means
which case
it
is
called a "plural " subject.
15.
Singular and plural verbs.
Verbs may have
different forms, according as their subjects are

13
14
singular
or
"
plural.
One
bird flies"
but
Two
The plural subject often

birds fly."
ends in s (birds); but the plural verb almost
"
never ends in
s.
Note the following plural verbs
burn, run, strike, sing, have, are, were, seem, sound.
16.
Oral Exercise.
Place a subject before
each plural verb in the following sentences.
seem sweet.
1.
sing.
2.
burn.
10.
3.
jump.
11.
4.
have wings.
12.
sound bad.
5.
have
13.
chatter.
6.
have trouble.
14.
sulk.
7.
are caught.
15.
win success.
8.
were present.
17.
9.
legs.
run.
do not run.
In vulgar usage, people often employ
the singular form of the verb wdiere the plural

is
needed.
They
say,
home," " The chickens
"
is
The
folks
has got
running loose," " The
horses draws the wagon," instead of the correct

forms, "
The
folks have got home," "
ens are running loose," "
The
The
chick-
horses draw the
wagon."
The subject you takes the verbs are and were,

even when it means only one person. Every
COBBECT USE OF VEBBS

member
of the class should repeat rapidly the
following
/ was
there,
were you there
When
two
you were
the verb comes
There's for There

class
there,
he was there
was I
there
ivas he there ?
us," there
of
15
is
first,
as in "
There are
great danger of saying
Each member
are.
should repeat the following aloud
of the
There's one, there are two, there are several.
Oral Exercise.
18.
blanks.
the
fruit
ripe
and
fruits.
kept
autumn
spicy
or are in
an early
summer, and
in
Other kinds of apples
very welcome.
autumn
is
Harvest apples
they
Insert
Some
all
very late ripeners,
The baldwin
winter.
apple.
few better
There
some
apples than the baldwin, but there
who do not
people
1
lots
one.
like baldwins.
The greening
of other late apples.
The northern spy
another
russets
There
another.
the pippin.
Then
there
and wine-saps and spitzenburgs.
The expressions There are
Still
There
and There s a lot are

grammatically correct, but they are not much found in the
They sound too much like
best conversational usage.
"There's a job-lot."
1
lots
16
the king apple, which
There
most boys.
a favorite with
is
a lot
which might be
said about apples, but the best thing to do
read what
to
Thoreau and John Burroughs
have said on the subject.
Oral Exercise.
19.
We
We
in the blanks.
Herbert and
I.
On
wood-road.
of
Insert
going trout-fishing,
passing through a
patches
either side there
Suddenly a young grouse flew up
swamp.
by the road.
We
that there
probably others.
mistaken.
was or were
We
stopped at once, thinking
We
not
glanced ahead, and there, about
thirty feet away,
entering the road.
young cock-partridge
He walked slowly across
a
the wagon-tracks to the other side, where there
these,
some tall weeds. He passed through

and found that there
a ditch full
of water.
He paused and
then at us.
We
looked at the ditch,
still
Then Mr. Partridge turned

that there
as
two stumps.
about, concluding
worse things than men.
He
marched calmly across the road again, lifting

his ruff a little, and disappeared as he came.
We
agreed that
sight.
there
never
prettier
CORRECT USE OF VERBS
17
There
Insert has or have in the blanks.
20.
are several
deer that
island
summer.
very
this
been seen on our
None
been seen
but about two weeks ago there
lately,
were three in our corn patch.
There
been one just across on the mainland almost
His tracks are plain to
every morning.
and Mr. Ware

and
too,
caught sight of him sev-
The Ware children
eral times.
me
tell
he
magnificent antlers.
There
myself.
by the
penetrated.
down near
it.
When
trees.
is
lot
seen him
a big buck, that
is
Last year I saw two deer
a thicket of arbor-vitse trees
into
river,
see,
which people
of big trees
rarely
been cut
The deer were among
these
they saw me, they seemed almost
to fly over the fallen trees,
and instantly
dis-
appeared in the thicket.

Singular
21.
Very
ther."
This
often the
word
either
true in such sentences as
is
right,"
but
with "either" and " nei-
means
either
and very often neither means neither
one,
verb
may
Lot
plural.
" Either
is
"Neither John nor Harry has gone."
None may take

it
one.
is
either has or have.
None means no
one,
be thought of as meaning no tivo, no

singular, but lot of trees may be thought of as
three, etc.
18
Whenever
or with
these words are
used as subjects,
singular subjects, they must take a
singular verb.
Oral Exercise.
Use correct forms

the following verbs with the word neither
22.
burn,
subject:
sleep,
rise,
of
as
jump, think,
sit,
fear, hope, lack, go.
Oral Exercise.
23.
Supply correct forms
of the verb to be in the blanks.
there yesterday.
good one.
4.
Either
5.
Neither
Either
2.
Neither
3.
one
danger
7.
pine
hard as oak.
8.
Oliver Optic, nor
Castleman,
writer
as
Grant nor Sherman
13.
Either
poplar,
nor
Henty
Stevenson.
9.
so
Neither
Wayne
Washington.
10.
Neither
a greater genius than
Neither
Lee nor Sherman
so tenacious as Grant.
12. Neither Sher-
Robert Lee.
man
6.
failing.
Neither Alger,
Greene, Richard Lee, Stark, nor

so great a general as
blame for that
to
Neither birch, cedar,

so
artistic
of
blame that time.
one general or the other

defeat.
man
likely to succeed.
in
to
Neither of us
1.
nor
11.
Lincoln
so
silent
as
Grant.
Neither Grant nor any of his generals

CORRECT USE OF VERBS
so great a statesman as Lincoln.
Lincoln nor Grant
man
any one
15. Neither
Grant nor
so tender-hearted
of his generals
as Lincoln.
14. Neither
so polished a gentle-
Robert Lee.
as
19
Neither North nor South
16.
slow to fight against Spain.
24.
When
the subject
as either he or
I the
shall say is or
am.
is
such an expression
question arises whether

It is best in
we
such cases to
avoid the difficulty by so changing the sentence
as
to
"Either he
use
to
is
manner we say
both
is
and am.
blame, or I am."
" Either
am," " Either he
is
to
We
say
In like
you are to blame, or

blame or you are."
CHAPTER
III
CORRECT FORMS OF THE VERB "TO BE"

Correct equivalents of
25.
sation
it is
"
usual to contract
dont for do
ain't."
In conver-
many
verbs, as in
usage often makes contractions of

one of the worst of these
made
ain't,
which
etc.
It is clear that
is
Vulgar
doesn't for does not.
not,
is
its
own, and
the negative form
to serve for
am
am not cannot be
not, are not,
contracted
for contraction consists in omitting or shorten-
ing some vowel (like
from am
vowel
word too hard
0),
and
the
not,
if
you omit the
result
to pronounce.
is
amn't, a
But / am
and you are not can be contracted into

not,
and you
26.
say ain't
re not or
aren't.
If the
study of grammar should teach
it
should teach them not to do
but to use the proper contractions.
grammar
Tm
very large proportion of boys and girls
them anything,
this,
you
not
class
Every
should be an &nti-ain't club.

20
It
CORRECT FORMS OF VERB
"
TO
BE "
21
isn't
and
should be a club for the promotion of
But we
such forms.
shall
never be wholly rid
of this error until boys have courage to say isn't
on the play ground.

afraid of a hot ball or
say
isn't,
Now
Some boys who are not

a rusty gun are afraid to
for fear of being
thought pretentious.
would be pretentious
in a boy.
A lad who always said " Cannot you
go ? " would sound like a little prig. But there
is
some forms
of speech
nothing priggish in refusing to say
boy who says

as well,
and
if
isn't
ain't.
can play ball as well, shoot
necessary fight as well as the boy
who is content with the slovenly expression

27.
The
correct
ain't.
conversational equivalents
They should be masstudent who has learned
of ain't are given below.
tered perfectly, and the
them should never again say

Notice that in
many
ain't,
except in joke.
cases there are two correct
equivalents of the incorrect expression.

Singular, in statements.
Singular, in questions.
I'm not
am
you're not or you aren't
aren't
he's not or he isn't
isn't
Plurals, in statements.
Plural, in questions.
I not
you?
he?
aren't
we ?
you're not or you aren't
aren't
you ?
they're not or they aren't
aren't they
we're not or
we
aren't
EXAMPLES OE GRAMMATICAL USAGE
22
Oral Exercise.
28.
tracted equivalents
going
thus:
you
of
Give the correct conbefore the
ain't
" I'm not going
word
you're not going
also the
same equiv-
alents before sorry, before hungry,
and before
or
aren't going," etc.
complaining.
the form
It
not.
it's
and "no."
"It is" with "not"
29.
it is
contracts to
no
is
isnt,
it
contracts
in
With
or
it's
manner
to
'tisn't,
like
not,
no.
30.
Oral Exercise.
Use
It's
not before
each of the following expressions
had as you think
more than two
miles ; every
man
so
far after
that can
all ;
tell the
you could wish; as thy mother
too late ; so
truth
all that
says, but as thy
neighbors say.
31.
Oral Exercise.
each of the following
Use 'Tisn't before

John ; Monday ; time
for dinner ; over there.
Each member
'Tisn't so;
32.
'tisn't
of
the class should
any such
Oral Exercise.
each of
the
following
repeat
thing.
Use
It's
ivonder
no
before
easy
task
CORRECT FORMS OF VERB "TO BE"

undertaking ; farther than we
small
sign of death tvhen a bird flies in
your finger ; use
to
23
thought;
fun
pound
to
cry over spilt milk
more
than right.
The form
is no, means
There's no.
33.
tracted from there

isn't
of
any.
using
there's
contraction
con-
the same as there
The student should form

one
no,
the habit
freely
as
as
the
other.
Oral Exercise.
34.
Use There's no before
the following: smoke ivithout fire; art that can
make a fool
chair
wise
going
heaven in a sedan
to
sense in grumbling ; reason for whining
apple like a russet; royal road

flatterer as a
mans
to
learning
such
self; lack of funds ; surety
of success except in hard ivork ;
man
but hath
enemies ; arguing with an east wind.
"
35.
I was
Not " with " was
not,
you were
they ivere not,

wasn't,
may
"
and
not, he
"
were."
was
not,
The forms
we were
not,
shorten in conversation to
you weren't, he wasn't, we weren't, they
weren't.
The forms was
not
I? were
he? were not we? were not they?
not
you? was not
may shorten into
"
24
wasn't
I?
weren't
you? wasn't he? weren't we?
weren't they?
36.
Oral Exercise.
37.
"Were" with
Use the contracted

forms of section 35 before the word going and
before the word angry.
form
ivere is
and
"if"
"as
if."
The
usually plural, as in we were going.
would be wrong to say "I were going."

But ^Vhen preceded by if or as if the form were
is either singular or plural, and can refer to
It
past, present, or future time.
yesterday " states a

states a
fact.
not possibly be "you," but
supposition, and
38.
is
We
" If I
were here
were you
Of course
mere supposition.
"I" were "you."

With if and as if
"
" I " can-
we can suppose
that
the verb were states a mere
either singular or plural.
The following forms should be learned
if I
if
I weren't
if
we were
if
we
if
if
you weren't
if
you were
if
you weren't
if
he weren't
if
they were
if
they weren't
if
were
you were
he were
39.
Oral Exercise.
section 38 before the
weren't
Give the forms of
word going ;
" If I
were

going," etc.
and before
40.
also before you,
If
before a king,
sure.
Written Exercise. Write from
tion the following sentences,

1.
25
dicta-
numbering them:
were evening, we should have the
it
lamps lighted.
2.
could go fishing.
we should
If
3.
it
If
weren't so cold,
were four
it
be out of school.
4.
we
o'clock,
If it weren't
would ruin the crops.

were war-time, the boys and women
for hawks, the field mice

5.
If
it
would have
to run the farms.
6.
for fear of being called cowards,
be heroes.
7.
If it
If it weren't
few men w ould
were a bear,
it
would
bite
you.
41.
Written Exercise.
Write from
tion the following sentences:
1.
dicta-
If there
were
more honest men, the rogues would be pun2. If there were no work, there could
ished.
be no play.
3.
If there
were as many horses
as wishes, the beggars could ride.
4.
If there
were no trouble, there could be no happiness.

5.
If there
were a king in
this country, there
6. If
would not be seventy million kings.
there were no darkness, we should not know
7. If
there were a
light when we saw it.
26
diamonds would be
them,
plenty of
called
pebbles.
Oral
42.
Exercise.
at the place indicated

as
he
if
crazy.
a princess.
water.
tired.
5.
3.
The
4.
Supply the right word
by a blank. 1. He talks
2.
She dresses as if she
He
spends money as
child looks as
It rained as
there
if
The thunder sounds as if it

The fox runs as easily
house.
7.
mad.
8.
in the very
as
if
as
if
he
It looks as if there
12.
I feel as if I
act as
if
to be
18.
just as
n't
of the
ing here
all
woods.
rain.
13.
The workis
six.
a greedy
greedy!
16.
It
no other books to be had.
They ran from the poodle as if it

The red squirrel scolded as if he
owner
The
if it
pickerel
fish
isn't as if there
17.
14.
at ease.
every
more
being scolded.
men have stopped at five,

15. He remarks that the
fish; just as if
10.
master of the subject.
11.
must
he
if
she
if
sure the class understood the lesson.
pupil recited as
he
Fido acts as
The teacher speaks
9.
it
a flood.
6.
a leaf before the breeze.
if
if it
He
19.
the afternoon
as
a lion.
the
talks about stayif
doubt of our catching the train
there
any

43.
The
"Have" with "not" and "been."
lowing contractions should be learned
I've not
you haven't been

he hasn't been
we've not been

you've not been
they've not been
haven't been
you haven't been

they haven't been
44.
fol-
been
you've not been
he's not been
I haven't been
we
27
Oral Exercise.
Give the contracted
forms of section 43 before each of the following

turn
in
there ;
going ; 'planning
45.
and
The
going ;
to
at
home
thinking of
go; afraid of examinations.
literary forms there has not been
there have not been
any
any are contracted
in
conversation to there hasn't been any, there haven't

been any.
and
The
literary forms there has been no
there has been none are contracted in con-
versation to there's been no, there's
The form
there have been none
been none.
cannot easily be
pronounced in any contracted form.

46.
Oral Exercise.
Give the following
sentences with proper contractions of the italic

expressions.
1.
Supply words to any blanks.
It has not been
long since
we began
the
28
study of contractions.
umpire's fault.
is
now.
3.
2.
always been as
It has not
It has not been
4.
It has not been the
many days
returned from our vacation.
since
it
we
There has not
5.
been any serious ground for complaint.
There
6.
have not been any serious grounds for complaint.

7.
There has been no serious ground for com-
plaint.
for
There
8.
complaint.
9.
been no serious grounds

There has been no doubt
won
that team-work
the victory.
There
10.
been no doubts that the team-work won.

11.
There has been no cleverer pupil in school
for a long time.
12.
There
been no cleverer
pupils than those I speak of.
been no cases of that disease
13.
lately.
There
There
14.
been no great generals who did not attend

to details.
when we
15.
There has been no day thus far
couldn't
work on the
cabin.
16.
There
has been no problem yet, in our algebra, that I
haven't solved by myself.
17.
been a result without a cause.
There has never

18.
been no rule without an exception.
has been no reason for not getting

20.
There has been no question in
the outcome.
There has
19.
my
There
lessons.
my mind about
CHAPTER IV
CORRECT FORMS OF THE VERB "TO HAVE"
Affirmative
47.
contractions.
you have, he
have,
The forms I
has, ive have, they have, arc
often shortened in conversation to Tve, you've

he's,
we've, they've.
But the form
used than the others, because
ous"
it
may
it
is
he's is less
"ambigu-
be taken in two senses.
Point
out two possible meanings of the sentence " He's

a father."
Oral Exercise.
Use the contractions

section 47 (excepting he's) before the words
48.
of
a book; a notion; none.
Contractions of "have" with "no."
49.
forms
have no, you have no, he has no, we have
no, they have no, are often
what
shortened in conver-
Tve no, you've no, he's no, we've no,

But " He's no father " might mean
no.
sation to
they've
The
29
30
The forms I had

we had
no, they
Td
you'd
no,
had
you had
no,
tractions
Tve
had
no,
no, are often shortened to
no, he'd no,
we'd no, they'd no.
Oral Exercise.
50.
no, he
no, you've
Use
the
ten
con-
no, he's no, we've no,
they've no, I'd no, you'd no, he'd no, we'd no,
before
no
they'd
each of
expressions
these
chance; fear ; money; excuse; interest; concern.

Contractions of "have" with "not."
51.
not
is
Have
often shortened to haven't, and has not to
hasn't.
52.
Oral Exercise.
you
haven't,
haven't, he

hasn't, we haven't, you
haven't, they haven't, before each of the follow-
ing expressions in turn
a dollar
the chance ;
any ; time eiwugh.

53.
haven't
Oral Exercise.
I?
haven't you ? hasn't he ? haven't we ?
haven't they ? before these expressions in turn
enough; gone far enough; some matches ; made

a mistake
54.
said so
any.
Uncontracted forms in questions.
in the case of haven't
and
Except
hasn't, the question
forms of have cannot properly be contracted
CORRECT FORMS OF VERB "TO HAVE"

(though vulgar
usage shows
the
false
31
con-
Thus we say, "Have

you a pen ? " " Have you no pen ? " " Had
you no pen ? " " Have you none ? " " Had you
These forms are employed only by
none ?
"hain't").
traction
''
careful speakers, but they are not pretentious,
and
it is
much
to the credit of a
young person
them sometimes. It is true that " Had

you no pen ? " is more formal than " Didn't you
have a pen ? ", and that " Have you none ? " is
more formal than " Haven't you any ? " But
to use
one
who
is
familiar with the forms containing
no and none can use them without a trace of
assuming
airs.
Oral Exercise.
Use the forms Have

la? Have you a? Has he a? Have we a? Have
you a ? with each of these words pencil
55.
chance
good excuse
lesson to get
reason.
Oral Exercise.
Use the forms Have

you no ? Has he no ? Have we no ? Have they
book ; sense of
no ? with each of these words
56.
shame; hope;
plan ; longer
to 10 ait.
Oral Exercise. Use the forms Had

no ? Had he no ? Had we no ? Had they no ?
57.
you
better
32
with each of these words
way
fear; money ; friend;
of escape.
58.
is
"Have" with
common
extremely
The use
"got."
of have got
in vulgar usage,
where
it
The word
properly means "acquired"; I have got means
usually means no more than have.

got
"I have acquired."
We
may have
a thing
without having put forth any effort to get
man
fishing
may
properly shout " I've got
him," signifying that he has captured a
Yet
if
fish.
he shouted only " I have him," the idea
of getting
59.
it.
would be taken
The use
for granted.
of got is far less frequent in
conversational usage than
it is
in vulgar usage.
But even the best speakers do not

use have got at times to
good
make
hesitate to
their
meaning
emphatic.
60.
When
used in such sentences as " I've
got none," the got serves to lessen the formality
Such sentences are fairly

good conversational usage, though
of the expression.
common
in
they are not so good as w I have none,"

61.
Oral Exercise.
etc.
Use the expressions
I've got no, you've got no, he's got no, we've got
CORRECT FORMS OF VERB "TO HAVE"
each of these words
no, they've got no, before
money ;
excuse;
fish;
33
solution
problem;
the
to
house.
Review Exercise.
62.
Examine
the fol-
lowing sentences and say whether any contain

contractions (like there's no) that you yourself
Commit
rarely use.
to
memory
many
as
sen-
Aid him
tences as 3ôur instructor directs.
in
deciding which forms are most important for
you individually
(a)
1.
You're
another you.
remember.
to
make that boy

Emerson.
enough.
trying
One
is
to
(5) " You're no Alexander," said

to a
coward who bore the name
either drop
(a)
2.
my name
Alexander
"
or honor it."
chief
Mc-
elbow and
said,
The wounded Highland
Gregor raised himself on

" I'm not dead,
my
you must
laddies
his
;
I'm looking to see
you do your duty."
"I'm not
(J)
keeper
afraid,"
" the lights
said
lighthouse
keep me too busy to be
afraid."
"I should
3.
like
banker Ostervalde
the
meat, and
that."
it
some soup," said the sick

" but I've no wish for
would be a pity
to
waste
34
4.
(a) If the power to do hard
talent,
it
the best possible
is
work
isn't
substitute
for
Garfield.
talent.
Once in the house of representatives,

when John Quincy Adams was a member, a
(J)
gentleman
said
another,
Adams
5.
said, " It is
" the
time to begin."
clock must be fast
"
No,"
Mr.
isn't in his seat yet."
(a) There's nothing either good or bad
but thinking makes
(b)
Maintenon
servant
at
more anecdote,
it
so.
Shakspere.
whispered to
dinner, " Please,

for there's
Madame
de
Madame, one
no roast to-day."
There's no arguing with an east wind.
(js)
Emerson.
6.
"
There aren't many places on Beacon
by the savings of servant girls," said Josiah Quincy of Boston.

7.
Henry Fawcett had no eyesight, but
he became postmaster-general of England.
William Prescott had no eyesight, yet he
became a great historian.
Street that weren't built
Written Exercise.
Write from memory each sentence that you learn from 62,
63.
taking pains with quotation marks and punctuation.
CHAPTER V
CORRECT FORMS OF CERTAIN VERBS OF ACTION
64.
The
"principal
their forms to
Later
cally.
we
show
shall
Just
parts."
Verbs
change
different times or "tenses."
study these forms systemati-
now we
are concerned with only
those forms which in vulgar usage are often
confused.
Each verb has three

principal parts
The
" principal parts."
of the verb begin are
begin,
began, begun.
65.
The
first
principal part of a verb shows
present time, as in " I begin now."
66.
The second
shows past time,

67.
The
called the
principal
as in
part of a verb
"I began yesterday."
third principal part of the verb

u past
participle."
The following
forms are examples of past participles

35
is
begun,
36
taken, drunk, broken, frozen.
never used by
ciple is
a helping
word
before
it
am,
are, was, or were.
is,
have, has, or
begun,
itself,
past parti-
but always has
like have, has, had, be,
Usually this word

i"
have begun,
He
I may
have begun,
had, as in
had begun,
The
is
has
could
have begun.
68.
past
The forms of the verb containing the

participle show various shades of time.
In "I had come before nine yesterday," had

come shows a past time earlier than another
past time ("nine o'clock yesterday").
In
"I
have just come," have come shows a time just
now
" I shall have conquered," speaks of
past.
an act as finished in the future.
mag perhaps
future
time
But
in " I
have conquered " the thought of

is
almost
swallowed up in the
thought of the speaker's doubting mood, expressed in the words
69.
Our
mag and
perhaps.
chief business for the present
is
to
learn to use the principal parts of certain verbs
without confusing them.'

of verbs in using
There are hundreds
which nobody
is
likely to
make a mistake the verb look, for example.

The parts of look are look, looked, looked, as
;
CORRECT FORMS OF VERBS OF ACTION

every one knows.
verbs
forty
think
to
There
are,
however, about
using which we
in
very
carefully
37
of
are obliged
the
principal
parts.
The
forty verbs that need our especial study
at this time are as follows
awake, begin, blow,
break, bring, burst, catch, come, do, drink, eat,

flow, fly, freeze, give, go,
grow, know,
lay, lie
(to recline), ride, ring, rise, run, see, set, shake,
show, sing, sink,
sit,
spring, steal, swim, swing,
take, teach, throw, wring, write.
We
some
70.
do well to proceed to study these,
shall
briefly
and some
fully.
Awake. The three
principal
parts
of
awake are awake, awoke or awaked, awaked.
We
say " I awake usually about six o'clock
awoke yesterday at seven, or

at seven
awaked yesterday
have awaked some mornings
as
late as eight."
We may
but we
may
say
"I woke
not say "
up," or "I waked up,"
have woke up."
Oral Exercise.
Use 7, we, and they in

turn before the following wake up, woke up,
waked up, have awaked, had awaked. Use he
and she in turn before the following: wakes
71.
38
woke up, waked

waked up.
up,
72.
The
Begin.
73.
We say
" School began to-
begun"
recitations have already
Oral Exercise.
the following
Use He began before
(1) to help
up, had
principal parts of begin are
begin, began, begun.
day;
waked
up, has
(2) to get ready
(5) study(4) to study

(3) getting ready
ing (6) to study to be a doctor (7) studying
;
to be a doctor
(9) to find fault

lose his
way
(8) drilling to be a soldier
(10) to look pleased
(12) to answer
(14) to laugh
(15) to
make
(11) to
(13) to recite
believe
(16) to
be afraid; (17) a reply; (18) a composition;

(19) once more
74.
(20) over again.
Oral Exercise.
before each of
Use He has begun

the numbered expressions in
section 73.
75.
Oral Exercise. Use It has
the following
clear
up
(1) to rain
(2) to
(4) to look cloudy
begun before
snow
(3) to
(5) to sprinkle
(6) to threaten snow; (7) grow cold; (8) to

cloud over (9) to be misty
(10) to thunder.
;

76.
principal parts of blow are
The form
blown.
blew,
blow,
The
Blow.
39
"
blowed
"
is
vulgarism.
When
and
a great fuss
was
to say that a person
made
talk, say he blustered,
or he
you wish
blustering,
about
Keep
it.
for such
blow
things as the wind, and things that
Use
the wind.
move
in
express the act of
bluster to
you mean that the person's

breath was coming short and thick, as in
" He came out of the water blowing like a
a person, unless
and lay down on
porpoise,
the bank
quite
blown"
77.
Oral Exercise.
The wind
1.
furiously.
the jib away.
hour.
5.
The Maine
6.
breeze
up.
the white
foam
It
4.
off.
about
It
a gale.
It
2.
the helmsman's cap
It
3.
Use blew in the blanks.
fifty
7.
"
miles an
The
flew, the
fair
furrow
followed free."
Use
1.
the
blown
participle
The helmsman's cap was
in
the
off.
blanks.
2.
The
haps
up.
5.
was
4.
The Maine was perThe nipple of the musket
was
out.
6.
The breech
jib
was
about
off.
his
face.
3.
His
hair
of the fowling-
40
was
piece
The wind had The hurricane had -
out.
the balsams down.
7.
8.
a great path through the woods.
have
horses into the
won
the race, but he was badly
may have
By to-morrow
breeze
12.
air.
the
all
is full
Cyclones
10.
Our man
way from
ill
will
become full
nobody good.
wind that has
.
The
Break.
have
15.
It's
16.
The
our ship home again.
trade- winds have
78.
Florida.
In the last year or
14.
This
This morning
13.
so her beauty has
an
11.
this northeaster
the mosquitoes away.

the rose
9.
principal parts of break are

"
break, broke, broken.
Have broke
" is a vul-
garism for have broken.
Oral Exercise.
79.
Use the correct form
of the verb break in the blanks.
The governor has
1.
my
have
4.
through.
out.
9.
has
3.
That timber has
has
8.
wheel.
That
My
My
the
is
ice
for
5.
The
through
10.
us.
2.
is
The small-pox
6.
my
four-pounder has
pole
wheel
his fall.
Our man has
7.
his promise.
I
.
floor
has
the line.
tackle.
Her kind remark

11.
These defeats
41
The liner will have

all records.
13. The rain had
the
drought.
14. Such an accident would have
have
his spirit.
12.
up the party.
already
16.
15.
Perhaps the
His watch
is
soil
is
Change the preceding sentences into negative

sentences by adding nt to the verbs.
In senIn 14 add n't
tence 12 change will to wont.
to would.
The
Bring.
80.
principal parts of bring are
"Brung"
bring, brought, brought.
is
a vulgar-
ism.
Oral Exercise.
81.
Insert brought in the
blanks.
Home
1.
2.
they
her
Have you
warrior
your grammar?
mine, I'm sorry to say.
not
to
him
has always
man
children than to
that's
always
men.
7.
him good
It's
relief to the
your umbrella?
corn.
10.
6.
War
women and
his
luck.
only trouble to his parents.

has
Have his
5.
They
sick of the palsy.
a greater grief to
I've
3.
4.
him much money
investments
dead.
8.
courage
He
has
The rain
Why've you
9.
"
42
The
Burst.
82.
the same
all
principal parts of burst are

burst,
burst,
" Busted
burst.
and "bursted" are vulgarisms.
Oral Exercise.
83.
blanks.
My
1.
The
3.
Then
4.
has
6.
shoes out?
9.
They say
mighty heart.
is
84.
above the strawin mid-air.
my
will
the bank has
safer than a rusty
2.
seems to be
the window.
Catch.
catch, caught,
The
blanks
boiler
4.
5.
My
The
your
bank-account.
.
10.
In
11.
whole one.
is
I've
My
3.
His watch
The fire has

fish-rod
There
is
wheel
through
.
is
no such word
good usage.
Oral Exercise.
1.
1.
principal parts of catch are
caught.
as " ketched," in
86.
My
Choose the better word, burst or broken,
85.
8.
earth do you always
for each of the following blanks.

is
His scheme
5.
The meteor
You
is
in the back.
is
the boys, puffing and blowing.
gun
This shoe
2.
The balloon
7.
why on
son,
is
old coat
his
.
stack.
gun
Insert burst in the
Use caught in the

him.
2. Has he
;
;
COBBECT FOBMS OF VEBBS OF ACTION

any?
Have you
3.
any?
6.
He was
5.
He was
fell,
foot.
As
7.
him across the back.
two foxes
you.
Don't be
10.
The
Come.
yesterday " for

" for
autumn.
this
come, came, come.
came
Have they
4.
out in the rain.
by the
it
87.
any?
9.
that
the tree
We've
8.
Now
way
I've
again.
principal parts of come are
We may
I came
I have
43
not say "
come
yesterday, nor " I have
come.
Oral Exercise.
Use He came before

each of the following
(1) up to our house
(3) up the road
(2) down the hill a-flying
just now
(4) through the woods an hour ago
88.
(5) by way of Fitchburg

(6) sooner than he
was expected (7) as soon as he could (8) a
;
long
way
get off
you
to see
(9) whenever he could
(10) in a buggy
(12) on the run
(11) across lots
(13) like a streak of light-
ning; (14) like an elephant; (15) like an angel of mercy

(16) to see me (17) to help us
;
(18) because you called him
from Seattle;
(21)
(19)
all
the
way
by the Fall River line;
(20)
running down
(23) hurrying along
(22)
jumping along
(24) tumbling down.
44
Oral Exercise. Use Tve
89.
before the following
come
long way;
(2)
(4) from town
we were asked
cause
trouble
(8) because
it's
room
sit
awhile
(14) to beg a favor
stay awhile
o'clock
ter
(15) to ask your advice
hurry
(26)
off
without
without an umbrella
tist
(17) to ask a
(19) to
my books
(25) in a
(27) away
(28) in to see the den-
(29) along to take care of him
(23) for a pail of wa-
(24) to dine with the queen
hotel;
(20) to supper; (21) since three
(22) for fun
my
(18) to see what you think
services
(16) to find out something

question
the
in
(13) to offer
in
(11) for the doctor;
(10) to see the sights;

(12) to
(6) be-
lonesome in the woods
because there's no
(9)
way
because I'm
(7)
errand;
fool's
(5) the longest
you
to see
(1)
on a
(3)
come or We've
soon as we could
(31)
(30) as
under the railroad
bridge.
90.
Oral Exercise.
Supply the correct
form of come to the blanks.
way
1.
Has he
Have you never

to
to stay ?
Boston before ? 3. Have they
4. Have the algebras
?
5.
Has she
this
to dinner
before
6.
2.
Haven't they ever
that

way
before
pardon
cuse
8.
there
Isn't
11.
Didn't any answer
Did no umbrella
no mail
when you
to your
to light?
12.
for
this year
road before
me
?
16.
left ?
from California
from San Francisco
you were coming,
22.
should have
23.
ought to have
liked to
91.
done.
92.
Do.
25.
The
13.
Had
14.
Did this fruit

Have the readers
19.
21.
to
Doesn't the
18.
20.
If I
had known
earlier.
would have
if you had asked me.
24.
should have
might have
principal parts of do are do, did,
" I done," etc., are
bad vulgarisms.
The forms I don't, you
don't,
we
they don't are correct contractions of
The forms
mind ?
Is this the lad that
Lawrence from Medford ?

trolley-car
to Maiden ?
it ?
Have no let15. Have no new pupils

Haven't you
by that
17.
with
that
bolt
10.
ters
beg your
with an exto
Aren't these the ones that
9.
Has he never
Has he never
7.
45
he dont, she don't,
don't,
I do
it
and
not, etc.
don't are
universal in vulgar usage, though no one to-day

says,
"he do
not," "she do not," "it do not."
46
In general, careful speakers say he
doesn't, she
doesn't, it doesnH. 1
Oral Exercise.
93.
Use
the blanks
in
did or done, according to the requirements of
grammar.
as
1.
3.
were
you
We
told.
so.
7.
Have you
what
that
now
12.
What
11.
2.
That's just what I
You
4.
what you
?
what he
6. You
Now you've gone and
it.
as you were bid ?
9. Is
?
10.
What's he
could you have
so much
Is that
5.
nobly.
8.
said.
he's
How
cannot be undone.
is
nothing
that
could
13.
You
any
have
harm.
94.
The
Drink.
past of drink
is
drank, ex-
cept that with have, has, and had the form drunk
is
used, thus
"We drank some milk, and when
we had drunk enough we
started on."
"
Had
drank" would be a vulgarism.

Some excuse for he don't, etc., is found in the fact that
do has occasionally been used for does by reputable authors.
The Oxford Dictionary gives examples from the years 1547,
1
1553,
and 1559.
In 1660 Pepys writes, "Sir Arthur Hasel-
rigge do not yet appear in the house."
COBRECT FORMS OF VERBS OF ACTION
Oral Exercise.
95.
the following
much
as possible
long time
coffee
Use / drank before
(1) some spring-water
(2) as
(3) a long swallow
(5) in silence
47
(4) a
two cups
(6)
of
(7) boiled water, for fear of typhoid
(8) like a
quench
man dying
thirst
of thirst
(9) enough to
(10) out of a quaint cocoanut
dipper.
Oral Exercise.
96.
each of
before
Use I have drunk

section 95.
Oral Exercise.
97.
each of
before
Use He has drunk

section 95.
98.
The
Eat.
principal parts of eat are eat,
would once have been correct to

say, " I eat (pronounced ei) no dinner yesterday," but this form of the past is no longer
used.
Instead we say ate, pronounced like
ate, eaten.
It
eight.
Oral Exercise. Use ate in the blanks.

?
2. Did what
What was that you
99.
1.
you
agree with you
seemed
so
3.
Whatever he
to agree with him.
good a peach
before.
5.
4.
never
have rarely
48
eaten anything so good as some raw bacon that

I
one night in the woods after an all-day
fast.
6.
mince pie
The boy cannot study

last night.
head aches
some
he
She wonders
7.
why her
crackers and a pickle
she
That
man
laughed, and
for lunch.
8.
said that he
was usually nourished by the vict9.

Mr. John Burroughs says
he
uals
fine old
used to do some-
that the apples that boys
thing to remedy the bad effects of cake and pie.
Our teacher always
10.
whole-wheat
bread, because, she said, white bread merely

heats,
100.
eaten.
without feeding nerves and brain.
Oral Exercise.
Fill the
Something that
1.
greed with me.
blanks with
has disa-
I've
These lads will have
2.
me out of house and home. 3. It's surprising

how what one's
and drunk takes away
one's appetite.
in
America.
have
5.
Snails are
If it
- in China and
had been a
bear, 'twould
you.
101.
The
4.
Flow.
Flow
is
a verb used of liquids.
principal parts are flow, flowed, flowed.
102.
tures.
Fly.
The
Fly
is
a verb used of
winged
crea-
principal parts are fly, flew, flown.
Oral Exercise.
103.
Use flowed or flown

your best judgment.
in each blank, according to
The
1.
bird has
Much
2.
under bridges since we

seems to
time
near Zion
have
hill.
The
enemy
but the
brook
Siloa's
3.
train has almost
along for the last hour.

has
water has
last met,
4.
49
5.
ambition has often
When
fled.
youth
6.
The
fled in the night across the river that
between the camps.

the bird had
Freeze.
104.
In the morning,
lo
The
principal parts of freeze
We may
are freeze, froze, frozen.
not say "is
froze " for is frozen.
Oral Exercise.
105.
Use frozen
in
the
The rope is
2. The pitcher
3.
to the sailor's
is
The ropes had
on her cheek.
hands.
4. The salt sea was
The bad boy
6.
5. The moon is a
body.
was
by a look. 7. Her manner was freezThe
8.
ing.
Every one near her felt
up.
9.
The roads have
tug was
in.
blanks.
1.
10*
Thoreau
apple.
speaks
of
the
thawed
50
The
Give.
106.
We may not
give, gave, given.
The
Go.
have, has, had,
used, as in
now
is
past form of go
and
is,
him
give
I have
gone.
though once
was
it
is
With
went.
the participle gone
are,
The form
bad vulgarism
say "
yesterday " for I gave, etc.
something
107.
principal parts of give are
as
" have
bad as
is
went
airit
"
good English, meaning
"have wended."
Oral Exercise.
108.
Supply the cor-
(J.)
rect form of give in the blanks.
jump
him
the whip, and didn't
The
2.
up.
him one
That wheel you
officer
3.
already
you
we
2.
all
If it hadn't
week
first
after
go.
1.
If
been that you had
very well have
3.
If
you'd
and we'd not known you'd
Grow.
The
grow, grew, grown.

is
out
going, I would have
couldn't well have
109.
has
Supply the correct form of
I couldn't
not
me
and he
to me.
known you were
too.
a cut with
a chance to run.
tap,
out the very
it
it
(2?)
I'd
him
then, but I
The horse
1.
a vulgarism.
either.
principal parts of grow are

"
"
The expression
growed

110.
Oral Exercise.
Fill the blanks cor-
rectly with grew or grown.
near our house.
that
our house.
3.
1.
There was an oak
2.
An
oak
4.
He
is
to be
man.
A sensitive plant in a garden
5.
near
A white-oak has often
seventy-five feet high.
51
When
6.
up he became a doctor. 7. Before they

up, boys want to be car-drivers, police-
he
are
men,
pirates.
height.
9.
8.
That elm has
to a great
wonderfully cold.
It
had known how big he had
10. If I
should have
written to him differently.
111.
Know.
The
The expression
know, knew, known.

is
principal parts of know are
knowed
"
"
a vulgarism.
112.
Oral Exercise. Supply knew or known
in the blanks, according to

1.
He
2.
He's the best I've
how
is
your best judgment.
the best runner that ever I
to act in such a case.
the difference.
5.
If
you'd not have gone.
We've not
3.
They've not
4.
what we
you'd
6.
Who
be
was ill-prepared
for war.
8.
at that time
much would so soon

Philippines ? 7. They who
that so
about the
said that Spain
it.
9.
I've
52
always
You might have
10.
it.
Everybody else
but little of him lately.
11.
more.
more
time.
lies
"
if
He
We've
13.
We
might have
been
who know."
him
I told
Lie.
and
lie
those
There
a falsehood.
to tell
12.
of science than
16.
113.
it.
14. Aristotle has
" master of
lies,
in "
It
We
as the
15.
Aristotle
any other man
a verb
lie
which means
has such present forms as

lie
if
we say
that," "
he says that," and the past form
lied."
No
of his
how.
is
it.
He
lied, in
one often makes mistakes in
the forms of this verb.
The other verb
lie
refers to a physical act, the
opposite of standing or sitting.

lie,
Some
lay, lain.
the subjects
how
/,
of its
show
the forms are used.
am
I lie or I
Past forms.
you are lying
you lay
he
he lay or
was lying
you were lying
he was lying
we
we were
lie or
he
lies or
we
lie
they
forms are as follows,
you, etc., being given to
Present forms.
you
Its parts are
or
we
lie or
114.
lying
is
lying
are lying
they are lying
Okal Exercise.
I lay or I
or
lay or
lying
they lay or they were lying
Recite from
memory
the forms given in the two columns above.
Oral Exercise.
115.
(or
lie),
was (or were)
lying, lay,
is
Use the forms
53
lies
lying, in
making four complete sentences for

" The book lies on the table.
each subject, thus
The book is lying on the table. The book lay
on the table. The book was lying on the table."
the blanks,
I.
on the ground.
the
field.
4.
bank.
7.
10.
by
9.
12.
on the
8.
sleeping child
on the
pin
asleep.
floor.
dead quail
Four Cornish birds

Three French hens
13.
14.
ready for roasting.

slain
5.
on the bench.
anvil.
Seven cats
in the pantry.
on
soldier
A trout
6.
A hammer
on the snow.
Snow
2.
on the hearth.
river.
on the bed.
II.
desk.
wounded
Soot
on the
sledge
3.
on the
sloop
my
on
knife
15.
a hunter.
basking in the dust.
17.
Two
turtle
16.
The
giant
doves
chicken
snor-
where they
The autumn leaves
where he died.
fell.
19. The soldier
heavy on the stomach.
20. A Welsh rabbit
21. Sin
heavy on the conscience. 22. The
23. A
light upon the grass.
new snow
ing.
18.
piece of silk
on the counter.
24.
the head that wears a crown.

fallen angels
Uneasy
25. The
thick as autumnal leaves.
54

In commands the verb
116.
lie
has usually the
u lie
down." Thus the officer says to his

The hunter says to
men, " Lie down, boys!'
"
his dog, "Lie down, Rover!
form
With
117.
have, has, had, the proper
form
of
lie is lain.
Oral Exercise.
118.
form
of
time.
This tree has
1.
lie.
Get up.
2.
enough.
3.
That
his soul.
4.
We've
waiting for orders.

all
all
inactive.
night.
sin has
in
found a knife.
that the handle
It
bed long
heavy on
long
in the trenches a week,

5.
6.
found
It
had
out on
long enough
inactive.
had
fell off
my grammar
I've
He's not
7.
here a long
You've
warped and mildewed.
the porch
the proper
Insert
We
8.
so long in a ditch
when touched.
The
9.
charge has been laid at the general's door that

he has
still
on the enemy.
all
when he ought
10. Your book
the time, just where you laid
119.
The
Lay.
reclined,
lay.
is
which means
laid, laid.
to
past form
But there
place down.
has
there
it.
of
is
have moved
to
lie,
meaning
a verb
to
lay
Its parts are lay,
This verb almost always shows the
COBBECT FORMS OF VERBS OF ACTION

action of a person or a machine
book on the table."

the paper down."
"The
"
55
John lays the
printing press lays
Birds, insects,
and
fish are
spoken of as laying eggs.
The verb lay takes another word after it

This word is called its
to show what is laid.
object.
The object in "The boy lays down his
knife " is the word knife.
The object of a verb is a word or words show120.
ing on what the action
falls.
Remember that the expressions LAYS DOWN

and LAID DOWN must always take an object.
The verb lie never takes an object, though
"He lay down" means almost the same as "He
laid himself down."
The more important forms
121.
of
lay are
given below, in connection with an object (the
word
knife)
and the word down.
Present forms.
down
down
he lays the knife down
we lay the knife down
they lay the knife down
Past forms.
down
down
he laid the knife down
we laid the knife down
they laid the knife down
I lay the knife
I laid the knife
you
you
lay the knife
122.
Oral Exercise.
laid the knife
Repeat from memory
the present and past forms of lay, together with
56
an
object, as the knife,
and the word down, as
given in section 121.

123.
past of
verb
it
he
Oral Exercise.
lie
or lay to each blank,
belongs
He
to.
it
there
cliff.
6.
bread and cheese for us.
7.
his
many
blow (or
good sword).
about their king.

side the steamer.
Many
8.
9.
10.
tell
which
2.
There
tired
all
there and went away.
out there on the
about him
and
There he
1.
He
3.
it.
4.
Supply the correct
5.
He
out.
He
out some
King Richard
about him with
fallen knights
The launch
The sailors
along-
the rope
along the deck.

