Indian Vegetable Food Report

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No.
2291
Nutritional attributes of Indian vegetables

L J Hedges & C E Lister
June 2008
A report prepared for
Horticulture New Zealand
Copy 1 of 15
New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited

Private Bag 4704, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
2008 New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited
Contents
1
Executive summary
Introduction
Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria)
4
4
4
4
3.1
3.2
4.2.1 Antioxidant activity
Bitter melon (Momordica charantia)

Composition
5.2
Health attributes
5.1.1 Core nutrients

5.1.2 Phytochemicals
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.2.4
5.2.5
5.2.6
Antioxidant activity
Anti-diabetic effects
Weight control
Anti-cancer effects
Anti-inflammatory activity
HIV treatment side effects
Adverse effects
Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
10
10
10
10
11
Tindori (Coccinia grandis)
12
Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata)
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
15
15
16
17
7.1
Composition
7.2
Health benefits
7.3
Composition
Health attributes
5.1
5.3
5.4
Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula)

4.1
4.2
Composition
Health attributes
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
Core nutrients
Phytochemicals
Fibre
Saponins
Antinutritional factors
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
Cardio-protective effects
Anti-cancer effects
Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis)

8.1
Composition
8.2
Health attributes

8.2.1 Antioxidant acitivy
18
18
18
18
18
18
10
Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab)

9.1
Composition
9.2
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
9.1.4
9.1.5
9.1.6
Core nutrients
Phytochemicals
Diabetes
Cholesterol absorption
9.2.1 Cooking
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus)

10.1 Composition

10.1.3 Antinutritional factors
10.2 Health attributes

10.2.2 Anti-diabetic effects
10.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

10.3.1 Cultivar
10.3.2 Processing methods
11
Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii)

11.1 Composition
11.2 Antinutritional factors


11.3.2 Anti-cancer
11.3.3 Anti-diabetic activity
11.3.4 Antiatherogenic
11.3.5 Anti inflammatory
12
Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta)
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
22
22
24
24
24
24
25
25
25
26
26
26
12.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels
27
27
27
27
27
28
28
28
13
Conclusion
29
14
References
30
12.1 Composition

12.1.3 Antinutritional factors
Appendices
38
Appendix I Macro and micronutrient composition of some Indian vegetables

Appendix II Major functions of main micronutrients contained in Indian vegetables
Appendix III Phytochemical constituents and ethnobotanical uses of some Indian
vegetables
39
47
2008 New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited
49
Executive summary
This report was prepared as part of a project for Horticulture New Zealand. It describes
the results of a literature review on key Indian vegetables available in New Zealand.
These vegetables are defined and listed as `Indian veg in Horticulture New Zealands
manual and on this organisations website.
This is a group of vegetables from diverse families, varying in nutritive value, their
constituent core nutrients and phytochemicals, and health effects. As is the case with
many less common vegetables, relatively little research has been carried out on them
so far. Often also, the research that is available relates to matters that apply more to an
undernourished, subsistence-level population in which issues such as protein quality
and antinutritional factors are more important, but have little significance for the New
Zealand population.
Key findings for the more important Indian vegetables are:
1.
Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria) This does not appear to be a particularly

nutritious vegetable, with unexceptional levels of both core nutrients and
phytochemicals. Similarly, it appears to have only low antioxidant activity.
2.
Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula) Another curcubit, ribbed gourd also appears
to have relatively low levels of nutrients. It has not been widely studied, but only
low levels of antioxidant activity have been measured to date.
3.
Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) Bitter melon has received considerably

more research attention than the previous two vegetables, possibly on account
of its importance in ethnobotanical medicine. It contains surprisingly high levels
of vitamin C, but its main importance lies in its anti-diabetic activity. The
compounds charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p are thought to be the major
hypoglycaemic agents. Although results appear promising, most research to
date has only involved animals. Other health effects that have been investigated
include weight control effects, anti-cancer effects, anti-inflammatory activity.
Some adverse effects have been observed, particularly in children.
4.
Tindori (Coccinia grandis) Very little information was found on this vegetable.
5.
Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata) As with many legumes, the most studied aspect
of cow peas has been their protein content and antinutritional components,
which may affect protein absorption. In New Zealand, consumption of adequate
amounts of protein is not a problem for most of the population and the
antinutritional compounds are largely destroyed with cooking or processing.
Besides protein, cow peas contain insoluble and soluble fibre, which are
important for bowel and heart health respectively. They also contain saponins,
which too are believed to aid cardiovascular health by limiting cholesterol
absorption. Together, their protein, complex carbohydrate and fibre content
make them low glycaemic foods and so they may be useful in the management
of diabetes.
6.
Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis) Snake beans are a variety of