124.
Oral Exercise.
the blame where
it
Insert laid.
ought to
the sidewalk early, so that
lie.
it
1.
2.
He's
We've
will lie solid
3. The
and smooth before the frosts come.
his weary head on his pillow and lay
king
thinking of Shakspere's remark concerning
an egg,
crowns and heads. 4. Speckle has
but don't touch
and
125.
let it lie.
it!
5.
I lay
down
a shawl across me.
Ride.
The
ride, rode, ridden.
principal parts of ride are

"
Have rode"
is
a vulgarism.
Oral Exercise.
126.
blanks.
I've
1.
good
all
race.
locomotive?
Supply ridden
day.
Have you
3.
mountain path
5.
water, but he cannot be
on the
7.
first
made
Men
are
Who
railway cars.
ring, rang, rung.
rang
Rise.
128.
to
6.
After
by
often
who have
alive
8.
Broomsticks
by witches.
performers have often
at once.
The
Ring.
bell has
is
o'nights
10. Circus
two horses
127.
be
on a barrel stave down a
has
slippery hill
on a
to drink.
still
were supposed to be
9.
jockey's
ever
may
horse
eating cheese and pie, a sleeper

a nightmare.
in the
that mule along that
She's
4.
The
2.
57
principal parts of ring are
It is a
vulgarism to say "The
" instead of "
The
bell has
principal parts of
It is a
rise, rose, risen.
The
rung."
rise
are
vulgarism to say "has
rose," for has risen.
Note that the verb
129.
raise,
when used
with such an object as himself, often means
"The
rise
soldier rose a little, raising himself on one
hand."
130.
Run.
Good usage
requires
have run ; he ran, but he has run
/
;
ran, but
they ran,
58
Oral Exercise.
131.
in each blank.
The
up a
mouse
down.
The mill
1.
Fido
4.
tip
down
10.
My
here to spend the day.
farm.
ness.
That
9.
Our
the bay.
13.
12.
The
11.
The yacht
The express
on
oldest son
the
The senior partner

The conductor
his
the busi-
against more opposition.
very well in this race.
colt
a very
lete
train on time.
for governor.
politician
man
ger-boy
in.
fault-
brother
14.
15.
de-
other people's reputations
every time he could.
time for a year.
6.
finder
down
5.
The mouse
down. 8. The
the clock.
the thief down.
down
It
3.
around.
all
The clock
7.
the summer.
all
into that hole.
squirrel
tree.
Supply the form ran
tective
16.
run
there a little while ago " are vulgarisms.
down
2.
as " I
Such expressions
but they have run.
good
21.
race.
Up
20.
19.
No
17.
18.
The
Our
ath-
The messen-
my brother with
some news.
132.
all
Oral Exercise.
Supply has run
the blanks of section 131 except the
number
21.
in
last,
59
See.
I have seen is a correct expresa
sion, but
I seen " is a vulgarism.
The correct
133.
134.
Oral Exercise.
blank.
through the
how
river, we
135.
line.
a bear
When we
5.
was.
it
each
We
coming
his
we reached
Just as
6.
got there,
we
the
a deer plunge in.
The verb
Sit.
past form of
sit
means
body bent
to rest, as on
at the hips.
The
In conversational usage
sit is sat.
verb does not take an object, except in the
expressions "
which
136.
sit
He
really
his horse well," etc., in
sits
means
Oral Exercise.
still
on.
sits
Use the form He
before each of the following
(2)
2.
in
a big fellow trying to break
a chair, with the
this
He
3.
We
4.
Use saw
him coming.
1.
a lot of ducks.
way.
I saw.
I seen " is
form for "
(6) his horse like a soldier

clock struck
(4) in silence
moving
the brook
(12) in front of
(7) in his seat
(8) through the speech
(9) without
;
without saying a word
(5) for some time
when the
(1) at breakfast
(3) on the fence
sat
(10) alone
me
(11) beside
(13) on the
60
dunce
late
sun
stool
(14) in the front row
(16) under the tree
of a log
(17) out in the
(18) out on the porch
(15) up
(19) on the end
(20) in the tree-top.
commands sit is commonly used with

down: " Sit down!" In requests the form is
the same, with some such word as please:
" Please sit down " " Kindly sit down "
137.
In
138.
place,
The verb
means
chiefly
to
and always takes an object except
in
Set.
set
The
such expressions as "
sun sets," " Plaster
and "It
of Paris sets quickly,"
set in to rain."
Remember that the verb SET must have an object.

The present and past forms of set are the same.
139.
I set
Oral Exercise.
before each of the following expressions:
(1) the dish
down
now; (3)
just
the
(4) traps in the
now (2) the dish there

child down there yesterday
just
woods
night for a rabbit
the
wood
der
at nine last
watch
autumn
last
this
evening
;
it
(5) a trap
(7) the
wood
(8) the
morning
(6) the bolt deep into
before I fastened
ing a minute ago
watch
last
my
Use the past form
afire
fire
go-
(9)
my
(10) the clock by
my room
(11)
(12) out a pail for milk
in or-
(13) the color
;;

by the use
rise
of a chemical
(14) the bread to
down then
(15) myself
boy down on a log and went

whole
laughing;
class
61
(16) the injured
for help
(17) the
(18) the old sailor to
work (20) myself down to study

(21) to work
(22) out
(23) out yesterday to find our cow
(24) myself that task; (25) much store by that old
telling yarns
(19) myself to
spinning-wheel
(26) forth in good spirits
(27) the lamp in a safe place before I left
(28) the kettle on to boil
an omelet
(29) Bridget to cook
(30) the pitcher
Oral Exercise.
140.
down
Supply
too hard.
sat or set in
the blanks according to correct usage.
knight
play tenpins.
pins.
The knight
up
The boy
on his horse.
himself on his horse.
5.
The
2.
3.
The boy
4.
up
cat
The
1.
to
up the tento howl.
The
6.
up on
The lynx
7.
up a howl.
8.
up a barking at
limb.
The dog
cat
a
sight of the lynx.
hot maple syrup.
9.
down
down
acter
bad.
by the age
has become
12. There he
that
down
10. I accidentally
in the dish of hot syrup.

it
a dish of
of
11.
may
twenty a boy's char-
either
,
We
for
good or
for
with hands clenched
62
and teeth
There
13.
with the bird in his mouth.

rapher's
15.
Will you
16.
just
mean
his
portrait.
on that chair
price
We
19.
The
tide
in very strongly at that point.
20.
The
the
the
rain
and
fished.
in a hollow.
hollow,
that
in to rain.
It
where
it
on a
is
Neither do
23.
for
The photog-
18.
17.
town was
city
14.
setter
the one in which the salesman
now.
in
in
twice
sitter
the
men
21.
The
was
trap lay
22.
cannot be
hill
hid.
and
light a candle
room
and
to rights, and her tired mother
looked on.
25. I
the scamp down, and
26. The boy
himself to
there he
steadily at work for an hour.
work, and
27. We
the hen on her nest, and there
28. Here
the bear, looking
she
us all a shaking with
fierce enough to
it
under a bushel.
21.
She
the
fear.
29.
came Rover
has
As we were
all
wet, and
sitting in
down
ting up a great disturbance.
never
out
to
row, in
beside us,
30.
He who
make something
of
himself must expect to see others pass him.

31.
While he
to the goal they
idle, others
had
-~~
were toiling on
before them.
COBRECT FORMS OF VERBS OF ACTION

141.
63
Set regularly takes an object, and in
commands we usually put the
object
between
set
down, thus: " Set the pail
and
an expression
as
wrong, of course,
and
down." Such
" Set down and rest " is
and should be " Sit down
rest.
142.
When
She
sits.
is
hen
is
on her
set
nest, the
hen
therefore " a sitting hen," and the
time will probably come when farmers will
But meanwhile
speak of her as such.
good
in
to
taste
too
criticise
everybody
Imagine
hens uses the expression.
raises
not
severely the
expression " setting hen," for almost
who
it is
young person fresh from school taking great
pains to correct this expression in the speech
who know more about hens than he
of people
ever dreamed of knowing
There
of
is
something
else to
an occasional use of " setting hen."
hen reserved
We speak
good when you mean a
for the
purpose of being set?
is
of " cooking apples,"
apples useful for cooking.

certain hens
good
more
as
for being set.
useful
What
so
other expression
of
be said in favor
than
meaning certain
So we
may speak
good for setting, that is,

Perhaps some hens are
others
for
this
purpose.
64
One can imagine
that
large and lazy hen
might properly be encouraged
The
Shake.
143.
principal parts of shake
The expression
are shake, shook, shaken.
shook"
is
1.
He's
When
we'd
the blanks.
one.
2.
down.
They say
3.
Supply shaken in
down
often " to be
it's
town off
the dust of that
nice
much
they're
before
hands,
all
being tipped out of the sleigh.

is
in a minute.
7.
You
4.
her head at you.
off
first
flakes
the roof
when
upon me.
8.
my feet.
9.
The
"
earth seemed
to its foundations.
The
show, showed, shown.

" have
146.
form
showed
off
What went
with the wind?"
Show.
teacher's
avalanche slid
to see, a reed
145.
IVe
6. The
them off
5.
I'd hardly
a whole
sat
Medicine
taken."
mayn't.
we
ripe
up by
dogs seized on Bruin, but he had
the
" have
a vulgarism for have shaken.
Oral Exercise.
144.
to hatch eggs.
ye out
10.
The
principal parts of shoiv are

It is a
vulgarism to say
" for have shown.
Oral Exercise.
Supply the correct
of show in the blanks.
1.
We've

him the way.
by the way he
his
looks.
collection
3.
That's
4.
Two-fourths
That's easily
kindly
me
He's often
minerals.
of
equals one-half.
director has
He's happy.
2.
65
the
The
5.
visitors
around
the building.
147.
Sing.
The
principal parts of sing are
We
sing, sang, sung.
are not allowed
best usage to say he sung, though this
But
serious mistake.
"
have sang "
is
by the
is
not a
distinctly
a vulgarism.
148.
The
Sink.
"
sink, sank, sunk.

is
a vulgarism.
error,
principal parts of sink are
Have sank
He sunk is
sank " is much
"
though " he
" for have sunk
"'
not a serious
the preferable
form.
149.
The
Spring.
principal parts of spring
are spring, sprang, sprung.
used by the
"
He sprung "
as "
bad
not
"Have sprang"
best speakers.
for have sprung is as
is
have sank " and
"have sang."
150.
Oral Exercise.
They've always
Insert
in the choir.
songs that were
to us in
never be forgotten.
3.
sung.
2.
1.
The
our childhood will
The nightingale
said,
EXAMPLES OF GBAMMATICAL USAGE
66
many songs, but never a song so

gay."
4. The poet has
his swan-song.
5. "And when they had
a hj'mn, they
" I have
went out."
Insert sunk.
1.
He
the enterprise.
2.
Millions of gold
the tropic seas.
had
The
3.
thousands in
has
child
was rescued
for the second time.
4.
dog was not shot before
it
had
after it
Artesian
a thousand feet.
wells are often
in
lie
5.
The
teeth
its
into the child.
Insert sprung.
my
upon
this
hand.
The door had
1.
2.
mistake had
It
was easy
3.
from obscure families.
Great
the fox had
The
"
steal, stole, stolen.

is
5.
whence
men have
of the
We found that
the trap.
Steal.
151.
to see
The bottom
4.
boat was considerably
to
principal parts of steal are
Have
stole," for have stolen,
a vulgarism.
The
Swim.
152.
swim, swam, swum.
swum
is
153.
swung.
had,
is
principal parts of swim are

"
Have swam"
for
have
a vulgarism.
Swing.
And
of
For the past of swing we say

course the form with have, has,
also swung.
Oral Exercise.
154.
The boat
Insert swung.
clear of the wharf.
out to reach
sailor-boy
it.
3.
67
1.
The
The boom
2.
round and knocked him into the water.

4.
him a line.
His shipmates
5.
The boy
himself up by the line.
The
Take.
155.
take, took, taken.
principal parts of take are

Have took " is a vulgarism
"
for have taken.
Take almost always requires an object.
156.
He
In the expression "
took cold," cold must be
regarded as an object,
first
meaning
coldness
(because people once had the mistaken notion

that
it is
always cold
and then meaning a

"
He
took sick "
is
air
a vulgarism.
The
He was
form
2.
If
cold.
of
Sick
is
not a
correct expression
is
taken sick."
Oral Exercise.
157.
colds),
But the expression
cold.
disease to be taken.
"
which produces
take.
1.
Insert the correct
fear
I've
cold.
he hadn't gone, he wouldn't have

3.
People have often
in hot, foul air.
4.
cold by sitting
Arctic travelers have rarely
cold in the dry, pure air of the coldest

regions.
5.
lieve you've
Where's
it.
my
watch, son
I be-
68
The
Teach.
158.
principal parts of teach are

"
teach, taught, taught.
The
Throw.
159.
Teached
principal
" is a vulgarism.
parts of throw
"Throwed"
are throw, threw, throivn.
is
a vul-
garism for threw and thrown.
Oral
160.
Exercise.
thrown, according to need.
the big one.

3.
4.
Who
is it
1.
little
Orlando
wrestler
Charles.
?
the door open wide, and the sun
flood of light in.
badly
!
he's
too high.
9.
shoulders.
10.
5.
The
rider
The horse was
6.
Look
The
or
stones at the chickens
that
They
a
7.
2.
threw
Insert
8.
shawl
was
too.
You
that ball
was
over her
The Indian
down
a fine
foxskin.
161.
"Wring.
The
parts of wring are wring,
wrung, wrung.
It is right to say "
rang the dinner
bell,"
say "
but
The cook wrang the
162.
Write.
The
write, wrote, written.
it
The cook
would be wrong to
chicken's neck."
principal parts of write are

"
Have wrote "
is
a vul-
garism for "have written."
Written Exercise. Insert the

form of write.
1. "What I have
163.
rect
corI

have
."
tion yet?
My
4.
3.
Have you
haven't
your composi-
a word
most
brother's
word
164.
2.
of
Summary
as follows
Present
of mine,
5.
The
The
prin-
his.
lasts.
of the forty verbs.
cipal parts of the forty verbs
up
69
may
be
summed
Form
Past
after
have, etc.
awaked
awaked
begun
blown
blow
awoke
began
blew
break
broke
broken
bring
brought
brought
burst
burst
burst
catch
caught
caught
come
came
come
do
did
done
drink
drank
drunk
eat
ate
eaten
flow
flowed
flowed
flew
flown
freeze
froze
frozen
give
gave
given
go
went
grew
gone
awake
begin
grow
or
grown
70
Form
Present
Past
know
knew
known
lay
laid
laid
lay
lain
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
see
saw
seen
set
set
set
shake
shook
shaken
show
showed
shown
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk
sit
sat
sat
spring
sprang
sprung
steal
stole
stolen
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
throw
threw
thrown
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
lie
(to recline)
after
have, etc.
CHAPTER VI
SUBJECT AND OBJECT FORMS OF PERSONAL
PRONOUNS
165.
The
The personal pronouns.
words are called personal pronouns

it,
The
The subject forms.
she, we, they,
Z,
may be
five
forms
These words may be
You and
used as subjects, but not as objects.
may
167.
he,
7,
be used either as subjects or as objects. 1
Oral Exercise.
she,
they
we,
in
Fill the blanks
with
making
John and
five
turn,
sentences for every blank.

are going.
1.
John and
2.
John and
3.
I, he,
called the subject forms of
the personal pronoun.
it
you, he,
me, him, her, us, them.
she, we, they ;
166.
following
were present.
are friends.
4.
John and
are likely to go.

168.
Oral Exercise.
you, he, she, they, in turn,

for
each blank.
1
Subject
is
1.
Fill the
making four sentences

and I are going.
defined in 14
71
blanks with
object in 120.
72
and
2.
are friends.
169.
to be
and
4.
The subject forms
and
its
forms
sentence
" It
is,
is
170.
The verb
after "is."
expressed.
to
we,
be the subject
it is
In the
happens to
nothing
pronoun are used,
it is he, it is she, it is
I are likely to go.
is
John,"
After the verb
of the personal
and
3.
was, etc. cannot take an
no action
object, because
John.
were going.
forms
as in It is I,
they.
In answer to the question "
Who
is
it?"
are permitted to say " It's me," instead of
we
But it is just as simple to answer

Such questions as
merely the word "I."
"Was it I that you wanted?" are very common among correct speakers, and are not preBut even if we allow ourselves to
tentious.
say "It's me," we must not allow ourselves to
"It
is
I."
say "it's him," "it's her," "it's them."
These
are vulgarisms.
171.
1.
he,
Oral Exercise.
she, we, they,
each blank.
1.
2.
I said it
was
3.
I'm afraid
4.
Perhaps
it's
it's
Fill the
making
Was
it
blanks with
five sentences for
that
you called?
that the teacher spoke to.
who may have

that he wants.
to suffer.
FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

The object forms.
172.
Like
the
73
subject
forms, the object forms of the personal pronoun

are five in
and
number
me, him, her, us, them.
You
are used as objects, but also as subjects.
it
Vulgar usage often employs object forms
as
John and me are going"), and subject forms as objects (" They invited John
and I"). These mistakes usually occur when
more than one person is mentioned.
Note that in " May I ? " the word lis a subject, while in " Let me," the word me is an
subjects ("
object.
173.
Oral Exercise.
me or
John and
form,
sit
in the blanks.
I,
sit
water
1.
They
invited
May Sophronia and

May Parker and
get
2.
together?
pail of
(A) Use the correct
3.
Please let Sophronia and
4.
together.
Can John and
5.
the bridge safely?
6.
cross
She scolded him and
to come.
They want them and
recite.
9. She
8. They made her and
and
10. They and
had to recite.
7.
will leave soon.
Let's
you and
(i?)
11.
Let us go, you and me.
go.
Use the correct pronoun,
the blanks.
1.
It's
she
is
she or her, in
calling.
She
74
wants
to school.
4.
was
in the sleigh.
were the
asked Sophronia
5.
Her
7.
are both invited.
promoted
all
brothers
it
were
and me
and Kate were always
6.
are to spend Christmas in
were
if
Father brought
having a good time.
and
ones
first
The teacher thought
and she said no.
and me and Sophronia he
3.
asked to go.
it
and
2.
and
Lynn.
honor.
10.
learning
are
Kate
8.
They and
9.
with
and
elder sister
Her
rapidly
to
speak well.
Oral Exercise.
174.
Insert we or us in
the blanks according to your best judgment.

1.
see both
them and
took
;
that same evening
boys a-fishing.
so father took
boys had to bait our
"
Girls."
"
Two."
shall
ject
it.
9.
10.
5.
Father
4.
Sister
wanted
boys and her.
6.
hook.
7.
sister's
to
She
and father sent

There is a book called
8.
There is another book called
caught her hook in a

boys up after
Did you
2.
boys are going fishing.
3.
go
that you invited?
Is it
tree,
The witches
three meet again?"
asked, "
11.
form of the personal pronoun
is
When
One
"
ob."

12.
hope that they two will ask
go.
13.
said
It
was
it
themselves.
five to
whom you saw.
was
15.
but
it
wasn't.
14.
was
it
but we
they meant.
Object forms after prepositions.
175.
They
was they
It
They meant
couldn't admit that
75
Certain
verbs cannot take an object except by the help
what are
of
at, by,
from,
called prepositions, little

to,
with.
You cannot
takes after
it
say
preposition
the object forms of the pronoun,
no matter whether a verb
we
like
look a house,
but you can look at a house.
words
is
Thus
near or not.
look at him, see us, stand by her,
sit
by him, eat with them, a boy with Mm, a man

near them.
Oral Exercise.
176.
of the
pronoun in each blank.
him and
them and
called on
for
me and
5.
We
177.
Insert an object form
4.
also.
2.
3.
The
1.
The
The
teacher
was
rain fell on
lecture
waited for her and
spoke with Parker and

Object forms with "like."
Object forms
are used in such sentences as " His son acts like
Azm."
76
178.
Oral Exercise.
Supply object forms
pronouns in the blanks.
of
2.
her daughter acts like
If
will be a noble girl.

I can't
4.
like
179.
Don't do like
1.
run like
6.
I can't
3.
Our
brothers
do that like
My brother
5.
all
writes
write like
Literary English of the present time
does not employ

like they do."
like in
such sentences as "Act
It insists
"Act as they do,"

The wrong use
on one of two forms,
"Act
or else
of like
the lips of an educated
is
like
New
Englander, even
most informal conversation. 1
use of
like is,
even
among well-educated
however, so
grammarian must
them."
never heard from
in the
ism.
she
common
The wrong
in the South,
persons,
hesitate to call
It is rather a provincialism,
it
that
a vulgar-
an expression
used chiefly in one section of the country.
But
the most careful southern speakers avoid the
and every boy and girl, northern or southern, ought to follow the example of
use of
like for as,
the most careful speakers in this matter.
Use only object forms of the pronoun after

LIKE.
1
Like for as
England.
is
more frequent
in
England than
in
New

180.
We
the most
now completed
have
common
our survey of
mistakes in grammar, and of
you have mastered

further progress in gram-
their correct equivalents.
the subject thus
far,
If
You have
matical correctness will be easy.
found some
of
77
the exercises tedious.
But
if
you have mastered them, you have acquired

more power than you may think. You have acquired a habit of trying to speak correctly
what now seems full of troublesome duty

soon come to be like a second nature.
Our plan
is
to
and
will
change the character of our
study somewhat at this point.
You
are to let
what you have learned take root in your mind,

while you give your attention to a quite different phase of grammar.
Make
it
a habit to
speak correctly every day, according to your

best knowledge, while
sente?ice as a
whole.
sentence as a whole.
you proceed to study the

Book Two treats of the
PART
FIRST,
BOOK TWO
THE DEFINITION OF THE SENTENCE
CHAPTER
GENERAL MEANINGS OF THE WORD
"
SENTENCE
In grammar, the word that
181.
perhaps
is
more frequently used than any other
word
"
is
the
sentence.
Any
definition of this
word which can be
given at the beginning of our study will have

to be enlarged as
we
learn
more
of the subject.
But we may at least say at the start (what

you probably know already) that A sentence
is a completely worded statement, inquiry, or
command and that when written it begins
with a capital letter and ends either with a
period (.), a question mark (?), or an exclama;
tion point (!).
Sentences, you see at once, are the stuff of
which language
is
formed, for nearly every-
thing that can be said
either a statement,
is
an inquiry, or a command.
182.
Most sentences
are either statements or
combinations of statements
G
81
therefore
we must
82
make ourselves familiar with the meaning of

Then, because the statethe word statement.
ment form of sentence is written with a capital
and a period, we may properly ask whether
every statement has the right to a capital and
period, or whether only
and,
if
so,
which.
some statements have,
These subjects will be our
study in the next three chapters.
183.
are,
When we
have learned what statements
and which ones can stand alone
as sen-
we shall proceed to ask how statements

made up within themselves and shall then
tences,
are
ask the same thing about inquiries and com-
mands.
You have probably learned already

something of how sentences are made up
within themselves. You are well aware that
184.
every sentence says something about something.
The
ing
part of the sentence which does the sayis
called the predicate.
that of which the predicate
The
is
part naming
said
is
called
the subject.
Every sentence may,

vided into two parts.
In
185.
therefore, be di-
sentence
like
MEANINGS OF THE WORD "SENTENCE"

"Birds
cate.
fly,"
Birds
is
83
the subject, fly the predi-
In " Birds are flying," Birds
is
the subject
and are flying the predicate.

In " Birds are animals," the predicate
is
are
animals; 2 while in " Birds catch insects," the

predicate
is
catch insects.
In " Cannibal birds kill other birds," Cannibal birds
is
the subject,
kill
other birds the
predicate.
We
are
statement
1
now ready
is,
to ask ourselves
and what
it
is
what a
not.
Here the predicate consists of the verb fly.

Here the predicate consists of the verb are and the noun
animals.
CHAPTER
II
STATEMENTS AND NOT-STATEMENTS

186.
A nod of the head may convey a thought;
laugh or cry
may
express a feeling.
neither nod nor laugh nor cry
is
But
a statement.
word may carry much meaning, for instance

the word blackbird ; yet a word is not a statement. A word may even imply an act, for instance the word flying, but still the word is not
You may join the two words flya statement.
ing and blackbird, naming a "flying blackbird,"
but the two words are not a statement. Flying
blackbird
of
is
A phrase
called a phrase.
words conveying an
is
group
but not making a
idea,
statement.
Once more,
ment and yet
word may almost make
just miss
states or asserts (13)
We
it.
but "
Time
The verb
say that a verb
yet in strictness there
no statement until a subject

the verb.
a state-
flies is
flies " is one.
84
is
is
placed with
not a statement
The verb
is
flying
"

makes no statement
makes one.
With such
" Time flies " we
but " Time
a combination of
187.
are back to
principle that a sentence
and a predicate.
This
is
85
flying
words
as
the important
must have
a subject
particularly true of
is
written language, because here the reader has
nothing to guide him except the words which

actually appear
on the paper.
Suppose you
wished to know how some given person looked.

In a conversation you might ask a friend to
describe the person, and
your friend gave no
if
other answer than to say " Black hair, blue eyes,
you would nevertheless get

thought well enough. Yet " black hair " is
straight nose, etc.,"

his
no statement
it is
only a phrase.
If
on the
other hand your friend were writing the description,
he would take pains to
state, declare, assert
that the person had black hair
and he would
mention the person in every sentence,
if
only
by the word He.

188.
Oral Exekcise.
Which
of the follow-
ing groups of words are statements, and which

are not
1.
Boys
like heroes.
2.
The
liking of boys
86
for heroes.
Gold
3.
for their enemies.
4.
The
Romans were weighing out gold for their enemies.

5. The hero Camillus.
6.
The sword
The hero Camillus threw his
of Camillus.
7.
sword into the
9.
the pass.
laurels of Miltiades
12.
tocles sleep.
As mad
as a hatter.
tea-party.
Thrift
In the pass of Ther-
8.
The brave Miltiades perished in

10. The laurels of Miltiades.
11.
mopylae.
The
scales.
15.
is
To
As
would not
let
Themis-
quiet as a mouse.
Alice attended a
14.
13.
mad
leave one in the lurch.
good revenue.
17.
In
the
16.
end,
Not worth a brass

farthing.
19. Under the rose.
20. I tell you
under the rose. 21. The swaying branches.
22. The branches are swaying.
23. The sway-
things will
mend.
18.
ing branches cast flickering shadows.

sleeping lion.
let a
25.
sleeping lion
asleep.
28.
A lion
lie.
sleeping.
is
27.
The guard was
24.
26.
A
We
The guard being

asleep.
29.
He
succeeded in passing the gate, the guard being

asleep.
189.
Oral Exercise.
Following are some
by boys and girls.

Pick out the groups of words which make
statements, and those which do not.
extracts from papers written

1.
His manner
A robust figure
is
and
pleasant, modest,
87
quiet.
and a frank expression.
2.
curious-looking face, with high forehead and

a broad
mask
His chin
nose.
small.
is
an intelligent
of St. Francis has
is
are parted.
its lips
very large and round like a
ball.
face,
long cheeks and a broad forehead.
mouth, and
3.
The
with
delicate
His head
4.
Large
aquiline nose, and rather thick lips.
5.
ejês,
The
Dark
young person I will describe is dark.

eyelashes and eyebrows.
Very dark, laughing
6.
German musieyes and a shapely nose.
cian.
A round face with high forehead, large
heavy
eyes,
A person
7.
eyebrows.
Short,
with curling
hair,
coarse
nose.
long face, large
forehead, clear blue eyes with a mischievous
The expression
look in them.
always bright.
It is a
8.
Just back of our tent

little
9.
and toys and

190.
Now
a dense wood.
dolls.
in
the
take each phrase and

in
Very
kinds in
All mixed up together.
Oral Exercise.
it
all
spot.
In this chest there were books
each phrase
out of
the face
most beautiful
underbrush, but flowers of
profusion.
out
is
of
You have picked

preceding
make
any way that seems
exercise.
a statement
best.
88
191.
Oral Exercise.
carefully.
Make an
Study the portrait
oral statement about the
general look of the face, as whether
and
dignified,
or
jolly
and
lively.
it
is
grave
Make
Make one about

the nose.
Make one about the mouth. Make
one about the chin. Make one about the hair.
Make one about the neck. How many statestatement about the eyes.
ments will there be in
all ?
Begin each
state-

ment with the name
89
you are
of the feature
speaking about.
Written
192.
Exercise.
Write
seven
statements about the face, according to the
Begin
directions in the preceding exercise.
each statement with a capital and end
Do
a period.
"and."
filling
haps the
last.
with
not begin any statement with
Write one statement
up every
it
after another,
you write on, except perBegin the first statement an
line
inch farther to the right than the others.
193.
It
hardly needs to be said that a phrase
should never be punctuated as

tence,
that
is,
at the
forget
that
end
it
were a sen-
be begun with a capital and
ended with a period.
comes
if it
is
Yet when
phrase
of a sentence, it is easy to
part
of
that
sentence.
Often when a beginner has written a
state-
ment and placed a period, he finds that he

Of course he
wishes to add a few words.
ought to erase the period with his knife, and
begin the phrase with a small
letter.
If
he
forgets to do so, his statement reads like this

"
She has beautiful golden
eyes."
hair.
And
blue
90
Oral Exercise.
Read aloud the following sentences until you can give them with
good expression. Then point out the phrases
which a beginner might be careless enough
to punctuate as sentences.
(The beginners
Avho wrote them did make that mistake, but
194.
the pointing has been changed to the correct
form.)
1.
The
difference between the faces
is
great, the first
being more thoughtful than the second.
2.
The Ger-
man's face is a very intelligent one, the forehead being

high and full. 3. This girl has dark hair and eyes, in
general a brunette's complexion.
4.
The
of
lips
St.
Francis are parted a little, the upper lip looking short

and curved. 5. My knife is a very old and good one, the
6. Lincoln
letters I. X. L. being engraved on the blade.
received but
little
education, going to school only six
months
life.
7.
in his
his short trousers
Lincoln was a poorly dressed boy,
showing
wrote on a wooden shovel,

ing scraped white.
9.
his red ankles.
think
Abraham
youth, six feet four inches high.
it
8.
Lincoln
was, the shovel be-
Lincoln was a
10.
Once when
tall
Presi-
dent Lincoln visited a navy-yard he picked up an axe by

the tip of the helve and held
it
out straight, by only his
thumb and finger. 11. Washington once saved a child

from drowning, jumping into a very swift stream to save
it.
12.
coming
195.
I got along very well in this dress, the fur cap
clear
down
over
my
ears.
Written Exercise.
following statements until
Read aloud the

you can give them
91
Then copy them,
smoothly and intelligently.
inserting the correct punctuation at the places
indicated by the caret
(a)
each caret stands
before a phrase.
Begin the
first
sentence an inch farther to the
right than the others.
Fill
up the
lines of the
paper neatly.
SHREWD GUESSING
A
detective
guesses shrewdly because he observes
A noting a thousand little facts. A teacher can

often tell much about the character of a pupil by his
closely
handwriting A pupil and teacher being as yet unacquainted. Employers trust their own eyes more than
they trust letters of recommendation A deciding quickly
on the merits of the applicant for a position. One boy
says to him, " Yes, sir/' instead of " Yes " A showing a
respectful
manner
of speech.
That boy's
finger-nails will
probably be clean A revealing a habit of personal neatHis forefinger will be white rather than yellow a
ness.
The shrewd
employer notes all these facts A counting them to the
The lad gets the coveted place immeboy's credit.
diately A in spite of some other fellow's being recommended for it.
indicating the boy's innocence of tobacco.
196.
called
Written Exercise. Study the

The Cabin Boy's
picture
First Voyage.
Then
copy the statements given below, taking pains

not to omit the commas, and finish each phrase
according
to'
what
you
see
in
the
picture.
92
Place a period at the end of each completed
Read your statements
seatence.
aloud.
THE CABIN BOY'S FIRST VOYAGE

The French painter
Ilaquette has a picture of the de-
parture of a cabin boy on his
first
The
voyage.
scene
is
THE CABIN BOY'S FIRST VOYAGE

a low shore, with
cliffs
in
The cabin boy is saying

The child is
good-bye to his baby brother, putting

lifted
up
The sun
him by an
to
is
low,
its last
older sister, a pretty girl with
glory shining around
From
the edge of the water a sailor
is
beckoning
pushes a boat into the
water, exerting
future
Another
.
sailor
Out
calling
at sea appears
to
the boy,
a ship, the
CHAPTER
III
STATEMENTS THAT MAY BE WRITTEN AS

SENTENCES
197.
When we
talk,
we
often talk a series of
statements, and in order to understand any one

of these the hearer
There
the others.
must understand some

will
of
be several statements
about one thing, and in a sense they will
all
be somewhat dependent on each other for their
meaning.
It is just so
with the sentences of a written
composition.
The
ments are
about one thing, and are closely
all
writer feels that his state-
related to each other in meaning.

as it should be, for
if
This
is
quite
they were not closely
re-
lated in meaning, there Avoukl be no excuse for
But the beginner, fearing that

his statements will seem unrelated and disconnected if he uses periods and capitals, runs them
all together.
If he employs any mark of puncwriting them.
tuation,
it is
only the comma.

93
94
The beginner
writes like this
"My dog is a spaniel his name is Nep, that stands for

Neptune Neptune was the sea-god, we call the dog Nep
because he
is
so fond of the water, he likes to be in
it all
the time, once he got caught in the weeds and was nearly
drowned."
This
198.
sounds childish, does

choose a
stream of statements
breathless
name
not?
it
we
If
are
to
bad habit of running
for this
statements together without periods and capitals,
we may
The
call it
Child's Fault in Punc-
tuation.
199.
ought
"
The group
My dog
a spaniel.
is
His name
Neptune was the
Nep because he
it all
remarks about the spaniel
to be pointed thus
for Neptune.
in
of
is
the time.
is
Nep.
We
sea-god.
so fond of the water.
Once he got caught
That stands
call the dog
He
be
weeds and
likes to
in the
was nearly drowned."
These sentences are short and jerky, but they

are true sentences,
and can be read without
making the reader gasp

200.
Below
compositions
for breath.
are given
in
some parts
of
school
which the Child's Fault in
Punctuation occurs. The
first
column gives the
faulty pointing, the second the correct.
STATEMENTS WRITTEN AS SENTENCES

Wrong
pointing of indepen-
95
Correct pointing of indepen-
dent statements
dent statements
1. No one knew Ulysses

1. No one knew Ulysses
but his dog Argus, presently but his dog Argus. Presmade himself
he
he made himself known to ently
known
Telemachus.
2. I started
out on a
out on a
with a friend camping trip with a friend
started
2.
to Telemachus.
camping
trip
of mine, we had a spring of mine.

We had a spring
buggy and a pair of good buggy and a pair of good
horses.
On
3.
we
horses.
our
first
day out
did not stop until dark,
we camped
then
near
farmer's house for supper
we bought
3.
On
our
first
day out
we did not stop until dark.

Then we camped near a
farmer's house.
For supper
we bought a quart of milk

from there and had it with from there and had it with
our bread and cold beans.
our bread and cold beans.
We were out hunting,
4.
of
all
a quart of milk
a sudden a rabbit
4.
We were out hunting.
All of a sudden
a rabbit
darted out from behind a darted out from behind a

bush,
5.
see
we
We
you
all
yelled at once.
fully
this
expect
to
summer, you
surely will not
bush.
5.
see
We all yelled at once.

We fully expect to
you
this
summer.
You
disappoint surely will not disappoint
you know you us this

year.
you did
You know
us this year,
year.
did last
last year.
Oh, Polly, I Went last

6. Oh, Polly, I went last
evening with mamma to the evening with mamma to
It was the Boopera, it was the Bohemian the opera.
I wish you
Girl, I wish you had been hemian Girl.
with
It was
us.
with us, it was fine.
had been
6.
fine
96
A walking tour should
7. A walking tour should

you be taken by yourself. If
go in pairs, it is not a walk- you go in pairs it is not a
ing tour but a picnic, you walking tour but a picnic.
want to be free to go where You want to be free to go
where you please.
you please.
7.
be taken by yourself,
if
8. It
isn't as
nice up
up
sum- here now as it is in summer, there are only a few mer. There are only a few
ducks around, most of the ducks around. Most of the
ducks have gone south, we ducks have gone south. We
have partridge almost every have partridge almost every
day, Reddy brought three day.
Reddy brought three
8.
here
It
as
nice
as
isn't
now
is
it
in
partridges to-day, he
is
just
sobering up.
9.
Just after dark
a splash,
partridges to-day.
He
is
just sobering up.
my
heard
cousin was in
the icy water, he had walked
9.
Just after dark I heard
a splash.
My
cousin
in the icy water.
was
He had
walked straight off the bank

him in the dark. We soon
out, he was more scared pulled him out.
He was
than hurt.
more scared than hurt.
straight off the
dark.
We
bank
in the
soon pulled
10. That night we found

10. That night we found
an old stage-house that was an old stage-house that was
we stayed
habitable,
there
habitable.
We stayed there
was for several days. There was

was not plenty of fuel, and it was not
for several days, there
plenty of fuel and
it
far to a very fine old spring.

11.
" Phil
Farrington "
was another book
far to a very fine old spring.

" Phil
11.
Farrington "
was another book I rather

boy enjoyed. It told of a boy
who was found by a hunter who w as found by a hunter
in Missouri after an ex- in Missouri after an exenjoyed,
it
told
I rather
of a

plosion of a steamboat on
the
upper
Mississippi,
lost his parents,
or
plosion on a steamboat on
he the upper Mississippi.
rather
97
lost
He
his parents, or rather
He managed
they lost him, he managed they lost him.
and was found to get ashore and was found

by the hunter as I tell you, by the hunter as I tell you.
as he grows older he wants As he grows older he wants
to get ashore
to find his parents, he starts
to
find
out and finds his father a starts
drunkard in
his mother is
his
parents.
He
and finds his

St. Louis, but father a drunkard in St.
in France.
Louis, but his mother is in
out
France.
Oral Exercise.
201.
tracts given in section
column
first,
Read aloud the ex200.

Read the second
taking pains to
Pause a
at each period.
let
the voice
bit after each period,
to
show that the statement you have
is
independent, can stand alone.
aloud the
first
fall
just read
Then read
column, letting the voice
fall
wherever there ought to have been a period.
Say " period "

202.
at every such place.
Oral Exercise.
piece silently until
Study the following
you are sure whether there
ought to be a period followed by a

or a
comma
place
marked by
capital,
followed by a small letter, at each

a vertical line (|).
the piece aloud, letting the voice
end of each complete statement.
Then read
fall
at the
98
LINCOLN
OPINION OF GRANT
In a letter to a friend, in March, 1864, Lincoln wrote
Grant
as follows of
him altogether
knew
knew
I believe
room a minute
so all around
any place
is
move
two
little
least fuss of
to think of
fellow you ever
any
man you
ever
or three times he has been in this
or so before I
knew he was
here
it's
about
the only evidence you have that he's in
makes things go
that he
|
know what
hardly
the quietest
why, he makes the
tilings
" I
lie is
wherever he is,
general I've had he's a
Grant is the first

you what I mean
the rest ..." They
you know how it's

been with all
all wanted me to be
general now, it isn't so with Grant he hasn't told me
what his plans are I don't know, and I don't want
to know
I am glad to find a man who can go ahead
general
I'll
tell
without me."
203.
Oral Exercise.
Study and read the
following piece as you did that of section 202.
UNCHANGED
1.
well-known poet
ran away from
home
tells
a story of the
first
time he
he had been deeply offended by
something done in the household, and he decided to quit

forever a place where he was so little appreciated.
2. So he took a last long look at the old place
looked
at the barn, the
pump, the chickens, the
pig, the door-step,
every glance was a farewell

he wandered out into the wide, wide world in other
Words, he went down the road he walked until he came
the path to the back gate
had been days when it

was merely Hanson's grove, and in easy walking distance from his home on this day it was weary leagues
to a great
and dark
forest
there
"
99
away, and he entered its sad shade with the feeling that
he had given up all joy.
3. Hours went by
happier folk ate supper in their
homes the wanderer brooded alone, and saw the black
night come along like a fierce dragon and swallow
everything he heard the night silence he had immeasurable thoughts, and had the painful delight of feeling
himself grow old.
4. But, as the world lay in silence, better feelings came
he felt that he had been selfish in thinking only
to him
of his grievance
how would they be able to live without
him at home ? Was it not his duty to step across the
awful gulf that yawned between him and those he had
once loved, and forgive them, and return to comfort
them ? With a generosity that almost staggered him,
he left the gloom of the forest and returned along the
|
wild paths of the world to the old familiar spot
w hich
T
he had not laid eye upon for three mortal hours

5. He entered the house
his father was reading, his
mother sewing, his sister at her studies no one looked
up no one spoke his coming made no sensation he
had returned from the wilderness and no one was interested his heart swelled to bursting with injured vanity
just at the moment when tears appeared to be a necessity,
the fat Maltese entered the room, and with more compas|
sion than her betters
came and rubbed her length against
the boy's bare legs

6.
He heaved
and
"
a sigh
such
a sigh as wayfarers
know
solemn tone
I see you have the same old gray cat!
The Youth's Companion, adapted.
said, in a
204.
Written Exercise.
headed Lincoln's Opinion
Lite.
of
Copy
the piece
Grant, inserting
100
periods and capitals wherever they seem needed

to
mark
the end of one statement and the be-
ginning of another.
Until a student has learned to read his
205.
own work aloud

fall at
intelligently, letting his voice
the end of each statement that ought to
end with a period, he
will be likely to
make
the
Child's Error whenever he writes.
He
will be particularly in
danger of not stop-
ping before certain words, for example
Let us seek the reason for
It.
He and
this.
you were to ask your teacher to say

in a single word what kind of statement may be
written as a sentence, the answer would probIt is usual and
ably be the word independent.
206.
If
correct to say that only independent statements
may
stand as sentences.
would be obliged
to tell
Yet your instructor

you that it is not very
easy to define an independent statement.
Ex-
amine two sentences:
My
dog
They seem
But
other.
is
a spaniel.
to be
He
quite
is
named Neptune.
independent of each
the sentence
He
is
named Neptune

is
He might mean
an elephant. Yet " He is
not complete in meaning.
a man, a
dog, or
named Neptune
ject
is
101
" is a sentence, for it has a sub-
and predicate, and before the subject there
no connective word which could make
seem only a part of a sentence.

"Although he
is
named Neptune,"
If
it
it
read
it
would be
only a part.
207.
We
may
call "
He
is
named Neptune
a statement grammatically independent

others,
though
it is
somewhat dependent
of
"
all
for its
meaning on a preceding sentence. It is quite

clear that a statement which is grammatically
independent has a grammatical right to begin
with a capital and end with a period.

should approach you and say merely
"It
If a
man
fell/'
you would doubtless be justified in thinking

him a lunatic but his statement would be a
;
sentence;
it
and period,
what
it
208.
would have a right to its capital

though nobody on earth understood
meant.
When
the subject of a statement
is
an
independent name, like The man, or John, or

Courage, and this
name begins
the statement,
102
beginner
the
is
quick to see that he should
When
capitalize the sentence.
pends for
the subject de-
meaning on what precedes,
its
as in
the case of He, the beginner hesitates to capi-
But any statement that begins with the
talize.
subject He, They,
It,
She, This, These, or Those,
has a right to stand as a sentence.
Written Exercise.
209.
Copy
the follow-
ing sentences, and finish each incomplete one as
you proceed.
Let the second sentence of each
pair explain the
first.
The
closer
you can make
between the two sentences, the
the relation
better.
1.
Washington was a great
2.
Victoria
3.
Grant and Lee were opponents.
4.
Every gun has a
5.
My book has two pieces of
cloth.
was empress
These
He
general.
as well as queen.
" sight."
She
They
This
pasteboard covered with
have a wheel that I
6.
7.
We
8.
Please let
9.
I can't solve this problem.
It
like.
enjoyed the concert.
It
me have some sweeter apples. These
10.
I can't accept
11.
We sold
12.
Look out
your kind invitation.
our dog.
He
for the dog.
He
STATEMENTS WBITTEN AS SENTENCES 103

210.
Written Exercise.
sentences about the picture.
Write
several
Begin some with
such words as The sailor boy, and others with
HOME AFTER THE
such words as He.

after the First
211.
FIRST VOYAGE
Head your paper
Home
Voyage.
Such words
as
One, Another, etc.,
be used to begin sentences.
may
Like He, these
words depend for their meaning on what has

preceded them, but they can begin a grammatically independent statement.
104
Wkitten Exercise.
212.
ture
You remember
Ulysses.
who turned
The
swine.
pic-
Companions
and the
Circe
called
Study the
of
that Circe was the
witch
the companions of Ulysses
into
story
Homer.
men
It is
is
found in the poet
an old Greek fable that warns
against acting like beasts.
Write several
statements about the swine in the picture, under
CIRCE AND THE COMPANIONS OF ULYSSES
the heading
Circe.
of
The Swine
Let
each
the following
third,
Another,
the
in
sentence
begin
expressions:
Still
another,
Picture of
with
One,
Several,
Two,
one
Others,
Most, All
213.
We
have seen that a statement begin-
ning with the subject He, or One, or a similar
STATEMENTS WRITTEN AS SENTENCES 105

word,
is
grammatically independent and
stand as a sentence.
may
But statements frequently
begin with connective
expressions,
like
and, although, here, there, wherefore,
but,
Are
so.
such statements also grammatically indepen-
Does the connective interfere with grammatical independence? Sometimes it does, and
dent?
sometimes
214.
does not, as
it
Some
we
now
shall
see.
connectives, like Nevertheless and
Moreover, always give the impression of a

start.
When we
say Nevertheless,
we
new
are well
aware that we are referring back as well as
we
make
starting ahead, but
feel that the
we
is
are about to
statement
of equal importance
with the preceding.

"It was raining pitchforks.
mined
In
we
deter-
to start out."
such
pair
ments are strong

other.
Nevertheless
The
sentences
of
neither
is
both
state-
weaker than the
rain will not stop just because the
people start out, and the people start out just

the same.
The statements
are
coordinate, or
equal rank, in spite of the fact that to
of
understand
first.
But
"Although
the
if
it
second
you say
you must know the
was raining pitchforks, we started
out,"
106
you
treat the rain as distinctly less important
than the
although
as a
start.
statement beginning" with
always subordinate, and
is
mere part
of a sentence.
Usually the word but shows so close
215.
two statements are joined

But may, however, begin
a relation that the

in
written
is
one sentence.
new
sentence,
emphasis.
for
Like But,
the following expressions show a contrast, and

like Nevertheless they usually begin sentences
At
Still,
the
the contrary,
same
On
time,
In
the other
spite of that, Yet,
lowing
Copy
completing
sentences,
On
hand.
Written Exercise.
216.
the fol-
the unfinished
Read
ones according to your best judgment.
your work aloud, and say " Period, Capital,"
whenever
there
is
period
by a
followed
capital.
THE LAST FIGHT OF GLADIATORS

In the later days of ancient
Rome
gladiators to fight to the death in
horrible performance.
liked to see
anity
it.
On
was opposed
At
desert.
last a
was common for

the arena. It was a
it
Nevertheless the brutal
Romans
the other hand, the spirit of Christi-
to
it.
monk named Telemachus came from
the
In spite of the danger he sprang into the arena
and stepped between the
gladiators, crying, " In the
name

of Christ Jesus, forbear
death.
His
"
The
spectators stoned
him
to
however, stopped gladiatorial fights in
act,
Rome.
The picture shows
St.
Telemachus in the arena.
He
t^m
i^'
Lggi
*
TjB
X
ffF^"-
THE LAST FIGHT OF GLADIATORS

does not fear the gladiators.
On
brutal fellow with a trident
is
blow.
Yet
He
could
kill
the contrary
The
about to strike a death

the frail old man with a
stroke of his fist.

The face of St. Telemachus
Still
shows that he understands the value of human life, and
.
108
that
man
is
not a beast.
On
the other
The
hand
might even now shake off the monk's light grasp

and deal the fallen enemy a death blow. Yet
victor
There
217.
duces
its
is
one connective which intro-
statement so closely that beginners
VICTOR AND VANQUISHED
usually afraid to put a period before
are
This
is
is
the
perfectly
word
So,
correct
meaning
to
Therefore.
capitalize
it.
It
^-state-
ment. 1
In short sentences like " It began to
rain, so
we stopped
But the connective
playing,"
it
is
customary
so that never begins a sentence.

to permit the
comma
before
so,
but
it
be grammatically correct to write, " It
when
regularly preferred
is
The period
So we stopped playing."
to rain.
would
began
statements
the
are long.
218.
lowing
Written Exercise.
sentences,
and
Copy
finish
the
fol-
incomplete
the
ones according tj your best judgment.
VICTOR,
In this picture, the
and triumphant.
AND VANQUISHED
man who
So he
is
standing looks proud
probably
is
He
uniform, with heavy, braided shoulder-straps.
On
wears a
So
pinned an iron cross. The

is
It is not an EngSo
lish decoration.
Nor is it French. So
So
The iron cross is a German badge. So probably
The man in the chair has sunk down with a look of
He is not
helpless anger and perplexity.
So
We
dressed in uniform, but in civil clothes.
So
remember that Germany conquered France in 1871, and
that Thiers was the French minister who arranged the
terms of peace. So we
Also we remember that
the German chancellor who imposed very severe terms of
peace upon Thiers was Prince Bismarck. So we
his coat
iron cross
is
not an American decoration.
219.
The word and always introduces
dinate statement, and
with a
capital.
may
In general
a coor-
occasionally appear
it is
better to begin
110
with one of the following, which mean about

the same as and: Also, In the next place, Moreover,
Furthermore, Besides, Likeivise.
220.
Written Exercise. Copy the follow-
ing sentences, and complete the unfinished ones
according to your best judgment.
A LANDSEER PICTURE
In this picture by Landseer a beautiful dog rests his
head on his master's coffin and presses his body against
the rude box in piteous grief.
shepherd dog.
The dog
is
collie,
Therefore, probably, his master
Moreover we infer
this
or
.
from the crook and horn which

upon the floor. In the next place we note a Scotch
thrown over the coffin, beneath the pall. Besides,
lie
plaid
a Scotch cap
infer that
lies
.
beside the crook.
Consequently we
Likewise we see a clasped Bible and a

Therefore the
pair of spectacles lying on the bench.
master
the
we note
Finally,
room except the
dog,
that there
is
no one in
and are not surprised to learn

The Highland Shepherd's
that Landseer called his picture
Chief Mourner.
221.
may form
Certain words and phrases
independent beginnings to show whether the

writer thinks his statement positively true, or
These are
probably true, or possibly true.

Certainly, Surely,
Doubtless, Indeed, Perhaps,
Possibly, Probably,
Anyhow, Anyivay, In all prob-
ability,
At
least,
At
all events,
In any
case.
These connectives do not always stand
first,
but they usually refer to the whole statement

even when they do not begin
Certainly this
This
or
is
is
it.
the place,
the place,
This, certainly,
or
This
or
Perhaps I should go,

I should perhaps go,
or
I should go, perhaps.
222.
say:
certainly the place,
or
is
We may
is
the place, certainly.
Written Exercise.
After studying
the picture, copy the following sentences, completing the unfinished ones appropriately.
112
ON A FURLOUGH
In this picture, called On a Furlough, a soldier is
visiting his family in the old home.
Certainly the old
lady
who
sits
him
beside
Surely the
like his.
boy at his right

smoking a pipe
Her
little
In
all
probability the old
man
his left
Probably the
much
features are
and the
little girl at
woman who
is
pre-
ON A FURLOUGH
paring the meal
The
other persons are doubtless
At
the soldier's
brother and
Everybody
listening intently to the soldier's narrative.
At
everybody
least,
the soldier
223.
ning
is
is
is
telling
is
sisters.
all
listening except
.
Anyhow,
events
Perhaps
Another important independent beginthe capitalized
word
There.
It is
com-
mon
in such phrases as There
are,
There
224.
is no,
Here
Grammar
is
There's, There
is,
There's no, There are no,
a picture of
School
of
room
the
in
Stratford-on-Avon,
in
room William Shakspere

undoubtedly studied and recited when a boy.
England.
It
is
In this
still
used as
schoolroom.
It
is
in
A ROOM WHERE SHAKSPERE STUDIED
some respects like an American class room,

and in some unlike.
One does not see our
individual desks and seats with backs.
One
does not see a globe, a wall blackboard, or a

flat ceiling.
225.
short
Written Exercise.
sentences
i
concerning
Write several
the
room, head-
114
ing
your paper
A Room
Begin each sentence with one of
studied.
the following
expressions
There are, There
There
There's,
is,
There's no, There are no.
is no,
Independent
226.
where Shakspere
beginnings
often
show
Here, There,
Such beginnings are
Over there, Above, Below, At the right, Over-
place.
On
head,
the floor.
Written Exercise.
227.
Write several
sentences about the Stratford room, beginning
each with some such expression as
On
head, In the ceiling,

desks,
right,
wall,
On
On
In
the floor,
Here, Over-
Beside the
the farther side of the room,
the wall at the
the chimney,
right,
Above
your paper as before
On
the
the farther
the fireplace.
A Room
At
Head
where Shak-
spere studied.
228.
Independent beginnings
show the time

done by words
new
may
statement.
that
of the
is
or phrases like
To-day,
Presently,
wards,
To-morrow,
Yesterday,
Heretofore,
After
Occasionally.
this,
Hitherto,
Soon,
be made
Often,
This
Now, Then,
Immediately,
Once,
After-
Frequently,
Written Exercise. Write an account of how you spent some one day.
Head
What I did Yesterday,
it after this fashion
or, What I did on Monday.
Let each sentence
229.
be one statement.
sion
showing time,
and
eight, At
ing
dressing,
nine,
Begin each with an expres-
On awaking, After
as
Next,
During
Then,
By
bath-
half-past
the next period, After this,
After school, In the evening.

m.
230.
eral
Written Exercise.
single
vacation.
statements
Think
concerning
of
sev-
your
last
Let them be statements that you
can begin with the following words

Often,
Frequently,
Sometimes,
Once,
Occasionally.
Write the sentences, and head the paper
Happenings
of
my
Vacation.
CHAPTER IV
STATEMENTS THAT MAY NOT BE WRITTEN AS
SENTENCES
Almost any short statement standing
as a sentence can be turned into a mere
part of a sentence by putting one of certain
words before it. Take the statement " Guns
231.
By putting where before

you make " Where guns are dangerous,"
are dangerous."
mere piece
of a sentence.
clauses
beginnings.
made
into sub-
by dependent or subordinate
Where guns
1.
In the following ex-
amples, the parts in italics are

ordinate
it
are dangerous, they should not
be used.
2.
Guns should not be used where
they are
dangerous.
3.
Wherever guns are dangerous, guns should
not be used.
1
The
because
clauses in italics are called subordinate not merely

it is
the custom to write
them
as parts of sentences,
but because they are thought of as less important than the

main clauses to which they are attached. See 214.
116
The
4.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
117
should be
taken in
care
greatest
hunting, wherever guns are dangerous.
When guns
5.
are dangerous, they should be
let alone.
Guns should be
6.
let alone
when they
are
dangerous.
Since this
7.
never touched
We
8.
since
it
gun became dangerous we have
it.
have
let this old
musket alone
ever
became dangerous.
Just as the guns were getting hot and dan-
9.
gerous, the firing ceased.

10.
The
getting hot
11.
firing ceased just as the
guns were
and dangerous.
While the guns
ivere hot
and dangerous,
the gunners rested.

12.
hot
The gunners
rested while the guns ivere
and dangerous.
13.
The
rifles
were
still
unused, while the
cannon were hot and dangerous.

14.
the
While the cannon were hot and dangerous,
rifles
were
still
15.
We
16.
Since the
ous,
left,
we kept
17.
We
for
cold.
rifles are
rifles
dangerous.
of deer-hunters are danger-
out of the woods.
kept out of the pines in November,
since rifles are dangerous.
118
18.
Because
the rifles
were dangerous,
we kept
out of the pines in November.

19.
We
kept out of the pines and stayed at
home, because
20.
the rifles
were dangerous.
The deer-hunters'
rifles
are dangerous,
ivherefore ice keep out of the pines.

21.
Fifty deer-hunters came into the pines,
whence we presently departed.

22.
The deer-hunters were banging away,
so
that ivefelt uneasy.

23.
We
stayed out,
lest
we should
stop a stray
bullet.
24.
If guns are dangerous,
25.
Why
26.
Unless a gun
why
use
them?
use guns, if they are dangerous?

is
hammerless,
it is
danger-
ous.
27.
gun
is
dangerous unless
it is
hammer-
less.
28.
Provided
it is
hammerless, a
gun
is
fairly
safe.
29.
A gun is fairly safe provided it is hammer-
less.
30.
it is
well-made gun
is fairly safe,
provided
hammerless.
31.
Although guns
32.
Boys
gerous.
kick,
boys like them.
like guns, although
guns are dan-
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
33.
Boys
like guns, even if
119
guns are dan-
gerous.
34.
He
carries his
gun with
raised hammers,
as if he were a fool.
35.
Even
guns are dangerous, foolish per-
if
them
sons will carry

36.
carelessly.
Notwithstanding he has been warned, he
will fire that old charge.

37.
He
will probably get killed, nohvithstand-
ing he has been warned.

38.
This gun has been made hammerless in
order that
39.
it
may
be safe.
In order that
it
may
not scatter, this
gun
has been choke-bored.

40.
man
Hold your peace
is at
41.
till
you know which
fault.
lie
begets a
lie, till
they come
to
genera-
tions.
42.
Agree, for
fighting is
232.
still
the
more
law
is costly.
Agree, for
costly.
Oral Exercise.
A.
Learn and
cite the following connectives that
begin sub-
ordinate clauses, mere parts of sentences
Group
Group
where, wherever.
when, while, since,
long as.
Group
because, for, as.
re-
until, just as, as
soon as, as
120
Group 4
Group 5
if,
unless, provided,
although, even
if,
provided
Use each connective
B.
that.
as if
in
two sentences.
Let one sentence put the subordinate clause

first
of
let the
other put
it last.
Give sentences
your own, or repeat from memory sentences
found in the
233.
list
above.
The word
ordinate clause.
because always begins a sub-
The word for may sometimes
begin a sentence, but not often.
The word
though
234.
or almost never begins a sentence,
it
connects clauses of equal importance.
statement that can stand by
itself is
called a simple or main statement.
main statement and
together
make
a subordinate clause
a complex statement.
Pick out the main statements from the
twenty sentences
first
of 231.
Three dangers beset the beginner

punctuating complex statements.
235.
The
greatest danger
is
in
that he will put a
period and then capitalize a subordinate clause.
(Compare
193.)
Note the following sentences.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Wrong Pointing of
Subordi-
nate Clause
We didn't
1.
much mind
the loss of the beef.
Since
121
Right Pointing of Subordinate Clause

1.
We didn't much mind
the loss of the beef, since
a plenty of ham and we had a plenty of ham and

bacon in our supply-box.
bacon in our supply-box.
we had
Then
2.
came
in drip-
2.
Then
came
in drip-
and looking like an ping, and looking like an

However, I managed idiot. However, I managed
put up with the situation to put up with the situation
ping,
idiot.
to
after
a fashion.
there
were others
same
Because after
in
the
same
fix.
We
3.
there
because
fashion,
were
others
in
the
fix.
3. We stayed in Dover
and were only that night and were only
stayed in Dover
that night
too glad that
we
As
did.
too glad that
we
did, as it
began to rain about ten began to rain about ten

and rained all night.
and rained all night.
it
The
4.
roof of the hut
4.
The
roof of the hut
leaked abominably in sev- leaked abominably in sev-
While the tent eral places, while the tent

seemed to be as tight and seemed to be as tight and
dry as you please.
dry as you please.
eral places.
It
5.
was General Grant
who turned
the tide of vic-
many
was General Grant

the tide of vic-
Union
Although there were army, although there were
other able generals on
In camping out,
many
other
on the Union
the Union side.

6.
It
tory in favor of the Union
tory in favor of the
army.
5.
who turned
it
is
just as well to have a flint
6.
able
generals
side.
In camping out,
it
is
just as well to have a flint
So that if and steel along, so that if

the matches get wet you the matches get wet you
and
steel along.
122
can make a
with only can make a
fire
the help of a few dry leaves
But we
or rags.
fired
some
fire
with only
the help of a few dry leaves
But we
or rags.
fired
some
dry rags out of a gun and dry rags out of a gun and
So that we set them afire, so that we
set them afire.
were all right.
were all right.
When the subordinate
236.
the main clause,
it
sometimes need not be sep-
arated by any punctuation.

dinate
is
it
separated.
sense, the
in
The more
less
it
subor-
needs to be
In some complex sentences you
hardly feel that there
ment
clause comes after
more than one
is
state-
He
goes horseback riding because lie likes

She bnys chocolates whenever she can.
it.
But when the subordinate clause is really felt

to be a statement, there must be a comma before
it.
Nearly always the beginner neglects
the duty of inserting the
237.
comma.
Written Exercise.
Copy
the follow-
ing sentences, adding appropriate subordinate

clauses to the
aloud,
main
saying "
clauses.
Comma "
Read your work
wherever a comma
precedes a subordinate clause.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
VISIT TO
THE HOSPITAL
It is clear that the picture before
foreground a
man
A
cot
is
looking
But he
me
It is a children's hospital, for
hospital.
is
feels that
is
that of a
is
sitting beside a cot, while
VISIT
The man
123
In the
on the
TO THE HOSPITAL
evidently the child's father, for he
I judge that
he
is
a poor man, as
he will be rich enough
the lad has been very sick, because
if
.
think
I think never-
124
he
theless that
is
going to get well, since
some nap.
At the next
is
is
getting a whole-
some one
is
bending down to
cot
He
He
not in a stupor, although

give another child a kiss, while
The second danger in writing a complex statement occurs when the subordinate
Here we may forget to beclause stands first.
238.
gin the subordinate clause with a capital.
It is
just as necessary to capitalize a beginning subor-
dinate clause as not to capitalize an ending one.

239.
Written Exercise.
Copy
the
fol-
lowing sentences, and insert appropriate subordinate clauses denoting place.
Begin with
Where or Wherever.
1.
tation
2.
In some countries
it
grows rank.
In the West, many
rains daily.
the vege-
districts are arid.
men
are trying to irrigate.

3.
College
not forget
240.
men
love their college.
they do
it.
Written Exercise.
nate clauses denoting time.

While, Whenever, Just as, or
Insert subordi-
Begin with When,
As
Choose
soon as.
the best word.

1.
Brave men never cease to hope.
there
hope.
2.
Grant never gave up.
he kept right on.
is
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
3.
came
Eelief
at last.
125
we heard the bugles
of the reinforcements.
Possibly the sky will
4.
fall.
we
shall catch
larks.
Some
5.
want
people won't let their meat cook.
they
to taste the broth.
Written Exercise.
241.
Insert subordi-
nate statements denoting cause.
Begin with
Because, Since, or As.
1.
was
nail fell out of a horseshoe.
the shoe
lost.
2.
The shoe
horse was
3.
rider
4.
fell
off
the horse's foot.
the
lost.
The horse
was lost.
fell
and broke
his knees.
the
Sinbad looked up at the smooth cliffs of the valley.

he thought he must die.
Beowulf fixed his fearful grip on Grendel's arm.
he tore away, leaving an arm.
,
5.
242.
Written Exercise.
Insert subordi-
nate statements denoting a condition necessary

to the fulfilment of the
gin with
If,
Unless, or
main statement. BeProvided.

Choose the
best word.
1.
It isn't a bear.
2.
Painstaking
it
may become
would
bite you.
a pleasure.
profit
will follow.
3.
All sorts of persons give good counsel.
no matter who gave
it.
it's
126
Many
4.
better not
show
Yon
5.
a snarling dog cannot bite.
he had
his teeth.
are playing with boys.
you must take
boys' play.
Some masters don't pay their servants.

pay himself.
7. Youth doesn't know what age will crave.
would both get and save.
6.
he
will
it
Written Exercise.
243.
nate
clauses
say, begin
1.
You
2.
I'll tell
yet
its
3.
that
concession;
is
madness.
there's
you something about healed
may
to
is
method
if.
in
sores.
it.
remain.
fool has a fine coat, I admit.
but
'tis
fool's coat.
4.
it
Insert subordi-
with Though, Although, or Even
say this
scar
The
denoting
It requires several grains to
fill
a sack.
yet
helps.
5.
Don't abuse a gentle mastiff.
him by
the
244.
The
third danger in punctuating a comis
that of leaving out a needed
after a subordinate clause
A comma
first.
don't bite
lip.
plex sentence
comma
is
which stands
almost always needed in
this position:
1.
2.
While he was saying so, he pulled out his watch.

While England is certainly a monarchy, it is no
tyranny,
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Beginners usually neglect
to
Oral
comma
main state-
place a
between a subordinate clause and the
ment which follows
127
it.
Needed commas
have been removed from some of the follow245.
ing
sentences.
clauses
Exercise.
Point
out
the
subordinate
and say where commas are needed.

garfield's ten minutes
When
President Garfield was a young fellow working

through
his way
college he tried to stand at the head of
Although he succeeded in doing so in some
his classes.
studies there was one class in which he never stood
higher than second. Even if he gave especial attention
to his lesson on a given day he was sure to find one man
ahead of him in the recitation. Since this experience
came to poor Garfield daily he made up his mind to find
out the reason why one man always beat him.
As this man roomed across the way from Garfield
Garfield determined to watch his method of work, if
possible.
He
learned that his friend studied the before-
mentioned subject in the evening as he considered it his

easiest study.
When the evening came that day Garfield
As soon
prepared his lesson with especial care.

task
was
finished to his satisfaction he arose
out of the window.
as the
and looked
His friend's light was still burning.

went back to his book and spent ten minutes
more for he was determined to win if mere time could
be the means. When the ten minutes w ere over he found
He rose just in
that he had learned several new things.
Garfield
time to see his
rival's light
go out.
128
"So

that's the
way he does
it!" said Garfield.
"He
As the
and work ten
spends ten minutes more than I usually spend.

plan seems to serve
him
well I will try
it,
minutes more than he." He went back to his book.

The next day Garfield stood at the head of his class.
CHAPTER V
THE SENTENCE AS A UNION OF SUBJECT
AND PREDICATE
246.
Whenever we
think,
we
of course think
The
something about something.
process
very quick, and we are not conscious that
it
is
has
But every thought has two parts, namely

the subject of thought, and that which is per-
parts.
ceived about the subject.
and
a judgment,
thought-subject
247.
When
its
thought
two parts
are
is
called
called the
and the thought-predicate.

a
child
begins to talk,
presses its thought-subject
Indeed,
cate very briefly.
it
ex-
and thought-prediit
often forgets to
give the subject, taking for granted that the
hearer knows what
is
being spoken
child wishes to be taken up,
This word
is
it
of.
says "
If the
Up
"
!
a crude expression of the thought-
predicate only.
248.
As
stand that
the child grows, he comes to underif
he
is
to be understood he
129
must try
130
and predicate.
to express both subject
If
he
has noticed that several creatures have eyes, he
merely " Eyes
will not say
eyes.
Mamma eyes.
eyes."
brother
If
rocking-chair, the
"
Up
Up
but will tediously
eyes.
Daddy eyes.
declare, " Kitty
eyes.
"
Baby
Buvver
Dolly
down
in the baby's
will not
merely shout
sits
owner
" but will
pour forth a string of
judgments, a considerable effort for the
He
mind.
no Buvver
chair."
!
chair.
rock
Baby
up
Baby
will say, "
little
Buvver
!
Baby
The child is now on the highroad to

command of language in full statements.
249.
true
Yet even after he becomes a man, he
will
do his
thinking in very few words compared with the
number he must use in speaking

His mind may frame only one word
ject
and one
for the predicate,
or writing.
for the sub-
where
will have to frame half a dozen.
his
pen
Suppose the
general topic of his thought to be a certain book.
His mind will
flash
from phase
to phase of
it,
forming judgment after judgment in some such
way
inch.
ish.
as this
"Book
Length
Title
mine.
six inches.
Thickness
yellow'Applied'
Cover
Applied Grammar.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Grammar
queer word.
Binding
so dry.
rough.
buckram.
Rough
cloth
Threads
crushed."
you
They
see.
dry.
thickness of
When
ideas
Binding
Cloth
not
cloth.
threads.
These are not statements,
They can
statements, however, as
250.
Pictures
are merely couples of ideas ex-
pressed in words.
The
131
it is
easily be
" This
made
book
about an inch,"
is
etc.
into
mine.
1
the relation between a pair of
fully stated in words, so that the person
is
addressed feels that the speaker's complete judg-
ment has been asserted, the result is a sentence.

Our former definition of the sentence (181) may
now
be enlarged a
pletely
little.
A sentence
worded expression
of a
is
judgment, and
usually a statement, an inquiry, or a

1
self
The
the com-
novelist Dickens has a character
who
is
command.
expresses him-
not in sentences but in catch-words, which indicate but
roughly the succeeding pairs of ideas as they flash through

his mind.
How
this character (Mr. Alfred Jingle, of the
Pickwick Papers)
this passage
flings
may
out his thoughts
be seen by
"Heads, heads
take
care of your heads!" cried the
loquacious stranger, as they
came out under the low arch-
dangerous work other day
children
mother
lady eating sandwiches forgot
the arch
crash knock children look round mother's
sandwich in her hand no mouth to put in
head
head of a family
shocking, shocking "
way.
'
'
Terrible place
five
tall
off
it
off
"
!
132
251.
statement
called a declarative sen-
is
tence, an inquiry an interrogative sentence,
and
Any
sen-
command an
imperative sentence.
uttered with strong feelings be-
tence that
is
comes
an exclamatory sentence.
also
sky"
a beautiful
is
a beautiful sky! "

is
" are
we
declarative; but
and
"
Would you do
the sentence
is
"That
is
beautiful that sky
becomes exclamatory
If
a thing like that
merely interrogative; but
is
"Would you do
252.
How
That
exclamatory as well as declarative.
ask "
say
"
we
if
thing like that!"
it
also.
Oral Exercise.
Below
are
given
twenty judgments completely expressed, yield-
Take each
ing twenty sentences.

say whether
it
is
declarative, interrogative, or
imperative, and in case
exclamatory, say
and
in turn
it
has also been rendered
so.
Beware of small expenses. 2. Keep off the grass

3. A word to the wise is enough.
4. Can a mill grind
with the water that is past? 5. Keep your tongue within
1.
your teeth.
bell the cat?
6.
8.
Let bygones be bygones.
Whatever
is
saved
you would hand me the dictionary. 1

1
"I
wish, etc.,"
is
a request, but
rtnd is therefore declarative.
it
7.
earned.
is
10.
Who
will
wish
9.
Please
hand
makes a statement,
!!

me
the
12.
You
who
dictionary. 1
will go, then ?
an old saying that he

14. Kindly
It is
15. What a piece of work is man

man, that Thou art mindful of him
the wind in that quarter? 18. Drop by drop
door.
16.
What
17.
Sits
the lake
is
is
drained.
Care will
kill
19.
Down
expresses, consists of
The
The
two
which something
requested, or
parts.
the part
is
stated,
is
naming
inquired,
commanded.
predicate of a sentence
inquires,
states,
judgment which
like the
subject of a sentence
that of
the hill goes merrily.
a cat.
Every sentence,
253.
it
13.
that dictionary
goes a borrowing goes a sorrowing.
close the
20.
Hand me
11.
133
is
requests, or
the part which
commands, con-
cerning the subject.

254.
tence
first,
is
The naming
part of a declarative senIt generally stands
usually easy to see.
as below.
Predicate
Subject
255.
1.
The apple
is
2.
It
grows in most countries.
a delicious fruit.
But not infrequently
it
stands after the
predicate, as on the following page.

1
" Please, etc.,"
imperative.
is
also a request, but
it is
to be classed as
134
Predicate
1.
2.
Subject
Under those leaves

Down will come
some
are
apples.
baby, cradle, and
all.
Again, the subject of the declarative
256.
sentence
may
stand in the midst of the predi-
cate, as below.
Part of predicate
Rest of Predicate
Subject
1.
Drop by drop
the lake
2.
In the land of the blind
the one-eyed
man
is
drained.
is
king.
In the case of interrogative sentences,
257.
the subject usually stands in the midst of the

predicate, thus
Part of predicate
Rest of predicate
Subject
1.
Isn't
the apple
a delicious fruit?
2.
Have
you
read what John Bur-
roughs wrote of
258.
is
it ?
In imperative sentences, the predicate
commanded concerning
times this you
the idea you.
Some-
expressed, as in " Don't you
is
come
More often it is merely
implied, the word you not occurring to the
Thus we have, " Don't
speaker's mind at all.
stir till
stir till
259.
'
come."
Oral Exercise.
sentences the
subjects
In
the
following
are printed in italics.
135
Study the lesson until you are able to give the

subject of each sentence on hearing the sentence read.
Fishing
the delight of every boy, savage or civilized.
is
made
to be caught.
Often they are caught.
Sometimes they get away. Large ones are very likely to
getaway. That is natural. Large fish are strong. They
Whether fishing is exciting or not
break hooks and lines.
circumstances.
Fishing for salmon is doubtdepends on
Fish are
less a thrilling business.
night
is
Fishing for bull-heads on a dark
not usually exciting.
It
may become
so,
however.
if you get stung by a bull-head.

It
you catch an eel. An eel is an exHe finds it hard to keep still. In
citable, nervous fish.
the middle of a boat a large eel makes trouble.
You step
on him. Everybody does. " Where is he ? " u There he
U I can't.
" Hit him with an oar "
You hit him."
is."
" The beast is in my fishline.
It is badly snarled up."
The boat is all dark. It is darkest in one corner. The
eel gets into that corner at last.
One hears him there
When you get home he will still be alive.
occasionally.
The much-enduring creature will be ready to make more
It is exciting
is
enough
fairly exciting if
trouble.
260.
ject
Oral Exercise.
and the predicate
ing sentences.
Pick out the sub-
of each
Remember
of the follow-
that every sentence
two elements, no matter how few

how many words each element contains.
divides into
or
1.
debt
Debt
kills.
kills.
4.
2.
To be
That debt
in debt kills.
kills is true.
5.
Being in
Debt kills "
3.
"
136
is
Debt kills people. 7. To be in debt

Being in debt kills people. 9. That
a true saying.
kills people.
debt
kills
people
true saying.
The
13.
white.
wall
6.
8.
true.
is
ancient wall
15.
is still
white wall
12.
extremely useful to
standing.
21.
It
is
is
am no
21.
25.
My desk
Wood
is
safe.
31.
35.
is
45.
The Japanese boy cannot

That fellow, the " Jap" boy, is
If wishes
a bargain.
is
When
34.
the sky
33.
falls,
A
we
bark-
shall
were horses, the beggars might

37. Content is all.
but a block.
40.
39.
Enough
book that reas good as a
is
are the roses of yesterday?
can find fault.

lost.
or-
Every donkey loves to hear himself bray.
41.
Where
42.
Carved wood
30.
the hill goes merrily.
mains shut
feast.
28.
In
27.
Charity suffereth long.
36.
Down
38.
other
fool's
Delicate wood-carvings on
29.
bargain
ing dog seldom bites.

catch larks.
know
cannot be called a
thief.
carved beautifully.
Japanese gates are
ride.
20.
can be beautifully carved.
in Japan.
be called a vandal.
a gentleman. 32.
white
This desk
people's property.
naments gates
Smooth wood
Japan, wood
16.
is
22.
23.
26.
has a fine surface.
not owned by me.

paper.
is
This wall
14.
like paper.
is
people"
17.
This desk was very smooth.
19.
beautiful.
kills
That wall stands.
Desks which are smooth are

students.
18. This desk is smooth.
a fool's paper.
is
"Debt
10.
Walls stand.
11.
44.
43.
Any
fool
For want of a shoe the horse was
Good bargains
spenders are bad lenders.
are pickpockets.
47.
Half a loaf
Great
better than
46.
is
Look before you leap. 49. You got what

51. In w hat reletter?
50. Weeds want no sowing.
52. Though
ligion were you told that a man must live?
thou hadst all the artillery of Woolwich thundering at
no bread.
48.
We
is
clause, but
the subject.
is
Sky
is
the subject of a subordinate
not the subject of this sentence.
137
thy back in support of an unjust thing, I should counsel

thee to cry " Halt " 53. The fool saith, " Who would
!
have thought it?"
"
54.
They say
We have called the
261.
so "
half a
is
lie.
subject of a sentence
the part naming that about which something

stated, inquired, requested, or
is
But
we
this is only a
say,
this
fish,
If
rough
or about
we?
we emphasize
we, then the statement
we emphasize
chiefly about we.
If
chiefly about fish.
But
in
matically the subject, for

the pronoun, and
Then you
262.
it
subject
idea
if
any case we
it is
is
it
is
gram-
a subject-form of
will say
Why,
dummy "
subject
Yes, we will be
the speaker's
in that case,
;
just a
only a formal
mind was
full
of the
fish.
Suppose now we say, "
263.
father
must go away
subject
is
it,
so soon."
be written, " That father

too bad."
It is too
It
bad that
Here the formal
but the real subject
should go away so soon."
is
fish,
is
stands before the verb.
we may be only a "
mere form.
fish on the shore
statement made about
the
Is
Suppose
definition.
We found an immense
morning.
commanded.
is
" that father
The sentence could

must go away so soon
was used merely to put the
138
predicate
is too
bad in an emphatic place, at the
beginning of the sentence.
When
word
it is
used at the beginning of
a sentence merely to
throw emphasis on the
the
which
predicate,
subject,
is
then followed by the true
called the expletive (or unneces-
it is
sary) subject.
In another kind of sentence
264.
it is
used as
a formal subject, but not as an expletive.

It snows.
It is
hot this morning.
In these cases the speaker uses a formal subject,
because every English sentence must have a
it,
But
subject.
cate
He
only.
whether
it is
of a fairy.
air
or
does not ask what snows
He
does not care whether
weather or temperature which
The heat
exists,
and he takes the
Such a sentence
so.
265.
thinking of the predi-
is
is
it
way
is
it is
hot.
of say-
called impersonal.
Another word, There,
pletive to
a cloud, or the sky, or the feather-
bed
ing
mind
his
is
used as an ex-
throw emphasis on some part
of the
word There throws

emphasis chiefly on the subject. " There's music in the air " means the same as " Music is in
the air," but There emphasizes the word music.
sentence.
Unlike
It,
the
SUBJECT AND PBEBICATE

In
such,
sentences
merely the word
the
139
predicate
is
often
but the sentence sounds
is,
" There's a
when deprived of There.
way of doing everything " means " A best
strange
best
way of doing everything is." But nobody would

ever use the second form.
Oral Exercise.
266.
subjects
Point out the formal
and the thought subjects
ing sentences.
in the follow-
have only
Several sentences
formal subjects.
1.
It is easier to pull
down than to build.
2.
It will all
be the same in a hundred years. 3. It is for want of

thinking that most men come to grief. 4. It is a wicked
thing to make a dearth one's garner. 5. It is good to be
merry
is
at meat.
6.
It is
7. There
There goes some
never too late to learn.
a devil in every berry of the grape.
reason to the roasting of eggs.
8.
There
9.
is
a best
way
of
10. There is no
There will be many a dry
There is no rule without an
doing everything, even boiling an egg.

royal road to learning.
cheek after him.
11.
12.
exception.
267.
We
have seen that the process of form-
ing a judgment
is
a very quick one.
quick that the mind
is
It is so
not conscious of making
a predicate about a subject.
The whole thought
seems to be one thing, without parts.
One
of the morals of this
write a sentence
we
is
that
when we
should not indicate the end
140
of the subject
subject
by any mark
so long that
is
board to show where
it
of punctuation.
we have
ends, why,
And
If
our
to put a sign-
we had
better
we have a habit
of putting our pen-point down on the paper
just to rest the hand, we should reform that
shorten our subject.
if
habit altogether.
Below are two columns showing the correct and the incorrect method of punctuating
subject and predicate.
268.
Wrong Pointing of
Subject
and Predicate
1.
The
eyes,
are very
The
1.
The eyes are very
noticeable.
noticeable.
2.
Right Pointing of Subject

and Predicate
eyes, of the per-
2.
The
eyes of the per-
son I here describe, are very
son I here describe are very
noticeable.
noticeable.
To have some one

cackling at your elbow,
To have some one

cackling at your elbow
3.
spoils
your walk.
3.
spoils
your walk.
4. Our chief disappointOur chief disappointment was the fact, that the ment was the fact that the
water was muddy.
water was muddy.
4.
5.
The
intelligent
face
5.
The
intelligent
of St. Francis, has a thin,
of St. Francis has
delicate nose.
delicate nose.
269.
face
a thin,
Written Exercise. Study Mr. Bough-
ton's picture of
"Puritans Going to Church."
141
Then copy and finish all the sentences given

below.
Be careful to place no punctuation
after the subject of
any sentence.
PURITANS GOING TO CHURCH

The scene of Mr. Boughton's picture called " Puritans
Going to Church " is in old New England. A party of
PURITANS GOING TO CHURCH
fourteen persons
is
passing through
In the back-
ground there is
The ground
That there is
danger of the party's being attacked by Indians is clear
from
One of the two men who form the rear
guard already fears that
It is he who is holding
The two men who lead the party
But
out
the little Puritan maiden who walks with her mother in
.
the centre of the line
270.
Every written question,
or interrogative
sentence, should end with a question
mark
(?).
142
This
not a hard rule to apply, but
is
hard rule to remember to apply.
it is
Beginners
are likely to end questions with the period.
Written Exercise.
271.
Write
as
many
you can about the pic" Puritans Going to Church," and end
intelligent questions as
ture of
each with a question mark.
not neces-
It is
sary that you should be able to answer every
question that
All that
is
you write about the
necessary
is
picture.
to ask sensible, serious
questions.
We
272.
it
is
have seen that in written language
usually important to express each judg-
ment
in a full statement, so that
We
be misunderstood.
shall
tain recognized expressions
now
it
may
not
consider cer-
which are not
full
statements but are accepted as such.
Such words
273.
we may
call
as Yes
and No make what
implied statements.
Yes implies
as " I agree
with you," or
some such statement
"I will comply with your wish." A

word that implies a statement may be
single
called
a sentence-word.
274.
The commonest sentence-words
clamations, which
are
often better
are ex-
means
of
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS
143
expressing feeling than statements would be.
A word
like
Hurrah! implies some such
state-
"I am mightily pleased." But people

will understand Hurrah! quicker than the
They will understand Ouch!
statement.
ment
as
than any assertion
quicker
about pain.
In
such words as Hurrah! and Ouch! the feeling

is
often
expressed before the implied state-
ment has time

275.
formed in the mind.
to be
Exclamatory sentence-words are called
interjections.
An interjection is a sentence-word
expressing a feeling, as in the case of Alas
Hurrah!
Hush !
276.
or
or a half-command, as in the case of
or Behold
or See
Often a single word implies the
state-
ment "I am speaking to you."

In "John,
you come here," John implies that John is
being
addressed.
sentence-word used to
inform a person that he
is
addressed
is
called
a vocative.
277.
Oral
Exercise.
lowing anecdote.
tence-word, and
to
you
to imply.
Then
tell
Read aloud the
fol-
point out each sen-
what statement
it
seems
144
john's notion of " ferment "

"
Can you
spell ferment, Alice ? " said the teacher.
" Yes, Mr.
Varney," answered Alice.
"
Can you
define the word,
"
No, sir."
Then, John, can you define it ? "
Certainly!" said John.
"Ferment means to work.
"
"
my
" F-e-r-m-e-n-t."
dear ? "
It says so in the dictionary."
Dear me " sighed small Alice to herself. " How

clever John is."
" Now can you use the word for me in a sentence,
"
John?"
" Yes,
sir.
had rather play out of doors than ferment
in the schoolhouse."
Sentence-words are usually written with
278.
They form no grammatical part
a sentence.
it,
being implied sentences themselves
of
but be-
cause they are attached to the sentence closely,
being written somewhere between the capital
and the period, they are called independent

ments
of
ele-
it.
In " John, you are wanted," the vocative John

is
an independent element of
In "
You
its
sentence.
you come here," the
first
You
is
an independent element, while the second you

is
the subject of come.
In " John, come here," John
is
an independent
element, and the sentence-word come implies the
subject you.
We
come.
John
is
here not the subject of
pause after the word John, and put
comma, to show that John

and then told to come.
a
Remember
279.
separated
145
from
its
is first
that a vocative
sentence by a
spoken
is
comma
to,
regularly
or
an
ex-
clamation point.
Sometimes a full statement, or a phrase

implying a statement, is inserted within a
280.
Three such independent elements
sentence.
are
printed in
"
tence.
able
how
italics
in
the
Coming home hungry
following sen(it is
remark-
come home hungry^) John
often boys
went straight to the pantry, and, truth to tell,

consumed six biscuits and a quart of milk but
such was his haste
he was nearly choked by
;
the milk."
full
tence
where
sentence or a phrase implying a sen-
may
it is
be inserted within another sentence,

called a parenthesis.
set off a parenthesis

(
),
281.
or
commas
by curves
In writing, we
( ), or dashes
(, ,).
The independent
elements of a sentence
are interjections, vocatives,
and parentheses.
146
282.
Read aloud the following
Exercise.
Then point out the independent elements

sentences, and describe them as interjec-
story.
of the
tions, vocatives, or parentheses.
The Retired Burglar's Story
"My
son," said the retired burglar,
experience one night.
I got into a
"I had an odd
house and went up
There was a light shining through the

Pshaw
said I, or something worse.
Hello
thought I, this is curious/ A
the front stairs.
crack of a door.
'
I looked in.
'
'
'
man was standing there, all dressed, at the foot of a bed.

On the bed was a boy, very still and white and sick. The
board my foot was on creaked, and the man looked my
Come in,' he said, and I went in. The child
way.
looked up at me (he was lying in such a way that he
could easily see me), but he said nothing. Then the man
(I know you won't believe this) said to me as softly as
'
you
please,
'
I can't leave
wish you would go for the doctor,
my
boy.'
He
'
Yes,
sir,'
said
me where
I.
'
my friend.
Where
will I
and I went.
The doctor was asleep, of course, but I banged on his
door.
Ah, there
said I, when he thrust his head out
of the window,
Is that you, doctor ?
Who else would
?
it be, you disturber of the peace
said he (he was a little
The man wants you up at
man, but he was emphatic).
that brown house where the light is.' He said All right,
I'll be up there immediately.'
He had been expecting
the message, as it were. I waited till I saw him on the
road up the hill
I thought he might delay
and then
I went on my own way, still feeling very much surprised
find him, sir?'
told
to go,
'
'
'
'
'
'
<
'
in
my
throat, so to speak."
283.
Written Exercise.
the two pictures and write a

it,
147
Choose one of
little
story about
giving such exclamations and vocatives as
THE PRINCES
IN
THE TOWER
you think the various persons might probably

utter.
End
each interjection or exclamatory
sentence with the exclamation point.
Separate
148
each vocative from
its
an exclamation point.
sentence by a
An
comma
exclamation point
standing between any sentence-word and

sentence
The
is
picture shows
of
NORWAY
London, and there put to death.
The
Edward, who was rightfully king

England, and ought to have been crowned as
older prince
of
two English princes
imprisoned, by a cruel uncle, in the
BICYCLING IN
Tower
its
followed by a small letter.
first
who were
or
is
The younger prince is

Edward the Fifth.
named Richard.
Their cruel uncle Gloster
became Richard the Third.
The second picture is
Norway. You may find
names
to the boys
Olga, Hilda,
and
149
a bicycling scene in
it
convenient to give
girls
such names
as
Anna, Augusta, Frida, Gustaf,
Olaf, Ole, Hans.
CHAPTER
VI
COMPOUND SUBJECTS, PREDICATES, AND

SENTENCES
284.
When we say one thing about one
thing,
But we may wish

to say the same thing about two or more subin this case we usually make a compound
jects
subject, as in " Jack and Jill went up the hill."
Again, we may wish to say two or more things
about one subject in this case we do not usually
repeat the subject, but make a compound predicate, as in "Jack fell down and broke his crown."
A simple sentence has one subject and one
predicate, either of which may be compound.
we make
a simple sentence.
285.
compound
subject or predicate
may
be of considerable length, as the sentences fol-
lowing will show.

Compound
1.
Simple Predicate
Subject
Neither great poverty nor

great riches
2.
>
Men, monkeys,
bears, chickadees, flounders, and oysters
150
are animals
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES

Compound Predicate
Simple Subject
o
Th
H i
fi
sw ^ ms or sm ks, or wades,
'.
or
\
a
4.
A
a
-j
good cause
or creeps,
flies.
makes the heart stout and strengthens

*
the arm#
no
Often
286.
151
show the parts
punctuation
of
is
compound
needed to
subject
or
predicate.
2.
Jack and Jill went up the hill.

Jack fell down and broke his crown.
3.
Neither great poverty nor great riches will hear
1.
reason.
287.
But
the
if
compound subject
or predi-
cate consists of several simple subjects or predi-
commas may be needed
cates,
apart.
You
This
is
to
and
3 in 285.
comma may
take the
so in sentences 2
see (in 2) that the
keep them
But notice that the comma

occurs before one and in such a series.
Show where commas should be inserted in the
place
of
and.
following sentences.
1.
Joy temperance and repose slam the door on the
doctor's nose.
rained blew and finally hailed.
2.
It
3.
Caesar
Pompey and
4.
Csesar
came saw and conquered.
5.
Neither ridicule threats nor blows could change
the boy's purpose.
Crassus ruled
Rome
together.
152
When the two
288.
long, so as to
comma
is
parts of the predicate are
seem like two separate statements,

needed.
This
is
especially
true
before but.
1.
2.
God
He
stays long, but strikes at last.
stood silent a minute, and then began to speak.
Tad was at one time much

annoyed by the bragging ways of a snobbish schoolmate
who did not as yet know Tad's parentage, and on beingasked who his father was replied, " A woodchopper."
3.
President Lincoln's son
289.
Oral Exercise.
Point out each com-
pound subject and compound predicate

following anecdote.
which
a
is
comma
Then
consider each place
underlined, and say whether

or not.
in the
it
needs
Give your reasons.
A DEFECTIVE EDUCATION
Mr. Hearn
is
a writer and traveler.
Japanese language
we ll
He knows
the
an d has recently become a Jap-
He spea ks an d writes the language pernow but was some time in learning it. Before he
anese citizen.
fectly
had mastered it he met with a peculiar experience and

was much amused by it.
A Japanese gentleman and scholar was entertaining
Mr. Hearn. He had heard that his guest was a literary
man and was much interested in the fact. Now in
Japan a man of letters usually holds a high office of
some sort and is in every way a person of great authority.
But he must possess one particular art, that of writing a
COMPOUND SENTENCES
153
as clear as engraving.
One day the host came into
room where Mr. Hearn was and noticed some
sheets of paper on which Mr. Hearn had written certain
memoranda. He looked at the manuscript with great
Mr. Hearn and
respect but did not seem enthusiastic.
talking
together later in the day and
his interpreter were
were speaking of the host. Then Mr. Hearn learned
that the host had remarked, " He must have had great
personal popularity at home that they did not send him
to writing-school before they sent him abroad."
hand
the
When two
290.
statements
that
may
be
written as wholes are very closely related in

sense, they
may
pound sentence.
be joined together in one com-
Each
will
keep
its
own
subject
and predicate and will be equally important with

its
neighbor; but both will form one whole.
This joining together of two grammatically
independent
several
tences
statements
may
Let
take
ways.
us
They
advice.
We
2.
3.
4.
the
two
in
sen-
cannot give conduct.
are closely related
the principle of contrast.
1.
effected
We may give
thus
be
to
each other by
We may
join
them
We may give
We may give
We may give
We may give
we cannot give conduct.

but we cannot give conduct.
we cannot give conduct.
but
advice,
advice but we cannot give conduct.
advice;
advice
154
In the
these four compounds, the capi-
first of
tal letter of the
second sentence
dropped,
is
whereupon a semicolon takes the place of the

period, and we have two independent clauses
The semicolon has the power of
of equal rank.
the period
to
stand
between
matically independent of each other.

connect
to
independent
gram-
statements
statements
It is used
which
are
closely related in sense.
In the second compound sentence
and connect the sentences by
the semicolon
but,
thus making the junction less abrupt and
the contrast a
little clearer.
we keep
it, to make
In the third sentence

place a
tion
we keep
comma
still
before
closer.
the but and
the connec-
Except for the word
should not dare change the semicolon
comma,
for ordinarily the
comma may
we
but,
to
not sepa-
rate statements that are grammatically indepen-
dent of each other.
In the fourth compound
comma and keep
we throw away
only the connective
securing the closest possible
but,
the
thus
junction of the
two statements. Joining two sentences into

one by only the word but is not common, and
often not safe.
But sometimes means except;
and such a sentence as " He gave away all the
COMPOUND SENTENCES
money but one
was returned
dollar
we
be read twice before
what
see
comma would have shown
was
155
it
"
must
means.
at once that but
to introduce a statement.
291.
Of the four kinds
pounds, the third

type.
Make
is
by
of
contrast-com-
far the
most common
a general rule not to connect
it
two independent statements by

placing a
292.
comma
but
before but.
Written Exercise.
Join each two
Change the
sentences as follows.
second sentence to a small
letter.
capital of the
Between the
sentences put either a semicolon (;) or a
with but
(,
without
comma
according as you think best.
but),
For example, the
first
two sentences are best
joined by a semicolon, thus

After dinner
The
awhile
sit
after supper
walk a mile.
third pair of sentences needs a
comma
with but:
You
1.
2.
smile, but
After dinner
you
sit
Clowns are best
are best everywhere.
After supper walk a mile.
awhile.
own company. Gentlemen

You smile. You bite. 4. We
in their
3.
bound to be honest.
Be bold. Be not too
are
5.
bite.
We
bound to be rich.
Experience keeps a
are not
bold.
6.
156
Fools will learn in no other.
dear school.
He
long.
strikes
at
last.
8.
He
is
God
7.
He
rich.
stays
is
not
His clothes are worth pounds. His wit is

10. Knowledge is a treasure.
Pracdear at a penny.
They must
11. Lips may be rosy.
tise is the key to it.
He could not
12. Samson was a strong man.
be fed.
13. Spend not where you
pay money before he had it.
may save. Spare not where you must spend. 14. The
satisfied.
9.
fool's coat
may
pishness
vulgar.
is
clothes never
man
rich.
We make
make
only a fool's coat.
15.
Fop-
Neatness never made a fop.
16.
Fine
It is
fine.
won
17.
estly dirty
293.
be
Clean nails have made a
a position.
Labor makes dirty hands. Hands hon18. 'Tis a wicked world.

clean money.
a part of
it.
People have occasion to make compound
sentences by means of and quite as often as by
means
Little children
of but.
seem
half their sentences with this word.
And
to begin
They say
while they are thinking what to say next.
But
it is
not often wise to write
you could
at the
Take any printed
beginning of a sentence.
page you please
And
insert
And
before
nearly every sentence without really changing

the sense.
294.
When two
one thought, or
make but one

to join
them
statements express parts of
tell
step
two
in
the
acts
that together
story,
in one sentence.
it
is
well
Examples;
COMPOUND SENTENCES
The
151
clock struck one, and the
3.
mouse ran down.