cow peas, but are eaten as a pod rather than the seed. Although they have not
been widely studied, high levels of vitamin C and folate have been measured.
Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291
Page 1
7.
Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab) Another legume, like
cow peas, Indian beans have been studied for their beneficial effects upon
cholesterol. Their low glycaemic response may also make them a useful diabetic
food. These can have differently coloured seed coats and it has generally been
found that the more coloured seed coats contain higher levels of phenolics and
have superior antioxidant activity.
8.
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus) Like other legumes, pigeon
peas are extremely nourishing with a high protein content, complex
carbohydrates and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibre. They are also a good
source of minerals, including iron, magnesium, phosphorous potassium, zinc,
copper and manganese and the vitamins thiamine, folate, B-6 and niacin. They
too are likely to be good foods for the management of diabetes.
9.
Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) Rather than being consumed as a vegetable,

curry leaves are used more as a herb, adding a citrus-like flavour to curries and
other dishes. Thus, they are not consumed in large quantities, so this plants
contribution to the diet stems from its `little and often pattern of consumption.
Highly regarded in ayurvedic medicine, it has been shown to have strong
antioxidant activity, at levels similar to other herbs like thyme and rosemary.
Despite its history as an ethnic remedy, it has not been widely studied, but has
shown promising in anti-cancer and anti-diabetes studies in laboratory and
animal trials.
10.
Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) Taro leaves are an extremely nutritious

vegetable containing moderate to excellent levels of a range of micronutrients,
including vitamins C, A precursors, E and B6, folate, riboflavin, niacin, thiamine
and minerals such as magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, copper and
iron. In addition, it provides both soluble and insoluble fibre and is low in calories.
Despite their nutrient density, taro leaves have received little research attention.
To summarise, the vegetables in this report are diverse in many respects. They include
leafy vegetables, seeds, pods, unusual members of the gourd family and herbs.
Belonging to many different families, they range from low to high energy and similarly
from low to high nutrient density. Just as they differ in nutrient value, so too do they in
terms of health attributes and this is often, though not always, also reflected in the
amount of research that they have been the subject of. Some, such as the anti-diabetic
properties of bitter gourd, appear promising from research to date but it remains to be
seen whether this early promise will be replicated in larger, well designed human trials.
Others vegetables, such as taro leaf, are still waiting for their full nutritional worth to be
acknowledged. Even those, like some of the gourds, may not be as nutritionally
beneficial as others in this report, but still play an important dietary role in terms of
providing fibre, low calorie bulk and in culinary terms act as a base or foil for stronger
tasting ingredients.
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Introduction
This report covers a diverse group of vegetables, some gourds, some legumes,
including both the pod (snake beans) and seeds, a plant that is more akin to a herb
than a vegetable (curry leaf), and one leafy green vegetable in the form of taro leaf.
Equally varied as their physical characteristics are their nutritional profiles and their
health benefits. Unfortunately, however, being foods from developing countries, less
research is available than if they were foods commonly consumed by developed
nations. And whilst there may be an abundance of ethnic remedies associated with
them, in most cases there has not yet been sufficient interest amongst researchers to
investigate and document their qualities. Much of the research originates from Asia,
particularly the Indian subcontinent and also Africa. In these areas, because food is
less abundant and less varied, many of these vegetables are staples. Since the
population is therefore reliant on them to meet their basic nutritional needs, issues such
as protein quantity and quality become important, whereas in developed countries,
where there are abundant and varied sources of protein, this is not usually an issue.
In the countries where they are widely grown and consumed, more parts of the plant
may be used than in New Zealand and they may have wider ranging uses. This report,
however, is largely confined to the forms of the plant available in New Zealand.
A number of factors combine to determine the levels of both core nutrients and other
phytochemicals in a food. These include not only the variety/cultivar of the plant, but
also their agronomy soils, cultivation protocols (irrigation, pest control, use of
fertiliser), degree of ripeness at harvest, and processing practices (harvesting, storage,
method of processing). In addition, their nutrient composition can be affected by the
form in which the food was analysed raw, fresh, canned, boiled, frozen as well as
analytical techniques used and variations between the laboratories doing the analysis.
Thus, rather than being taken as absolute, these values should be considered
indicative.
Because many of these vegetables are grown in different parts of the globe there can
be a plethora of common names. This has complicated the data search process and it
is possible that omissions have occurred if the botanical nomenclature has not been
used.
Page 3
Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria)

Alternative names: lauki, white gourd, bottle gourd, calabash gourd
One of the many common names for Indian marrow is bottle gourd, an appropriate
name that not only describes the shape, but also one of the many uses of this
vegetable. When used for eating, it is harvested young and has a pale green skin with
white flesh, but it can also be allowed to mature and when harvested dried, treated, and
sometimes decorated for use as a container or as a musical instrument. It is thought to
have originated in Asia, but its diverse uses have seen it spread to many parts of the
world, including Africa, the Americas and the Pacific. In New Zealand, however, it is
only used as a vegetable.
3.1
Composition
There is very little information available specifically on Indian marrow, though it has
been included in a few comparative studies. Low levels of carotenoids and betacarotene were measured by Kandlakunta et al. (2008) in a recent study of some
common and some unusual Indian foods of plant origin (Table 1). This probably reflects
the light pigmentation of this vegetables pale green skin.
Table 1: Total carotenoids and beta carotene content of selected Indian plant
foods (Kandlakunta et al. 2008).
3.2
Moisture content
(g/100 g)
Total carotenoids
(g/100 g fresh
weight)
Beta carotene
(g/100 g fresh
weight)
Indian marrow
96.3
186
50
Ribbed gourd
95.3
991
324
Bitter melon
92.3
967
84
Indian beans
86.2
1910
554
Pigeon peas
13.4
1190
124
Cucumber
96.4
48
Cabbage
91.8
226
26
Tomato
93.5
3090
59
Green beans
87.5
1650
239
Capsicum
92.4
719
157
Health attributes
No scientific studies were found pertaining specifically to the health benefits of this
vegetable. However, along with a detailed list of chemicals determined in various parts
of this plant, ethnobotanical uses for the plant are included in Appendix lll.
3.2.1
Epidemiological studies have shown that large intakes of fruit and vegetables protect
against a range of chronic diseases and problems associated with ageing. This is often
attributed to a high intake of phytochemicals with antioxidant activity because this is
thought to be the mechanism underpinning many of these protective effects. There are
different types of antioxidant activity, including radical scavenging, metal reducing and
lipid protective properties.
Page 4
Antioxidants deactivate free radicals and other oxidants, rendering them harmless. Free
radicals are highly unstable molecules, present in the body both from external sources
(e.g. pollution, smoking, carcinogens in the environment) and internal sources, the
result of normal physiological processes. If left uncontrolled, free radicals can damage
cell components, interfering with major life processes. For example, they may damage
DNA, leading to cancer, or oxidise fats in the blood, contributing to atherosclerosis and
heart disease. Although the body produces its own antioxidants and has other defence
mechanisms, antioxidants from the diet may also have an important role.
As measured by Yang et al. (2006) below, Indian marrow does not rank particularly
highly in the assays used. Although other studies have been published on some of
these vegetables (e.g. Pellegrini et al. (2003)), it is not possible to compare them
directly because different extractions have taken place. It is very common for
compositional differences to occur and these can result from a host of variables,
including inter-laboratory differences and methods (see Introduction). However,
notwithstanding the differences in absolute values, it is useful to make comparisons
within a study.
Table 2: Antioxidant activity measured by Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity
(TEAC mol Trolox equivalent/g) and superoxide scavenging activity (SOS mol
ascorbate equivalent/g) in methanol (TEACm and SOSm) and water (TEACw and
SOSw) extracts in some Indian vegetables from Yang et al. (2006). (On dry weight
basis.)
TEACm
TEACw
SOSm
SOSw
Indian marrow
32
10
NS
73
Bitter melon
77
19
40
96
Snake bean
110
20
45
96
Indian beans (purple)
64
26
192
130
Indian beans (white)
113
69
NS
90
Tindori
15
NS
96
Taro leaves
51
25
NS
NS
Spinach
206
102
NS
639
Tomato
80
75
656
305
Pak choi
157
46
NS
187
Cucumber
41
NS
51
Cabbage
32
16
NS
NS
NS, not significant for SOS (<21 mol ascorbate equivalent/g).
Page 5
Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula)