Washington reached Yorktown, and the siege began.
Art is long and life is short.
beginner should be cautious about joining
1.
2.
more than two statements by AND.
There are two reasons for insisting on
this
it,
his reader
may
lose his breath in reading the
string of
and
If the
rule.
statements;
beginner breaks
or
may
lose the
thought because
things really different in meaning are offered

as
they were alike in meaning.
if
Try
"
to read this sentence aloud
We started about breakfast time after eating a hastily
prepared meal and we rode along toward Atlantic City
and enjoyed the fresh air till we suddenly came to a

and saw that we had come to an inlet about half a
mile wide and we were at a loss what to do and my chum
said there must be a little steamer if we only waited long
enough and there was but it didn't come till ten o'clock."
halt
Also try to understand this sentence
" At last we got aboard the steamer and put our wheels
on the forward deck and did you ever sit and watch the
water as it looks at the prow of a boat and wonder why
there
is
little hill of it all
the time just in front of the
sharp stem ? "
You
sure
can understand the last sentence, to be
but you object to being dragged from
topic to topic.
Your mind expected
a pause
158
the story after the wheels were safely on
in
Had
deck.
there been a decent pause, a period,
you would have been glad
to listen to the inter-
esting question about the water at the prow.
Independent statements that are closely
295.
connected in meaning
may
be connected in one
sentence by four methods, as in the case of
contrast-compounds.
1.
The
rain descended; the floods came;
The
rain descended
the winds
blew.
2.
came
and the
floods
and the
rain descended,
and the
floods came,
and the
and the
floods
winds blew.
The
3.
winds blew.
The
4.
rain descended
came and the
winds blew.
Which of these forms is the most emphatic ?

Which is the least emphatic but makes the
closest
As
union?
in the case of but,
it
is
often unsafe to
use the fourth form, that without any

of
punctuation.
How
might the
mark
following
sentence be misunderstood at first?
The pickerel broke the line and the net

296.
Such a compound
advice, but
we cannot
as
"
just saved him.

We
give conduct "
can give
is
a com-
COMPOUND SENTENCES CONDENSED

pound sentence merely because we
159
repeated
is
for emphasis.
It could be
shortened to a simple
sentence with
compound
predicate
"
give advice, but cannot give conduct."
we may
shorten
further
"
to
We
We
can
Indeed,
can give
advice, but not conduct."
Whether the shorter forms

depends
longer
the
on
are better than
circumstances.
In
young writers use more words than
general,
are necessary to express their thoughts.
Written Exercise.
297.
two sentences into one.
Condense each
Let
tence be as short as possible.
the
new
sen-
Explain your
punctuation.
A boaster
1.
is
a cousin to the
liar.
liar is a cousin
away the appetite.

Danger grows on
the same stock as delight. Delight grows on the same
stock as danger. 4. Penny laid up with penny will increase.
They will be many. 5. The ignorant has an
to the
boaster.
2.
Eating
takes
Drinking takes away the appetite.
eagle's
wings.
He
3.
has also an owl's eyes.
6.
Truths
Roses have thorns too.

So does white paper.
8. Children are certain cares.
But they are uncertain
comforts. 9. Be thou bold. But be thou not too bold.
have
7.
thorns
about
them.
Youth takes any impression.
10.
Good
dogs.
may
They do not bite like

One may understand like an angel. Yet one
devil.
12. Wars are pleasant in the ear. They
jests bite like lambs.
11.
be a
are not pleasant in the eye.
160
298.
"
Afterthoughts " often play havoc with
punctuation, as
afterthought
we saw
may occur to
The
and 235.
in 193
the writer as a phrase,
compound
a subordinate clause, or a part of a

predicate.
Wrong Pointing of "Afterthoughts

Phrase.
"
hair.
And
hair.
But
hair.
Her
blue eyes.
Phrase.
not blue eyes.
Phrase.
eyes being blue.
Subordinate clause.
So that her blue eyes mate
hair.
Subordinate clause.
As
hair.
her mother had before her.
Part of compound predicate.

tiful
it.
golden hair.
And
is
She has beau-
like her
mother
in
this.
Part of compound predicate. She has beautiful golden hair.

But lets it go unkempt.
He knows
Part of compound predicate.

about guns.
Or thinks he
all
does.
In every case the period should have been

a
comma, and the succeeding
letter.
capital
a small
"
AFTERTHOUGHTS "
161
Right Pointing of "Afterthoughts "
hair,
and blue
hair,
eyes.
but not blue
eyes.
hair,
her eyes being
blue.

eyes mate
it.
had before
hair, so that her blue
hair, as her
her.
She has beautiful golden hair, and
mother in
mother
is
like her
this.
hair,
but
lets it
go
unkempt.
He knows
all
about
guns, or
thinks
he
does.
Sometimes
it is
well to stop on finding such
an error in our work, and ask whether we did

not really wish to make an independent state-
Take an example
ment.
"
He
again.
ran away to the wars and never came
And was
never even heard of."
would be better to change the And

Indeed, and supply the missing subject
Here
to
home
"He
again.
it
ran away to the wr ars and never came

Indeed, he was never heard of."
home
162
299.
Written Exercise.
count of what
is
room, the examining

little
girl,
ac-
happening in the picture.
Give one sentence to each

the
Write an
of the following
officer,
the
the clerk, the guard,
the two women.
Give two or
three sentences to the boy, the central figure.
Use and and
''AND
but as freely as
WHEN
you think
best,
DID YOU LAST SEE YOUR FATHER ?"
consider the punctuation in each case.
your paper, "

father ? "
but
And when
Head
did you last see your
Read your work aloud and defend
the punctuation.
300.
Written Exercise.
Write a short
account of some trip that you took with other

persons or another person, telling what hap-
14
AFTERTHOUGHTS "
pened and what each person

or,
did.
163
Use and,
but,
nor as freely as you think best, but consider
the punctuation.
ately.
Read
it
Head your paper
aloud
sentences, subjects,
point out the
and predicates
appropri-
compound
and defend
the punctuation.
To
the Teacher. Other exercises similar to those of

299 and 300 should be set at this point if the student
has not yet learned how to punctuate his own compound
sentences and predicates.
PART SECOND
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE, AND
FORMS OF WORDS
INTRODUCTION
We
have learned how to divide a sentence into its subject and predicate.
We next
301.
how
try to see
word
a sentence
is first
ing
Then
black.
sign for the sound

of five letters that
is
it
:
up
of words.
group
of sounds,
built
a sound, or a
for example, that
as,
is
which we make
a written
is
or
for example, the
we
call black.
in say-
printed
group
The word
the sign of an idea, the idea of black.
making statements, we
find ourselves wishing
to use the idea of black in various ways.
may
In
We
say
1.
2.
3.
4.
In the
black as
Black is very different from white.

A crow is a black bird.
But a crow is not a blackbird.
Boys black their shoes.
first
if it
sentence
we
were a thing.
treat the idea of
In the second we
put black before bird to show what kind of

bird a crow
to bird,
is.
In the third
making one
solid word.
167
we
fasten black
In the fourth
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
168
we
use
black
to tell
what boys do
to
their
shoes.
We
have used black as three different " parts
of speech "
first
as a noun, then (twice) as
The
an adjective, then as a verb.

speech are eight
parts
of
which words may
classes to
be assigned, chiefly according to their use in

sentences.
The same word
to all the eight classes, but

to
two or
three.
Thus
never assigned
is
it
may
black
is
be assigned
a verb, an
adjective, or a noun, according to circumstances.

302.
The
eight parts of speech are
nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,
and
conjunctions,
Examples
Nouns
interjections.
John, shot-gun, fox, death.

Pronouns: I, you, he, who.
Verbs: thinks, tries, expects, succeeds.
the, large, strong, manly.
Adjectives
Adverbs now, here, bravely, steadily.
:
Prepositions
in,
at,
with.
to,
Conjunctions: and, but,

Interjections
ah
'rah
if,
although.
hurrah
hello
CHAPTER
VERBS
Verb
303.
verb
a single
is
ject;
it
chapter,
is
In the
defined.
strict
word which can take
the simplest predicate.
therefore,
verb
will
book we sometimes
a sub-
In this
always mean
single word, like runs, or ran.

this
sense,
Elsewhere in
find it convenient to
treat certain whole phrases, like will run, as
verbs.
In a statement or a question, the subject of
an English verb must always

257).
(186,
expressed.
mand,
as
304.
In a
command
expressed
need not be
it
The verb can form
"Go!"
be
a whole com-
(258).
The verb makes the speaker responsible.
we say the boy, we utter merely a name.

A name expresses no opinion, wish, or command. But the minute we add a verb to the
name, as in The boy lies, we are held responIf
sible for a statement.
we can
modify our
responsibility by putting certain words with
It
is
true that
169
often
170
We
the verb.
or If he
a
can say Perhaps
he
lies,
verb lessens
lies,
Putting if before
responsibility, but shows
is
its
that another verb
boy
this
is
liar.
coming which
will share
In the sentence above,
the responsibility.
is
a liar expresses the speaker's belief, as modified
by If
he
lies.
The verb
the
is
and makes the
asserter,
speaker (not the subject) responsible for the

statement.
We
The verb explains the subject.
305.
learn
names long before we know all they mean.

Fire means little to the baby till he understands what the fire does.
He learns gradually
that
fire
leaps, spreads,
new
burns,
shines,
cooks.
action of the
Every time he learns a
fire,
that act explains
to him.
His notion of the
modified,
made completer.
When
child,
the
child
wishes
he says: " Look out!
fire
is
fire
the other child's idea of
modifies the
iOne
noun
Much
changed,
burns I
fire.
He
He
modi-
His verb
for the other child.
of Shakspere's characters says
peacemaker.
fire
warn another
to
uses the verb to explain the noun.

fies
crackles,
dries,
heats,
virtue in if."
" If
is
your only
VERBS
171
For such reasons we might always speak

the verb as a modifier of
its
subject.
of
But we
rarely do so, for the important fact about the
verb
that
is
it
"modifier" for
cannot
assert,
meaning
We
asserts.
words
like
beautiful,
which
but nevertheless can change the
of the
Beautiful horse
words
is
to
which they are joined.
a very different idea from
but beautiful horse
horse,
save the term
is
only a name, not
an assertion.
Analysis Exercise.
306.
Nail the shoe on.
1.
shoe
the
loose.
is
colt.
6.
4.
2.
hunter carries
nail is lost.
Blacksmiths shoe horses.
The boy
3.
5.
The
Shoe
7. The
The mountain has a
9. Clouds cap the mountain.
10. The
11. He knifes the wounded
a knife.
whittled a shingle.
carpenter shingled the roof.
cap of clouds.
The
Select the verbs.
8.
Our men went into battle. 13. Heroes battle

15. Hoe your row.
for justice.
14. Take your hoe.
16. The raccoon is in that tree.
17. The dog treed
him. 18. Water the flowers with fresh water. 19. Re20. Chimneys
turn their fire as soon as they fire.
smoke too much in Chicago, St. Louis, and Pittsburg.
22. They stoned
21. The smoke hurts people's lungs.
deer.
12.
23. Mobs use cobble-stones as weaThey mobbed the house. 25. Use a horsewhip on the bully.
27. The
26. Horsewhip him.
Stephen to death.
pons.
24.
28. Stars blossom in heaven.

30. Our train ran at
Blossoms star the meadow.
32. We
forty miles an hour.
31. It made a quick run.
light lights the sailor.

29.
172
walk our horses

a walk.
here.
Their pace
33.
The guide guided
34.
no
faster than
35.
We
is
us well.
the turn of the road so sharply that
my
aunt said
turned
gave
it
Fight the fight bravely.

37. That
throw he throws the ball to the
38. We laugh a laugh.
center field.
39. We taste a
taste.
40. We wish a wish.
her a "turn."
36.
makes a
catcher
far
Action
307.
and
verbs
Most
link-verbs. 1
verbs assert action, or what seems like action
This
burns, does, runs, thinks.
many
of the statements that
are about things in action.
unnoticed, but
lie
wasp
in
because so
is
men
care to
make
dead wasp may

action
arouses
us to express opinions.
But
verb like
or
seems expresses no
In a sentence like John
action.
merely
shows
that
responsibility
of
merely asserts
may
is
be
called
the
calling
it
the
is
speaker
John
like
John and
verb are am,
a hero,
pure
the
hero.
Is
Often
verb.
hero.
it
is
is
joins
two
Other forms of
this
it
looks, tastes,
becomes are often
used as link-verbs, as in John seems a
are, was, were.
Seems, appears,
But these
is
takes
purely an asserter
called the pure link-verb, because
words
is
are not pure verbs, for they
To the Teacher.
Link-verb
includes more than copula.
is
hero.
mean
Sweet's term.
It
VERBS
more than
Thus,
is.
173
means
appears
is
in
appearance.
somebody
it
Most actions
verbs.
Transitive
308.
or something.
pinches somebody.
shoe pinches,
If the
verb can represent
If a
subject as acting on something,
its
In Debt
transitive.
to
fall
twinkles;
it
on
called
it is
men, debt acts on men.
Some
Intransitive verbs.
309.
seem
kills
affect
actions do not
anything.
merely
star
does not twinkle anything.
If
a verb cannot represent its subject as acting
on anything,
it
an
is
intransitive
verb. 1
All
link-verbs are of course intransitive.

310.
Many
verbs are sometimes transitive,
Runs
sometimes intransitive.
in The
company runs two
takes an object
trains,
but does not
The train runs.
in
Sometimes a verb
is
even though no object

kills,
kills is
do not learn
1
Remember
is
essentially
expressed.
essentially transitive,
whom
that
we
debt
transitive,
kills.
In Debt
though we
are speaking of verbs proper, which
are single words.

2
To the Teacher.
the speaker
transitive
distinction
if
is
is
he
verb
is
feels it as such.
essentially transitive to
A verb
by the speaker
never worth quarreling
often felt
that
is
logically
as intransitive.
over.
The
174
311.
and
tell
Analysis Exercise.
whether
it is
Select each verb,
transitive or intransitive.
The kite flies. 2. The Chinese boy flies a kite.

The cruiser flies the American flag. 4. The tree fell.
6. The king marched
5. The woodman felled the tree.
7. The king marched his men down.
up the hill.
9. March yourself up.
10. Our side won
8. March up.
11. Our side won [310].
12. The man who
the game.
catches a fish still fishes.
13. The fisherman fished a
dead branch up. II. The coward dies more than once.
16. Bet two to one
15. The dyer dyes garments.
against the angry man.
17. I shall not want [310].
18. Work while you work.
19. The drayman worked
his horse too hard.
20. The muscles of his face
worked.
21. Begin work sharply, and quit it sharply.
22. Begin [310].
23. The chance of a lifetime conies to
every man. 21. The waves break. 25. The rocks break
27. Hope cheers [310].
them.
26. Fear not! [310].
29. Hurry up
30. Hurry this
28. Every little helps.
1.
3.
please.
CHAPTER
II
NOUNS
Noun
noun is a
312.
Noun means "name."
defined.
word used as a name, as

John, horse, gold.
By noun we usually mean
a fixed name.
Some names are not fixed
pronouns, like I and you, are names that
change their meaning with every person, and
single
are therefore a kind of variable noun.
many
There are so
that
each
cannot
things
have
the
in
world
We
own name.
its
cannot give every individual tree a word to
There are
itself.
and
billions of trees in
only a quarter of a
English.
Such words
as tree,
signify classes of objects,
names.
Probably there
million
is
else.
words
and are
called class-
no one thing in the
We
its
call a certain
London, but there are several Londons.
may call a certain man

many Johns.
Still we
175
in
evergreen, pine
world which does not have to share

with something
America,
name
city
We
John, but there are

call
such
words as
176
London and John individual-names, and we

write them with capitals to show the fact.
Examples
313.
things
for
we never
We
nouns.
we can
that
We
apple.
of
touch,
perceive
things
as
with
our senses.
name things
Some
that
like goodness, hope, courage.
good men, hopeful men, courageous
see
men
we
ings
but
we
see,
Others name unseen things which
are unreal.
We
taste,
have also names for things that
nouns, like gnome and fairy,
are real
names
have
see beautiful roses

it
is
and lovely morn-
only with our mind's eye that
see goodness, hope, courage, beauty, loveli-
ness.
Note the following nouns
animal, biped, man, Frenchman.

dog, hound, deerhound, Ponto.
boy, schoolboy, student, Charles.
community,
city,
Boston.
Lincoln, son, husband, father, president, martyr.

traits,
goodness, courage, kindness, mercy.
language, English, Latin, German.

tree, death,
fruit, apple,
growth, decay.
greening.
apple, parts, core, seeds, flesh, juice, blossom, stripes.

apple, color, sweetness, juiciness, weight, size.
apple, windfall, grower, seller.
ocean, lake, river, Thames.
177
jsroujsrs
314.
Practise Exercise.
Apply
several
names (single nouns) to each of the following

George Washington Julius Caesar; a canary;
;
rifle.
315.
We
The noun as subject.
use nouns
This
chiefly as the subjects of sentences.
is
because nouns are the signs of things in which
we
and wish
are interested,
316.
to talk about.
When we
The predicate noun.
say
Tom
we show our opinion that Tom deserves a new name we class him among heroes.
In Tom is a hero, the new idea lies chiefly in
is
a hero,
noun
the
cate.
hero.
affirms
Is
hero
The verb
affirmed.
all
Is a hero
other meaning.
is
We
is
is
the whole predi-
the
new name
but
it
lacks
usually clip
it
short,
affirms,
as in Tom's a hero.
predicate noun follows a link-verb, as a
new name asserted of the subject.

The predicate-noun sentence is a very common one. A great deal of our talk consists
in telling what we think things to be or not
The predicate nouns in the following
to be.
are in italics
"See that thing down the street!"
"What
N
is
it?"
178
"It's a icagon."
"No,
"It
a carriage."
it's
a carriage or a wagon either;
isn't
it
sends up
smoke."
"Maybe
"No,
it's
"It's in
a fire-engine"
too small."
it's
plain sight now.
Your wagon
is
an
auto-
mobile."
"So
"
It's
it is.
a beauty, too."
Well, I don't think
so.
Automobiles seem to
me
monsters."
Analysis Exercise.
317.
nouns and the predicate nouns.
ject
Good bargains
1.
are pickpockets.
treat is a brave exploit.

4.
Select the sub-
John
is
a jolly good
appear mountains.
6.
3.
2.
brave re-
John seems a gentleman.
fellow.
5.
picked goose
Molehills
is
often
a biped with-
Man is a biped without feathers. 8. A

an arrow let fly. 9. Hotspur seemed a
feathered Mercury. 10. Adam was a gardener. 11. Acts
become habits. 12. Saving is getting. 13. Promise is
debt.
14. The shower became a storm.
15. The habit
grew to be a tyrant. 1
out feathers.
word spoken
7.
is
The direct
318.
knew
also his
1
it
grew
it
was correct
necessary to insert
to
Suppose that you
boy named John, and that you knew

sister.
You had always thought John
Formerly
is
object.
be a
man.
to
to say,
John grew a man.
be after the verb, as in
Now
John
NOUNS
kind to his
lift
his
sister,
one day you saw John
till
and bring
fist
179
it
down
violently on
her shoulder, so that she cried out with pain.
You have
seen these two persons in a
and John's new relation
relation to each other,

to his sister
is
new
He
a very evil one.
stands in
the relation of a blow-giver to his sister.
You
say to yourself, with surprise, John struck his

sister.
The noun
sister is
verb struck.
called the object of the
John and
that are brought
name two persons
sister
into the
relation of
active
subject and direct object.
The direct object of a verb names the person

or
thing on
whom
on which the subject
or
acts directly.
319.
The indirect
object.
The queen gave Solomon a
In a sentence like
gift,
the queen
is
said to act directly on the gift, because she
gives
it,
she gives
and indirectly on Solomon, because

it to
him.
Solomon
is
therefore called
the indirect object of the verb.
The
son or thing to
is
names the perwhich something
indirect object of a verb
given,
whom
refused,
or to
told,
directly after the verb.
or
sent.
It
stands
180
320.
The name produced.
as
is
John.
John a
call
But
In such a sentence
hero, the direct object of call
after the direct
name
object an ad-
John is given, to complete

This name seems
the sense of John and call.
produced by the verb, and Ave may call it the
produced name or the name produced. 1
ditional
for
1. They named the prince Edward,

2. Simon he surnamed Peter. 3. They chose Williams umpire. 4. They
crowned the baby queen. 5. They elected Washington
president.
6. This habit made him a wreck.
7. His
courage made the undertaking a success.
The name produced
follows the direct object
of a verb of naming, making, or choosing.

321.
jects.
Analysis Exercise.
Tell
each whether
of
object or an indirect object.
Select
it
the oba
is
direct
Select also the
names produced.
1
To the Teacher.
language
is
Such a construction
easily disposed of
formal terms like
"two
we
in
an inflected
take refuge in purely
accusatives."
construction almost defies description.
But
in English this
We
have various
terms like object complement, objective complement, predicate
objective,
and
factitive
objective,
but every one of
them would apply as well to the direct object

of making or naming.
If the instructor wishes
of
a verb
to use the
term complement, perhaps he may like the term the object's

complement, which could be explained as meaning a completer of both the verb and its object.
But all such terms
take us a long way from the psychology of the situation,
NOUNS
That boy
1.
"Jupiter."
umpire
oats.
2.
Let us
call the
dog
Working makes a workman. 4. Work5. They chose Williams

a workman.
3.
ing makes a
sawing
is
181
man
and
gave Williams a mask.

6.
Scientists
7. Take the teacher a book.
call the raccoon a bear.
8. Give the bully a drubbing.
9. Make the bully a
laughing-stock.
The appositive noun.
322.
name
does not seem to
we may put
beside
it
a thing clearly enough,
another noun denoting
add the second noun

way.
John,
proper
became
baker,
first
the
first.
were formed in
this
became
the
finally
name John Baker.
their
lost
the
explain
to
of persons
Simon
given noun
In Vesuvius, the volcano, we
the same thing.
Many names
If a
Simon,
weaver,
Baker and weaver

meaning and became family
Weaver.
names.
noun placed beside another noun
plain
it
is
called an appositive.
In such expressions as the book of

the
to ex-
town of Boston, of
is
Grenesis,
merely a sign of the
appositive construction.
many
two nouns explain each

In Count Tolstoi both words are apposiother.
But usually the second
tives to each other.
In
noun
is
cases the
the true explainer, as in Lincoln, the
president.
182
Analysis Exercise.
323.
Select
the ap-
positives.
John,
1.
John
at
is
my
brother,
school.
school.
Old King Cole was a merry old
5.
soul.
Roman
Count Tolstoi was exiled from Russia.
gem
the
free.
brother
Saul,
G.
rulers calmly.
Columbia,
8.
of the ocean, is said to be the
brave and the
My
rascal, Fido, has brought

Og, king of Bashan, was a
4.
a citizen of Tarsus, confronted the

7.
2.
That
3.
a fish into the parlor.

giant.
at
is
home
of the
Lincoln, a rail- splitter, and Clay,
9.
a mill-boy, became great statesmen.
The genitive noun.
324.
is
form of the noun
printer
s,
genus
of
The
It usually does this
Generally the
it
by
or -s\ as
genitive
explains,
of
what
ink,
ink,
Johns
hat.
telling " whose."
but
predicate noun, as in
is
-'*
genitive always explains
another noun, as in printer
noun
noun
genitive
ending in
what kind
tells
ink.
The
In such a phrase as printer's
ladies'.
printers
ink,
it
before
stands
may
This hat
the
be used as a
is
John's.
It
then called a predicate genitive.
singular genitive ends in -s.
genitive
usually
ends
in
-s\
My
plural
friend's
house names a house belonging to one friend.
My
1
friends'
The
trophe,
sign (')
-s,
and
-s,
house
is
names
house belonging
called the apostrophe.
apostrophe.
We
say apos-
NOUNS'
183
more than one friend. The house of my

friends names a house belonging to more than
to
one friend, but friends
When you
are
in
are writing
may
show the person spoken
here.
vocative
is
element of
its
be used vocatively,
to, as in
John, come
It is
an independent
sentence.
Summary
now
have already
neither the subject nor
the object of any verb.
326.
We
The vocative noun.
seen (276) that a noun
have
Later (526) we
the teacher.
study the genitive more fully.
325.
to
composition and
doubt whether to use an apostrophe
or not, consult
shall
not a genitive.
is
of
noun constructions.
We
may have any
seen that a noun
one of seven chief constructions, or relations

to other
words in the sentence.

John
1.
Subject
2.
Predicate noun
3.
Object
4.
Name
5.
Indirect object
6.
Appositive
7.
Genitive
is
may
be
a hero.
John
It
is
a hero.
We
crowned the baby.

produced We crowned the baby queen.
:
We gave
the
baby a doll.
Grant, the Union general, fought Lee.
Grant, Lee's enemy,
was once
his school-
mate.
In two of these constructions (6 and 7),

nouns are related to each other without the
184
The
help of the verb.

tive are said to
In
appositive and the geni-
modify their nouns.
five of these constructions (1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
nouns are brought into relation to each other
by means
of a verb.
And
while
we speak
of
the subject of the verb, the object of the verb,
noun after a link-verb, and the name produced by the verb, we must not forget that
the
we
are talking of real relations between real
things.
327.
Let us
now
proceed to analyze a few
entire sentences consisting of only
verbs.
1.
2.
We
state
nouns and
The complete subject and the complete predicate.

The simple subject, and its genitive or appositive
modifiers.
3.
4.
The
The
verb.
predicate noun, the direct object, the indirect
object, or the
name produced. 1
1
To the Teacher. These last elements are often called
" complements" of the verb. The tempting simplicity of
such a term as complement of the verb proves on inspection
to be a mechanical simplicity.
The predicate noun complements the subject more than it does the verb. The
produced name complements the object more than it does
the verb.
Every possible effort should be made to prevent analysis

from being mechanical, dead. If the teacher has been in
the habit of using complement in a living way, with plenty
NOUNS
185
Such a sentence as John's father gave John

books would be analyzed as follows
:
1.
The complete
complete predicate
2.
The simple
by the genitive
3.
4.
subject
is
is
and the
John's father,
gave John books.
subject
Father
is father.
is
explained
John's.
The verb is gave.

The direct object
indirect object of gave
of gave
is
the noun books.
is
The
John.
Such a sentence as Germany made William

emperor would be analyzed as follows
:
1.
The complete
predicate
2.
is
subject
is
Germany; the complete
made William emperor.

subject is the same as the complete
The simple
subject.
3.
4.
The verb is made.

The direct object
produced
328.
is
of
made
is
William.
The name
emperor.
Analysis
Exercise.
Analyze
the
1.
4.
Birds
2.
fly.
Words
Worry makes men
selves slaves.
of explanation
tinue to use
6.
slaves.
fly.
5.
3.
Worry
kills
men.
Drunkards make them7. Boys prefer
Girls like chocolates.
and modification, why, he had better conit.
No system
of nomenclature
is
half so
important as the teacher's own extemporaneous terms,

springing from that play of mind which is essential in all
good teaching. It is only to be remembered that a sentence
is a living thing, and that all analysis is, in a way, an
insult to it.
See Chapter X.
186
guns.
Success pleases students.
8.
boys students.
Perseverance
10.
Success makes
9.
conquers
Courage makes mountains molehills.
11.
ness
ruins
students.
Give
18.
become
20.
grocer,
sells
15.
cats.
habits.
17.
Unthrift makes
men
groceries.
are
22.
Kittens become cats.

students
Thrift
21.
think
fools.
24.
praise.
men
brings
paupers.
Minds
fortune's
encourages
patience
Give
19.
Spendthrifts
23.
Teachers'
poundings.
bullies
riches.
13.
Tigers are
14.
Acts
16.
lives.
difficulties.
12. Careless-
Jones,
thoughts.
Misers
are
Men's brains are men's riches.

27. Women's
26. Men's characters are men's riches.
jewels are children. 28. Men's treasures are children.
fortune's
29. Sons'
wickedness breaks parents' hearts.
may watch
30.
Cats
kings.
One kind
peculiar that
ter.
25.
fools.
of noun,
the
we must give
verbal
it
noun,
is
so
a separate chap-
This will be the next chapter.
CHAPTER
III
VERBAL NOUNS
Examine four sentences:
329.
2.
Hunting is fun.
Hunting rabbits
3.
I like hunting.
4.
I like
1.
In
all
is
fun.
hunting rabbits.
these sentences hunting
names a
certain sport.
object.
Hunting
But
this
noun it
noun takes an
is
rabbits is the full
sport mentioned, and rabbits
is
name
of the
the object of
hunting.
noun which can take an object
is
called a
transitive verbal noun.

330.
Examine four other sentences

2.
To hunt is fun.
To hunt rabbits
3.
I like to hunt.
4.
I like to
1.
Here
to
hunt
is
hunt
is
fun.
rabbits.
used exactly like hunting,
in the other sentences.
another verbal noun.

187
So we
call
to
hunt
188
In strictness the real verbal noun
331.
hunt ;
to
not a part of
is
noun
sign of the verbal
To
it.
only the
is
a sign that hunt
be taken as a noun, not as a verb.

to
hunt, the verb
is
is
In
to
like
is like.
To came to be the sign of the verbal noun

in the following
purpose.
a
The
to
still
sport
it
to the
hunt
I go
hunt
go
to
is
the thing for which
verb
to
only natural that after
is
such
keep the
even though
used after
first
hunt comes to show the speaker's
Now
transitive
should
was
go in order to engage in a cer-
tain sport.
So
it
go to a certain place.
shows that
I go.
verbs like go.
intransitive
shows that
way
to,
and say
ceases to
or
hate
as
mean
we
like
like to
hunt,
either towards
or for.
we omit
After certain verbs
332.
For example, we say John does
bottom means, John does
word go
and
is
is still
which
the act of going.
a noun, the
name
of
to.
at
The
an action,
the object of does.
The verbs
after
which we may either omit or
keep
to
are dare, help,
dare
to
go or dare go
please
go,
the
to
go or please go.
and
help
please.
to
We
say
go or help go
VERBAL NOUNS
We
always omit
could;
We
John
But
and
shall,
after
to
may, might;
can,
should; do, did ; must and would.
almost always omit
will go,
189
which
to
after will,
as in
foretells John's future act.
we add to, as in John wills to go,

fashion we may say, Men will to
after wills
in like
do right or wrong.
333.
to
When
the
dropped,
to is
it is
often hard
understand the construction of the verbal
noun.
We
can see that in John wills
to
it.
He
And
the object of
will, if
John does something
to the idea of going.
wills it; he approves
it
in
John will
we mean
go,
go
he " adopts"
is still
go,
John's determination.
But John will go does not always mean the

John will go may
same as John wills to go.
simply mean that John is going, whether he
In Johrfll
wants to go or not.
termination has faded out of

asserts that
John
is
go, all the de-
It
will.
merely
going to do something
do not know what the something
is
till
we
we
reach the verbal noun go.
The verbs may and

shall
and
should, will
might,
and
can and could,
ivould,
do and did,
must and ought are completed by verbal nouns
which were once their direct
objects.
190
The
334.
verbal noun
is
noun which, like

some verbal force.
hunting or [to] hunt, retains

Transitive
nouns can take an object
verbal
and any verbal noun may be modified by
(329),
an adverb, as
in
diligently, or to
hunt here.
hunting around, or
Analysis Exercise.
335.
hunting
Select the verbal
nouns.
1.
Tabby
hunting.
To
4.
do
hunt squirrels. 2. My sister hates

Hunting squirrels is Tabby's pet sport.
likes to
3.
carry coals to Newcastle
all
that
is
honest.
Seeing correctly
7.
me
sad.
9.
is
to think of
it.
ship does.
15.
is
poor policy.
He had
8.
5.
I dare
to eat his words.
Rebuking that boy makes

Doing your best brings
10.
read stories of war.
The
13.
ship's being in the
12. I
hate
water does
But the water's being in the

Do you mind my saying so? 16. Do you
not hurt the ship.

like his
hard.
hate to scold.
11. I love to
success.
6.
going there
14.
Analysis Exercise.
verbal noun in 335 whether it is
336.
Tell
of
each
a subject or an
object.
337.
and
Analysis Exercise.
select the verbal
Turn
say
so.
266,
nouns that are used
thought subjects, in such sentences as

to
to
as
It is easy
VERBAL NOUNS
Analysis Exercise.
338.
nouns that are used

Seeing
1.
hesitate
to fail.
is
Saving
5.
less.
To hear
2.
To
4.
is
Point out verbal
as predicate
believing.
is
191
nouns (316)
is
to obey.
3.
To
say more
getting.
is sometimes to say
Graduating is only com-
6.
mencing.
339.
Analysis Exercise.
nouns and
1.
what verbs they complete.
tell
I shall go.
may become
succeed.
6.
a man.
might
340.
12.
The
you
We
rain.
is
3.
ought to go.
5. We must
7. I won't believe any bad
shall miss my train if I do not
I
to go.
cannot
10.
fail.
Do
13.
not fear.
11.
move, the direct object
to
horse;
We
Let go.
In The driver com-
the verbal
expresses the object's action.
may
I dare do all that
fail.
object's action.
pelled his horse
compelled
8.
I dare
9.
fail.
may
4.
shan't
thing about him.

hurry.
It
2.
We
Select the verbal
noun
of
to
move
verbal
noun
follow an object to express the
object's
action.
Analysis Exercise. Select the verbal

nouns that name the object's action.
341.
1.
Help John
to win.
expect the governor to

fear.
5.
Do yon like
2.
act.
a friend to desert you
enjoy seeing animals suffer?
away ?
8.
Make John hurry.

Yon cannot make
4.
You make
7.
Can you
the teacher smile.
let
6.
3.
We
the boy
Do you
a rabbit run
9.
That deed
192
made
the doer blush.
A good son
10.
God
makes
causes the earth to blos-
Urge
the captain to let my chum enlist.
13. Hope makes
men try. 14. Force the bully to quit. 15. Allow the
16. Let your hearts be glad.
flower to stay on its stalk.
17. To see such misfortune makes your heart ache.
som.
11.
342.
his father rejoice.
12.
Sometimes verbal nouns are attached
directly to nouns, as in a house
then become modifiers
of
to
nouns,
let.
They
explaining
them.
343.
Analysis Exercise.
Point out verbal
nouns used as explainers of other nouns.

was a sight
3. There
learn.
There are lessons

is bread to bake, and there are rooms
to
4. Capacity to learn is different from power
to sweep.
5. There are lonely hearts to cherish.
to do.
1.
It
to
remember.
2.
CHAPTER IV
PRONOUNS
344.
Life
is
short,
and we have
to
do our
work without many words. The clerk in a

great city-store must sell his goods without
knowing the names of all his customers. The
conductor must do business with thousands of
passengers whose names he can never know.
Every one of us has to see numerous objects
And
the names of which are unknown to us.
even when we know the real name of a thing,
it
is
tedious to repeat
it
over and over in the
course of a conversation.
So men have invented certain names that will
any person or thing for the moment. Such

words as Z, you, it, this, and that are a kind of
fit
universal name.
not
know the
tioned
They
when we do
when we have men-
will serve
true name, or
once and do not care to repeat
it
Such words are called pronouns, and are

a kind of noun.
1
To
the Teacher.
193
See 535, footnote.
it.
really
'
194
Pronouns are the most general kind of name,
and depend on the circumstances of the sentence for their meaning.
The
345.
we, they
those
chief pronouns are
me, him, her,
mine, yours,
them;
its,
J,
you, he, she,
this, that, these,
his, hers, ours, theirs ;
myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves ;
Some
which, what.
subjects,
some
or objects.
as objects,
words are used
some
as
as either subjects
and then
in our first remark,
by pronouns
a
of these
Often we mention a person or thing by
346.
name
who, ivhom, ivhoever, ivhomever,
in later statements.
refer to
We
call
it
John
good student, and then say that he studies

In such a case
hard, or that he deserves honor.
we say
that John
he;
that John
or,
is
is
the
noun
of the
the antecedent of
pronoun
he,
"ante-
cedent" meaning the word that "went before."

347.
Analysis Exercise.
antecedents of the
1.
2.
Defoe was a
italic
novelist.
Point out the
pronouns.
He
wrote Robinson Crusoe.

He wrote it when
Stevenson wrote Treasure Island.

1
Several are also used as adjectives, as
later chapter.
we
shall see in a
PRONOUNS
195
was a sick man, but it does not sound like the work of
a sick man. 3. Stephenson invented the locomotive. This
was a great gift to the world. 4. The man who makes
two blades of wheat grow where there was only one does
5. The money which is saved is earned.
some good.
6. God loves the man whom he afflicts.
7. A man should
criticize himself more than he criticizes anybody else.
8. We make ourselves what we are.
9. The Romans conquered the world they stained every land and sea with
their own blood. 10. Florence JSTightingale was a famous
nurse in the war between England and Russia she was
he
called an angel of mercy.
Some pronouns can
348.
statement.
If
you
me John
tell
whole
refer to a
is
and
sick,
say, that is too bad, or it is too bad, the pro-
noun
that or
it
refers
the whole remark.
to
In this way the pronoun which sometimes refers

to a
whole clause for
stole
a horse, which was wicked.
tion
is
had
read,
its
antecedent, as in Torn
not always a good one.
Tom
stole
This construcIf the sentence
a horse, which was vicious,
there would be nothing to tell us whether the

stealing
349.
We
was vicious or the horse was
We
often use
say It rains, or
"Grant said,
it
takes all summer.
without an antecedent.
He walked
will fight
it
it
all the
way.
out on this line if
In such cases
nite subject or object,
vicious.
:-
;.,-.;:
it is
::
an
;.
it
indefi-
:
;
196
A pronoun should never be far away from
350.
antecedent.
its
If it is too far
may misunderstand
pronoun
means
He may
you.
think the
refers to a different person or thing
You can hardly tell what
from what you meant.

it
away, the reader
in the following sentence
mean medicine,
it
might
or rheumatism, or smallpox.
We
have been having the so-called smallpox in our

part of the county.
This has been through my family.
I
want
was taking your Sarsaparilla and

rheumatism and I have never taken it,
to say that I
Dandelion for
will guarantee that if the people will take
preventive they will never take it.
and
In the following sentence which means a

but
it
Two
seems at
first to
mean
it
as a
tiger,
a river.
boys reported killing a tiger on an island in the

is believed to have escaped from
Kankakee River which

a circus.
351.
Practise Exercise.
Change the
lowing sentences so as to bring the
italic
fol-
pro-
nouns nearer to their antecedents.
was flattened
was the gentleman in
the automobile who wore a high hat. 3. There was a
man on the other side of the platform that looked red and
uncomfortable. 4. There was something familiar about
the place where we at last landed from the boat, which
made us think we had been there before. 5, Mr, Winkle
1.
bullet
was found
in a wall which
out by the force of the shot.
2.
It
PBONOUNS
197
ran down-stairs to admit the gentleman's wife who was

sleeping peacefully on the sofa waiting for her to ring
the
bell.
Certain pronouns are
Subject forms.
352.
These are
used as subjects, but not as objects.

as follows
I, he, she,
we, they, who, whoever.
Already (165-180) we have received drill in

using all these forms except two.
We have
especially learned
must
say
that
i~,
but not him and
In John was the
first
We
and me.
man whom we
stopped,
I,
Careful speakers
stopped.
In We stopped whoever came, whoever
Then we say
the subject of came.

object of stopped
much
As
is
can
or he
the object of stopped.
is
would not say who we
came.
subject
consist wholly of subject forms.
He and
whom
compound
is
called
that the
the whole clause whoever
a matter of fact, whoever
the object of stopped as
it is
is
just as
the subject
But we say whoever came, not whom-
of came.
ever came.
After
is
/, he, she,
and was we use the subject pronouns,
we, they, who.
It's /.
It's they.
It's he.
It's she.
who ?
I thought
it
It's we.
I fear
It's
it's
was
he.
whom
you mean.
198
So the subject pronouns and the predicate
We may
pronouns are the same.
call I, he,
who, the six subject-and-predicate
she, we, they,
forms.
For
it's
me, see 170.
In a sentence like Wlio did
it
? the subject is
But such sentences as Who is it? mean

the same as It is who? and we must call who
who.
standing before
is
such a sentence as
subject of
353.
tvas,
and
predicate pronoun.
I asked
who he was, he
ivho is the predicate
In
the
is
pronoun.
The following forms
Object forms.
are
used as direct and indirect objects, but not as

subjects
me, him, her, us, them; whom, whom-
ever.
These have already been discussed in 165-180
and
in 352.
354.
Common
A great many pronouns
forms.
can be either subjects, objects, or predicate pronouns.
We
can say You
are, or It is you, or
John asked you, and you does not change

form, any more than a
its
Forms
noun would.
that can be used as subjects, objects, or predicate pronouns are called

chief
common forms
common
are as follows
that, these, those, which,
what.
forms.
The
you,
this,
it,
PRONOUNS
Analysis Exercise.
355.
Examine the
pronoun, and say
construction of each italic
whether
it
a subject, an object, an indirect
is
pronoun.
object, or a predicate
1.
199
Is it
I that you mean?
That
2.
is
he of
whom
spoke. 3. That's the man whom I meant. 4. They gave

him a bowl and a pewter spoon.
5. Please give me it.
6. Don't you believe that.
7. This will do.
8. Make this
your home. 9. Please get us some paper. 10. Please let

him and me go.
11. They have invited them and me.
12. He is "it" ! 13. Send us him for an nmpire. 11. Help
me to catch him.
15. Let's go.
[Never say " Let's us."]
16. He who tries will succeed.
17. What do you think?
18. That seems to be a mistake. 19. Make that your first
business.
20.
Make
that
some
sort of a cover.
21. Sev-
were successful. 22. Each has his task. 23. Few

can bear success without becoming vain.
24. Many
think that riches make a man happy. 25. The porridge
looks good; I should like some.
26. Four are enough.
27. Give me the student who does not pretend to know
more than he does know. 28. Who is that tall man?
29. Didn't you ask me who that man was ?
eral
356.
Practise Exercise.
Insert in each
blank who or whom, according to the practise of

careful speakers.
did you see?
1.
say ?
6.
8.
4.
2.
is
do you think he
shall our guests be?
did you secure?
1
9.
is ?
it?
7.
was
That means a box, here.
do you
3.
shall
5.
we ask ?
do you prefer?
you secured?
it
200
10.
are the prize-winners?
president?
shall
it
we admit?
shall
14.
16. "
that picks the flowers ?

17. "
said the big bear.
the drunken
cert?
man.
21.
has hurt
23.
did you
Who
357.
spoken
refuse
is
13.
15.
has lain in
is
my bed ? "
can help sickness? " quoth

are
18.
you helping, in
this con-
20.
is
who?
do you think I
22.
mean ?
shall I
24.
am?
say called
correct.]
In grammar, person
Personal pronouns.
means a
we
can number the stars?
19.
[Here
did they elect
11.
was chosen president?
12.
distinction of the speaker, the person
to,
and the person or thing spoken
The speaker
spoken to
is
is
the first person
the second person
thing) spoken of
is
the
of.
person
the person (or
the third person.
It
seems
curious to speak of a thing as the third " person," but that
is
what grammar
The personal pronouns

(2) you;
us;
(3)
it,
are
he,
does.
(1)
J,
me, we,
him, she, her, they,
them.
I,
You
me, we, us are said to

is
said to
him, she, her,
show the
first
person.
show the second person. It, he,

they, them are said to show the
third person.
358.
Self-pronouns.
The
self -pronouns
myself, yourself, himself, herself,

themselves.
Study the
are
itself, ourselves,
spelling of these -words.
PRONOUNS
The
201
self-pronouns are often used as direct or
He
indirect objects.
themselves trumpets.
same person
They bought
hurt himself.
The
object here
you
as the subject,
names the
When
see.
used as objects, the self-pronouns are said to be

reflexive, or "
The
self-pronouns are often used as apposi-
nouns or personal pronouns, as
tives to
self, the
turning back."
men themselves. They
in
I my-
are then emphatic.
The self-pronouns are like the

naming the first, second, and third
personal in
persons, but
they are not often used alone as subjects or objects.
We
should say John and
John and myself went.

to say myself than
went, not
not more modest
It is
/or
me.
Practise Exercise. Study the following sentences so that you can repeat each
359.
after hearing the first word.