Alternative names: turia, ridged gourd
Ribbed gourd is another member of the Cucurbitaceae or squash family. As suggested
by its names, its skin has pronounced ridges, not unlike an okra. Like courgettes, they
are grown to be eaten before maturity. Ribbed gourd appears to have been little studied
and there is a scarcity of information available. However, ethnobotanical uses have
been listed in Appendix lll.
4.1
Composition
Comprehensive information has not been found on the composition of these
vegetables, though it is likely that they are similar to courgette or cucumber. They have
a high water content of 95.3% and lowish levels of carotenoids (Kandlakunta et al.
2008), most of which are likely to be present in the skin.
4.2
Health attributes
The only information on the nutritional attributes of this vegetable relates to its inclusion
in a study of antioxidant activity in various Asian vegetables.
4.2.1
According to Tarwadi & Agte (2005), ribbed gourd ranked poorly in both the
thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and ferrous iron chelating ability
(FICA) assays for antioxidant activity. Similarly it showed the lowest antioxidant activity
of the extracts of the 5 Asian vegetables investigated by Ansari et al. (2005) using the
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazil radical (DPPH) assay. A cold water maceration over
7 days showed no activity at all and although antioxidant activity improved in an
extraction that involved heating under reflux, it was lower than in the other 4 vegetables
and the control. However, in a study evaluating the carotene content of a variety of
Indian plant-based foods, Kandlakunta et al. (2008) noted that ribbed gourd was one of
the better sources of beta-carotene and carotenoids in general (Table 1), containing
approximately 0.3 and 1.0 mg/100 g respectively, although these levels are much lower
than in carotenoid-rich vegetables such as carrot.
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Bitter melon (Momordica charantia)