1.
New York. 2. They

May my brother and I
Father, mother, and I went to
invited him, you,
study together?
and me.
4.
3.
Father thinks
and me not to study together.

Francis, Frances, and I.
360.
5.
Analysis Exercise.
it
There were Sarah,
Give the con-
struction of each italic pronoun
whether
it is
direct object.
an appositive, an
best for brother
that
object, or
is,
an
say
in-
202
1.
Love
thyself last.
themselves.
3.
We
2.
God
them that help

own worst enemies.
helps
ourselves are our
4. You wrong yourself to have an itching palm.

5. If
you would have a thing well done, [you] do it yourself
6. He will himself show you the way.
7. Quit yourselves
8. You, he, and I myself will attempt it.
like men.
9. Get yourselves books.
10. We must show ourselves
brave under these circumstances.
simplest
is
The
moment
The demonstratives as pronouns.
361.
way
to call
it
of
naming
a thing for the
This names something near
this.
by, that something farther away.
This, that,
these, those are called demonstratives, or
words
that point out, and are often used as pronouns.

362.
noun
Possessive pronouns.
the most general
is
sessed.
It
object, as in
may
of a thing pos-
be used as a subject or an
Yours
The pronouns
name
possessive pro-
is the
best;
I will
oftenest so used are
yours, theirs, his, hers. 1
take yours.
mine, ours,
Notice that these words
have no apostrophe.
The words my,
our, your, their are adjectives
They cannot be
rather than pronouns (375).
used as subjects or objects.

363.
The numerals
als express definite

1
as pronouns.
number.
Avoid the vulgar forms
The numer-
First, second, third,

his'n
and
her'n.
PRONOUNS
etc., are called
203
ordinal numerals, or simply ordi-
name things
nals,
because they
The
ordinals are generally adjectives, as in the
first
house; but they
objects, as in
I should
like
so used they are called pro-
remember that a pronoun is merely a

noun that depends on the circumstances
kind of
of the sentence for its

etc.,
stand as subjects or
first is the best;
When
the first.
nouns
The
may
in their order.
meaning.
One, two, three,
are called cardinals, or principal numbers.
These are often pronouns, as in Two of us
will
go.
The
364.
group of words,
press
There
indefinites as pronouns.
number
like
all
and
others, that
is
ex-
or quantity less definitely than
You may
the numerals do.
say that such a
word as all is pretty definite, and so it is unless

you compare it with a given number (like 364).
Very likely a better term than indefinites will
Meantime we mean by
some day be found.
such
indefinites
words
other, one another, all,
some,
each,
every,
as
others,
many, few,
certain.
none,
several,
All these
each
much,
words
except certain and every can be used as subjects
or
nouns.
objects,
and when
so
used are pro-
204
Examples
None is too old to learn. (2) Many are called,
but few are chosen. (3) Much is forgiven. (4) Consider each other, you two lads.
(5) Consider one another,
(1)
you four
365.
lads.
The interrogatives
in-
who? ivhom? which? what?

used in asking questions.
Who and
always pronouns which and what are
terrogatives
They
The
as pronouns.
are
ivhom are
are
sometimes adjectives (378).

366.
Note two
Direct and indirect questions.
sentences
1.
2.
We
We
asked, "
asked
Who
who
is
that
man?"
that
man
was.
direct question gives the speaker's exact
words, and uses quotation marks and a question
mark.
An indirect
question gives the substance
of the speaker's words, uses
no quotation marks,
and ends with a period.

In both the sentences given above, the verb
ashed takes the entire question for
The question
after a verb of asking
its
is
object.
of course
a dependent clause (230).

If the
"
Who
is
sentence
that
two objects
should read
man ? "
him
We ashed
him,
ashed would seem to have
and
the
question.
One
pronouns
205
would name the person asked, the other the

thing inquired of him.
Relative pronouns
367.
whom, which, what,
and clauses.
that, whoever,
Who,
whomever, what-
ever are often used as subjects or objects, even
though not in questions.
They
and are said
relative pronouns,
are then called
to begin relative
clauses.
Examples
1.
A man who
works
may eat.
4.
The man whom you see is a German.

The man that you see is a German.
The task which is hard becomes easy.
5.
I don't quite understand what you say.
2.
3.
6.
7.
8.
The
Whoever works may eat.

Whatever is saved is earned.
Ask whomever you

first
four
like.
sentences
contain
relative
begun by who, whom, which, that. The

The
clause who works has who for a subject.
clause whom you see has you for a subject and
clauses
whom
for an object.
The
clause that you see
has you for a subject and that for an object.
The
clause ivhieh
is
hard has which for a sub-
ject.
But look again
Why
at the first four sentences.
are the relative clauses there
They
are
206
there to
tell
The
of.
what kind of
first
man may
of
works.
but
it
or thing
is
spoken
sentence says that a certain kind

eat.
That kind
Who works has

is
man
a subject
is
and
man who
a predicate,
an extremely dependent statement
means nothing when taken away from the

noun it'describes. A man ivho ivorks is- simply
it
an emphatic way of saying "a working man."
relative clause usually modifies a
In sentences
this.
two relative clauses are

and two as objects. Explain
5, 6, 7,
used as subjects,
noun.
CHAPTER V
ADJECTIVES
We
368.
have seen that a noun
by another noun,
fied
may
be modi-
as in Lincoln, the presi-
But the most common
dent, or in printer s ink.
modifiers of nouns are adjectives, such as
Such
every.
beautiful,
modifiers
the,
very
join
closely to their nouns.
An
to
adjective
is
stand before a
more
369.
definite
word whose chief office is

noun to assist in making
name.
Many words
are
either
Take
for
In red sky, white
egg,
nouns, according as they are used.
example
good
red, white, good.
school, these
or
adjectives
words are
what
In the
red of the sky, the white of an egg, the good of

going
to school,
370.
they are
what
Analysis Exercise.
adjectives,
Point out the
and the nouns they modify, in the
following phrases.
1.
The blueness
the charming song.
of the blue sky.

3.
2.
The reddening
207
The charm
of
of the red rose.
208
The bravery
4.
of the brave dog.
charitable man.
The
6.
The whiteness
The
5.
charity of the
glory of the glorious morning.
The mercy of
the merciful man. 9. The joyful man's joy. 10. The
cowardly man's cowardice. 11. The fearful man's fear.
12. The jolly boy's jollity.
13. The grandeur of the
7.
of the white snow.
8.
grand mountain.
What
Practise Exercise.
can you think of that are
371.
tives
adjec-
like the follow-
ing nouns?
Courage, might, sweetness, hope, gratitude, thanks,
spite, love, timidity, severity, pity, slyness, health, haste,
speed, softness, ease, pain, merriment,
change,
mensity,
honor,
cruelty,
force,
agreeableness,
intricacy,
audacity,
inferi-
gravity, mystery, weight, im-
ority, superiority, laxity,
history,
brilliancy,
malice,
fury,
publicity,
emphasis, antiquity.
Analysis Exercise.
372.
Point out the
adjectives in the following phrases.

This
1.
trees.
5.
tree.
2.
Yonder
That
tree.
tree.
These
3.
The
6.
tree.
7.
trees.
Those
4.
tree.
8.
An
10. Seven trees.

11. The first tree.
9. One tree.
The seventh tree. 13. Few trees. 14. Several trees.
Many trees. 16. All trees. 17. Some trees. 18. Each
elm.
12.
15.
tree.
19.
trees.
22.
trees.
25.
ever tree.
tree.
34.
37.
31.
Every tree.
Both trees.
What
tree?
His
tree.
35.
The other
26.
Whatever
28.
Our tree.
Our own
20. Certain
23.
Whose
tree.
32.
Their
Her
29.
tree.
24.
tree?
My tree.
tree.
large beautiful elm.
Other
Both the
27. Which21.
trees.
tree.
36.
33.
Its
30.
Your
branch.
Our own
tree.
ADJECTIVES
Descriptive adjectives.
373.
up some mental
tives call
209
Descriptive adjec-
picture, as beautiful,
sweet, tall.
Demonstratives, used as adjectives, serve
374.
to point out, as this tree, that tree.
(379) are
weak demonstratives.
always adjectives
The
possessive
your, his, her,
my own
its,
Oivn
Compare
own, whose, as in
my
house,
Note the difference
your and yours (362).

the emphatic possessive.
Observe the
is
ours,
spelling of the possessive
its
and the contrac-
Whose (note the spelling)
tion
it's
the
possessive
and
relative clauses
(29).
adjective
used
1.
Whose book
2.
The author whose book you
376.
361.
adjectives are my, our,
house, its roof, etc.
between our and
The and a are
they can never stand alone
as subjects or objects.
375.
The and a
is
in
is
questions
it?
Numerals (363)
may
liked
was here
to-day.
be used as adjec-
tives, as in the first tree, seven trees.
377.
Indefinites (364)
tives, as in all
may
men, most men.
be used as adjec-
Every and
certain
are always so used, never as subjects or objects.
210
Which and what
378.
(365, 367)
as adjectives in questions
and
may
be used
relative clauses
Which book do you want?

know what book you want.
1.
2.
The two smallest adjectives are the and a
379.
(or an) (374).
The points out, but not so distinctly as
An
that.
is
singles out an
a short form of an, used
When
pronounce.
to
example of a
a
this or
class.
where an
is
hard
noun begins with a
vowel sound, as apple, we use an before
it.
Thus we say
an
ox,
an orange, an
is
When a noun
cat,
an
iceberg,
Also we say an honor, and an hour,
an onion.
because the h
we
egg,
not sounded.
begins with a consonant sound, 1
use a before
it,
as in a bat, a dog, a girl, a
a man, a noun, a pear, a stone, a
top, a zig-
zag, a horse, a history, a historical sketch, a lamb,
a rat, a ivagon, a yard.
The
test,
ing word.
you
see, is the
sound of the follow-
Words beginning with
have to be watched, for some take an,
Thus we say an
1
e,
i,
All the letters are

o, u,
honor,
an hour, an order, an
commonly
called consonants except a,
But o and u sometimes have
which are vowels.
the sound of the consonant
and u
some a.
h, o,
?/,
as in one union.
ADJECTIVES
uncle;
but a
history,
211
a historical sketch, a
hotel,
a humblebee, a one, a union, a unit, a united

people.
Practise Exercise.
Which words
seem to you to need the before them ?
380.
1.
The
secretary
and treasurer both resigned.
cashier and teller both ran away.
The
2.
The
and
warming-pan w ent to call on the soap-fat man. 4. The
night and day are two separate things. 5. The father
and brother should be treated alike. 6. The man and
bear looked at each other in silence.
7. The cow and
horse are tw o domestic animals.
8. The mountain
and squirrel had a quarrel. 9. The first and last need
equally to be learned. 10. The first page and last need
3.
owl,
eel,
equally to be learned.
all
11.
month, and
He
studied
all
381.
Practise Exercise.
repeating the at
sentences
all
all
day,
all
night,
summer. 1
week,
any point
Is there
in
the
need
of
following
1 After all, the is needed before week,

month, spring,
autumn, but not before day, night, summer, v'inter. This
does not seem a reasonable distinction, but language is not
always reasonable. The simple fact is that careful speakers
do not say all week, and all month, though they do say all
day, all summery and all vrinter, as well as all the day, etc.
Careful speakers also say enter school and enter college,
but not enter

university.
grammar
Enter
the
school, or enter high school, or enter
grammar
school are the preferred forms,
school and enter the high
212
1.
The
secretary
and treasurer was recently
installed
The cashier and teller has a double

perform.
3. The father and brother in this
named John. 4. Mother and babe are asleep.
in office.
2.
office to
case
is
The
5.
6. That was the

and last stanzas will be enough.
first and last time I ever went.
7. The second and third
examples are hard. 8. The North and South fought as
one country against Spain. 9. The United States and
Canada are two countries. 10. The cup and saucer was
first
broken.
382.
Practise
Which
Exercise.
the
of
following sentences need another a or an?
and pretty cap it was. 2. A large and small

3. Did you ever see a sloop and
schooner side by side? 4. There were a Frenchman and
German in here yesterday. 5. A robin and catbird are
6. A good speller and bad
very unlike in disposition.
have
an
equal
chance
speller do not
of keeping positions
7. A black and tan dog has a smooth
as stenographers.
8. A black and tan dog were chasing rabbits tocoat.
gether.
9. A city and country mouse paid visits to each
10. He is both a scholar and gentleman.
other.
1.
soft
man went
383.
together.
Assuming and predicate
Ad-
adjectives.
jectives usually stand before nouns, as in
beautiful dog.
dog,
In using the name
you assume that the dog
do not say so outright.

friend
Now
says,
is
my
my
beautiful
beautiful
you
Suppose now that your
"But your dog
isnt beautiful."
the adjective stands in the predicate, to
help express your friend's opinion of the dog.
ADJECTIVES
You
took
213
for granted that the quality of
it
beauty was in your dog; he expressly asserted

that
was
it
An
not.
assuming adjective usually stands before a
A predi-
noun, and takes a quality for granted.
cate adjective usually stands after a link-verb
(307), and
asserted concerning the subject.
is
Analysis Exercise.
384.
Select the as-
suming adjectives and the predicate

1.
adjectives.
Let your company be better than yourself.
sluggard
is
wiser in his
can render a reason.

youth,
is
3.
who
5.
4.
that
which is natural in
happy youth is the
Conceit,
An
The
2.
men
conceit than seven
sure to be pruned.
time of noble dreams.

keeper
own
man
idle
is like
a house-
keeps an open door for any burglar.
6.
answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words

up anger. 7. Wrath is cruel. 8. Faithful are the
wounds of a friend. 9. A southerly wind and a cloudy
soft
stir
sky proclaim
is
it
a hunting morning.
10.
brook trout
beautiful as a gem, and harder to catch than
distinctions in
385.
grammar.
The adjective produced.
Note the word
happy, in The gift made the boy happy.

to
show
a quality
It
seems
produced in the object by the
action of the gift on the boy.

cate adjective, but
some
it
predicate adjective
Happy
is
a predi-
also modifies the object.

after
an object shows a
214
quality produced in the object,
and may be
called
the adjective produced.
Compare
386.
320.
Analysis of "whole sentences.
In analyz-
we
ing whole sentences containing adjectives

use
formula
the
changes.
found
in
327,
The new formula
with
follows
as
is
slight
State
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The complete subject and the complete predicate.

The simple subject and its modifiers.
The verb.
The predicate noun or adjective.
The objects of the verb, and their modifiers, includ-
ing the adjective produced.
If
we take
the sentence
forgetful head
troublesome, the analysis will run as follows

1.
The complete
plete predicate
2.
is is
The simple
subject
is
forgetful head
is
the com-
troublesome,
subject
is
head.
Head
is
modified by
the adjectives a and forgetful.

3.
4.
The simple predicate is

The predicate adjective
387.
Analysis
is.
is
troublesome.
Analyze
Exercise.
the
1.
Many
cooks spoil the broth.
2.
Tigers are large
4. Hope
3. James called Henry his best friend.
makes a man strong. 5. An honest man is God's noblest
cats.
ADJECTIVES
work.
215
Experience keeps a dear school. 7. Evil words

8. April showers bring May
6.
corrupt good manners.

flowers.
9.
Every man's business
is
no man's business.
11. Few men

Some boys refuse guidance.
13. That tree is a white pine.
14. The stars are suns.
15. The stars' distance is inconceivable.
16. The general
made the young man a first lieutenant. 17. You make
10.
little
leak will sink a great ship.
can receive advice.
me
happy.
12.
CHAPTER VI
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
388.
in ing
The verbal adjective
may
adjective.
in
"
be used either as a
We may
The verbal 1
noun or as an
ing."
say Hunting
is
a sport, or,
a hunting dog.
This verbal
may be used
either as an assum-
We may
ing or as a predicate adjective.

the
hunting dog, or The dog
The predicate verbal

object, as in
The dog
is
is
say
hunting.
adjective
may
take an
hunting rabbits.
The assuming verbal adjective can take an

object if we put the adjective after the noun,
as in The dog hunting rabbits
that the dog hunting rabbits
dog hunting rabbits
is
is
my
is
Notice
dog.
name.
a phrase (186).
The
The dog
hunting rabbits makes no statement, but assumes

the hunting. 2
ing modifies dog
1
In the dog hunting

;
rabbits, hunt-
so does hunting rabbits.
Verbal nouns and adjectives are called verbals, for
short.
Verbal adjectives are often called participles. A slangy

make the speaker respon" I see. You can't be pinched for a participle."
sible, said
2
boy, on hearing that only verbs

:
216
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
Assuming verbal
adjectives often
adjectives.
When we speak of
we do not
stop to think that
charming
And
us.
there
when we speak
rising young m<an, or a man
action left
389.
verbal
become pure
a charming scene,
means a
it
much
not
is
217
scene
idea of
of a thinking man, a
lacking in good sense.
Analysis Exercise.
Tell of each
in ing whether it is a noun or an adjec-
tive.
1.
rolling stone gathers
no moss.
bundle, the tramp started on.

plied to a process in iron-making.
merrily.
5.
2.
Rolling
3.
We
4.
is
7.
When
his
ap-
are rolling along
Eating takes away the appetite.
food takes away the appetite.
up
name
Rolling
6.
Eating
the poet Horace
spoke of an eating care, he meant destructive care, worry

that eats into our hearts.
swiftly, eating
8.
up everything
The
in
prairie fire
its
course.
advanced
9.
Cutting
out well is better than sewing up well. 10. That cutting

remark is cutting him to the heart. 11. Flying will some
day be accomplished by man. 12. The yacht is flying a
14. I saw his run13. I saw him running.
flying-jib.
16. She objected to our
15. She caught us going.
ning.
18. I
17. I approve of your acting as you do.
going.
19. What's the
hope you don't mind my saying so.
matter with
my
doing that?
20.
What
is
the objection
my
going ? 21. There was no chance of his succeeding.

His saying so shows that it probably was so. 23. Your
answering that way reminds me of a story. 24. Your an[Here thinking is a noun.]
swer sets me to thinking.
to
22.
25. I
am
sending you a book by this mail.
were saying, there
is
always a best way
26.
As we
of getting a lesson.
218
390.
to say
People are sometimes puzzled whether
me
or my, you or your, him or his before
with
me doing
doing that?
we say Whafs wrong

Whafs wrong with my
Shall
the verbal in ing.
that? or
Shall
we
use the adjective, or the
noun? Doing is an adjective

is a noun in my doing.
in
me doing;
it
own common sense

will always answer this question.
If we are
thinking of the person in action, then we should
If we are thinking of
say me, or him, or you.
the action itself, then we should say my, or your,
If Ave stop to think,
or
our
his.
Study sentences 13
391.
Practise
to 22 in 389.
Exercise.
Each member
of the class should repeat the following
from
memory.
What's wrong in
going
my
going?
What's wrong in our
What's wrong
in
your going?
What's wrong in
their
going?
What's wrong in his going ? What's wrong in John's

going?
What's wrong in her going ? What's wrong in anyone's going?
392.
The freed or absolute noun.
two sentences
Examine
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
1.
John, being
2.
John being
In the
first
being modifies
subject
tells
is
could not play ball.
sick,
sick,
Will had to pitch for him.
sentence the subject

it.
Will,
219
is
John, and
In the second sentence, the
and the phrase John being
sick
the circumstances under which Will had
John.
to pitch for
Notice the difference in
punctuation between the two sentences.
The phrase John
composed of
noun, a verbal adjective modifying it, and
being sick
is
predicate adjective after the verbal.
said to he freed from the sentence, because
is
neither subject nor object.

absolute or freed noun
verbal adjective, but
an object.
is
Taken with
is
The noun
is
The
it
modified by a
neither a subject nor

its
verbal adjective
it
usually shows the circumstances of some. action.

393.
The
absolute
construction.
John
It is
sickening, Will
noun is often an awkward

not good English to say
had
to
pitch for him.
We
say:
1.
2.
John was sick, and Will had to pitch for him; or,
Will had to pitch for John, because John was sick.
Nouns and pronouns should stand near

the verbal adjectives that are meant to modify
them. Otherwise the wrong noun may be modi394.
220
Study the following sentences and ex-
fied.
why
marked " wrong "

the same meaning as those marked
plain
those
fail
to give
"right.''
1. (Wrong) I counted seven meteors sitting on my

back piazza.
(Right) Sitting on my back piazza, I counted seven
meteors.
2.
Coming up
(Wrong)
so
early,
the
frost
soon
pinched the daffodils.

(Right) Coining up so early, the daffodils were soon
pinched by the
3.
him
frost.
(Wrong) Wearing a helmet, the policeman mistook

for a fireman.
(Right) Wearing a helmet, he was mistaken by the

policeman for a fireman.
4. (Wrong) Eating apples in my orchard I counted
seven small boys.
(Right) I counted seven small boys eating apples in
my
orchard.
395.
verbal adjective must have a noun
pronoun
or
sentences and
1.
Study the following
modify.
to
show why some
(Wrong) Being
rainy,
are wrong.
we stayed
in
and played
dominoes.
(Right) The weather being rainy,
we stayed
in
and
played dominoes.
(Right) Since
it
was
rainy,
we stayed
in
and played
dominoes.
2.
(Wrong) Belonging
were respected.
to the senior class, his ideas
"
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
(Right) Belonging to the senior
221
class,
he had ideas
that were respected.
(Right) Since he belonged to the senior
class, his
ideas were respected.

3.
(Wrong) Fearing more
trouble,
it
was decided
to
stop.
(Right) Fearing more trouble,

(Right)
We
we decided
to stop.
feared more trouble, and so decided to
stop.
(Right)
We
decided to stop, for
we
feared
more
trouble.
(Right)
As we feared more
trouble,
we decided
to
stop.
very few verbal adjectives, chiefly owing,
and judging, may be used without

a noun or pronoun to modify.
We may
considering,
say:
Owing
to this trouble,
it
was decided
to stop.
Considering everything, it seems best to go ahead.

Judging by appearances, that man is a tramp.
396.
The past verbal adjective.
adjective in ing
is
often called the " present
verbal adjective, because
it
is
derived from a
verb-form that shows present time.
always represents a process as
There
past.
now
is
The verbal
still
This verbal
going on.
another verbal adjective, called the
In a baked apple, baked shows a process

finished.
already risen.
The risen sun means the sun
222
We
have met the past verbal adjective in
where we called
ciple
the past participle.
it
means part-taking,
or partaking.
adjectives are often called
participles,
they partake of two natures

adjective.
67,
Parti-
Verbal
because
the verb and the
Verbal nouns also partake of two
natures, but are not called participles.
Sometimes the past participle has the same

form as the past verb.
We can
Baked
ciples are different

:
an example.
speak of a baked apple, or we can assert
that The cook baked the apple.
are
is
blown,
past parti-
from the past verb.

done,
broken,
given, gone, grown,
Some
knoivn,
Such
eaten, flown, frozen,

lain,
ridden, risen,
seen, shaken, shown, stolen, taken,
thrown, writ-
ten.
much used as assumnouns.

Still we can say
Past participles are not

ing adjectives before
a full-blown
rose, a
broken arm, a frozen finger, a
given name, a gone goose [slang], a grown man,
a known fact, the risen sun, a stolen gem, a written exercise.
Past participles are oftener used as assuming

adjectives after nouns, as in the phrases a task
begun, a duty done, a conflict ended.
Pick
out
the
participles,
they modify, in the
italic
and
phrases
the
nouns
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
223
Wisps of hair blown about her face gave her an
1.
elfish look.
was long remembered.
2.
That meal, eaten in
3.
Fresh cherries frozen in ice-cream are delicious.
4.
The entertainment given by
silence,
the
students
was well
attended.
5.
We're tenting to-night on the old camp-ground,
thinking of days gone

6.
7.
8.
by.
Roses grown in a hothouse are tender.
A poem known by heart is a precious possession.

A large moth often seen in this country is called the
cecropia.
The goods shown in the window are all new.

The instrument stolen from my locker was a draw-
9.
10.
ing pen.
11.
Funds taken from
12.
The company, thrown
13.
Exercises written in pencil
The
397.
is
the treasury
must be
into confusion,
must be copied
house finished.
House
Finished modifies house.
can say
We
say
I have
the object of have.
In like fashion we
3.
4.
have
my
composition written.
In such cases
the
is
He has his work done.

They have the field plowed.
Cook has the apples baked.
1.
2.
in ink.
past participle modifying an object
often used with has or have.
my
replaced.
soon broke up.
field,
we think
of having the work,
the apples, the composition,
finished condition.
But suppose we
all in
are think-
224
ing of the act of getting the object finished.
When we
think chiefly of the
sentences around, and say

1.
He
has done his work.
They have plowed the field.

Cook has baked the apples.
4.
have written
In these cases
it
my
we hardly remember
that the
We
think of
and merely
The
have my dog
have
1.
398.
The
participle
my dog
lost.
given away.
I have
/ have
lost
my
given
dog.
my
away
past participle
is
dog.
very often a predi-
cate adjective.
2.
My dog is lost.
My composition
3.
The apples are baked.
4.
The winter is gone.

The sun is risen.
1.
5.
tells
to say:
1.
2.
something
is.
2.
But we can say
loses its idea
asserts that
has already been done.
what that something

It would be absurd
all.
Have
as a part of the verb.
of owning,
composition.
an adjective at
is
the
3.
2.
participle
we turn
act,
is
finished.
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
These sentences are
good English.
all
such a one as The sun
is
seem strong enough to
us.
way
399.
But
risen does not always
We like
things as doing something.

into a
225
to think of
So we have fallen
of saying The sun has risen.
While we
are speaking
used in the predicate,
we must
interesting
in
difference
of
participles
notice another
meaning.
Compare
two sentences:
The cook was baking the apple.
The apple was baked by the cook.
1.
2.
We
and baked are both prediwas.

But baking takes an
see that baking
cate adjectives after

object, apple.
It is therefore called
an
active
Baked represents the apple as acted

on, and is called a passive participle.
The cook
acted. The apple lay passive in the cook's hands
while it was washed and placed in the oven
and there it again lay passive, being made brown
and wrinkled and sugary.
participle.
We may
if
we
think of was baked as a whole verb,
wish.
Then we
call
it
a passive verb-
phrase, or passive group-verb.
The
passive participles are merely the past
participles of transitive verbs (308).
226
Intransitive verbs, like
400.
rise, go, lie,
have
present participles like rising, going, lying, and
But none
past participles like risen, gone, lain.

of these are active or passive.
1.
The moon
2.
My
3.
The book
The
and
is rising
some
friend has gone, and I
link-verb
is
is
lying
where
stars
am
it
2.
3.
risen.
has lain
all
day.
has the link-participles being
been.
1.
have
going.
The apple is being baked.

The apple was being baked.
The apple has been baked.
;;
CHAPTER
VII
ADVERBS
401.
Adverbs are words that modify verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs.

402.
Adverbs
Consider
the sentence
now, carefully.
fied
by
time, place, manner,
of
here,
carefully,
bringing.
is
bring.
It is
which
tells
the
manner
Here, now, and carefully

is
to be brought.
Here,
Consider also this sentence
carefully.
fully
They show how
is
Bring
full,
how
the desired degree of
Very modifies
care.
But full
an adverb.
of
is
time
that very
Note the adverbs very
full dish most carefully.
They show
Here
manner.
carefully an adverb of
and most.
of
where,
now an adverb
tell
now, and carefully are called adverbs.
an adverb of place
modi-
the time of bringing
tells
when, and how the dish
here,
the place of bringing
tells
and by now, which

and by
Bring that dish
The verb
which
degree.
carefully.
fulness and
and most modifies

an adjective, and care-
full,
is
We
227
see then that an ad-
228
degree can modify an adjective or an
verb of
adverb.
Adverbs of time show when; adverbs of place

show where; adverbs of manner show how.
Adverbs of degree are attached to verbs, adjectives, or adverbs to show how much, or to
what extent.
Mood-adverbs.
403.
Bring
the dish with care, for
The adverb
is
uncertain
mood
may.
will spill.
does not show
it
He
does not
know
or not, but he thinks
spill
Mood-adverbs show the speaker's
tude of mind toward his

chief
it
shows the speaker's
It
of mind.
whether the dish will
perhaps
But
perhaps.
when, where, or how.
it
Consider the sentence
own
assertion.
mood-adverbs are perhaps,
atti-
The
possibly, prob-
ably, surely, certainly.
few adverbs sometimes show manner or
degree, sometimes mood.

sadly, sadly describes the
In Fido wags
manner
But in Fido is sadly

First
sadly has two uses.
ging.
of
the adjective lacking.
speaker's
mood.
his tail
of Fido's
wag-
lacking in good sense,

it
shows the degree
Then
Fido's lack
of
it
shows the
good sense
makes the speaker sad.

Mood-adverbs usually seem attached
to verbs
ADVERBS
229
or to predicate adjectives, but they modify the

entire statement.
They
often begin or end the
sentence rather than accompany the verb (221).
Nouns
404.
as
times used as adverbs, to
how
or
far.
He studies, evenings.
He works all day.
1.
2.
But the word place

by
Nouns are someshow when, how long,
adverbs.
He staid an hour.
He walked a mile.
3.
4.
not used as an adverb
is
careful speakers.
Let us go some place
vulgar English for Let us go
is
somewhere.
It
be
must be some place
somewhere
else
is
vulgar English for
must
Each member
Practise Exercise.
405.
It
else.
of
the class should repeat the following sentences,
supplying the adverb somewhere.

1.
Let's go
be
else.
else.
3.
weather I often
anywhere
5.
Look
406.
may
2.
The book
wish I were
feel like
else.
playing truant
I get tired of school
in every place
isn't here; it
you
and want
will find
Other classifications.
it
In pleasant
4.
;
must
want
to be
to
go
else.
Here, there, thither
be called demonstrative adverbs, as well
as time-adverbs.
numeral adverbs.
Once, twice, thrice, etc., are
230
407.
Caution.
Many
adverbs end in
But some adjectives end
swiftly.
ly,
in ly.
as
Such
are those in lovely floiver, heavenly music, masterly speech, friendly Indians.
She talked
lovely.
We
We
cannot say
have to say, She talked
in a lovely manner.
408.
Analysis Exercise.
Select the
ad-
verbs.
Suddenly there was a pause in the music. 2. The

crow immediately flew away. 3. Presently a nuthatch
began to chirp from the side of a tree. 4. The boat was
soon lost sight of.
5. In an incredibly short time the
game was won. 6. Pull hard, my sailor lads
7. Do the
work right. 8. Deal rightly with all men. 9. He came
noisily and rudely into the recitation room.
10. Brown
always spoke considerately of other people.
11. She
wears her hat jauntily.
12. The excuse was painfully
1.
Good sense is curiously lacking in

The truants bitterly rued the day.
1
15. The
farther we went, the more the sound of the
herd-bells lured us on.
16. The teacher was mightily
pleased.
17. The enterprise was immensely successful.
18. Silently the stars blossomed in heaven.
19. One boy
insufficient.
some minds.
13.
14.
asked the question sharply, and the other answered it

20. Two silly boys sat selfishly whispering, at
the expense of those who were trying hard to study.
21. School is extremely like life;
indeed, it is life.
roughly.
Those who act considerately
22.
1
The
is
in school will be
good
here used as an adverb of degree, modifying the
adverb farther.
ADVERBS
members of the community.
23.
231
Nearly
all
criminals have
24. A kindly man speaks kindly.

had a little schooling.
particularly
nice piece which we sang
25. That was a
26. There are strictly fresh eggs, rather fresh eggs,
last.
somewhat fresh eggs, fresh eggs, and eggs. 27. The
28. Look up
king of France marched down again.
and not down look forward and not back look out
and not in and lend a hand. 29. A well man works
30. An ill man labors ill.
31. A good man does
well.
33. The milk-pail
32. A bad man prays ill.
well.
;
is
quite full
will not hold another drop.
it
Prob-
34.
ably the greatest genius of that day was Julius Caesar.

I
35.
come.
Washington
ones.
Presumably there
38.
had.
36.
Perhaps
there have
certainly
is
it
will
men than
Possibly there have been greater
37.
rain.
probably
shall
few nobler
been
dictionary
be
to
Conceivably there are other inhabited worlds.
39.
There might perhaps have been some way out of the

trouble; but unfortunately we did not know it. 41. She
is really nice she is a real lady she is very nice.
42. This
apple is really good it is very good.
40.
Adverbs with link-verbs.
409.
verb
is
is
(307).
The
pure link-
Seems, appears, feels,
looks,
sounds are called half link-verbs.
The pure
link-verb
may
be followed by ad-
verbs of time, place, or mood, as in

tainly here now.
Whether
here
He
is cer-
and now modify
the link-verb, complete the link-verb, or modify

the subject
He
you
is
is
merely a matter of words.
To
say
here is to give a quality of he, just as
said
He
is
present.
if
There can be no objec-
232
tion to saying that after is an adverb of place
or time modifies the subject like a predicate

adjective.
The pure
link-verb states no action, and can-
not be used with adverbs that imply action.
We may
Nicely implies an action.

patient
is
doing nicely.
say that a person

a
person
adjective
bad English
is
When
nicely.
we answer
is,
The
nicely.
is
It
or
Well,
well
The
say
to
asked how
Doing
else
means
in
good
usually
state
health.
The
half
do not
link-verbs
action, but they are often followed
we
verbs well and badly, as

410.
The link-verb
shall
by the ad-
now
see.
feels should not often be
followed by the adjectives good and bad.
It is
correct to say The fire feels good to-day , or Your

cold
hand feels good on
my
hot forehead.
I feel good means I feel
Bat
righteous.
I feel bad means / feel wicked.
We
almost never care to say that
righteous or wicked.
we should say
example
we
feel
In ordinary talk, then,
feel well
and feel badly.
For
1.
Are you feeling well to-day?
2.
Somehow
I don't feel
very well this morning.
ADVERBS
He was
3.
Don't feel
5.
It
ally
made me
feel
She looks
to rest.
badly to hear such news.
The adverbs well and
used with
1.
and I sent him home

badly over your composition.
feeling badly,
4.
411.
233
Study the following
looks.
sweet.
badly are occasion-
("
Looks
sweetly "
would mean
" is gazing sweetly.")

2.
The
crops are looking fine.
(But
" are
looking
finely " is permitted.)

3.
and
Harry
is
He
looking well this summer.
brown
is
rosy.
4.
Harry looks
5.
The sky looks bad to-day.

That prisoner looks bad. He has a bad face.
That other prisoner looks badly.
Confinement
6.
7.
well this
evening in that black
suit.
has not agreed with him.

8.
It looks bad
when
a young fellow always wants
to borrow.
9.
10.
Sally looks nice in her pink gingham.
How
beautiful
your flowers are looking
They
are doing beautifully.
412.
After the link-verb sounds
well or badly.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
we
Study the following
often find
music sounds good to my ear.

It sounds good to hear his voice again.
Your sentence sounds well.
It does not sound well to find so much fault.
They say he gambles. That sounds bad.
Your sentence sounds badly.
That
soft
234
Practise Exercise.
413.
according
well
need
to
in
Supply good or
the
following
sentences
Did you sleep
1.
your forehead feel

make you feel
5.
The
pie looks
pastry tastes
414.
4.
Doesn't this cool air
at
make
Doesn't this fresh air always
3.
Are you feeling
to-day
6. The room looks

The doughnuts smell
heart.
10. The child plays
.
boy seems
he seems
2.
8.
7.
9.
The
The
heartily
Practise Exercise.
Supply nice or
nicely according as the blanks require adjective
or adverb.
Is
1.
my
boy doing
now. 3.
at school?
2.
The
fire
is
How
your sweet-peas are

doing
4. How
they look
5. She always selects
tints so
6. This package has been done up
7. The baby is tucked up
and warm. 8. The boat
keeps
and dry.
9. His distinctions are much too
10. His distinctions are much too
made.
11. How is the patient?
Very well, thank you; he's
doing
blazing
!
415.
Practise Exercise.
Insert
bad or
badly according to the requirements of grammar.

2. Poor Rover is looking
That was done
3. That tramp means mischief.
He looks
4. The pippins are keeping
this winter.
5. The doctor comes twice a day to see the orphan boy. He was very
sick yesterday, and is
in need of friends.
6. The
governor is
spoken of. 7. He was hurt
1.
ADVEBBS
416.
Practise
235
Exercise.
Insert
pretty
according to the requirements of
or prettily
grammar.
1
How
she did that
and looks very
how
3.
Our canary
2.
that problem works out.
trimmed
417.
sings
Come now, behave

The
5.
See
4.
skirt
is
Practise
Exercise.
Insert
awful
awfully according to the requirements of
or
grammar. 1
1.
The
cream
teacher
is
sometimes
good.
is
3.
successful as a business
6.
What an
8.
It's
little
418.
man.
badly.
5.
9.
4.
7.
I'm
late.
sorry.
10.
My
Position of adverbs.
Usually an adverb
can stand either before or after the verb
He came
soon came.
ice-
He's
likely to rain.
It's
I'm
This
2.
clever.
piece of candy
good of you.
head aches
nice.
She's
soon.
Often
it
He
stands
before the subject, as Soon he came.
When
an adverb modifies a verbal noun,
usually sounds best before the sign
to
it
or after
Note however that there are other and better words

than awfully
words like very, extremely, exceedingly,
immensely.
2 Here two adverbs in
ly sound harsh, but the grammar is
1
correct.
236
the verbal
itself,
as soon to come or to come soon.
To soon come does not sound so well.
An
adverb
In
clause.
think
fies
do think
same
as
may modify
certainly think
In
so.
I think
not.
so,
don't think
I dont
so.
a whole phrase or
certainly modiso,
not modifies
means exactly the
think so
Only often modifies a clause, as in If only I

could get started, I should succeed.
But when
only
is
meant
to
modify a word,
directly before that word.

ate one egg, a careful
only one egg.
it
should stand
I only
would say I ate
Instead of
speaker
Practise Exercise.
the word which seems to you
419.
Insert only before

to
need modifica-
tion most.
thought I would take the book, not keep it. 2. I
thought I would take one book. 3. They are happy who
are content. 4. I meant it in fun. 5. We found that we
had three forks. 6. If 3 she would scold me I should feel
easier.
7. If 3 we had known, we should have done so
1.
To the Teacher.
/ donH think
so,
I think not is a pleasant variant of

and students should be taught to use it for
variety.
2
Only is occasionally a pure adjective, as in an only son.

In She spoke to Harry only, only is more like an adjective
than an adverb.
3 Here an entire clause needs
modification, and only
should stand directly after if.
ADVERBS
differently
8.
know
fronded palms in
and
love
me
care.
9.
237
not where His islands
lift
their
know I cannot drift beyond His

They who work may eat. 10. Give
air; I
three grains of corn, mother; three grains of corn.
It will
morn.
keep the little life I have till the coming of the

11. This advice is for yon and him.
12. When
Shakspere's Cassias said of
Rome
that there was in
it
bnt " one only man," he meant what we should call

"
one man." 13. I said that I did not write it.
15. I want a bicycle
14. 1 said that, and nothing else.
to make me supremely happy.
;
Practise Exercise.
seems to you most needed.
420.
it
Insert not where
1. I went to find fault but to learn something.

2. He
answered a word. 3. I said that it wasn't so, but that I
thought it wasn't so. 4. We had what could be called
a walking tour but something like a picnic. 5. All the
foolish people are dead.

7.
6.
All that glitters
people are two-faced.
9.
All
men
are liars.
gold.
is
Every man knows enough to hold his tongue.
8.
All
Every
the books
10.
one that begins holds out. 11. I asked for all

but for one. 12. I'm afraid that all the guests will
come. 13. I hope that all the party will be disappointed.
421.
Practise Exercise.
Insert
the
ad-
verb clearly in the best place, so as to modify

the verbal nouns.
1.
To understand
one must understand

to grasp the problem.
this problem,
2.
He seems
hard to describe anything.
what precedes.
3. It is
is
good
trouble
practise.
is.
5,
Give him
4.
To
word
what the
define a
to understand
CHAPTER
VIII
PREPOSITIONS
422.
Note the
adverbs in the following
little
sentences
1.
2.
3.
4.
The army marched by.

The swallow flew over.
The child fell off.
The teacher walked in.
By,
over,
off,
and in are adverbs,
telling
But they are not very full in sense.

make them completer by adding nouns,
where.
We
thus
1.
2.
3.
4.
to
The army marched by the hill.

The swallow flew over the grove.
The child fell off the pier.
The teacher walked into the room.
\In changes
into.']
When
an adverb
is
completed by a noun
called a preposition, or
noun.
It
word
it is
" placed before " a
then shows a relation between two
things, as, the
army and the
hill,
the swallow
and the grove, the child and the
pier,
the
teacher and the room.
The phrase which
it
begins will usually keep

238
PREPOSITIONS
its
239
adverbial force, telling where, when, or
something
By
is clone.
how
the hill, over the grove,
room are used above like
off the pier, into the
adverbs, telling where the
army marched, the
swallow flew, the child
the teacher came.
fell,
But such phrases may sometimes be used
like
adjectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
The army by the hill is ours.

The sky over the grove is cloudy.
The teacher in this room is the English
The book on the table is mine.
The book on the
smoother phrase
table is a
than the tabled book
tabled
is
Prepositions help us out
tive.
teacher.
a clumsy adjec-
when we
fail to
find a convenient adverb or adjective.
A
ing
preposition
is
is
a relation-word
whose mean-
completed by a noun or pronoun, in a
phrase that usually equals an adverb, but sometimes equals an adjective.

423.
Adverbs, you
where, how, or
remember, show when,
how much.
Adverbial preposi-
tional phrases express all these ideas,
others besides.
show
1.
2.
3.
place.
The
The
The
and some
By, from, and through usually
But they can show
was
was
battle was
battle
lost by reason
battle
lost
from
a cause, thus
of carelessness.
carelessness.
lost through carelessness.
240
Nowadays the preposition usually stands

its noun or pronoun, but not always.
424.
before
We
can say
1.
This
2.
is
the place which you went
preposition
is
to.
not a bad word to end a sen-
tence with.
Originally
So we
stood before the verb.
it
got compound verbs like overdo, undergo, under-
These verbs can take direct objects
take.
The hero St. George overcame the

The modern soldier undergoes an
1.
2.
Analysis Exercise.
425.
dragon.
operation.
Tell what each
prepositional phrase modifies.
The
1.
child
is
playing about
about that dog's neck has "

stars above us
seem
the house.
2.
Bruno " engraved on
like candles,
stars are shining above us.
5.
The
but are suns.
collar
3.
it.
4.
The
The
The king after Cromwell

Jill came tumbling after
was Charles the Second. 6.

Jack. 7. Tom Sawyer leaned lazily against the fence.
8. The docks along the river are filled with shipping.
10. Fair youth beneath
9. Let us walk along the bank.
the trees,
thou canst not leave thy song.
we laughed
11.
Safe below
Below deck, we
laughed at the storm. 13. Beside the brook stands an old
mill.
14. The old mill beside the brook is no longer used.
deck,
The book
15.
On
(383).
is
on
at the
storm.
12.
the table?
the table modifies book like a predicate adjective

It
may
be called a predicate adjective phrase.
PREPOSITIONS
426.
241
For convenience we give the name object
noun
to the
or
pronoun that completes any
In the sentence
preposition.
came over
the
river * river is called the object of over.
Careful
speakers
prepositions, as, with
object-pronouns
use
after
him and me (not with him
and Z)
427.
Practise Exercise.
me
Insert
or J,
according to the construction, in the following

They were speaking
1.
along with father and

horse to
my
brother and
him and
of
.
you and
2. Come
3. Father has given a
4. Is there any mail for
.
She came after her and

6. I
1
suppose you've studied farther than I, and have got
beyond
7. That girl will soon stand above you
and
in the class.
8. Hold the umbrella over both
if you please.
9. It was a great joke on
you and
10. My brother said, " Streams of water
them and
."
ran off the eaves down on Charlie and
?
5.
428.
Practise Exercise.
whom according
For
aimed?
it
Than
whom
2
that
is
to the construction.
is it?
1.
4.
Insert who
2.
is it
is
it
for?
aimed at?
5.
or
At - - is
With
did
3.
not a preposition, except in the expression than
(448).
of who in such sentences as 2 and 4 is so general

we may not call it a vulgarism. But in writing we
The use
should use the strictly grammatical form.
242
you go?
you sent ?
did you go with?
6.
By
7.
were
are you
11. Over
were you sent by ? 9.

are you speaking ?
did you hold the umbrella?
12.
did you
13.
hold the umbrella over?
was it that you
went with? 14. For
are you asking? 15.
is
it you are asking for?
16.
was that
you mentioned? 17.
did you say you saw ? 18. After
were you hunting? 19.
were you hunting after?
20. On
did the punishment fall? 21.
did the
punishment fall on?
8.
speaking to?
10.
To
The
The chief prepositions.
429.
sitions are
chief prepo-
about, above, after, against, along, among, around,
at,
before, behind, below, beneath, beside, by, concerning,
during, for, from,
in,
into,
of,
off,
on, onto, through,
under, within, without.
The following words

with prepositional force
of), but
(=
are
:
occasionally used
because
(in because
except), like (in act like him, etc.),
than (in than whom).
After.
430.
object
it is
After nearly always requires an

a true preposition.
Afterward
is
the corresponding adverb.
Each member
following
We
of the class should repeat the
had dinner, and played games afterward.
PREPOSITIONS
Around
Around.
431.
somewhere around seven
always a preposi-
is
good English
It is not
tion of place.
243
o'clock,
to say
somewhere
for
about seven o'clock.
At
At.
432.
London means
son
who
But
at
is
to be within the city.
London
in
To be
refers to a point.
London
of course at
is
in
per-
London.
refers to being at a given point
on the map.
At denotes not merely
He
of rest.
home
is
at
is
wrong.
home
He
wrongly. 1
at
Practise
proper
phrase,
or
is
only
Exercise.
home
It
He
home for
is
He is home is good English

mean He has got home.
433.
He
correct.
is
to
is
To implies motion.
People often omit

English to say
a point, but a point
is
at home.
when you
the
Insert
home,
at
bad
the
in
blanks.
1.
was staying
summer?
3.
morning?
you going
4.
Why
Shall
2.
your
Shall you be
directly
To the Teacher.
No
superfluous use of at after
this
6.
To
exercise
is.
you stay
brother
did
is
this
stay
evening?
stay
this
5.
is
Are
best.
set for correcting the
But many a pupil
actually
thinks such a use right, and needs constant correction.
244
7.
Stay
8.
Stay
and take care of yourself, to-morrow.

and news will find you. 9. Bridget is
now.
living
Because
434.
But
preposition.
because
Because
of.
This
of.
is
ciation of by cause
denotes
besides
sat
beside
in
phrase
the
of.
Beside denotes place
addition,
as
Two
When
man.
sick
the
not usually a
merely a quick pronun-
Beside, besides.
435.
one
is
it
is
besides,
they generally use
trouble
is
it
besides
people
me
use
The
correctly.
that they sometimes use beside in-
stead of besides.
Each member
Two
Two
Two
besides
between
objects,
him
Fastidious
except
the
never
speakers
when speaking
and two only.
as Divide
Two besides her

Two besides us
Two besides them
me
besides you
Between.
436.
use
besides
of the class should repeat
In such
two
of
sentence
apple among the three
they do
how-
not admit between for among.
There
ever no
saying between
three,
crowd.
serious
objection
to
is
though you could not say between
the
PREPOSITIONS
Between requires at
245
two
least
Say
objects.
between mouthfuls, not between every mouthful,

437.
When
But.
but
But
means
is
usually a
except,
it
him had
as
preposition,
in All
but
fled.
Each member
the
of
All but
me were
All but
him were
438.
is
and takes an object-pronoun,
conjunction.
All but us were there.
there.
All but
there.
For with
For.
should repeat
class
its
them were
object often
there.
means
the same as the indirect object (319).
Remember
that there
is
a conjunction for
(459, 496 c).
439.
From.
preposition
a
is
preposition
whom.
We
After
from.
different,
the
The word than
except in
is
not
expression than
the
say better than
proper
Z,
different
from
Insert
from
me.
440.
Practise
wherever
it
Exercise.
seems needed in a blank.
This fruit is larger than that, and different

that.
2. This fruit is larger than and different
it.
3.
The German is taller than the Italian, and very
different
him.
4. The grizzly rights better than
some bears when aroused, but none is naturally lazier
1.
246
than he
5.
My
he
is
the rest of the family.
Consider three sentences
Into.
1.
Go
in,
2.
Fido
3.
Go
all in this respect.
very different in most respects, particu-
larly in his tastes,
441.
them
not different
is
brother
Fido.
is in
into
[In, adverb.]
the water.
[In, preposition.]
the water, Fido.
[Into, preposition.]
In as a preposition does not often imply
motion toward.
to say
442.
It is not
very good English
Gro in the house.
Practise Exercise.
Insert in or into
as place where or place into which is meant.