Alternative names: karela, fu quas, bitter melon, bitter gourd, balsam pear, bitter
apple, bitter cucumber, African cucumber
A tropical plant, bitter melon is grown in India, south-east Asia, Africa and on a smaller
scale in the Americas (Krawinkel & Keding 2006). Although various therapeutic
qualities have been ascribed to it, it is most widely valued in traditional medicines as an
anti-diabetic agent. Its importance in Ayurvedic medicine for diabetes as well as a host
of other conditions has been documented from centuries ago and in different parts of
the world. Although all parts of the plant have been used in herbal cures, and young
shoots and leaves and flowers are consumed in some ethnic cuisines, this report is
only concerned with the fruit.
As the name suggests, the fruit has an extremely bitter taste, which is due to the
presence of a non-toxic alkaloid, momordicine. Before cooking the fruit is usually
blanched or soaked in salt water to reduce bitterness (Krawinkel & Keding 2006).
5.1
Composition
5.1.1
Core nutrients
According to USDA data and using ANZFSA recommended dietary allowances (RDIs),
these vegetables are surprisingly high in vitamin C (84 mg per 100 g fresh weight or
186% RDI), especially considering their very high water content at 94.03 g per 100 g
(fresh weight). They are also good sources of folate (18% RDI) and copper (2028%
RDI). It should be noted, however, that levels of many nutrients vary, depending on
where they were grown.
See Appendix I for full data from the USDA food composition database.
5.1.2
Phytochemicals
As with all plant foods, composition varies according to a number of variables, including
variety. Measuring phenolic content in four Asian varieties, Horax et al. (2005) found
variations of 27.753.37 mg chlorogenic acid equivalents (CAE)/g fresh weight
(converted from dry matter according to USDA data). The main phenolic compounds
were determined to be gallic acid, gentisic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin and
epicatechin. A recent Thai study found relatively low levels of phenolics at 19.34 mg
gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g fresh weight (converted from dry matter
according to USDA data). The major phenolic compounds identified in this study were
gallic acid, followed by caffeic acid and catechin (Kubola & Siriamornpun 2008).
Kandlakunta et al. (2008) measured moderate levels of carotenoids in bitter melon
(Table 1). However, total carotenoids in 38 accessions of bitter gourd measured by Dey
et al. (2005) ranged from 0.205 to 3.2 mg/100 g fresh weight (1.6 mg/100 g average).
Individual carotenoids listed in the USDA database per 100 g fresh weight are betacarotene (190 mcg), alpha-carotene (185 mcg) and lutein/zeaxanthin (170 mcg), which
are unexceptional compared with some other more strongly coloured vegetables like
carrots or spinach.
The most researched health attribute of bitter melon has been its purported antidiabetic activity. The compounds charantin, vicine, and polypeptide-p are thought to be
the major hypoglycaemic agents according to a review by Krawinkel et al. (2006). In
both animals and humans these compounds have been shown to increase glucose
Page 7
uptake and glycogen synthesis in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue, and improve
glucose tolerance (Sloan-Kettering 2008). Polypeptide-p is an insulin-like protein,
charantin is a mixture of two steroidal glycosides, namely, sitosteryl glucoside and
stigmasteryl glucoside (Pitipanapong et al. 2007). Vicine is a glycosidic alkaloid, most
notably found in broad beans (Vicia faba), and is linked to haemolytic anaemia or
favism in people lacking the enzyme glucose-6-phospate-dehydrogenase. A favism-like
syndrome adverse effect has been reported (Basch et al. 2003).
5.2
Health attributes
5.2.1
Antioxidant activity of bitter melon has been measured in a number of different studies.
Using a less common method involving the oxidising of linoleic acid methyl in the
presence of phenolic extracts as antioxidants, Horax et al. (2005) found that bitter
melon extracts had moderate to good inhibition effects on oxidation in comparison to
92 edible and inedible plant materials evaluated by Kahkonen et al. (1999). According
to Yang et al. (2007) (Table 2), bitter melon does not rate particularly highly. Lang & Ke
(2006) similarly found unexceptional levels of antioxidant activity in bitter melons,
placing them in a low antioxidant activity group according to the TEAC assay. However,
Tarwardi & Agte (2005) rated antioxidant activity as measured by the TBARS assay as
`good in comparison with 26 other Indian plant foods, including popular fruits and
vegetables such as guava, spinach, yam, ginger and beetroot, and also less common
ones like bael (Aegle marmelos) and kokum (Garcinia indica).
5.2.2
Both traditional ayurvedic uses and most recent scientific interest regarding bitter melon
has focused upon anti-diabetic activity. Research suggests that bitter melons antidiabetic properties are the result of multiple mechanisms, including the capacity to
regulate impaired carbohydrate digestion, glucose metabolism and utilisation, and the
ability to stimulate insulin release. Further it has been found to possesses insulin-like
activities and correct compromised antioxidant defence in diabetes (Yeh et al. 2003;
Tiwari 2007).
Whilst there have been a large number of animal studies in this area there appear to
have been few human studies. The majority of these were completed decades ago and
were small in scale and lacked credibility in terms of study design. Positive effects on