1.
Come
house.
3.
the garden, Maud.

I
swims
2.
Come
the house for a moment.
went
the
4.
The
boy often falls

the water. 6. Are you going
town to-day ? I'm
going in by the express. 7. Harold goes in for chess
the subject
in fact, he's
he has gone deep
rather too deep for most of us. 8. The teacher went
the building just now. 9. Cut the apple
two
there,
it's
cut it
two pieces
now
halves.
fish
the water.
5.
a shut
10.
443.
Like.
mouth
Like
flies
is
A man
like
him would
the truth.
At
other times
tion, as in
ial
fly.
often an adjective with
prepositional force, as in
tell
cannot
phrase.
Act
like
we may
him.
call like a preposi-
Like him
is
an adverb-
PREPOSITIONS
We
Do
247
have already been advised not to say
like he does
(178) for
Do
as he does. 1
Of with a noun often equals the

genitive noun
of John may mean John's. This
444.
Of.
fact will be discussed later.
Of with a pronoun usually equals an adverb,

in We spoke of them.
Very rarely it equals a
as
possessive adjective.
The father of us equals
our father.
Of with
noun often equals an adjective
material.
of
crown of gold equals a golden
crown.
Many
adjective phrases with of
mean forming
a part of as the chimney of the house, several of

the apples.
Of sometimes serves
town of Boston.
tive, as in the
merely means
445.
Off.
to strengthen an apposi-
this dog,
The
mine.
preposition of should not be
used after the preposition
commoner mistakes than

1
A.S.
To the Teacher.
lie
(a body), with
gleich, is
This dog of mine
The
its
off.
There are few
off of.
history of this word,
cognates in
German
leich
from
and
extremely interesting, and explains perfectly its

But it is impossible to make the
present anomalous status.

case clear to a
young student, and our energy may best be
expended on such exercises as
178.
248
Each member
of the class should repeat the
following expressions
Off
the roof, off the pier, off
the tree,
rose, a
a leaf off
446.
book, off the ground, off
a flower off a bush, a petal off a

a piece off a stick.
the tree,
player off the
my
first base,
The
On, upon, up on.
means about the same
preposition upon
as the preposition on,
When we
implies either rest or motion.
two ideas up and
to give the
words separately, as Go up on
447.
On
In
to, onto.
Onto
the adverb.
is
On
to
on,
into
good
448.
write the
Richmond! on
a preposition.
but onto seems
wish
the roof.
and
careful persons never wrote on

solid word,
we
and
now
is
Formerly,
to
as one
to have
come
use.
Than.
only one phrase
Than
:
is
used as a preposition in
than whom.
449.
Practise Exercise.
priate
pronoun in each blank.
Insert an appro-
2. None was so
None was more brave than
3. None was as brave as
4. Few
brave as
5. No man is better qualified
are so generous as
6. Napoleon, than
no man
for the work than
1.
of his time
was a greater
general,
was
cruel.
PREPOSITIONS
450.
Prepositions
English to say
I want
"want."
after
I want
up,
249
I want
It
out, for
is
bad
I want
Always supply the

The mistake is made in Scotland
verbal noun.
and in the Middle West of our own country.
to
get up,
451.
to
get out.
Practise Exercise.
Below are
fifty
prepositional phrases having the force of adverbs.
Above
Use each
all, all
in a sentence.
in all, at a loss, at all events, at
any
rate,
at best, at heart, at fault, at hand, at most, at one, at

random, at that, at the most, at times, by heart, by no
means, by the bye, for a while, for all that, for instance,
for long, for lost, for that matter, for the most part, for
the present, for the time, from time to time, in a word, in
brief, in general, in fact, in full, in other
words, in part,
more
and more, no doubt, none the less, on the contrary, on
the one hand, on the other hand, on the whole, once for
all, over and above, under the circumstances.
in particular, in short, in the main, in vain, in view,
CHAPTER
IX
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are words whose chief office
452.
is
to connect clauses or sentences.
Independent conjunctions.
453.
pure or
independent conjunction, like and, does nothing

but connect.
(And can connect words,
There are
phrases, or clauses, or sentences.)
about a dozen pure conjunctions
we
shall
groups
reckon them.
or
fourteen,
as
These divide into four
the and group, the but group, the so
group, and the either group.
The
The
The
The
and group
but group
and, also, moreover, besides.

but, yet,
nevertheless.
still,
so group so, therefore, consequently.

either group either, or neither, nor.
:
Independent conjunctions join things that are

spoken of as equally important
All
either
1.
Blue and green are both
2.
Either this book or that will do.
independent
colors.
conjunctions
(except
the
We
saw
group) may connect sentences.

250
CONJUNCTIONS
this in our
230).
study of what a sentence
is
(197-
statement beginning with an inde-
pendent conjunction
1.
251
It rained.
may
stand as a sentence.
And, what was worse,
it
blew.
blew.
2.
It rained.
Also
3.
It rained.
Moreover
4.
It rained.
Besides,
5.
It rained.
But the rain did not prevent our
6.
It rained.
Yet the rain did not prevent our trip.
7.
It rained.
Nevertheless
it
it
it
blew.
blew.
we went.
8.
It rained.
So we gave up the
9.
It rained.
10.
It rained.
we decided to wait.
Consequently we deferred the trip.
We
454.
trip.
trip.
Therefore
must not forget
or a period before and, but,
comma
when these
to insert a
so,
and
or,
words begin statements.
semicolon means about the same as a period
Review
(290).
Correct use of or and nor.
455.
neither
nor
sections 284 to 295.
nor are used in
when
456.
Êither
Or
pairs.
is
or,
used for
not or never precedes.
Practise Exercise.
Supply or or nor
according to the construction.

1.
Wednesday was
Neither Monday, Tuesday,
pleasant.
2.
the third.
3.
around.
4.
I could not like the
There wasn't a bush
They did not say
first,
the second,
a tree for miles
that there wasn't a bush
252
a tree for miles around.
mer,
the nails,
tea
I couldn't find the
5.
the saw.
6.
He
ham-
never drinks
coffee.
457.
Correct
position of
In using either
either
and neither.
should be taken to
or care
connect nouns with nouns, verbs with verbs,

Either should be placed directly before
etc.
the
word
or phrase which
with another.
The same
is
to be contrasted
principle holds in the
case of neither.
458.
Practise Exercise.
Insert the con-
junctions either and neither correctly.

1.
John went, nor Henry.
fowl.
4.
3.
He
I see
will
win
2.
Pie ate fish, flesh, nor
a floating barrel or a
first
place or second.
tridge or a red squirrel.
hopes to win or else to
6.
fail
He
will
are
two
ent
7.
He
honorably.
such words as
They do not connect
the water.
sees a par-
go nor send.
459. Dependent conjunctions.
junctions
man in
5. He
sentences.
clauses within a sentence.
Dependent conif and because.
They connect
When a
conjunction begins a sentence,
there are to be two clauses, the
first
depend-
we know
depending
on the second.
The
chief dependent conjunctions have al-
ready been treated in sections 231 to 245.
It
CONJUNCTIONS
253
was there shown that they turn any statement

into a mere part of a sentence.
The dependent conjunctions may be arranged

in seven groups, as partly shown in section 232.
These may be called the where group, the when
group, the because group, the if group, the
although
group,
the
and
group,
that
so
the
whether group.
1.
2.
The where group where, wherever, wherein.

The when group when, whenever, while, before,
:
after, since, until, just as, as

3.
much
4.
The
because group
soon
as, as
long
because, for,
as,
as.
since,
inas-
as long as.
as,
The
if
group
unless, provided, provided that,
if,
except.
5.
The
although
group
although, though, even
if,
granting.
6.
7.
The
The
group so that, in order

whether group whether, if.
so that
that, that.
Dependent clauses are always parts of sentences, and sometimes we use them as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
460.
That, whether,
Object clauses.
if,
when,
and where may begin clauses that are used

objects
know
1.
that
it is
so.
2.
I think that
it is
so.
3.
He
He
4.
says that
it is
so.
asked whether
it
was
so.
as
254
7.
He asked if it was so.

He asked when ice went.
He knows where we went.
8.
I don't
5.
6.
doubt
that
it is
so. 1
Noun-clauses are usually objects of verbs of

Noun-clauses after
asking, telling, or thinking.
verbs that ask are
called
indirect
questions.
Indirect questions begin with ivhether,

where, who, ivhich, or what (366).
if,
when,
Noun-clauses
after verbs of telling or thinking are indirect
statements.
Where and wherein

may begin clauses that modify nouns. ComAdjective-clauses.
461.
pare 367.
remember the house where I was
1.
2.
This
the book wherein
is
Adverb-clauses.
462.
conjunctions
born.
the quotation
Nearly
all
was found.
dependent
can begin clauses that are ad-
verbial.
1.
Where
2.
The
love
is
strong, faults
seem few.
soldier fell where he stood.
In two sentences like

The
The
1
soldier died because of his bravery,

soldier died because he was brave,
Avoid saying I don't doubt but what. But what means

what (437). Say I don't doubt but that, or / don't
except
doubt
that.
CONJUNCTIONS
the thought
bravery
is
255
exactly the same.
is
Because of
We
an adverbial phrase (434).
do
not usually speak of because as an adverb, for

is
meaningless by
cause
is
itself.
The soldier died
not a complete statement.
We
it
be-
usually
keep the name adverb for words that are complete
enough
to
answer the questions where
when
how ?
or
how much ?
We
call because
sometimes a preposition, sometimes a conjunc-
But we may say that phrases and

showing why are adverbial.
clauses
tion.
463.
Adverbial clauses are more or
less ad-
The examples given in section 462

very adverbial.
But often it is not easy to
verbial.
any true adverbial force
in a
are
see
dependent clause.
statement beginning with where or while, for
example,
1.
We
may seem
finally
almost like a
reached the
river,
new
where
sentence
we
staid
till
evening.
2.
This rose
is
white, while that
is
yellow.
In spite of a time-honored custom,
it is
hardly
necessary to maintain that clauses of purpose,

result, cause, condition,
verbial.
They
and concession are ad-
are statements,
though depend-
and do not often seem attached

word of the main clause.
ent,
to
any one
256
The Where group.
464.
Clauses beginning
with where, ivherever, and wherein usually show

the place of the
main statement.
The "When group.
465.
When,
ivhile,
before*
after, since, until, just as, as soon as, as long as
show the time of the main statement.

Before and after may be prepositions of time
usually
or place, or conjunctions of time

Before
1.
the rain
the sky grew dark. [Preposition of
time.]
The grain bent
2.
before
the
rain.
[Preposition of
place.]
Before the rain came, the sky grew dark. [Con-
3.
junction of time.]
The Because group.
466.
since,
inasmuch
as, as
long as
Because, for,
may
as,
begin clauses
show the cause of the main statement.

Since and as long as usually show time.
But
that
time and place are often causes.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An
hour has passed since you came. [Time.]

I feel better since you have come. [Time and cause.]
Since the day is fair, I shall go for a walk. [Cause.]
I will stay as long as you wish. [Time.]
As long as you have come, I can be spared. [Cause.]
467.
by
if,
The
If
group.
Dependent clauses begun
unless, provided, provided that are called
conditional clauses.
CONJUNCTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
If
If
If
If
we
257
home.
shall stay at
it
rains,
it
rained yesterday, he probably staid at home.
it
were raining now,
the shoe fits,
put
it
we
should be sorry.
on.
In such sentences the main clause
is
called
the conclusion.
conditional sentence consists of a condition
and a conclusion.
The Although group.
468.
even
granting begin dependent statements in
if,
which the main statement
spite of
1.
We
shall go, though
2. It is
3.
it
may
hot, although there
is
would be worth while
It
Although, though,
is
made.
rain pitchforks.
a breeze.
to do right, even if
it
did
not pay.
4.
Granting that
it
will rain pitchforks,
yet
we
shall go.
These conjunctions are sometimes called the

granting or
make
So
conjunctions.
They
a concession.
is
They
yield a point.
The So That group.
469.
fore
conceding
So meaning there-
an independent conjunction (217, 453).
that, in
order
that,
and
that
may
begin
dependent clauses showing the purpose of the
main statement, or
1.
pose.]
its result.
We went early so that
we might
get
good
seats.
[Pur-
258
2.
We
went
early, so that tee did get
good
[Re-
seats.
sult.]
3.
We went
so early that
ice
We went
so early that
ice
might get good
seats.
[Pur-
pose.]
4.
did get good seats. [Result.]
The
In order that shows only purpose.
differ-
ence between purpose-clauses and result-clauses

is
this
result-clauses
accomplished
aimed
470.
at,
show
purpose-clauses
result actually
show
result
but not yet accomplished.
Interjections.
Interjections
ready been treated (274, 275).
have
al-
They do not
form a true element of the sentence, but are

"
thrown
in," as the
word
The commonest of written

Ah! Alas! Pshaw!
is
interjection implies.
interjections are
used with vocatives (276), and
is
Oh!
not
punctuated.
Oh!
is
an exclamation of surprise, and
nearly always
followed
by a comma
exclamation point.
1.
2.
O thou invisible spirit of wine

Oh did you say spirits of wine ?
!
or
is
an
CHAPTER X
SUMMARY OF SENTENCE ELEMENTS
In trying to understand what
471.
by
" parts of speech "
We
sentences.
and
find that
it
it is
not always easy
flower to pieces.
It is
You
pulling a live
like
can do
it,
but you have taken the
When we talk of nouns and verbs

we
and name the
are treating the sentence as
life
out of
process
is
useful, but
it.
and adjectives
if
it
were a
machine, or a structure, or a dead thing.
it is
is
and clumsily put the flower together
parts,
again
sentence
not very easy to pull a
is
thought to pieces.
meant
is
we have been analyzing
to do this to onr satisfaction.
a thought,
we must never
The
forget that
" mechanical."
There are a great many ways in which we
may look
at a sentence.
One
of the
commonest
To the Teacher. While it is desirable that the entire

book should be studied in the order of the chapters, this
1
chapter should not be given unless there
is
plenty of time for
Chapter XI and such practise exercises as 590-603. Chapter XI should consume about two months of daily work.
See 505, note,
259
260
is
to think of
as
picture, usually
like a string of little
When
"
The
lines, or circles.
film.
some
sort of structure, or
Some students think
building.
of
it
the
of
diagram
"
it
as a sort
of
living sentence
straight
is
more
photographs on a ribbon-
machine works, the photo-
They come
graphs are flashed on a screen.
so
you seem to see but one picture, with

persons and things in motion.
The present
writer knew a boy who often thought of a senfast that
tence as a train of cars, with the verb for the
coupler
and
he once heard a grammarian
speak of a sentence as a
letter,
and the vocative
as the address
on the envelope.
ures of speech
may
All these
fig-
be helpful to us in studying
the sentence, and doubtless others will suggest
themselves to the thoughtful student.
One
472.
sentence
is
of the truest
to think of
it
ways
of regarding a
as bringing different
things into relation with each other.
boy and a
squirrel.
relations they
may
Take
See what a variety of
bear to each other, and
variously each relation
may
be expressed.
One relation of boy and
squirrel.
The boy captures the squirrel.

The boy is captor of the squirrel.
how
261
The boy is the squirrel's captor.

The boy is a squirrel-catcher.
The squirrel is caught by the boy.
The squirrel is the captive of the boy.
The squirrel is the boy's captive.
The squirrel is boy-captured.
Another relation of boy and
squirrel.
The squirrel bites the boy.

The squirrel is a biter of the boy.
The squirrel is the boy's biter.
The squirrel is a boy-biter.
The boy is bit by the squirrel.
The boy is the victim of the squirrel's
The boy is squirrel-bitten.
Perhaps the
Base-words and modifiers.
473.
teeth.
commonest way of analyzing a sentence is to

divide it into "base-words" and "modifiers."
It is clear that the single noun or pronoun
that stands as subject is a base-word to which
other words are attached. In The lively boy
easily caught a squirrel, boy is certainly a base-
word
to
which
and
the
lively are
attached to
modify and increase the meaning of

It is
the
not so clear whether
verb as a base-word
we
or
boy.
are to regard
a
as
modifier.
Caught changes our notion of boy, making the
boy into a catcher.

a modifier
it
is
But caught
an asserter.
is
more than
So we usually
262
regard verbs of action as base-words.

caught the squirrel, the base
is
is
In easily
caught,
and
it
modified by easily and the squirrel.
But suppose our sentence reads, The boy is a

The question arises whether
squirrel-catcher.
is is
a base-word.
It is a
very important word in

it
makes the speaker
But log and

the same person.
squirrel -catcher are
one sense, for
it
asserts
responsible.
names
of
tant fact of the sentence
is
The
really impor-
that the boy gets a
new name, the predicate noun squirrel- catcher.

We may say that squirrel-catcher completes the
verb and modifies the subject, while
and
links.
is
asserts
For convenience, we regard the
link-
verb as a base-word, but we say that the completers of a link-verb
474.
modify the
subject.
The two base-words of a sentence are the
subject-noun and the verb, but the completers of

a link-verb modify the subject.
475.
Modifiers
of the
subject.
The various
modifiers of the subject are as follows

1.
Assuming
adjectives and verbal adjectives
(383, 388, 396-398).

2.
Adjective phrases (422).
3.
Adjective clauses (367, 461).

4.
Appositives and genitives (322, 324).
5.
Predicate nouns, adjectives,
263
and verbal
adjectives (316, 383, 388, 396-398).

476.
Modifiers of the main verb.
1.
Adverbs (401-404).
2.
Adverbial phrases (422).
3.
Adverbial clauses (462, 463).
4.
Objects (318, 329, 353) or object-clauses
(366, 367, 460).

5.
Indirect objects (319).
477.
fier
Modifiers of modifiers.
Almost any modi-
can serve as base-word to another modifier.
Adverbs and adjectives are modified by adverbs.

A noun used as object can be modified by any
appositive, genitive, adjective, adjective-phrase,
or adjective-clause.
478.
General analysis.
The purpose
of gen-
put the general structure of a
eral analysis is to
sentence before us.
We
and then give their
largest modifiers
clauses or phrases
if
state the base-words,
whole
there are such.
The following formula may be used
Say whether the sentence is a statement, a question,

or a command (251)
and whether it is simple, complex,
1.
or
compound (234)2.
State the base-words.
264
3.
Show how
the
subject
modified
is
by
clauses,
phrases, or words.
4.
Show how
the verb
is
modified or completed by
clauses, phrases, or words.
We may now
analyze some sentences by this
formula.
1.
The boy whom you saw here caught a red

squirrel in the woods
1.
This
2.
The base-words are boy and caught.

Boy is modified by the clause whom you saw here.
Caught is modified by the object a red squirrel, and
3.
4.
is
the adverbial phrase in the woods.

2.
The boy gave me the squirrel
1.
This
2.
The base-words are boy and gave.

Boy is modified by the adjective the.
Gave is modified by the indirect object me, and the
3.
4.
is
a simple statement.
direct object squirrel.

3.
Our John was a hero when he

1.
This
2.
The base-words
3.
John
is
is
said that
are John
and
was.
modified by the adjective our and the predi-
cate-noun hero.
Was
completed by the predicate-noun

the adverbial clause when he said that.
4.
He
4.
is
is
rapidly making his
1.
This
2.
The base-words
is
way
a simple statement.
are
He and
is.
in
hero,
and
the world

He
3.
is
265
modified by the predicate-phrase rapidly mak-
ing his ivay in the world.

Is is
4.
way
When
479.
there
his
a verb-phrase
Has
hard to analyze,
been making does not readily break
though has
480.
is
no objection to calling the whole phrase
is
a verb.
up,
completed by the phrase rapidly making
in the world.
is
the real base. 1
The variable point
of chief interest.
We
must not think that base-words are always the

points of chief interest.
focused on some
little
I said
may
will
we answer only such

interest the inquirer.
Often these answers are mere modifiers.
example
be
My book, not yours.
we think
as
interest
modifier, as in
In ordinary conversation
words
Our
For
Whom
did you think I spoke to ?
"Him."
No, I spoke to you.
Can you hear me now ?
" Easily."
1
To
the Teacher.
The
student
may be
asked to
study and repeat the analysis of the four sentences given
seems profitable to do so, similar examples

be set. The question of time for Chapter XI and the
practise exercises of Chapters XII-XVIII should be con-
above.
may
sidered.
If
then
it
CHAPTER
XI
PUNCTUATION
481.
The marks
of punctuation
are as fol-
lows:
the period
the semicolon
the exclamation
the question-mark
the dash
the colon
the curves
the brackets
the stars * * *
the leaders
482.
are
by
Of
all these,
far the
the period and the
most important.
comma
Beginners are
slow to understand that they need to use these
wo marks
we study
intelligently in every theme.
these two chief marks
Before
we may glance
at the others.
1
The hyphen and the apostrophe
ation marks.
Eor the hyphen, see
see 29, 375, 525, 526.
266
are not really punctu-
512.
For the apostrophe,
PUNCTUATION
483.
The semicolon
It joins
two sentences
a kind of
is
weak
period.
in one, because they are
Beginners do not often
closely related in sense.
need the semicolon.
267
you employ
If
it
at
all,
consult the teacher about every case before you
hand
in
your paper.
Examples
of its use will
be found in sections 290-295.
484.
The exclamation
(!) follows exclama-
tory sentences and vocatives (251, 275, 279).
485.
(270).
The
question-mark
Beginners are likely to forget
use a period.
tion, as "
486.
follows
What ?
single
word
is
questions
this,
often a ques-
"
The dash shows
a sudden break, or sus-
pense, or a violent parenthesis (280), or a
2.
but what am I saying

My native land good night.
3.
1.
and
list
Then
wish
cities
could teach their best lesson
that of
quiet manners.
4.
The boy
such was his haste was nearly choked.

four evangelists Matthew, Mark,
There were
Luke, and John.
5.
Do
colon.
not use the dash after the
comma
or the
268
487.
force
ity (
The
is
it
colon usually precedes a
somewhat
list.
like the sign of
In
equal-
= )
Matthew, Mark, Luke,

1. There were four evangelists
and John.
:
2.
The
488.
(280).
secret of success
is
this
stick to
one thing.
The curves enclose a strong parenthesis

They are less and less used every year.
The comma usually takes

489.
their place.
The brackets show something
inserted
by another person
He [Henry
the Eighth] was
490.
The
491.
The Period.
many
times married.
show a long omission.

The leaders (...) show a short omission.
stars (* * *)
The period
grammatical independence.
ments that can stand alone.
is
the sign of
It separates state-
We
have studied
such statements in sections 197-230.
There we
found that beginners often use the comma for

the period, and
in
we
Punctuation.
called this
We
The
Child's Fault
found too that begin-
ners often set off a mere phrase or a dependent

clause
by
periods, not
pendent statement
is.
knowing what an inde-
PUNCTUATION
The Comma.
492.
of incompleteness.
tence.
It
The comma
It is
the sign
is
used within the sen-
shows what words are to be taken
It is the
gether.
269
Also
group-maker.
it
to-
keeps
words apart that do not belong together, and

thus
prevents misunderstandings (290, 295).
it
The comma should not be used
When
in doubt,
The
teacher.
omit the
comma
or consult the
larger the groups of words, the
But when
better, provided the sense is clear.
comma is needed, it is
Every comma is important.
the
good reader makes
greatly needed.
slight pauses in
places where there are no

at
commas.
nearly every comma, and at
Commas have
places.
too freely.
very
many
He pauses
many other
to do with
little
elocution.
493.
Rules and examples to learn.
The
quickest
way to master punctuation is to learn examples.

Our task for some time to come is to learn
the following six special rules for the period
and
comma, with the

Master them absolutely.
the
Remember
punctuation.
or
comma.
forty
to learn both the
examples.
words and the
In reciting, mention each period
270
Rule
The period separates independent statements.

The comma cannot do
this unless followed by and or but.
494.
2.
Man
Man
3.
Wait
1.
1.
proposes.
proposes,
God disposes.
but God disposes.
the time comes to strike.
till
Then
strike hard.
4.
Wait
the time
till
comes to
strike,
and then
strike hard.
5.
Washington won
at Trenton.
This turned the
tide of war.
6.
Washington won
at Trenton,
and
this
turned
the tide of war.

7.
Cowards
They are mastered
are slaves.
by-
fear.
8.
Lincoln hesitated.
9.
"Lincoln'
is
He
did not
a curious word.
want
It
a war.
means "col-
ony by the pool."
Note
1.
For
independent
beginnings see
197-230, 453, 454.
Note
2.
In examples
7,
forbids and, but permits for.
Note
3.
8,
and 9 the sense

See Rule 3c.
The student always has
the choice
between the period without a conjunction and

the
comma with
one.
Sentences are stronger
without conjunctions, smoother with them,
PUNCTUATION
Rule
495.
but
if
2.
Put
comma
271
before and or
seems to connect distinct statements.
it
Put nothing before and
if
it
seems to join only
words.
1.
Man
2.
Be
3.
proposes, but
God
disposes.
bold, but not rash.
Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant

and in their death they were not
in their lives,
divided.
4.
was
afraid,
and went and hid thy talent
in
the earth.
Distinct statements have each a sub-
Note.
ject
and a predicate.
subject
is
In example 3 the
first
Saul and Jonathan; the second
is
they.
But when the two statements have the same

subject, as in 4,
second.
statement.
Then
it
can be omitted from the
the second
is
called a condensed
condensed statement
is
simply a
predicate that seems like a distinct statement.
Review sections 288 and 289. Note that went

and hid seems like one statement only.
In example 2 we have what seems like two
distinct commands.
The verb is the same for
both, and is therefore omitted from the second.
The second is a condensed command.
272
Rule
496.
rated from
3.
dependent clause
is
sepa-
main clause by a comma or
its
nothing (236).
When
a.
standing
usually needs a
it
first,
comma.
enemy
hunger, feed him.
If
2.
Though the night
is
3.
When wine
wits are out.
4.
Where law
When
b.
thine
1.
is in,
ends, tyranny begins.
standing
comma, sometimes
1.
dark, morning will come.
propose to
last,
it
sometimes needs
not.
fight it
out on this
line, if it
takes
summer.
all
2.
3.
4.
Work
if it
shines,
and
rest
if it
rains.
Rob not the poor man, because he is poor.

Do right because it is right, not because it pays.
When
C.
/or,
they follow a
as,
and
since
comma between
mean
because,
the two state-
ments.
1.
the
Take therefore no thought
morrow
for the
morrow,
for
shall take thought for the things of
itself.
2.
Pay
as
you
go, as
you go
safely so.
3. Since 1776 we celebrate July fourth, since we

celebrate the Declaration and not its formal signing.
PUNCTUATION
497.
Rule
4.
Members
273
of a real series are
separated by commas, or conjunctions, or both
commas and
conjunctions.
Beauty, truth, and goodness are never out of
1.
date.
2. All was ended now, the hope, and the fear, and
the sorrow.
Woodsy and wild and lonesome

The swift stream wound away.
4. The man of the world dresses plainly, promises
nothing, and performs much.
3.
5. Some are born great, some achieve greatness,

and some have greatness thrust upon 'em.
6.
Fear not sorrow, death, or
Note
1.
life.
series consists of three or
more
elements having the same construction.
Note
The conjunctions used
2.
in a series
are and, or, nor.
Note
When
3.
once, put a
and
comma
the conjunction appears but

before
it,
examples 1
as in
6.
Note
4.
interferes
Observe in example 1 that nothing

between goodness and
are.
Firm-names often omit the comma

before and, as in Smith, Jones and Company.
But this older custom will be displaced in time.
Note
5.
Note
6.
Expressions like
not punctuated.
little
old
man
are
274
Rule
498.
separated from
usually
are
and vocatives
Parentheses
5.
sentence by
the
commas.
Without economy, said
1.
be
Dr. Johnson,
few can
rich.
got places,
2. If
myself
fit
was because
it
sir,
made
for 'em.
3.
Why,
sir,
I'm not afraid, in any case, to try.
4.
"Well,
my
lord,
what cannot be cured must be
endured.
Note
The words
1.
Yes and
No should
always be followed by some punctuation, even

there
if
is
no vocative.
Thus we always write
Yes,
sir,
even though
pronouncing such an expression we make
in
no pause between the words.

holds in the case of Say.
The same
We
rule
always write
Say, John.
Note
The words
2.
as in 3
and
even
there
if
Note
and
4,
3.
Note
280.
are always followed by a
comma,
no vocative.
is
The words perhaps,
indeed, however,
besides are usually not parenthetical.
not set them
off
Well and Why, as used
4.
off
Do
except for unusual emphasis.
strong parenthesis
may
by curves, a violent one by dashes.
be set
See
PUNCTUATION
Rule
499.
6.
A regular relative clause shows
which person or thing

not punctuate
1.
2.
3.
it
275
is
being spoken
Do
of.
at all.
The man who hesitates
is lost.
God helps those that help themselves.

A man is rich in proportion to the number
things
An
which he can afford to
let alone.
extra relative clause adds extra informa-
tion about something already understood.
Set
by a comma or commas to show that
it
off
is
extra.
1.
of
There
the sky, which
is
you can see
it
for your-
self.
2.
He went
to his father, "who
York.
3. George Washington,
president,
went
to
who had
New York
Note
1.
The
Note
2.
Sometimes
was then
clause in 3
it is
a relative clause needs a
in
New-
been chosen
just
to be inaugurated.
is
a parenthesis.
whether
hard to
tell
comma
or not.
In
such cases always consult the teacher.
Everybody knows what "the sky"

means.
Everybody knows who " George
Washington " was.
Everybody knows what
Note
3.
the expression "his father" means.

tive clauses are therefore extra;
show which
thing.
The
rela-
they do not
276
500.
comma
general rule for the
to help the reader,
comma.
and not to
Use the
interfere.
We
saw in 267 that there is no need of marking the end of a subject by a comma.
It is
equally true that there is no need of marking
the beginning of an object.
Before an object or after a subject a
comma
is
a nuisance.
The following sentences show
clauses used as
Note that no comma occurs before the
objects.
conjunctions
if ivhether, where, when,
that,
when
these words begin object-clauses.

1.
2.
asked John where he had been.

asked John whether he should be present.
John said that he had been at school.

4. John answered that he should try to be present.
5. I need not remind you that it is extremely ill-bred
make either a man's physical defects or his religious
3.
to
opinions the subject of ridicule.
W.
T. Hewett.
Mr. John Burroughs declares that

never yet supported a great character."
6.
501.
Practise
Exercise.
" a little
Take each
foot
of
these quotations in turn, and repeat the rule

or rules
cite the
1.
by which
it
is
punctuated.
example which seems most
Young
therefore they
people think they
make
know
positive statements.
Then
like
re-
it.
everything, and
Aristotle,
PUNCTUATION
217
Chide a friend in private, but praise him in pub-
2.
Solon.
lic.
3.
city that is set
on a
Mat-
cannot be hid.
hill
thew 5 14.
:
4.
Forsake not an old friend, for the
parable with him.

5.
good.
6.
Ecclesiasticus 9
Be not overcome
Romans 12 21.
new
not com-
is
10.
of evil, but
overcome
evil
with
If
you
let
your words run too far before your

up with
deeds, the deeds will never be able to catch
the words.
W.
We
have
7.
to
have done.
8.
undone those things which we ought

The Book of Common Prayer.
left
If the blind lead the blind,
Matthew Id
ditch.
9.
T. Hewett.
both shall
fall into
the
-A.
Resist the devil,
and he
will flee
from you.
James
4:7.
Sweet childish days [they were], that were as long

Wordsworth.
as twenty days are now.
10.
11.
he
fall.
Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed

First Corinthians 10
The
lest
12.
on a soldier's face is not vulgar,

but the dirty face of a housemaid is. Ruskin.
12.
battle-stain
There are few things more contemptible than a

Blackie.
rich man who stands upon his riches.
13.
14.
The bravest and

W. T.
most peaceable.
strongest
men
are generally the
Hewett.
Render unto Caesar the things which are

Matthew 22: 21.
Caesar's.
15.
Poisoned by town life the sufferer says " Well,

children, whom I have injured, shall go back to the
16.
my
land."
Emerson.
278
17.
The Puritans hated
bear-baiting, not because
gave pain to the bear, bnt because

Macaulay.
spectators.
18.
The
it
gave pleasure to the
it
know
Indian, the sailor, the hunter, only these
the power of the hands, feet, teeth, eyes, and ears.
Emer-
son.
employments,
19.
Wishing, of
20.
[The brook runs]
all
clear
and
is
cool, clear
laughing shallow and dreaming pool.

21.
Hosea 8
22.
The thing
is
The
24.
25.
is
law of the
Daniel 6 12.
not.
fathers have eaten sour grapes,
There
by
shall reap the
true, according to the
dren's teeth are set on edge.
a friend
Ezekiel 18
that
sticketh
and the
chil-
2.
closer
Proverbs 18 24.
brother.
cool,
7.
Medes and Persians, which altereth

23.
and
Kingsley.
They have sown the wind, and they
whirlwind.
Young.
the worst.
than
'
He
that spareth the rod hateth his son.
Proverbs
13 24.
:
26.
He
friends.
that
repeateth
Proverbs 17
matter
separateth
The morning stars sang together, and

God shouted for joy. Job 38 7.
27.
of
chief
9.
all
the sons
28.
In the lexicon of youth, which fate reserves for a
bright manhood, there's no such word as

29.
Keep thy
30.
He heaps up
gather them.
31.
My
shop,
riches,
Psalm 39
keep thee.
and knows not who
shall
6.
part.
The
New England
Byron had a head which
Macaulay.
will
Bulwer.
book and heart
Must never
32.
and thy shop
fail.
Primer.
statuaries loved to copy.
PUNCTUATION
279
The boy stood on the burning deck,

Whence all but him had fled. Mrs. Hemans.
33.
We have met the enemy, and they are ours. Perry.

My foot in on my native heath, and my name is
34.
35.
MacGregor.
Scott.
36.
Rich and rare were the gems she wore.
37.
Wolf, snake, and crocodile are useful as checks,

and pioneers. Emerson.
Moore.
scavengers,
God made the
38.
country, and
man made
the town.
Cowper.
These are the times that try men's
39.
Paine.
souls.
That fellow seems to me to possess but one

and that is a wrong one. Dr. Johnson.
40.
41.
I feel like
Who
one
treads alone
Some banquet-hall
Whose
Whose
And
There
42.
there
is
may be
idea,
all
deserted,
lights are fled,
garlands dead,
but him departed.
no such thing as a
Moore.
trifling dishonesty,
dishonesty for a trifling gain.
but
Phineas
Bar num.
43.
Never leave
till
to-morrow that which you can do
to-day.
44.
Take care
of the pence, for the pounds will take
care of themselves.
45.
The man that blushes
is
not quite a brute.
Young.
"I have not any proper courage, but I shall never

anyone find it out." A Young Soldier, quoted by
46.
let
Emerson.
47.
The man who
eats in a hurry loses
ure of eating and the profit of digestion.
both the pleasBlackie.
280
As
48.
which makes such a famous
to early rising,
is
little about it, as it

some
a virtue which I was never able to practise. Blackie.
49. My Lord of Hereford here, whom you call king,
is
a foul traitor.
biographies, I can say
figure in
Shakspere.
Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest

not what a day may bring forth. Proverbs 27 1.
51. Courage, whether moral or physical, is of three
50.
kinds
W.
courage to be, courage to do, courage to endure.
T. Hewett.
52.
Justice,
sir, is
the great interest of
man on
earth.
Webster.
53.
Tis
Who
54.
observed those men most valiant are

were most modest ere they came to war.
still
It is noble to
be generous, but not at other peo-
ple's expense.
55.
The teacher wishes
your brain, and you give

piece of paper.
know what you have in

him what you take from a
to
Blackie.
The best part of a man is his little, nameless, unremembered acts of kindness or of love. Wordsworth.
57. Newton was a great man without either telegraph,
56.
or gas. or steam-coach, or rubber shoes, or lucifer matches,
Emerson.
has not learned the lesson of life who does not
every day surmount a fear. Emerson.
59. Let the thing in which you are most skilful be
or ether for his pain.
58.
He
that about which you are most reticent.

60.
lie
which
is
W.
T. Hewett.
half a truth is ever the blackest of
lies;
A lie which
is all
lie
may be met and
fought with
outright
But a
lie
which
to fight.
is
part a truth
Tennyson
is
a harder matter
PUNCTUATION
281
Practise Exercise.
Show where
commas would help the reader.
Some sentences need no comma.
502.
When a friend asks there is no to-morrow.
1.
ignorance
2.
Where
be wise. 3. Look where

watching you be afraid of
bliss 'twere folly to
is
When
no man is
yourself.
5. Even if a donkey goes traveling he will not
come home a horse. 6. If anything stay let work stay.
7. You'll be sorry if you do.
8. Since there's no use crying over spilt milk let us laugh and be merry.
9. He
went until he dropped. 10. He ran as far as he could
I point.
when he
4.
fell
503.
commas
exhausted.
Practise Exercise.
Show where
are really needed.
and repose slam the door on

Faith hope and charity are
3.
called the three christian graces.
Grant Lee and
Stuart were generals. 4. Chicago Boston and New York
5.
Foxes weasels and minks kill rabbits
are cities.
6. Grace grit and gentian will cure
squirrels and birds.
the tobacco habit. 7. The tree was a large flourishing
oak. 8. The man was a handsome burly Englishman.
10. He
9. There was the moon round bright and silvery.
was a little old man. 11. What a pretty little watch.
1.
the
12.
Joy temperance
doctor's
The fox
nose.
squirrel
15.
is
a large red squirrel but
it is
not
was a fine young

young lad named Simple Simon.
See that great big dog
a large red-squirrel.
14.
2.
There was a
504.
commas
13. Sally
foolish
Practise
are
sentences.
lady.
Exercise.
really
Many
Show
where
needed in the following
sentences need none.
282
The king will probably come here

king will come here to-day probably. 3.
1.
rain.
4.
Can
it
to-day.
It
possibly have been mislaid
may
?
2.
The
perhaps
5. It
may
have been mislaid possibly. 6. It may possibly even

probably have been mislaid. 7. Justice will sooner or
8. Surely the child was right.
9. The
later be done.
students however had not yet assembled. 10. A great
steamer bearing down on the fishing boat sank it.
11. Crusoe looking saw canoes on the shore. 12. Caught
in the sargasso sea the hulks of steamers lay drifting
Looking down you see a forest of wonder14. Seen

growing in the sandy bottom.
through the vapor the moon seemed strangely large.
15. There are in the sky about four thousand visible
16. There are in the sky about four thousand
stars.
17. A bow long bent
stars visible to the naked eye.
must become weak. 18. This bow now long bent is
growing weak. 19. The army picked up many stragglers
on the way. 20. The army by the bye picked up many
stragglers on the way here. 21. At last just before
morning the fury of the storm abated. 22. Tell me
not in mournful numbers life is but an empty dream.
23. This trouble for the most part comes of putting your
24. To-day in short has been a
trust in old time-tables.
happy one. 25. He saved fifty dollars or even more over
and above expenses. 26. The light of the nearest fixed
together.
ful
13.
plants
star takes four years or thereabouts to reach the earth.

27.
The
light of that small star seen
by you now
at the
beginning of the twentieth century has just arrived here

after nineteen centuries of flying through space. 28. Difficult
things in fact are the only things worth doing.
Blackie.
29.
Let your company be always when possible
better than yourself.
Blackie.
30.
The
act of giving
up
a fixed purpose in view of some slight inconvenience is
dangerous to character. Blackie,
PUNCTUATION
Practise
505.
commas
283
Show
Exercise.
where
Every sentence but
are really needed.
three needs two commas.

George Washington whom we all know about said
that to be prepared for war is a good way to preserve
1.
peace.
2.
President Charles
W.
Eliot
who
is
president
of Harvard University believes that every boy has his

own strong points. 3. My head which is aching severely
tells me to quit work.
4. This school-house which is a
house to hold school in needs better ventilation. 5. My

only brother who by the way is a farmer is in town to-
His face which was easy to see at that distance

was ruddy. 7. The moon which was covered with clouds
last night is bright this evening.
8. The moons that go
round Jupiter are invisible to the naked eye. 9. My
very best hat which I have had only a week is spoiled by
the rain. 10. When we visited the town where my uncle
lives we had a fine time.
11. When we visited Oakland
where my uncle lives we had a fine time. 12. He that
day.
6.
runs
may
read.
Note to the Teacher.

fixing the principles
require, at this point, a
There
month
hundred words, written in
or forty minutes.
is
no better way
of
mind than
to
of punctuation in
Narrative
of
daily compositions.
class, will
is
take about thirty
the best type for the pur-
At the beginning of the hour the teacher

some extremely short anecdote, in his own words,
pose in hand.
can
tell
leaving the students to reproduce

third and fourth weeks each pupil
it
in theirs.
may properly be
to write daily an account of the preceding
did and saw.
In the
day
asked
what he
CHAPTER
XII
FORMS OF WORDS
In every language
506.
words having similar form,
The
leaves'.
simplest
we
find groups
as leaf, leaves, leaf's,
word
of
the group
called the word, or the simple form,
is
and the
called inflected forms of the word, or
rest are
merely
of
inflections.
To
inflect is to "
bend
" or
change the word.
tions,
many inflecbut few.

Our fore-
In early times English had
507.
whereas now
it
has
fathers used nine forms of the
word glad, namely
glad, gladu, glades, gladre, gladum, gladne, glade,
All the inflectional endings have
glada, gladra.
now been dropped.

saying, John
needed
all
glad,
is
are all glade.
Otherwise we should be
Our
and Jane
is
gladu, and we
early ancestors thought they
these forms
our later ancestors
dis-
covered that one form would serve as well as
many.
Savage races
sary inflections
still
delight in unneces-
they like to ring the changes
of sound.
284
FORMS OF WORDS
now
English nouns have
508.
forms, as
285
leaf, leaves, leaf's, leaves' ;
only
and two
only three forms in everyday use, as

Galling
tives
is
call, calls,
Most
not a verb.
adjec-
and some adverbs have three forms,
straight, straighter, straightest.
and
junctions,
of
Most verbs have
these sound exactly alike.
called.
four
as
Prepositions, con-
interjections have only one form.
show slight differences in

the meaning.
Leaf means one object, leaves
Changing the verb call to
more than one.
Inflections
509.
calls
suggests that a different person
Changing
call to called
Adding
action.
's
by
pressed
acting.
changes the time of the
to a noun, as John's, sug-
The
ownership.
gests
is
English
chief
ideas
inflections
now
are
ex-
seven
number, person, time, comparison, ownership,
and the
the
subject-relation,
No
one word contains
all
these ideas.
for example, have forms to
what these seven
as expressed
510.
little
by
Nouns,
show only number
In the following chapters we
and ownership.
shall see
object-relation.
different ideas
inflections.
pronoun and a verb combine
sentence, as
may change
mean
run.
form, as
in
Either word or both
286
we run
run
you run
he runs
I
These
little
sentences,
when viewed
An
binations.
is
orderly arrangement of
called a conjugation.
the conjugation of
binations that
its
a verb,
511.
shall
We
speak of
verb-forms or verbals make
Thus the com-
run states a future
act.
Inflection does not change one part of
speech into another, but derivation
From
such
meaning the com-
to express ideas of time, etc.
bination
as forms,
form-combinations, or merely com-
are called
sentences
you run
they run
the
may do
so.
noun author we derive the noun
authority, the verb authorize, the adjective authoritative,
512.
and the adverb
authoritatively.
Uniting two or more words
word-composition, and the result of
pound word.
Blackbird
is
is
called
it is
a com-
a solid compound.
Green-house, twenty-five are hyphen compounds.
Use the hyphen when

the compound means something different from
the two words uncompounded. 1
1.
rule for the hyphen.
Green-house does not
mean
a green house.
The forming of solid compounds,

learned from the spelling book,
1
like blackbird,
is
best
CHAPTER
XIII
FORMS OF NOUNS
Most English nouns have four written
These are
forms, as leaf, leaves, leafs, leaves\
513.
called
the singular
leaf,
the genitive
the plural
leaves.
singular
the genitive plural
leafs.
leaves'.
The terms singular and plural refer to number,

Singular means
as we have repeatedly seen.
These are the
one
plural, more than one.
only number ideas now conveyed by English
;
inflections.
514.
is
The usual
added
plural ending
is s
or
es,
which
to the singular form, as in book, books
horse, horses; box, boxes.

1
The
genitive
form
is
often called the genitive case.
If
we wish to call it so, we distinguish two cases of nouns

the common and the genitive. The genitive form is often
:
called the possessive form.
Genitive
is
a bad translation,
through the Latin, of a Greek word (yeviKrj) meaning show"Printer's ink" is a certain kind of
ing genus, or kind.
ink.
287
288
Nouns
515.
add
that end in y, after
for the plural
Nouns
that
change y to
lady, ladies
fly, flies ;
e,
or
o,
trays, chimneys, monkeys,
end in y after a consonant

baby, babies
before adding s
:
laddy, laddies
a,
reply, replies
buggy,
buggies
puppy, puppies ;
cry,
cries.
But the plurals of individual names do not

change y to i. Thus we write the Macys, the
Henrys.
516.
mon
The
plural ending en, once very com-
in English,
now
appears in but few words,
such as children, oxen.

517.
vowel, as
few plurals are formed by change
men from man
feet from foot

goose
teeth
women from woman
from
tooth ; geese
of
x
;
from
mice from mouse.
The words milkmen, dairymen, Englishmen,

Frenchmen are compounds of men ; but mans,
in Germans, does not signify men.
1 The
original word is wifman.
Wife meant merely
woman, though now it means a married woman. Wifman also meant a woman. Both woman and women are
derived from wifman.
wVmen.
That
is
why women
The / has merely dropped out
is
pronounced
of the older word.
FORMS OF NOUNS
compound words have regular
Most
518.
289
plurals, as bandboxes, baseballs, bathrooms, bedclothes, beefsteaks, spoonfuls.
few compounds have irregular plurals

men-servants,
mothers-in-law,
fathers-in-law,
washerwomen.
519.
to
few words do not change their forms
show the
We may
plural.
deer ; one sheep, several sheep
Fishes
but
is
say one deer, two

one
fish, ten fish.
form now used mostly by children,
was common enough two hundred years
it
See also section 526, last paragraph.
ago.
Some nouns,
like
crowd, people, com-
mittee, are called collective
nouns, because they
520.
refer to
many
persons or things as
if
collected
in one whole.
collective
noun may have
singular meaning,
at
at
one time a
another time a plural,
according as the speaker thinks of
it.
At one
minute he may think of the crowd as a solid
mass of humanity
it
as
composed
of
at another he
many
may
individuals.
think of
He may
think of the United States as one country, or as
many
As
states
forming a union.
regards the
name United
States,
we may
290
say that at times, as in 1860,

a
plural
has been mostly
it
expression, because
it
was hard to
think of the states as united in one country;
but
we may
now
say that
United States
the
usually means one indivisible nation.

a million of
of
money
men and
to decide
It cost
ten thousand millions
whether
the
United States
could deserve to be called a singular noun.
521.
few words have two
means kinds or pieces
garments.
die
of cloth
is
and has the plural
bits of
wood
which
to
means
dies ;
dice are square
or ivory, used in gaming.
few plurals come from foreign lan-
Data
guages.
clothes
stamp for stamping
metal,
522.
Cloths
plurals.
is
a plural,
We
reckon.
singular datum.
meaning
facts
from
do not often use the
Strata (layers, as of rock)
the plural of stratum.
Stratum
is
is
used as a
Phenomena is the plural

Phenomenon means a visible
of phenomenon.
fact, or a remarkable fact, as in " The aurora is
Parenthesis
a phenomenon of northern skies."
good English word.
has the plural parentheses.
Fungus, a vegetable
growth, has the plural fungi.
In addition to their foreign plurals, certain
FORMS OF NOUNS
words have an English plural
291
Fungus
also.
and funguses.
Memorandum has
memoranda and memorandums.
Appendix has
has fungi
appendices and appendixes.
Index has
indices,
a term used in algebra, and indexes, referring to
the indexes of books.
523.
A few words are used only in the plural:
antipodes (opposite sides of the earth, or things
opposed to
each
other);
pincers;
scissors;
trousers.
few words once used
considered
as plurals are
gallows;
singulars:
now
mathematics;
measles; news.
Three words that are really singulars, but
happen
to
end
in
s,
are
now
treated as plurals
these are alms, eaves, riches.
The word summons
is
singular,
and may take
the plural summonses.
524.
The plural of Mr.
Messers).
We
is
Messrs. (pronounced
write Mr. Macmillan, Messrs.
Macmillan.
Mrs. has no plural form, but
it
may have
the
plural meaning, as in the Mrs. Macmillans.
The
plural of Miss
Macmillan.
But
the
is
Misses, as in the Misses
Miss Macmillans would also
292
be good English.
Instead of a plural difficult
to pronounce, as Hoplcinses,
it
is
certainly bet-
ter to use the plural Misses, as in the Misses
Hopkins.
In like manner
we may
say the Masters Mac-
millan or the Master Maemillans, though the
second form
The
525.
and
is
rarely heard.
plural of single letters and figures,
words spoken
of
made by adding
as words,
of
8's
2.
3.
Note that in such cases
it is
Underscoring shows that the

In
is
and's.
absolutely neces-
underscore the word in manuscript.
sary to
word
usually
'.
Dot your i's and cross your t's.

and 3's look alike.
Your composition is too full of
1.
is
spoken of as a
printing,
letter, figure, or
letter, figure, or
underscoring
is
word.
represented
by
italics.
Remember
the
word
is
means ownership unless

underscored, and is spoken of as a
that
's
word.
526.
The
The genitive
of singular
singular genitive of
formed by adding
'$,
and plural nouns.
nouns
as in John's.
is
regularly
FORMS OF NOUNS
When
nounced
word already ends
an extra
as
the
's is
pro-
Thus Adams's
Adamses house.
Jones's, Lewis's,
countess's,
Thomas's,
Burns's,
Briggs's,
kins's,
s,
syllable.
house sounds exactly like
Pronounce
in
293
Hop-
Julius's,
Watts's, Dickens's, JEneas's.
In a few instances
it
customary to add
is
only the apostrophe to the singular noun, as in
for conscience' sake, for goodness' sake, Jesus'

words, Achilles' wrath, Hercules' labors.
It is often possible to use the o/-phrase in-
stead of the genitive.
The inventions of Watts,
poems of Burns, the travels of JEneas, the

labors of Hercules sound better to the ear than
the
Watts's inventions, Burns's poems, etc.
The
genitive of plural nouns ending in
spelled like the plural noun,

like
the
but
it,
s,
is
as in ladies'
by adding
's,
The
s'
form the genitive
the same form for singular and
plural (sheep, deer)
adding
as men's, oxens, children's.
Words having
scales.
and sounds exactly
written with the apostrophe after
Plurals that do not end in
(519)
s is
make
the plural genitive by
(sheeps' heads, deers' horns).
plural
fishes
when forming
loses
its
childish
tone
the genitive, as in fishes'
294
527.
the
is
Eng-
called a group-genitive.
The
in
the
Such phrases
belongs to the whole phrase.
are very
common
examples are
phrase as
king of
England's,
king of
land's crown,
's
Such
The group-genitive.
in
modern English.
Other
a quarter of an hours task, a half
a mile's walk, a doctor of medicine's diploma, a
man
of business' s promptness.
We may even
have the
's
at the
end of a
rela-
man I saw yesterday's son;

construction is much more awkward
^/-construction, as in the son of the man
tive clause, as in the
but this
than the
I saw
yesterday.
Names
form the genitive by
of firms usually
the group method: Macmillan and Company's;
Marshall Field and Company's; Ivison, Blake-
man, and Taylor's.

In such sentences as
bookseller
we understand
s,
bookseller
is
appositive
i~ left
is
in apposition
it
at
Smith
shop or store.
with Smith.
Here
If the
a part of a long phrase, like the
bookseller in Fifth avenue, the
whole phrase
not included in the genitive.
We
left it at
528.
the
is
then say,
Smith's, the bookseller in Fifth avenue.
Gender.
We
have now considered
the forms of the English noun.
But
it is
all
inter-
FORMS OF NOUNS
how
esting at this point to consider

of
295
distinctions
gender are expressed in English.
Gender
distinction of
is
Male beings
sex.
are of masculine gender, female beings of femi-
Plants and lifeless things are
nine gender.
neither masculine nor feminine
is,
they are
" neuter" meaning neither.
neuter in gender
The names
that
of masculine beings are said to be
names of feminine beings, femithe names of neuter beings or objects,
masculine; the
nine;
neuter.
In present English, the idea of gender
529.
is
not denoted by inflections, but chiefly by
different words.
Man, woman
father,
aunt
bridegroom,
mother; brother, sister;

nephew, niece
boy, girl
;
husband, wife
son, daughter; uncle,
bride
lad,
lass
bachelor,
maid man-servant, maid-servant king, queen monk,

nun wizard, witch lord, lady sir, madam sire, dame
sire, dam; boar, sow; bull, cow; buck, doe; hart, roe;
stag, hind ram, ewe hound, bitch stallion, mare colt or
;
foal, filly
cock,
hen
cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow
gander,
goose; drake, duck; drone, bee; he- wolf, she -wolf

530.
Sometimes gender
etc.
denoted by deriva-
is
tion:
Executor, executrix;
baron, baroness
giantess.
hero,
heroine;
count, countess
actor,
duke, duchess
actress;
;
giant,
296
The ending
ster is
Seamstress has two femi-
ing, as in spinster.
nine endings
force of ster
is
sometimes a feminine end-
But the feminine

mostly forgotten.
Trickster and
and
str
ess.
teamster are usually applied to men.
once the feminine of webber, a weaver,

family name.
So
is
class-names.
for an
as
Indeed Baker and
is
now
name
the legal
unmarried woman, though once
girls are spinsters,
now
family names as well as
Spinster
a female spinner.
is
Baxter (from baker), and
Brewster (from brewer).
Brewer are used
Webster,
it
meant
In the eyes of the law,
all
whether they know the use-
ful art of spinning or not.

531.
Some words,
bear, fish, deer,
may
or a female being.
of
common gender.
and
doctor,
common
like nurse, helper, servant,
refer to either a male being
Such words are said
to be
Certain words, like author
have recently come to be considered
we rarely say authoress or doctress.

The word actor is rapidly assuming the common gender, and it would be
of
permissible
gender, so that
to
say,
"Madame Modjeska
is
great actor."
532.
Little children "personify" things; they
think of things as
having
life.
They
say,
forms of nouns
297
"Naughty fire; fire hurt baby." In the same

way grown persons often refer to objects as
she looks pale
alive, as in " The moon is up
;
to-night."
It is
customary to refer to ships as feminine
but, curiously enough, a steamer
The yacht
often spoken
Thus we hear such sentences
of as masculine.
as "
is
on the rocks
is
she will
go to
pieces," and, " See the steamers; that big fellow

in front
has
all
Very
barges."
he can do to
often however a
tow the three

seaman really
means the captain when he seems

steamer, as in u He
Poetry
is
is
full of
to speak of a
steaming this way."
The poet
personification.
Keats speaks of " Sorrow, with her family of,

sighs,"
when he
Gender and the
533.
endings,
line
treats sorrow as a female being.
's
and
genitive.
s\ are usually
The
genitive
added to mascu-
and feminine nouns, and those
of
common
gender, as John's, Mary's, the doctor's.
The
^/-phrase
and animals, as
may
often be used of persons
in the works
wings of the bird ; but usually
mate
streets
To
of Êmerson, the
it
refers to inani-
objects, as in the handle of the bicycle, the
of Chicago.
say Chicago's
streets,
for
the
streets
of
298
Chicago,
would be
The
style.
to speak in poetic or lofty
streets of
Chicago have been stained
with the blood of heroic policemen, and a poet

celebrating that heroism might properly refer
to " Chicago's blood-stained streets."
streets of a great
city are
But the
usually a prosaic
subject. 1
It
is
true that newspapers
often speak of
Chicago's streets, America's population, etc., but
the
practise
is
not to be imitated.
newspaper would speak of

doors
the hat's
And
no
brim,
the
top, etc.
There was however a time when the possessive ^/-phrase was unknown.
Good usage
still
supports such expressions as for mercy's
sake, the earth's orbit, a day's journey, a week's
pay, a dime's worth, his fingers' ends, at swords'

points, a verb's subject.
Practise Exercise.
In the case of
each pair of nouns, use one word to modify the
other.
Do this by putting one noun into the
genitive form by adding 's, or by putting of be534.
The poet did not find it necessary

more's streets" when he wrote
x
to speak of " Balti-
Avenge the patriotic gore

That flecked the streets of Baltimore.
FORMS OF NOUNS
fore
Observe the principles explained in
it.
533.
Note that in several cases either con-
struction
1. roof,
4.
would be
house.
seaports.
9.
7.
2.
5.
14. justice, cause.
leaves.
25.
20. honesty,
23.
3.
land, defenders.
8.
mercy,
10.
15. justice, sake.
16. justice, interest.
18. Cleopatra, beauty.
power.
family,
Cuba, liberty.
America,
6.
temperance, cause.
11. San
12. Athens, acropolis.
13. pity, sake.
America, beauty.
cover.
dog, collar.
New York,
hour, rest.
Francisco, streets.
17.
right.
government.
George Washington, sword.
Arthur, book.
sake.
299
19. night,
21. holiness, beauty.
head.
24.
China,
22. tree,
misfortunes.
CHAPTER XIV
FORMS OF PRONOUNS
535.
Most pronouns are
changed
that
it
in
is
so short,
and have
sound so much from time to time,
hard
Such words
to
as he
group them by their form.
and
she are so unlike that
we cannot speak of one as an inflection of the

other.
But we may speak of them as forms of
the personal pronoun, and group them according to various meanings.
Before attempting to make such groupings,
it
will be well for the student to review 344-367,
what
especially
is
said with respect to subject-
forms, object-forms, and "

1
To the Teacher.
of words.
From
their
common "
"The pronoun"
forms.
includes a medley
great age and incessant use these
words have undergone extraordinary and confusing changes

of form and function.
It is assumed that the instructor is
familiar with Sweet (New English Grammar, 189-236,
1053-1158).
The acutest discussion of English pronouns
from the point of view of their present functions is Professor
Edward T. Owen's "Revision of the Pronoun," in transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters, vol.
xiii.
300
FORMS OF PEONOUNS
Pronouns express ideas
536.
301
of person (357),
number, gender, and construction 1
(326> 352-354)-
The twelve personal pronouns may
therefore
be grouped in four ways:

1.
As showing person
First person
me
I,
we, us.
than the speaker.]

Second person you.
Third person he, him
We
includes
more
2.
she, her
Singular
two or more
I,
me
him
he,
she, her
it.
you.
As showing gender :
Masculine
Feminine
Common
Neuter
he,
me
I,
it,
is
common.
have
they,
them
you.
I,
he, she, we, they.
me, him, her,

forms you, it.
:
us,
them.
often called case.
better applied to the
pronouns
we, us
construction
Object-forms
Construction
they, them.
As showing
Common
him.
she, her.
Subject-forms
[But we does not mean
J's.]
Either singular or plural
4.
they, them.
As showing number :
Plural: we, us; they, them.
3.
it
three
But
construction-forms.
cases:
subjective,
this
name
is
Then English
objective, and
302
For practical purposes we
shall find the fol-
lowing arrangement worth learning

Singular subjects
you,
I,
Plural subjects
Plural objects
The
537.
he, she.
it,
Singular objects: me, you,
it,
him, her.
we, you, they.

you, them.
us,
possessive pronouns (362) are used
They
as singular or plural subjects or objects.
may
thus
be arranged
with reference
to
person,
First person
mine, ours.
Second person
Third person
The
538.
relative
yours.
his, hers, its, theirs.
pronoun who
form of common gender
whom
form of common gender.

refer to persons
animal
Which
animal or an infant.
are of
common
When
singular
noun
like person,
it
an object-
be used of an
may
intelligent.
refer
to
an
Indefinite pronouns (364)
gender.
antecedent
the
may
seemed
to
is
is
a subject-
These words usually
but they
show that it
neuter, though
is
or
of
pronoun
is
pronoun of common gender,
anyone, everyone, everybody, any-
by the pronoun he.

In spoken English we may be pardoned if we
body,
it is
best referred to
FOBMS OF PRONOUNS
refer to everyone,
strictness
such
everybody,
words
as
by
303
but in
they,
and body are
one
singular grammatically.
1.
A person
2.
Everyone should be careful of what he
3.
One should be
Many
here.
should be careful of what he says.

careful of
what
careful speakers insist that
he
we
says.
says.
should repeat one
CHAPTER XV
FORMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Only the possessive adjectives
His is mas(375) suggest the idea of gender.
culine, her feminine, its neuter.
My, our, your,
These adjectives
their, and whose are common.
show the gender of the owner, and are someGender.
539.
"
times called the possessive or genitive " case
of the pronouns.
Whose generally refers to persons, because

only persons are true
owners.
It
may how-
ever refer to an intelligent animal, or poetically

to a thing, as
But whose
less.
the
of which
in
spite
will
the
of
come
is
that
storm, whose
much easier to say than

we daily use it of things,
so
the grammars.
to be
fury was now
both
Doubtless whose
common and
neuter.
Practise Exercise.
Meantime, lest
we forget that of which is good English, change
540.
tvhose to of
1.
We
which in the following
climbed the mountain Helvellyn, whose top
[the top of which]
we found
304
to be of solid rock.
2. I

know
ful.
a
3.
305
town whose location is remarkably beautiThis great sea, whose entrance is the strait of
little
Gibraltar,
is
called the Mediterranean.
4.
This door,
whose lock was long since broken away, led into a vast
and gloomy hall.
We
Comparison.
541.
idea of degree
is
often expressed
The adverbs
(402).
have seen that the
by adverbs
of degree, very, more, ex-
tremely, etc., are placed before adjectives
adverbs to show how much,

adjectives
or adverbs
to
and
what extent the
modify their nouns or
The boy seems very

well, though he has grown very rapidly."
The adverbs more and most, less and least
show degree in comparison with some other
verbs.
Thus we
say,
"
degree.
1.
2.
3.
On
This lad
He
He
is healthy.
is
more healthy than his brother.
is
the most healthy
member
of his family.
considering the expressions healthy, more
healthy, most healthy,
we
see that adjectives
and
adverbs have three chief degrees of comparison
the positive degree, the comparative degree, the

superlative degree.
What we
call the positive degree,
represented
in an adjective like healthy, or an adverb like
306
healthily,
not a " degree " at
is
all
except in
comparison with higher or lower degrees.
The adverbs
less
and
least
show what may be
called negative comparison, or the lower degrees

of comparison, as in healthy, less healthy, least
healthy.
Almost any adverb may be compared by
542.
means
more and most, as rapidly, more rapidly,
of
most rapidly.
Long
adjectives, like honorable,
are
difficult,
always compared by means of more and most,
more honorable, most honorable.
as honorable,
Short predicate adjectives are often compared
by means
kind," "
543.
of
more and most, as in " You are most
He was more
Many
short
zealous than wise."
adjectives
showing comparison.
have
endings
Instead of more hind,
The
most kind,
we
ending
er
shows the comparative degree, the
ending
est
the superlative degree.
usually say kinder, kindest.
Adjectives already ending in e add only

st,
r,
as rare, rarer, rarest; polite* politer, politest.
Adjectives ending in y usually change y to

i
before adding
est ;
er,
merry, merrier,
est,
as in holy, holier, holi-
merriest.
Sly and dry

keep the y
But
drier
sly, slyer, slyest ;
and
307
dry, dryer, dry est.
driest are also found.
Adjectives ending in a single consonant usu-
consonant before
ally double the
as in
er, est,
This
thin, thinner, thinnest ; hot, hotter, hottest.

is
to preserve the short
544.
sound
of the vowel.
Several short adjectives, like good, have
no comparative and superlative endings (except in the speech of
little
make
children), but.
use of different words for the comparative and

superlative degrees.
best ; bad, worse,
less,
least;
545.
Thus we get
worst;
evil, tvorse,
good, better,
worst;
little,
many, more, most.
Some
adjectives
have more or fewer
than three forms.
Far has farther and farthest referring to distance, and further meaning " additional," as in
no further use.
Well,
meaning
tive better, but
" in health," has the compara-
no superlative except very
well,
extremely well, etc.
Old has older and
Elder and
oldest,
eldest refer to
elder
and
eldest.
the age of persons,
usually relatives, as in the elder son.
Near has
nearer, nearest
and
next.
Next usu-
308
the nearest following, as in the

next minute; it may mean u the very nearest,"
ally refers to
as in the next house.
Late has
and
later
more common than
and
latest
latter,
which ap-
Later
is
pears
only in such expressions as the
(compared with
etc.
the
latter,
former}, these
last.
latter
latter days,
Latest means " the most recent," as in
the latest
news
words of
the
means "
last
dying man.
final," as in the last
Careful speakers do
not speak of " the last news "
if
there
is
to be
more news on the same subject.

A few superlatives end in ost, a termination
which was once
est
foremost, hindmost, inmost,
innermost, uppermost, topmost. 1

546.
It is often said that certain adjectives
like full, perfect,
and round are " incapable
of
comparison," because they are already superlative in

if
meaning.
a pail
is
full it
one sense, that
It is true, in
can be no
ever exactly full
actual pail
is
drawn was
perfectly round
fuller.
;
no
But no
circle ever
nothing save God
These words look as if they ended in the adverb most,

their meaning is about the same as if their most were
the true adverb.
But the m comes from an old superlative
ending -ma, so that -mest, afterwards pronounced -most, is a
double superlative ending, made up of -ma and -est.
1
and

The
309
by the way, contains the

Heb.
expression more perfect (Acts 24 22
perfect.
is
Bible,
all
we were to be theoretically
our speech, we could not speak at
If
11).
strictness,
exact in
all.
In
time never "flies," the sun never
" rises," nothing ever " happens."
In
common usage
it
is
"perfectly" good
English and "perfectly" good sense to s&y full,

fuller, fullest ; round, rounder, roundest; perfect,
more perfect, most perfect, half-perfect.
We
need
not go so far as to say rather perfect, though

rather round
and rather full might be
per-
mitted.
547.
Use
of comparative
comparative degree
is
and superlative.
The
used of only two things,
"The tower is taller than the house."

Either term may consist of several things taken
as a whole, as in " The tower is taller than the
as in
cottage, the house,
Either term
may
another, separated
tower
is
taller
and the church together."

consist
by
of
one thing after
or or nor, as in
"The
than the cottage, the house, or
the church."
The superlative degree is preferably used

when one thing is compared with two or more
things, as in " The tower at Florence is the
310
But it is not bad

English to use the superlative in comparing two
objects, and certain superlatives, especially best,
least, and firsts are always so used.
We do not
tallest of all Italian
towers."
You go in former," but " You go in first."

say " The right foot is the better of the
say "
We
we
two," but
also say "
Put your
best foot fore-
most."
Such comparisons
any man
lie
as "
He was
was the greatest
of
greater than
any man," are
not logical, though permitted by good usage in
The
ordinary conversation.
construction would be "
other
man
he
is
He
is
strictly
logical
greater than any
the greatest of all men."
In Shakspere's time, three hundred years ago,

it
was common
to use double comparatives
and
superlatives, as more kinder, most unlrindest cut
of
Now
all.
the only double comparatives and
superlatives in use are such words as lesser and

foremost, the double nature of which
is
long
since forgotten.
Sometimes the superlative has not a true

superlative force, but
means only the degree
usually indicated by very,
in
my
dearest
This fact explains such constructions
mother.
as " I
as
lately
animal "
!
saw
the queerest, the
Constructions like
my
most curious
dearest mother
just
saw
Exclamations like "
English.
are excellent
thing!"
the funniest
311
may
be pardoned
in conversational English.
548.
From
Practise Exercise.
eted words choose the one which
is
the brackpreferable
in the given construction.

1.
Which do you
vanilla?
When
2.
like
best],
[better,
two men are
great,
chocolate or
we should
learn
from both without fretting as to which is the [greater,

greatest].
3. You may have the black or the tan pup,
whichever you like [better, best].
4.
Of these two
the [darker, darkest] is the [more, most] in
keeping with the occasion. 5. Going and returning were
both dangerous, but returning was the [more, most]
colors,
dangerous.
549.
Practise Exercise.
Choose the pref-
erable expression from those bracketed.

1.
He
the most honest of [any man, all the
is
ever knew.
all]
2.
This
is
that I have read.
able of
[any Roman,
better than [anybody,
550.
the
1
3.
all
Csesar
was the most remark4. I like him
the Romans].
anybody
else]
1
-
Written Practise Exercise. Write

In
comparison of the following words.

Which
more exact
tion.
men]
the most thrilling story of [any.
is
the
more emphatic expression
Either expression
is
Which
is
the
permissible in conversa-
312
some
adverbs or
either
choice depending
sible,
the
taste,
especially as
use the
method
comparison by
comparison by endings
is permis-
cases
on the speaker's
In such cases
to sound.
method that you
prefer.
Adjectives
tall
merry
evil
little
short
dry
hind
cruel
thin
hot
pretty
merciful
Adverbs
remarkably
soon
intelligibly
surely
well
badly
quickly
marvellousl;
merrily
ill
admirably
hopefully
There
is
no adverb
illy.
CHAPTER XVI
FORMS OF VERBS
Most English verbs have but
551.
forms in everyday use, as
These may be named

the present form
call,
called.
as follows
call,
the third singular present form

the past form
calls,
three
calls,
called.
" Third singular present"
means third person,
The ending
singular number, present time.
implies three things

Third person
in the subject
he calls
Singular number in the subject
not I or you
not we or
he calls
they;
Present time
The
he
calls now,
past form
is
inflection, chiefly in
(1)
by adding
not called yesterday.
made from
the present by
one of two ways
ed, or d, or t:
as in defended, raised,
burnt
by changing the vowel of the

from break, and not adding ed, d, or
(2)
present, as in broke
t.
552.
Vowel
Vowel verbs
verbs.
merely
change the vowel of the present to form the

313
314
past, as
These verbs are rather
break, broke.
hard to master, and we have already studied

forty of the most important, in sections 64 to 164.
In addition we
may study
bid
bad
forbid
forbad
breed
bred
lead
led
read
read [pronounced red]
light
lit
adding
[or lighted]
spit
spat
stave
stove [or staved]
thrive
throve
tread
trod
Consonant
number
Past
^resent
553.
these ten
of
verbs.
English
ed, d, or
Much
the
verbs form the
greater
by
past
Such are called consonant
t.
verbs, because the past ends in a consonant not
found
in the present.
The commonest
past ending
usually pronounced like d or
is ed.
t,
This
as in helped;
but in such words as defended and tented

its full
sound.
as bore, only
If the present
is
it
has
ends in a silent
e,
added.
Before ed certain verbs double the
The rule is given in

and should now be reviewed.
sonant.
is
all
final con-
spelling-books,
FORMS OF VEBBS
315
Some consonant verbs change
the vowel, like
Examples are
say, said ; flee,
the vowel verbs.

creep,
fled;
crept;
sleep,
slept;
heard;
hear,
shoe, shod.
554.
d or
few verbs make the past with either
t:
burned or burnt
spoiled or spoilt
learned or learnt
kneeled or knelt
spelled or spelt
dreamed
spilled or spilt
leaped or leapt
555.
Some verbs now have
or
dreamt
the same form for
the present and the past, and are called invariable verbs, or verbs of one form.
cast, cut, shut, thrust, let, set, shed,
burst, hurt, hit, quit, rid, split, cost, put.
556.
Little children say cutted, etc.
Grown
persons should avoid the false forms bursted and

hurted (82).
It is right to say
Yesterday John's gun burst and hurt him.
557.
Practise Exercise.
A.
Learn the
following
said I
said
you
said he
said
we
said
you
said they
316
Use said (not says)
B.
in each blank.
me
1.
I to
you
6.
he to
2.
I to
him
7.
he to you
3.
I to her
8.
he to her
he to us
4.
I to
5.
I to
them
John
9.
he to them
10.
Written Practise Exercise.
558.
The
the sentences given below.
first
Copy
group
is
from the Bible, the second from Shakspere.

Insert
or loosed according to the
lose, lost, loose,
meaning.
A.
What
1.
is
world and
man
profited
or forfeit his
the bonds of Orion?
a time to
chosen: to
loveth his
B.
1.
4.
Is
own
he gain the whole
self?
There
is
2.
not this the feast that I have

5.
mine honor,
myself.
2.
thy master
thy service.
shaft smartly from his bow.
and
when
that
I bid thee.
5.
3.
4.
and, in losing
[Cupid]
his love-
[thy bow-
Marcus,
Loan
Thou'lt
thy voyage
the flood, and, in losing the flood,
string]
He
it.
and, in losing thy voyage,
thy master,
Canst thou
a time to get, and
the bonds of wickedness?
life shall
If I
3.
if
oft
both
itself
friend.
559.
Verbals.
Verbals are verbal nouns and
adjectives, as hunting, to hunt, hunted (329-343,
388-400).
Verbals are divided into the parti-
ciples, the participial
noun, and the
infinitive.
FORMS OF VERBS
The
560.
verbal in
-ing, as
the present participle
according to
hunting,
is
called
or the participial noun,
its use.
Hunting rabbits is sport. [Participial noun.]

That dog is hunting rabbits. [Present participle.]
1.
2.
The
561.
is
317
present form of the verb, as hunt,
often used
noun, and
as
called
is
the
infinitive.
562.
is
hunt rabbits.
1.
I like
2.
To hunt rabbits
3.
I will go.
to
is
fun.
The past participle, like
broken, or hunted,
an adjective conveying the idea of past time.
In consonant verbs
past
as,
it is
the same in form as the
hunted.
1.
2.
The dog hunted the hunted

The rabbit was hunted.
rabbit.
In vowel verbs the past participle often adds

en or n to the past form, as broken.
cases
still
it
is
like the
In other
past verb, as bought.
In
others the vowel changes again, as in sung.
See 164.
563.
are, was,
been.
The forms of is are five

were.
The verbals are to
Is.
am,
is,
be, being,
318
The forms
Have.
564.
The
had.
verbals are
The
Win.
566.
of shall are shall
older
verb will has only
two forms, will and would, with no

Example, He will go.
There
is
also
has the form

to
will,
that
ivilling,
May.
It has
might.
568.
Can.
willed.
verb
will.
This
and the verbals

Example, Grod wills
dwell in peace.
The forms
of
may
of
can are can and
are
may and
no verbals.
The forms
It has
no verbals.
Must.
This verb
could.
569.
a younger
verbals.
will, wills, 'willed,
men should
567.
and
no verbals.
It has
should.
have, having, had.
The forms
Shall.
565.
to
of have are have, has,
is
invariable,
and has
no verbals.
570.
Verbals are used to complete the mean-
ing of other verbs, and especially of the six

verbs
is,
have, shall, will,
may, can, must.
have already seen in part how they do
we
shall
more
this,
fully see in the next chapter.
We
and
CHAPTER XVII
FORM-COMBINATIONS
571.
form-combination
is
a sentence consist-
ing of a personal pronoun and a verb or verbphrase, all viewed as forms.
pronoun and verb.
I shall
love
combines
combines pro-
love
noun, verb, and verbal.
conjugation
is
an orderly arrangement of
form-combinations.
simple conjugation consists of twelve sen-
tences,
with
showing the forms

subject-pronouns
of the verb
according
number, time present, and time
combined
to
past.
person,
This
is
called the conjugation of the verb proper.
572.
The simple conjugation
Call.
as follows
Present
Plural
Singular
1.
I call
2.
you
3.
he
1.
call
calls
319
we
call
2.
you
3.
they
call
call
of call
is
320

Past
Plural
Singular
1.
I called
1.
we
2.
you caller
he called
2.
you called
3.
they called
3.
573.
is
called
Have.
as follows
Present
Singular
have
1.
2.
you have
he has
3.
Plural
1.
2.
3.
we have
you have
they have
Past
1.
2.
3.
574.
had
you had
he had
I
1.
2.
3.
we had
you had
they had
Is.
of
thus
Present
Plural
Singular
am
1.
2.
you are
he is
3.
1.
we
are
2.
you are
3.
they are
Past
1.
2.
3.
I was
you were
he was
1.
we were
2.
you were
3.
they were
FOEM-COMBINA TIONS
321
Right and wrong combinations.
When
a verb suggests a different person and
number
575.
from
its
subject, as in
He
are, it disagrees
with
the subject in person and number, and the combination
The
is
bad English.
third singular present verb, as
calls,
must
have a singular subject in the third person.

Noun-subjects are considered as being in the
and
third person, like he
The present and
may
she.
past forms, as
call,
called,
for convenience be regarded as singular or
plural verbs according as the subject
And
lar or plural.
a plural subject
is
singu-
must have
a plural verb.
verb must not disagree with
number and
576.
person.
After There
its
subject in
we
say are,
if
the subject
is
distinctly plural in sense (17):

1.
2.
To
There are two of them.

There are John and his
the Teacher.
If
father.
agree means to vary form, then
the assertion that English verbs agree with their subjects
is
more than doubtful. Until there is some consensus among

scientific grammarians as to what " agreement," "mood,"
"tense," and "case" shall mean in the grammar of uninflected languages, the best we can do is to avoid these mysterious words as much as possible.
322
But suppose we exclaim, There
we
We
see the father.
John and
There's
and
English,
John! before
add, and his father.
theory bad
his father ! is in
such an expression would not
appear in the work of a careful writer.

ordinary conversation
but in general
difficult
is
it
sound There
it
hi
would pass muster,
well to cultivate the very

are,
numbers are often separated by or or nor.

Then
the verb usually agrees in person and number
577.
Pronouns
of different persons or
with the nearest.
578.
1.
Neither he nor I
2.
Either
I or
am
going.
you are going.
Collective nouns (520) take a singular
or a plural verb according to the thought of the

sentence.
The pronoun none
is
literally
usually takes a singular verb.

also
no-one,
But none
and
are
is
good English.
579.
Each,
every,
everyone,
anyone,
neither require singular verbs, as
either,
was shown in
21-23.
1
Such constructions can often be avoided, as was shown
in 24.
FOEM-COMBINA TIONS
580.
323
Who, which, that take a singular or a
plural
according
verb,
the
to
antecedent's
number.
1.
He was
2.
He was one
581.
Two
man who was always in debt.

of those men who are always
subjects
joined by and
in debt.
may
not
take a singular verb except in a few cases, like

1.
2.
3.
4.
582.
With
Bread and butter is good.

His end and aim is victory.
A thread and needle is needed.
The cup and saucer is broken.
is
a preposition, not a conjunction.
It suggests a singular
The king with
all his
verb
army
is
marching
hither.
Practise Exercise. Insert is

according to the meaning of the subject.
583.
Much
1.
tion.
2.
pains
Great
composition.
3.
required to
make
required to
pains
The crowd
all
or are
a good composi-
make
shouting.
a good
4.
The
reshouting.
5. The committee
whole crowd
not agreed
porting unanimously. 6. The committee
among themselves. 7. The United States
a republic.
8. The United States
different from each other in
cast.
size.
9.
10. The die
His clothes
neat.
11.
13.
The dice
loaded.
The phenomenon
12.
The data
strange.
14.
insufficient.
The phenomena
324
strange.
commas.
17.
16.
Parentheses
15.
Parentheses
usually set off by
sometimes curves
Parentheses
name
)].
[(
given either to curves
[(
)]
or to phrases, clauses, sentences that are parenthetical in
19.
The memoranda
a game.
an important study. 24. Measles

good news. 26. News
news
a
27.
part
Alms
of
house.
The summons
30.
swer
correct.
other answer
32.
very curious.
rocks
very curious.
No
by
re-
collected
Neither
35.
33.
34.
28.
Eaves
winged.
Riches
29.
long delayed.
correct.
Bil-
contagious. 25.
given to beggars.
the
21.
Mathematics
23.
balls.
The
played on a cloth-
Billiards
22.
covered table, with ivory
porters.
20.
lost.
partly burned in Pekin.
annals of China
liards
hard to distinguish from
Edible fungi
18.
sense.
poisonous.
Neither an-
31.
answer nor the
this
The formation of these

The strata of rocks here
Neither the eaves nor the shingles
injured by the tree that
fell.
36.
black and
growing side by side. 37. The king of

marching up the
France and forty thousand men
hill.
38. The king of France, with forty thousand men,
marching up the hill.
39. Two and two
four.
40. The scissors
dull.
41. Gray trousers
-often
worn with a black frock coat. 42. A pair of scissors
lying
a convenient thing to have. 43. Ten dollars
44. Ten dollars
on the table.
a certain sum.
a story by Dickens.
45. " Pickwick
Papers "
46. Either John or James
the man. 47. Half the
day
gone. 48. Half the apples
gone.
a red oak
584.
Practise Exercise.
has or have, according to the
pronoun.
Insert
is
number
or are,
of
the
FORM-COMBINA TIONS
3.
5.
325
going.
2. Everyone
1.
Everyone
gone.
Each of us
his faults. 4. All of us going.
Not all
gold that glitters. 6. Neither John nor
he
there.
Hers
7.
is
one of the sweetest voices that
been heard in this school.
which
man
been found
that
is
8.
apples to sell? "
to the rich
man.
Each
11.
The
None
10.
best of those
"
Are you the

Every one
kin
the smallest.
9.
a part of
of these states
he that will not

see.
13. If a person
going to the woods, he 1 needs
a rubber coat. 14. If any one
the chance to go to
Europe, he 1 ought to go. 15. When a person
sick,
he 1 likes a bit of jelly.
the Union.
585.
12.
so blind as
The
Simple and complete conjugations.
simple conjugation (571)

proper.
that of the verb
is
twelve forms consist of combina-
Its
tions of pronouns with the forms of the verb
(which are usually three, as
But there
are a great
call, calls,
many
verb-phrases, like
These enable us to express ideas
shall call.
that cannot be expressed
So we get what
may
by the verb proper.
be called the fuller or com-
plete conjugation of the verb, or
In
of the verbal.
shall,
while
sav that
called).
shall call the true
call is the
shall
verbal noun.
call is a
ideas of person, number,
Remember
verb
is
But we
combination of
The complete conjugation
more properly
call.
of a verb expresses
time,
section 538.
"voice,"
and
326
" mood."
tions that
586.
We proceed
to
examine the combina-
show time, " voice," and "mood."
The six distinctions
of
time.
Present
and past time are shown by verb-forms (551).

Four other distinctions are shown by verbphrases.
Thus any
idea of action
six distinctions of time
2.
may be
asserted with
1.
I call
2.
I called
3.
I shall call
4.
5.
6.
I shall
have called
had called
have called
I call asserts the action as happening now.

/ called asserts the action as happening in
the past.
3.
I shall
call asserts
the action as happening
in the future.
4.
past, or
5.
have called asserts the action as
now
now
perfected.
had
called asserts the action as finished
by a certain past time.

6.
finished
shall have called asserts the action as
by a certain future time.
FORM-COMBINA TIONS
We
thus
may name
327
the six combinations or tenses 1
Present
Past
I call
I called
Future
I shall call
Present perfect
Past perfect
The
had
Future perfect
I have called
called
I shall
have called
six tenses of is are as follows

Present
Past
Future
am
was
I
:
I shall be
have been
Past perfect I had been
Future perfect I shall have been
Present perfect
The present.
587.
The present
is
a time on
which we cannot exactly put our finger.

becomes the past even while we speak of
It
it.
So we use the word present in rather a vague
manner; sometimes
we
say
I go
to
it
covers years, as
New York
once a year.
when
In fact
the idea of the present almost disappears in
such a sentence.
The mere
idea of a custom
remains.
1
In
this
verb-phrase,
book, tense, when used, may signify any verb,

form-sentence, or group of form-sentences,
viewed with relation to time.
See 575, footnote.
328
we may
Instead of the simple present verb
have a present verb-phrase, as in
I am
Such a phrase, consisting
of the verb
predicate participle (383),
is
present. 1
say The sun
is
am and
called a progressive
It arrests the action in the
We
cess.
talking.
very pro-
streaming across the
room, although light travels 186,000 miles in a
second.
In
common
we may
talk
refer to the future, as in
use present forms to
I go
to
town to-morrow.
/ am
The progressive
present, as in
town to-morrow,
very often used as a future.
And
to
is
the curious combination
town
is
also
common.
In
I am
all
going
going
to
to
go
these cases the
speaker imagines the future as already here,

just as
588.
when he
The
says
future. 2
Gro! now.
The regular future forms
are combinations of shall
and
noun (333).
some
It requires
will
with a verbal
skill to
use these
phrases correctly, as the verb changes from shall
Every tense has its progressive combination, as, I was

I shall be talking, etc.
To the Teacher. The authoritative work on the his-
talking,
2
tory of the English future
" The English Future."

in
many
college libraries.
is
Professor E. A. Blackburn's,
It is out of print,
but can be found
FOBM-COMBINA TIONS
329
to will according to the person of the subject-
pronoun.
The pure
589.
a quiet announcement of
It uses shall
The pure
future.
what
with the
the second and third
makes
future
to happen.
is
person, will with
first
1.
I shall die
1.
we
2.
you
2.
you
3.
he will die
3.
they will die
will die
shall die
will die
These forms are shortened to

1.
Ish'lldie
1.
we
2.
you'll die
2.
you'll die
3.
he'll die
3.
they'll die
The negative forms

correctly contracted in
sh'll
die
of the pure future are
two ways, the second
being very informal

I sh'll
2.
you'll not die
3. he'll
not die
1.
we
2.
you'll not die
sh'll
3. they'll
not die
1.
not die
not die
1.
I shan't die
2.
you won't
3.
he won't die
1.
we
die
shan't die
2.
you won't die
3.
they won't die
Won't is a correct contraction of woll (an old form of

and not.
will)
330
Practise Exercise.
590.
memory
the following
A. Repeat from
UNCONTRACTED PURE
UNCONTRACTED PURE
FUTURE, AFFIRMATIVE.
FUTURE, NEGATIVE.
1.
I shall
be happy to see
him
2.
3.
see
you
he will be happy to
him
you
will be
happy
happy to
we
1.
him
3.
happy
him
see
be
him
will not
be happy
him
they
happy
not
shall
happy to
2. you
to see
they will be happy to
will not be
him
he will not be happy
3.
to
him
3.
see
shall be
happy
him
you
2.
to see
we
him
2.
see
happy to
to see
1.
see
will be
him
see
I shall not be
1.
to see
will
to see
not
be
him
CONTRACTED PURE FUTURE,
CONTRACTED PURE FUTURE,
AFFIRMATIVE.
NEGATIVE.
1.
sh'll
be happy to
him
see
be happy to see
2. you'll
him
3.
be happy to see
we
him
sh'll
2. you'll
be happy to
be happy to see
him
be happy to
not be happy to
him
1.
we
sh'll
3.
not be happy
him
they'll
to see
not be happy
him
2. you'll
to see
they'll
not be happy
him
he'll
to see
him
see
3.
happy
him
2. you'll
see
1.
3.
I sh'll not be
to see
he'll
him
see
1.
to see
not be happy
him
or
FOBM-COMBINA TIOMS
I shan't be
1.
see
happy
to
him
you won't be happy
2.
to see
3.
see
331
him
he won't be happy to
him
1.
we shan't be happy
him
to see
you won't be happy
2.
to see
3.
they won't be happy
to see
B. Give
all
him
him
the sentences of A, placing before
each the words "I'm quite sure that," thus:
"I'm quite sure that
I shall
be happy to see
him."
Give
0.
all
the affirmative sentences of A,
placing before each the words "

sure that," thus
shall be
happy
D. Give
all
to
Are you quite
"
Are you quite sure

"
see him ?
the negative sentences
that I
of
A,
placing before each the words " I'm afraid,"
thus
" I'm afraid I shall not be
happy
to see
him."
E. Give
all
the affirmative sentences of A,
placing before each the words " Let's suppose,'
thus
him."
" Let's suppose I shall be
happy
to see
332
591.
of
Practise Exercise. Use
(A) before each

(A)
I sh'll
be
2. you'll
be
1.
3. he'll
of the expressions of (B).
be
1.
we
you'll be
3.
they'll
sh'll
be
I sh'll not
2.
you'll not be
1.
we
not be
sh'll
2. you'll
be
be
1.
3. he'll
2.
the forms
all
3.
not be
not be
they'll not
be
OR
(B) (1) sorry
(2) glad to
be
1.
I shan't
2.
3.
you won't be
he won't be
1.
we
2.
you won't be
3.
they won't be
come
shan't be
(3) at
home then
(4) in a hurry; (5) afraid to say so; (6) hasty; (7) on

the watch; (8) ashamed to try (9) alarmed; (10) look;
ing for trouble;
(11)
willing to
confess;
(12)
stay;
(13) likely to stay; (14) coming often; (15) late again;

(17) sure;
(18) severe with him;
(16) surprised;
(19) fooled again; (20) expected to speak; (21) astonished
anything new; (22) expecting you; (23) through by

(24) in town at Christmas
(25) worried
(26) wretched if it rains; (27) drowned if we upset;
at
four
(28) tired out
by then
(29) mightily pleased; (30) asleep

obliged
to stay; (32) compelled to
(31)
request
(33) forced to leave
(34) required to report
(35) excused; (36) less afraid after this; (37) worse off
;
before that;
;
than at present; (38) very far away.
;;;
FOBM-COMBINA TIONS
592.
of
Practise Exercise.
(A) before each

(A)
Use
333
all
the forms
of the expressions of (B).
1.
I sh'll
1.
I sh'll not
2.
you'll
2.
you'll not
3.
hell
3.
hell not
1.
we
1.
we
2. you'll
2.
you'll not
3. they'll
3.
they'll not
sh'll
sh'll
not
OR
1.
I shan't
2.
vou won't
3.
he won't
1.
we
2.
you won't
3.
they won't
shan't
on time
hope for much better
things (5) feel badly (6) like to go (7) expect you
(8) look for you to-morrow
(9) think it strange
(10) certainly try (11) think so
(12) stay, probably
pleased;
feel
escape,
probably
(13)
(14)
(15) have to
go; (16) get through in time; (17) get left; (18) tell
the truth, of course (19) need to fear (20) have to ex(B)
(1) arrive at twelve; (2) reach Chicago
by
(3) get to Boston
six;
(4)
plain
(21) worry
show
(22)
surprise
without trying; (24) win without an

a fuss
(28)
(26)
make money
(27)
make
wonder what the trouble
(30) enlist
(31) fight
in without a struggle
(36) rebel.
(23) succeed
effort; (25) make

a desperate effort
(32) break the news

(34) take part
ask
(29)
is;
why;
(33) give
(35) blame you
334
593.
The compliant
says, Will
toill,
future.
now, a person
If,
you lend me a knife ? and you reply,
how
used with
will
is
and you
It
expresses a willing mood.
Note the following questions and answers

1.
2.
3.
4.
me a knife? I will, with pleasure.

Will you go with us ? We will, gladly.
Will you forgive me ? I will.
Will you please give him another chance? Yes, I
Will you lend
will.
5.
You won't
you wish
it
let it
Another name
Will
worry you,
will
you?
I won't,
if
shouldn't.
for willingness is compliance.
and wont are here compliant.
They
either
grant a wish, or they consult a person concerning his willingness.
Sometimes
will is thus
other person's wish
is
only supposed
the window,
1.
I will close
2.
I will assign
3.
We
you
if
this desk,
will study the
The compliant
used even when the
you wish.
if you like.
next lesson to-morrow.
future uses will in questions
and
answers as to willingness.
Note to the Teacher. / will lend you my knife is not

quite the same as I am willing to lend you my knife. Pll
gladly come is just as much a future as / shall be glad to
come ;
it is
a future and something more.
"
All " futures
contain present opinion, determination, or consent.
FORM-COMBINA TIONS
Practise Exercise.
594.
will according as the
ant future
is
335
Insert shall or
pure future or the compli-
needed with Tot we.
1. Will you be our guest at the holidays ?

I T
with pleasure. 2. Won't you close the door ? Certainly,
I
3. Shall you answer his letter?
I
4. I
answer this letter, if you will let me. 5. Shall I
.
window?
6. I
if you
you will go. 7. Well, then, we
change the subject, if you please. 8. Did you say
your book was lost ?
I lend you mine ?
I
gladly, if you would like it.
9. I
put the room to
rights, if nobody objects.
10. I
just tie the boat, if
you will wait.
close the
Yes, please,
take you for a drive,
595.
...
if
compliant sentence, like We'll gladly
means about the same as We slill be happy

to do so.
But we cannot say We'll be happy to
do so.
That would mean that we consent to be
happy
do
so,
596.
The determined
future.
Suppose now
that the speaker does not comply with a request, but refuses.
wish;
will
will do as
He
choose.
and won't strongly,
In like manner you
says,
I am
He
do as you
pronounces
as if against opposition.
shall
the speaker's determination.
means
J won't
and he
You
shall
express
shall hear
me
determined that you shall hear me.
336
The determined
the
first
person,
future uses emphatic will in
and emphatic
shall
in
the
second and third, thus reversing the verbs of

the pure future.
Learn the
Determined future of
Negative
Affirmative
3.
I WILL gO
you SHALL go
he SHALL go
1.
2.
go
1.
2.
3.
1.
we WILL go
2.
you SHALL go
2.
3.
they shall go
3.
I will not go
you shall not go
he shall not go
we will not go
you shall not go
they shall not go
OR
1.
2.
3.
NOT gO
you sh'll not go
he sh'll not go
I'll
not go
not go
they sh'll not go
1.
we'll
2.
you
3.
sh'll
OR
won't go
1.
2.
3.
you shan't go
he shan't go
1.
we won't go
2.
you shan't go
they shan't go
3.
FORM-COMBINATIONS
Do
Summary.
597.
337
not use
will
or Til
unless jo a. wish to express a willing or a deter-
mined mood.
slill be
Don't say
You
glad.
Say
I'll be glad.
are simply foretelling your
gladness.
Cultivate a habit of saying
Tm
going
Tm
to.
English, but
going
going
shall be
and Til
sixteen
be
is
sJtll
instead of
be there is passable
to
better.
there is
to-morrow
be sixteen
to
is
poor English,
Say
worse.
Tm
slill
be
sixteen.
598.
first
In questions, the correct verb for the
person
is
always
go?
go?
shall.
Yes, you had better.
1.
Shall I
2.
SJiall I
3.
Shan't I help you
4.
Shalll
Yes, please.
No, thank you.
be chosen, I
wonder? [addressed
to one's
self].
5.
Shall I go? [addressed to one's self ]
6.
Shall
we
all
Yes, I will.
help him ? he seems to need help.
In other questions, the correct verb
is
shall
or will according as the speaker should answer

shall or will.
you be there?
1.
Shall
2.
Will you lend
me
I shall.
a knife
[Pure future.]
I will.
[Compliant
future.]
1
Had
better.
better is
an older and stronger form than would
338
3.
Shall
you try to
see
him again?
I think I shall.
[Pure future.]
Won't you try to see him again
4.
[Com-
I will.
pliant future.]
5.
You won't
go, as I
[Determined future.]
6. You probably won't
[Pure future.]
understand
go, shall
Practise Exercise.
599.
form
of the
tions
it.
No,
you?
No,
I shan't.
won't.
Use the correct
pure future in the following ques-
1
you go to the country this summer ? 2.
you probably be through by four ? 3.
go to see the
opera when it comes ? 4.
be going? 5.
go to
Europe next year? 6.
get a new dress for Commencement? 7.
you do as they wish? 8.
try for that prize?
9.
you make any excuse?
10.
you tell the truth?
.
These verbs
Should and would.
600.
form, the past of shall and
meaning.
lost their past
uses
1.
will,
are, in
but they have
They have two
chief
1
:
As pure
futures after a past verb of say-
ing or thinking
In addition to these two chief uses, there are three

minor ones: (1) Should sometimes means ought. (2) Would
sometimes means past determination (He would go, in spite
of all).
(3) Would sometimes means a past custom (He
would go nearly every day).
1
FOBM-COMBINA TIONS
3.
John
John
John
2.
As
1.
2.
said that he should be sixteen next week.
James would be seventeen.

that he should be happy to go.
said that
said
conditional futures
3.
should rain, we should stay at home.

he would only yield, all would be well.
I should like it if it should rain.
4.
I said that I should like to go
1.
If
2.
If
339
it
601.
I got a chance.
Should and would generally follow the
rules for shall
602.
if
and
will.
Practise Exercise.
Insert the pure
future after the past verbs of saying or think-
ing
He
said of himself that he
go.
2. Jane said
Did you say that you
be
be glad to go?
glad to go? 4. Did he say that he
be sixteen next week? 6. I
5. Did he say that he
miss my train. 7. He said he
was afraid that I
1.
she
try to go.
miss his train.
miss their train.
9.
3.
8. They said they feared they

They thought it
rain. 10. John
asked whether he
603.
go too.
Practise Exercise.
Insert the con-
ditional future. 1
1.
you probably go
you be glad to go ? 3.
1
2.
you
where most
I should like and Should you like ?
than / would like and Would you like 9
Should you
? is often correct in questions
people say Would you ?

are better
you had a chance?

you like to go ? 4.
if
340
some butter
What,
you
like
5.
How
you
like
to
go
7. Do you think
were asked ? 8. If it
rain,
you still be willing to go? 9. If you
see
a bear coming, what
you probably do ? 10. If you
would try, you
certainly succeed.
G.
he
say, is the
consent to go,
May and
604.
mission.
if
lie
May
can.
Can usually
matter?
usually asserts per-
asserts
power
to do.
Examples
1.
may
2.
can go,
go, if I wish.
if I try.
Therefore in asking, granting, or stating permission the proper verb

1.
May
2. I
is
may.
Examples:
go? You may.

mayn't go.
I
The question Can I go?
inquires whether the
speaker himself has the power to go.

asks himself, or someone
1.
2.
Can
Can
jump
boy
else,
as far as that?
I get over the ice without breaking
through
There are times when either can or may
If a bear
When may
asserts permission received,
permission for a future

really
act.
it
is
a present
Often the permissive idea
Then we have a doubtful future, as in

know whether or not I shall go, but I may.
absent.
is
had you pinned to the earth,

friend shouted Why dont you come on ? it
proper.
and a
i"
is
donH
FORM-COMB INA TIONS

would make
I maynt
little
or
difference whether
with can,
you said
can't.
Practise Exercise.
605.
341
can't,
Fill the
blanks
may, or maynt, according to
your best judgment.

1 ask
1.
row a knife?
you
to
we accomplish
4.
consent?
come and
we
3.
so
see
me?
much ?
you
mean, is
1 say that
5.
you come out for a walk?
6.
1 bor-
2.
get across that rotten log?
Father says no.

you come out for a walk? I mean, are you well
My cold is too bad. 10.
enough? 9. No, I
you come along? Are you through studying? 11. No,
12.
you get down?
I
I haven't finished.
13. No, I
I'm caught in the branches. 14. Why
you go faster without hurting
don't you hurry?
your father willing?
7.
No, I
8.
your foot?
606.
15. I
hurry.
The
doctor won't let me.
These verbs are in
Might and could.
form the past of may and
can,
and are often
so used in object clauses.

1.
He saw
2. I
that he might depart at that moment.

found that now I could open the door.
In most statements might have and could have
form the past

1.
2. I
3.
of
may and
can.
might have gone.

could have gone.
wish I might or could have gone.
342
Might and could often refer to the future

after a past verb.
1.
I told
2.
He
him that
said
might possibly
go.
that such accidents could never happen
again.
Might can refer to the future from a present

point of view.
You might
possibly find
some trout there to-morrow.
In such a case might presents the future act

(as expressed in the verbal find) as less probable
than
may would
607.
What
is
assert anything,
present
it.
meant by "mood."
we always have
When we
a certain atti-
tude of mind toward our assertion.
We
positively, or doubtfully, or wishfully, or
speak
com-
mandingly, or willingly, or obstinately, or sadly,

or happily.
These attitudes of mind are called
feelings or moods. 1
By
commonest mood of mind is

This is what leads us to make
the positive.
sentences.
We assert that such and such a
far
the
To
the Teacher. The Latin modus is a bad translation

of the Greek grammarians' dcadto-is i/vxys, or mental attiOur word mood ( < Teut. moda) comes nearer the
tude.
To speak of "manner of assertion" is to leave
true idea.
Mood is first a feeling
us as much in the dark as before.
form.
in grammar as in life
then
a
and
1
FORM-COMBIJSfA TIONS
thing
is,
or
not, does or does not.
is
definition of a verb
is,
"a word
343
Our very
that asserts."
The verb makes the speaker responsible.

If we wish to speak less positively, we do not
change the form of the verb proper, but we
use a group-verb or a mood adverb (403).
Thus we say
He
1.
Perhaps he is there.
He may perhaps be there.
2.
3.
If
is there.
we wish
to speak willingly or obstinately
we vary the use
of a future act,
of shall
and
will
(588-603).
We
names
might, indeed, set up an array of hard
numerous form-combinations that

express our feelings toward an act.
Take the
for the
By the use of mood

mood adjectives (like
act of seeing, for example.
adverbs (like perhaps),

glad),
and mood verbs
could get a long
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
list of
(like shall
moods
and
will)
emphatic I do see.
more probable I shall probably see.
I may possibly see.
less probable
potential I can see.
:
permissive
obligative
necessary
may
see
ought to
must
see,
wish.
or I've got to see.
happy I'm glad to see.

sad I'm sorry to see.
:
if I
see.
we
344
But
would be an unprofitable
this
because in English there
is
business,
no end to such com-
binations.
In strictness, there are only two moods
608.
English verb in
the
of
present time
common
use
at the
the assertive (or indicative) and
Verbs used
the imperative.
commands
in
are
said to be imperative, as See!
What we
call
the compliant and the deter-
mined future are only assertive futures plus the

ideas of willingness and determination.
There
609.
is
one other curious change of
Note the
form that deserves attention.
verbs in the following sentences

1.
If I
saw how to get word to John,
italic
would send for
him.
2.
wish
saw
how
to get
word
to him.
In these sentences a past indicative form
is
used for the present, to state a present wish or

supposition that
But
1.
If
2.
is
contrary to fact.
in such sentences
we use were
John were here now, I should

wish John were here now,
like
for was.
it,
"
FOBM-COMBINATIONS
Were
here called a past
is
345
" subjunctive
form, used with a present meaning.
English
verbs once had a "subjunctive " mood, consist-
ing of special forms used in dependent clauses.
very few subjunctive forms remain in spoken
Examples
English.
John were
here, I should
If
3.
Heaven be praised for such news

God grant it be true
4.
wish he were here.
Sometimes we say
is
be glad.
1.
2.
better English to
I wish John was here. It

say I wish John were here.
After if? asif, and verbs of wishing, the subjunctive were
is
either singular or plural.
Active and passive combinations.
610.
Verbs
of action represent the subject as acting, as
But group-verbs may represent the
strike.
subject as either acting or suffering, thus:

1.
I'
2.
3.
am
striking.
am
am
being struck.
jl:
struck.
Thus we get two kinds
of combinations.
Active
combinations represent the subject as acting on
something,
Passive combinations represent the
subject _as acted on,
The
subject
distinction
is
:. _
,.,._..
between active and passive
usually called a distinction
of- voice.
346
But
it is
not necessary to speak of two voices of
the English verb, so long as
we speak
of active
and passive combinations.

611.
We have seen
The complete conjugation.
that the simple conjugation of a verb consists

of
subject-pronouns combined with the true
verb-forms, arranged with reference to person,
number, time present, and time
The complete conjugation
past.
gives the active
and passive combinations, arranged according

to
six
distinctions
of
This
time.
complete
conjugation furthermore recognizes two chief
mood, namely the indicative and
distinctions of
the imperative
also
two
lesser distinctions of
mood, namely willingness and determination as
added to the future indicative.
As
a matter of
convenience, the complete
conjugation does not include any of the forms

called potential, obligative, emphatic, etc. (607).
Neither does
it
include the progressive forms
(587), although these are very
612.
An
common.
outline of a complete conjugation
consists of one of its three persons

first
or third.
The complete
would contain eighteen forms,
say
outline
as follows
the
of see
;
FOBM-COMBINA TIONS
347
SEE
Indicative
Mood
Passive
Active
Present
am
was seen
I shall be seen
I saw
Pure future
I shall see
Compliant future
I will see
Determined future I will see
Present perfect I have seen
Past perfect
I had seen
Future perfect I shall have seen
Past
I see
seen
I will be seen
will be seen
been seen
had been seen
I have
I shall
have been seen
Imperative Mood
Passive
Active
Present or future
613.
see
be seen
Verbals do not properly form a part of
the conjugation, since none of
But
a subject.
it
may
phrase-verbals
is
them can take
interesting to see
how
be developed by help from
the verbals of have and
be.
Verbal Nouns of See

Passive
Active
to be seen
Present: to see
seeing
to
be being seen
to be seeing
Present perfect
to have seen
to have been
seeing
to have
been seen
348
Verbal Adjectives of See

Active
Present
being seen
seeing
Present perfect
Past
Passive
having seen
having been seen

seen
CHAPTER
XVIII
THE OLDER STYLE

614.
thee,
Certain forms of words, like thou and
were once in daily
Such forms are
the older style.
in solemn or poetic language.

in church,
now belong
but
use,
and we read them
still
We
to
employed
hear them
in the Bible or in
Shakspere.
615.
The King James
(published 1611)
is
version of the Bible
the book which has chiefly
preserved these forms, and they are best learned
by a study
of this book. 1
Indeed, other books
written about 1611 do not always present the
same forms
as the Bible.
For example, ye
is
always a subject-pronoun in the Bible, whereas

in Shakspere
we never
it is
often an object.
find the adjective
her, referring to objects.

1
To the Teacher.
drill.
Such
Its
but always
drill
his or
howeyer occurs
Young persons often feel

grammar than they can
of a surer grasp of biblical
out definite
its,
In the Bible
the need
get with-
should be given in Bible classes
rather than in the public school.
349
350
few times
John
of
616.
in Shakspere,
and often
in the
works
Florio, a friend of Shakspere.
The
tions in the
older conjugation has several inflec-
form of verbs.
In most verbs the
indicative has the second singular ending
and the third singular ending

if
we
and
find be for am, art,
-th of
617.
is,
-th.
and
are,
-st,
But after
and the -st
other verbs do not appear.
Older forms of the verb Be.

Indicative
Singular
(
Present
Plural
am
we
thou art
ye are
3.
he
they are
is
Subjunctive
Singular
Present
are
1.
2.
Plural
1.
(if) I
(if)
we be
2.
(if)
(if)
ye be
3.
(if)
(if)
they be
be
thou be
he be
Indicative
Plural
Singular
'
we were
was
1.
2.
thou wast
Past-
ye were
or
wert
k
3.
he was
The subjunctive forms
they were
are so called because they oc-
curred in subjoined or dependent clauses.
THE OLDER STYLE
351
Subjunctive
Plural
Singular
618.
1.
if
I were
if
we were
12.
if
if
ye were
13.
if
thou were
he were
if
they were
Older forms of the verb Love.
Active
Indicative
Plural
Singular
we
1 - I love
love
Present
2.
U.
thou lovest
he loveth
ye love
they love
Subjunctive
Plural
Singular
(if) I love
2.
(if)
13.
(if)
we
love
Present
thou love
he love
ye love
they love
Indicative
Singular
Plural
we
I loved
loved
f-
Past
thou loved st
j
13. he loved
ye loved
2.
The past subjunctive often
they loved
referred to present time, in
conditions or wishes contrary to fact (609).
form often occurred without

predicate being reversed, as were
this
still
if,
I,
and
We
can
tvere thou, etc.
say loere I you, were I going,
very antiquated.
In a condition
the order of subject
etc.,
without sounding
352
ELEMENTS OF THE -"SENTENCE

Subjunctive
Singular
(if) I
(1.
2.
(if)
3.
(if)
Plural
we
loved
thou loved
he loved
loved
ye loved
they loved
Passive
Indicative
Singular
am
loved
we
are loved
1.
2.
thou art loved
ye are loved
3.
he
they are loved
Present
Plural
is
loved
Subjunctive
Singular
f
Present
1.
(if) I
2.
(if)
[3. (if)
be loved
thou be loved
he be loved
Plural
we be
loved
ye be loved
they be loved
Indicative
Singular
f
Past
i
I
was loved
1.
2.
thou wast loved

he was loved
3.
Plural
we were
loved
ye were loved
they were loved
Subjunctive
Singular
{
Past
._
Plural
1.
(if) T
we were
2.
(if)
ye were loved
3.
(if)
were loved
thou were loved
he were loved
loved
they were loved
THE OLDER STYLE

619.
It is
353
not necessary to give every com-
bination of he or love to
show the very great
changes that have taken place in the ordinary

forms of English verbs and pronouns in the last
three hundred years.
These changes tend to
make English a simpler and more flexible language.

They are mostly changes for the better.
Older uses of shall and will.
620.
In the
King James Bible the modern distinctions between shall and ivill are not regularly made.
Shall
is
often used as a pure future, with any
subject-pronoun.
ure (as in Job 14
2a
Will
:
7),
is
sometimes a pure fut-
but oftener means wish.
INDEX
The Numbers refer to Sections
Afterthoughts,
a or an, 379.
Absolute noun, 392;
an awk-
''Agreement" of subject and
ward
construction, 393.
Action, forms of verbs of, 64-
verb, 17; 575.

9; correct
ain't,
equivalents
of, 25-28.
164.
Active voice.
See Form-com-
binations.
Adjectives, articles,
nouns, 369;
379;
as
assuming, 383;
511-550 demonstrative, 374; descriptive,

373; gender in, 539; indefinite, 377; interrogative, 375,
comparison
378;
how punctu-
ated, 298.
of,
also, 219, 453.
although, 468.
Analysis,
general,
471-480;
general, defined, 478; less
general, 327, 386; confined
to one part of speech, 306,
numeral,
pos376;
predicate, 383,
sessive, 375;
385; produced, 385.
Adjective clauses, 367, 461.
Adjective modifiers. See Geni-
Appositives,
AdjecAdjective clauses, Adjective phrases.
Adjective phrases, 422.
Adverbs, comparison of, 541550; defined, 401; of degree,
demonstrative,
402;
406;
interrogative, 406 with linkverbs, 409-412;
of manner,
tives,
tives,
402; of
mood, 403; nouns
as,
404; numeral, 406; of place,

position of, 418;
of
402;
time, 402.
Adverbial, clauses, 462, 463;
phrases, 422.
after, 430.
311, 317,
321,
323,
327,
328,
335, 336,
337, 338,
339,
341,
343, 347,
355,
360,
370, 372,
387,
389,
408, 425.
384,
and, punctuation before, 219,

288, 295, 453, 495.
Antecedents, 346.
Apostrophe, the, 324, 525-527.
appear. See Link-verbs.
See
grammar, 6.
Applied
Practise Exercises.
Appositives, 322.
aren't, 10, 27.
around, 431.
Articles [term not employed],
379-382.
465, 466; punctuation before, 241, 496.
Assuming adjectives, 383.
as,
Asterisks, 490.
at, 432.
awake,
70, 71.
awful, awfully, 417.
355
;;
INDEX
356
B
Base-words, 473, 474.
be, forms of, 563; contractions
of, 25-46;
conjugation, simple, of, 574; older forms of,

617; tenses of, 586.
because, 466; punctuation before, 236, 496.
because
become.
dependent, 231-245,
independent, 197-230; of
purpose, 469; relative, 367
ing, 468;
bad, badly, 410, 411, 412, 415.
of, 428.
See Link-verbs.
367
of result, 469.
Collective nouns, 520, 578, 583.
Colon, 487.
Comma, general uses, 492 general rule, 500; special rules,
494-499;
see also 194-1%,
;
236, 244, 267, 279,

288-292, 295, 298.
280,
287,
before, 465.
begin, 72-75.
Comparative and superlative,
beside, besides, 435, 453.
Comparison, of adjectives and
besides, punctuation of, 498.
adverbs, 541-550.
come, 87-90.
use of, 547.
between, 436.
Complex sentences,
234.
Blackburn, F. A., 588.
Compliant future.
See Future.
blow, 76, 77.

Brackets, 489.
break, 78, 79.
bring, 80, 81.
broken, 84.
Compound,
cates, and
Bible,
King James,
614-620.
predi-
sentences,
284-
300; words, 512.

Conceding clauses, 468.
Concession,
conjunctions
of,
468.
burst, 82-84.
but, 437, 453;
subjects,
punctuation be-
fore, 288, 290, 292, 454, 495.
Condensed
statements,
495,
note.
Conditional, sentences, 467
fu-
ture, 600.
simple conjugation
aan, 604-606.
call,
of, 572.
can't, 10.
Cardinals, 363.
Case, possessive adjectives as
genitive
of pronouns, 539.
See Constructions.
catch, 85, 86.
Cause, conjunctions
certain, 364, 377.
Child's. fault in
:
(misuse of
of, 466.
punctuation
comma
riod), 197-230,491.
Class-nouns, 312.
Clauses, causal, .466
Conjugations,
defined,
571
simple, 572-574; complete,
585,611,612.
Conjunctions, defined, 452 ^dependent, 459-469; independent, 453.
Connectives. See Conjunctions.

considering, 395.
Consonant verbs, 553, 555-558.
Constructions, of nouns, 326
of pronouns, 352-354, 536.
for pe-
consequently, 453, 454.

Contrary to fact statements,
conced-
Contractions, of be, 25-46;
tense-mood
[
in, 609.
of.
INDEX
357

have, 47-62 of shall and will,
589-592, 596.
;
Conversational
usage.
See
Usage.
Coordinate conjunctions. See
Conjunctions, independent.
Copula." See Link-verbs.
Curves, the, 280, 488, 498.
Endings, personal, 551, 616.

Etymology [term not used].
See Forms of words.
every 364, 377.
,
Exclamation point, 484.

Exclamatory, sentence,
251.
See Practise Exercises, and Analysis.
Exercises.
D
Dash,
280, 486, 498.
Dependent,
clauses,
complement [term
not employed]. See Name
produced and Adjective produced.
Feels, with adjectives and adFactitive
Declarative sentence r 251.

Degree, adverbs of, 402, 541.
Demonstrative pronouns, 361;
adjectives, 374 adverbs, 406.
231-245,
367; purpose, 469; result,

469; general rule for punctuating, 496.
Derivation, 5ll.
Descriptive adjectives, 373.
Determined future.
See Future.
verbs, 410.
Firm-names, how punctuated,

497.
now, 101.
flij,
102, 103.
punctuation before,
for, 438;
496.
Forms
of words, 506-620. See

Nouns, Pronouns,
AdjecDirect, questions, 366; statetives, Adverbs, Verbs.
ments, 460.
Form-combinations,
defined,
do, 91-93.
right and wrong, 575571
doesn't, 10, 92.
showing time, 586;
584;
die,
pure future
of, 589.
don't, 10.
progressive,
present,
587
587; future, 589-603; with
may and can, 604-606;
of ''mood," 607-609; active
and passive, 610; of sim571-574;
ple conjugations,
complete conjugations,
of
;
drink, 94-97.
E
each, etc., with singular verb,
579.
eat, 98-100.
Educated men, 11, 12.

either, with singular verbs,
21,
612.
24; uses of, 453,455; position
Freed or absolute noun,
of, 457.
freeze, 104, 105.
Elements of the sentence, 301- from, 439.

620; summarized, 471-480; Future, the, 588
independent, 272-283.
Emphatic, self-pronouns, 358;

possessive pronoun, 375.
392.
the pure, 589-
592, 599, 602; the compliant,
593-595 the determined, 596

the conditional, 600, 603.
;
INDEX
358

mood, 608;
Imperative,
Gender, in nouns, 528-534; in

pronouns, 536, 538; in adjec-
give, 106.
go, 107, 108; pure future of,

580; determined future of,
596.
good, well, 413.

got, with have, 58-61.
spelling of the word,
4; defined, 5; applied, 6.
Grammatical usage, examples

See also Practise
Exercises.
Group-genitive, 527.
grow,
had
singular
verb,
nouns, 364.
with
pro-
579;
Independent, beginnings noun

or pronoun, 208; One, etc.,
211;
Moreover, etc., 214;
:
215; So, 217 Also,

Certainly, etc.,
221; There's, etc., 223; Here,
;
etc.,
219;
etc.,
226;
Then,
228;
especially
conjunctions,
clauses,
197-230,
206 and
207;
etc.,
Indicative, mood, 608.

Indirect discourse, 366, 460;
question, 366.
Infinitives, 559-561.
See also
109, 110.
rather,
pronouns,
tributive
453.
H
had
indeed, punctuation of, 498.

Indefinite, adjectives, 377; dis-
Still, etc.,
Grammar,
7-185.
Implied statements, 273-277.

in, into, 441.
tives, 539.
Genitive, nouns, 324; of singular and plural nouns, 526

the group-, 527.
of,
sen-
tences, 251, 258.
better,
598,
footnote.
hain't, 54.
Verbal nouns.
Inflections,
have, contractions of, 45-53, 61

with got, 58-61
with not
and been, 43-46 with verbal
adjective, 397, 398;
forms
of, 564; simple conjugation
;
defined, 506.
See
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives,

Adverbs, Verbs.
Interest, variable point of chief,
of, 573.
he, 166, 169, 171; referring to
anyone,
etc., 538.
her, 172.
him, 172.
however, punctuation
Hyphen, rule
480.
Interjections, 275, 470.

Interrogative, adjectives, 375,
pronouns, 365;
sen378;
tences, 251.
Intransitive verbs, 309.
older forms
is, forms of, 563
;
of, 498.
of,
for, 512.
simple conjugation
subject-pronouns
574;
of, 617;
after, 169-171, 352; tenses of

586.
I
if,
Isn't, 10, 26, 27, 28.
as "peace maker,"
footnote
punctuation,
467;
304,
496.
it's, its,
its,
in
spelling of, 29, 375.
Shakspere and Florio,
not in King James Bible, 615.
,
:
INDEX
359
It's no, 29, 32.
IV s
not, 29, 30.
Names,
nouns
and Proproduced, 320.

Neither, with singular verb, 21,
a, 246.
nice, nicely, 414.

no, contractions with, 29, 34;
punctuation after, 498; with
have, 49, 50, 54, 56, 57, 61.
K
know,
nor, 453, 455, 456.

22
nevertheless, 453.
judging, 395.
Judgment,
see Nouns,
111, 112.
Nominative
Language, distinguishes men
from animals, 1 spoken and
;
written, 3;
studied by
all,
not
[term
em-
ployed]. See Subject-forms,

Constructions, and Absolute
noun.
none, 20, note 578.
not, contractions with, 29-31,
35, 36; position of, 418, 420.
Not-statements, 186-196.
;
daily, 4.
lay, 119-124.
Leaders, 490.
lie,
113-118, 120, 123.
like, 111, 178, 443.
Literary usage, 10.

looks, with adjectives and adverbs, 411.
loose, 558.
Nouns, defined, 312; class and

individual, 312; examples of
313; subjects, 315; predicate,
316; direct objects, 318; indirect objects, 319; names
produced, 320
appositives,
322; genitives, 324; vocatives, 325
as adjectives, 369
;
lose, 558.
lot,
with plural verb,
and
20, note;
lots, 18,
note.
forms of, 551-570 number in,

513-526; gender in, 528-534;
;
M
Main statement,
genitive forms, 526;

see Verbal nouns.
234.
Manner, adverbs of, 402.

may, forms of, 567; uses
Noun-clauses, 460.
of,
604-606.
me,
170, 173; after is, 169.
Modifiers,
defined, 305, 326,

473; of the subject, 475; of
the main verb, 476; of modi-
Number,
moreover, 453.
must, 569, 607.
form-combina-
in
in nouns, 513pronouns, 536-538.
tions, 575-584
527
in
Numeral, adjectives, 376; adverbs, 406
pronouns, 363.
fiers, 477.
Moods, 607-609.
Mood-adverbs, 221, 403.
more, most, 541-550, passim.
verbal,
Object, defined, 120; direct,

318 indirect, 319 -forms of
pronouns, 172, 352, 353; of
prepositions, 426;
clauses,
;
460.
;;
INDEX
360

Object-complement [term not
employed]. See Name Produced, and Adjective Produced.
instead
444;
533
of,
genitive,
of
which, 530.
362, 537.
" Potential
Older forms, 614-620.

only, position of, 418,
how
41!).
punctuated, 233, 454;
nor, correct use of, 455.
Ordinals, 363.
ought, 333, (507.
Owen, Edward
of
402, 409;
conjunctions of, 464.

Plural.
See Number.
Positive degree, 541.
Possessive, forms, see Genitive
adjectives, 375;
pronouns,
;
of, 445.
or,
adverbs
Place,
mood,"
19,
20,22,23,27,28,30,33,32,
34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52,
53, 55,
56,57,61,62,71,73,7^,
77, 79, 81. S3,
T., 535, note.
owing, 395.
607.
Practise Exercises: oral, 16, 18,
St;,
96, 97, 99, 100,
88,89, 90, 93,

103, 105, 108,
110, 112, 114, 115, 118, 122, 123,
.own, 375.
124, 126, 131, 132, 134, 136, 139,
140, 144, 140, 150, 154, 157, 160,
Parentheses, 280; marks of,

280, 488 punctuation of, 498.
Participle, forms of, 559-562;
not a statement, 180, 188, 388
uses of, 388-400.
Parts of speech, defined, 301
416, 417, 419, 420, 421, 427, 428,
one word
429, 433, 440, 442, 449, 451, 458,
enumerated, 302;
as various, 301.
perhaps, punctuation
;
193, 194, 195, 196, 235.
Person, 357 in form-combinations, 575-584; in personal

pronouns, 536; in possessive
pronouns, 537.
See ProPersonal pronouns.
nouns.
and gender,
Personification,
;
532.
Phrases, 186-196; defined, 186;

not to be punctuated like
participle,
sentences, 193
388; adjective, 422; adverbial, 422; verb-, 399, 585610.
232, 245, 252, 259, 260, 266, 277,

289, 351, 356, 359, 371, 372, 380,
381, 382, 391, 405. 413, 414, 415,
501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 534, 540,

of, 498.
Period, 491, 494; when needed,

193-228 when to be avoided,
167,168, 171,173, 174, 176, 178,

188, 189, 190, 194, 201, 202, 203,
548, 550, 557, 558, 583, 584, 590,
591, 592, 594, 596, 599, 602, 603,

Written 40, 41, 63, 192,
605.
:
195, 196, 204, 209, 210, 212, 216,
217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 225, 227,

229, 230, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242,
243, 269, 271, 283, 292, 297, 299,
300.
Predicate, 184, 185; subject

and, 246-283; compound, 284
-298 necessary to statement,
-objective [term not
187;
employed], see Name produced, and Adjective produced; adjective, 383, 385;
;
noun, 316;
participles, 388,
398, 399.
Prepositions,
chief,
429;
de-
;
,
INDEX
361

422; object of, 426;
position of, 424.
pretty, prettily, 416.
Principal parts of verb, 64-67.
Produced, Dames, 320; adjecfined,
tives, 385.
Progressive forms, 587.

Pronouns, defined, 344 enumeantecedents of,
rated, 345
346; referring to statement,
without
antecedent,
348;
349; should be near antesubject-forms,
cedent, 350
predicate165-179
352,
forms, 352, 169, 170 objectforms, 172, 175, 353, 426;
personal, 357, 536; demon;
Pure future. See Future.

Purpose clauses, 469.
Q
Question-mark, 270, 485.
Questions, direct and indirect,
366; shall and will in, 598602.
possessive, 362,
self-,
358; numeral,
537;
363; indefinite, 364, 538; interrogative, 365
relative,
strative, 361
" agreement with

of verb, 575-584; in formcombinations, 571-613; older
367. 538
forms
'
'
of, 614, 615.
318, 326, 472.
Relative, pronouns, 367, 538;

adjectives, 375, 378; clauses,
punctuation of
367
clauses, 499.
Result clauses, 469.
;
ride, 125, 126.
ring, 127.
rise, 128, 129.
Root-infinitive, 334.
Rules, for period and comma,

494-500 for the hyphen, 512.
run, 130-132.
9.
child s
'
comma
for period), 197-230; before

conjunctions,
independent
454 special rules for comma
and period, 494-500; comma,
general rule for, 500; before and and but, 495; of
series, 497; of parentheses,
498 of relative clauses, 499
the brackets, 489; the colon,
487; the comma, 492; the
dash, 486; the exclamation
point, 484; the leaders, 490;
the period, 491 the question
mark, 485; the semicolon,
483 the stars, 490.
;
Reflexive, pronouns, 358.

Relations,
between persons
or things (or their names),
Pronunciation, vulgar,
P unc t ua t io u 481-505
fault in (misuse of
,
raise, 129.
said, 557.
Scholastic usage. See Usage.

See, 133, 134; complete conjugation of, 612; phrasal verbals of, 613.
Seem. See Link-verbs.
Self -pronouns, 358.
Semicolon, 290, 292, 295, 483.

Sentence, definition of, 181simplest definition of,
300
;
composed of subject
and predicate, 246-283; independent elements of, 272181
283; elements of, 471-480;

simple, 234; compound, 284-
;;
;;
INDEX
362

298; complex, 234; declaraexclamatory, 251
tive, 251
imperative, 251, 258; interrogative, 251.
Sentence-words, 273-279.
;
punctuation
Series,
of,
287,
497.
140-142.
set, 12,
of, 565;
and
will,
mood,
Subordinate
609,
617,
rule
eral
show, 145, 146.

Simple sentences, 234.
since 465 punctuation before,
;
496.
dependent
or
367; genpunctuating,
231-245,
clauses,
she, 166, 169, 171.
for
496.
Superlative, 541, 547.
Sweet, Henry, ix, 307, footnote 535, footnote.

;
swim,
sing, 147, 150.

sink, 148, 150.
sit, 12, 135-137, 140.
Slang,
618.
589-603, 620.
Subjunctive,
shake, 143, 144.
forms
punctuation after, 267

of
imperative sentence, 258
position of, 254-257
simple
and complete, 327, 386, 474,
475.
setting hen, 142.

shall,
necessary to statement, 187
compound, 284-298; formal

and logical, 261-265; no
swing, 153, 154.

Syntax [term not used]. See
Form-combinations,
right
9.
and wrong.
so, 217, 453, 454.
Solemn
152.
style, 614-1520.
so that, 469.
sound, with adjectives and adverbs, 412.

Spelling. See Plural, Genitive,
Possessive adjectives, RelaSelf-proadjectives,
tive
nouns.
that, conjunction, 460.
the
spring, 149, 150.

Stars, the, 490.
and
a, 379-382.
thee, 614.
Statements, 2, 181, 182, 183;

denned, 186; and Not-statements, 186-196, 388; independent, 197-230; dependent,
231-245
implied, 273-277
concondensed, 495, note
trary to fact, 606, 609.
;
steal, 151
still,
take, 155-157.
teach, 158.
Tenses, 586-606, 609, 612, 617620; denned, 586, footnote.
453.
Subject, denned, 14, 184, 185;

-forms of pronouns, 352;
them, 172; for those, 9.

There are, plural subject after,
17.
therefore, 453, 454.
There's no, 33, 34.

they, 166, 169, 171.
thou, 614, 617, 618.
throw, 159, 160.
Time, distinctions
of, 586-606;
present,
551
64-164, 587; future, 588-603;
past,
64-164,
adverbs
of, 402, 430;
prepo-
INDEX
363

sitions
430,
of,
con-
465;
junctions of, 465.
'tisn't, 29, 31.
conversational,
Usage,
grammatical, examples
11;
of, 7-
185; literary, 10; scholastic,
10
vulgar,
ing the object's action, 340;

attached to nouns, 342 forms
of, 559-561; not called participles, 396 phrasal, 613.
Verbals, forms of, 559-562;
phrasal, 613.
See Verbal
8.
noun, Verbal adjective.

Verb-phrases, 399, 585-610.
Vocatives, 276, 279, 325 punctuation of, 498
Voice, 610, 617, 618.
Vulgarisms, 8.
;
Verbs, denned, 13, 303; not

statements,
make
186;
reader responsible, 304; explain subject indirectly, 305;
action and link-, 307 transitive, 308; intransitive, 309;
essentially transitive, 310;
forms of, 551-570, 64-164;
vowel, 552, 64-164; consonant, 553-58; form-combinations of, 571-613; "agreement" with subject, 15, 17,
18-24, 575-584; older forms
of, 616-618.
See be, have,
;
shall, will,
call,
may, can, must,

love.
see,
Also
see
Tenses, Moods.
Verbal
388-400;
adjectives,
559-562; active and passive,
399 intransitive, 400 assuming and predicate, 396; in

ing, 388; the past, 396;
with have, 397 phrasal, 613
predicate, 398; should be
near their nouns, 394; must
have a noun or pronoun to
modify, 395 why called par;
W
want, with prepositions,
450.
wasn't, 9.
Well, punctuation after, 498.
well, good, 413.
were as tense-mood, 37-42,

when, 465.
w here,
609.
464.
whose, 375, 539.

whoever, 352.
Why, punctuation after, 498.
will, forms of, 566 shall and,
;
589-603, 620.
with, influence on
number
verb, 582.
Words, defined, 2; forms of,
506-620; combinations of,
571-613; compound, 512.
of
7,
7,
wring, 161.
write, 162, 163.
ye, 615, 617, 618.
Yes, punctuation after, 498.

yet, 453.
ticiples, 396.
Verbal nouns, 329-343 in ing, you, always takes plural verb,

17.
329; with to, 330-333; show;
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Lewis'
Second Manual
Buckram.
l2mo.
CONTENTS
Price 90 cents
Introduction. Part
Composition
of
Composition in Gen-
I.
Planning the Composition.

II. The Paragraph as
a Part and as a Whole. III. The Sentence as a Part and as
Part II. The Kinds of Compoa Whole. IV. Words.
eral.
I.
Narration.
sition.
I.
IV. Argumentation.
The Second Book

to a
is
II.
Description.
intended for use in
one or two year course.
III.
Exposition.
High School work and
It consists of
is adapted
two parts, one of which deals
with composition in general, the other with the kinds of composition. The
study of the structure of the long composition is placed before the study of
any part of the theme, and also before the study of narration, description,
and exposition.
The book contains three appendices on the more troublesome questions,
(A) of grammar, (B) of punctuation, (C) of spelling. Appendix (B) is
supplemented by the work of Chapters II. and III., which explain the colon
and the semicolon in connection with the subjects of unity and emphasis in
sentence and paragraph. Appendix (C) is supplemented by a list of sixteen
hundred words often misspelled.
Comments
High School, Providence,
Classical
"It
theory."
"
good
is
in
Emily
I.
R.I.:
the right line of emphasis on practice rather than on
Meader.
a helpful and thoroughly practical treatise, informed by the best

scholarship, and deserving of the most cordial commendation."
The Dial.
It is
The Taft
School,
Watertown, Ct:
" I do not hesitate to pronounce Lewis' Second Manual of Composition,'

secondary schools, the final book on the subject.
We will make Dr.
Lewis responsible for all of the composition work of this school."
Arthur N. Dilley.
Fifth Avenue Normal High School, Pittsburg, Pa.:
" It is certainly original and practical to a remarkable degree. It seems
to me that he has given almost a final treatment to the Kinds of Composition.
Future books will hardly do it better."
Thomas C. Blaisdell, Head of English Dept.
'
for

66 Fifth Avenue,
Boston
Chicago
New York
San Francisco
Atlanta
LEWIS'
AN INTRODUCTION
TO THE
STUDY OF LITERATURE
For the Use of Secondary and Graded Schools
l2mo.
Cloth.
$1.00
This book
is intended for use in secondary and graded schools.

a collection of short masterpieces of modern literature arranged
in groups, each group interpreting some phase of youthful interest.
Each section is opened with an introduction, which aims to suggest
a very elementary but sound method and vocabulary of criticism.
It is
University of North Dakota

" It is just the book that was needed.
It connects literature with
life in a way that is interesting, convincing, and inspiring."
VERNON
P. SQUIRES, Professor of English Language and Literature.
Dayton, Ohio
me to congratulate both author and publisher upon the

judgment manifested in the choice of selections. The book,
seems to me, is calculated to become not only a safe guide in liter"
Permit
excellent
it
ary taste, but a valuable aid to the teacher in his efforts at character
building."
W. N. HAILMAN, Supt. of Schools.
RECENT ADOPTIONS
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Pawtucket, R.I., High School.
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Pocantico Hills, N.Y.,Private Sch.
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Auburn, N.Y., High School.

Roxbury, Mass., Roxbury Latin Sch.
Beloit, Wis.,
High
School.
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Faribault, Minn., Shattuck School.
Morgan Park, 111., Morgan Park
Chicago,
111.,
Academy.
Annex.
Burlington, la., Burlington Inst.
Terre Haute, Ind., State Normal
School.
San Diego, Cal., State Normal Sch.
Brookline, Mass., Chestnut Hill
School.
-
Brooklyn, N.Y., Adelphi College.

Logansport, Ind, City Schools.
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Columbia, Mo University School.
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,

New York
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Chicago
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9Q2
JUL
1902
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APPLIED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

APPLIED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

EDWIN HERBERT LEWIS

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

up and electrotyped July,

Cushing & Co.

Berwick & Smith

study of English in the upper grades

grammar. The amount of time required

even the best schools is wholly

Most phases of the subject now

and must obtain the best results we can

mar should be assured attention? Certainly

But what should be empha-

what should stand

Elementary correctness in oral usage should

cannot easily diagnose the habitual faults

of each individual, or easily cure those diag-

She can patiently correct sporadic aintfs

there be a fear that learning to say isn't will

be less educative than distinguishing "object

complements" from " objective complements."

by applying the theory of independent and

dependent statements to the actual problems

and has nothing

with rhetorical theories of unity.

study, the present

writer has devoted Part First of his book to

to the definition of the sentence.

exercises of this part are very numerous, but

of the class should

quired to recite the entire exercise

52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 61.

him retell some story to the class, or recount

and learned by heart," to be (most gently and

note-book, with a page for each student, can

be used throughout the hour without

be encouraged, and the faults similarly noted.

In Part Second a more systematic treatment

sentence are treated before the inflections.

only these would

of analysis or parsing, but

should be the " Anal-

would have received

of blind practise in the correct use

In Part First there are but few definitions.

the only permanent cure for bad

boy may learn to punctuate

subordinate clauses he will never be sure of

only too easy to overdo the teaching

not for children.

Subtleties of analysis are

matical terms are but figures of speech,

can only pity the lad

has to apply them

were divinely ordained. When we

modify the hearer's notion of the subject that

creases a definer of the subject;