short-term blood glucose response and longer term glycaemic control were observed,
however, and no adverse effects reported (Yeh et al. 2003). Whilst results appear to be
promising there have not yet been any larger, double blind, randomised, placebocontrolled trials.
A more recent pilot study involving 60 male non insulin-dependent diabetics
investigated the effect of daily supplementation of both raw (as an encapsulated
powder) and cooked (in salty biscuits) forms. Over the 3-month course of the trial,
fasting and postprandial glucose levels were significantly reduced and reductions in
hypoglycaemic drug intake were possible. It was concluded that 2 g of the powdered
mixture of traditional medicinal plants (containing jamun seeds and fenugreek seeds in
addition to bitter melon seeds) in either raw or cooked form could lower blood glucose
in diabetics (Kochhar & Nagi 2005). A review by Tiwari (2007) describes a Bangladeshi
study of 100 non-insulin dependent diabetes patients whose serum and fasting glucose
levels showed a significant reduction after consumption of an aqueous homogenised
suspension of bitter melon.
Page 8
Krawinkel & Keding (2006) cites three human studies using bitter melon. In one study
of diabetic subjects, consumption of fresh bitter melon juice significantly reduced
plasma glucose levels and improved response to an oral glucose load (Njoroge & van
Luijk 2004). Another trial demonstrated that an aqueous extract had a cumulative and
gradual blood sugar lowering effect on diabetic subjects, though a different study
showed the effect to be rapid and transitory (Njoroge & van Luijk 2004). An early study
showed bitter melon extract resulted in improved glucose homeostasis as well as the
retardation of diabetic cataracts (Srivastava et al. 1988, cited in Krawinkel & Keding
(2006). A powdered mixture of three medicinal plants including bitter gourd, jamun
seeds and fenugreek seeds lowered blood glucose in a study group of 60 non insulindependent men, to the extent that a reduction in hypoglycaemic medication even was
possible after the 3-month trial (Kochhar & Nagi 2005). Of course the extent to which
the bitter gourd component was responsible is unknown.
In their review, Yeh et al. (2003) assessed the evidence supporting the anti-diabetic
properties of bitter melon as Level-III C, meaning that whilst there was supporting
evidence this had resulted from poorly controlled or uncontrolled trials that, therefore,
lacked the credibility of better designed studies.
Besides the human studies there is a reasonably large body of research from animal
trials. Chandra et al. (2007) found that consumption of extracts from a number of Indian
herbal remedies, including bitter melon, significantly lowered blood sugar in diabetic
rats as well as exerting an antioxidant effect in terms of inhibiting lipid peroxidation and
reactivating the endogenous antioxidant enzymes, catalase, glutathione reductase,
glutathione peroxidise and superoxide dismutase. In a review of the antihyperglycaemic properties of bitter gourd. Krawinkel & Keding (2006) cited 17 animal
studies, the majority of which showed anti-diabetic properties, including blood glucose
lowering effects of various forms of bitter gourd, such as juice or powdered (e.g. Kar et
al. 2000; Ahmed et al. 2001; Chaturvedi 2005; Sathishsekar & Subramanian 2005). The
blood glucose and Hb-Aa-c lowering effects of juice were found to be better than those
of dried fruit products (Basch et al. 2003, cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006), but fresh
fruit extracts and acetone extracts of fresh fruit powder were also effective (Singh et al.
1989 cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006) . Besides lowering blood glucose, beneficial
effects upon antioxidant status, triglyceride and low density lipoprotein status, glucose
uptake in the jejunum and skeletal muscle cells, gastric transit time, serum insulin
levels, the occurrence of polyuria, renal hypertrophy and diabetes-induced conditions in
the kidneys and brain were observed (Krawinkel & Keding 2006). Protein (which is
believed to be the bioactive fraction responsible for the anti-diabetic activity of bitter
melon (see Section 5.2.2)) extracted from fruit pulp decreased plasma glucose in
diabetic and normal rats (Yibchok-Anun et al. 2006). In one rat study, in contrast, a
beneficial effect on hypoglycaemia after consumption of fresh juice as a single dose
was not observed (Platel & Srinivasan 2004). In a rabbit study, ingestion of bitter melon
juice reduced blood glucose in alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits within 1 hour, the effect
lasting 46 hours. It had no effect upon normal rabbits, but increased blood sugar
levels in animals with low blood sugar (Khan 1999).
5.2.3
Weight control
Besides other anti-diabetic effects, including lowering serum insulin and normalising
glucose tolerance, animal studies have also investigated the prevention of obesity
using bitter melon. In a study where rats were fed a high fat diet, with or without a bitter
melon juice supplement, the rats consuming the supplement gained less weight and
tended to have less visceral fat than rats on the same diet without the bitter melon
juice.
Page 9
Improved insulin resistance, lowered serum insulin and leptin but raised serum free
fatty acid concentrations were also observed (Chen et al. 2003). A subsequent study
explored this further and observed that chronic supplementation with the extract
lowered energy efficiency, visceral fat mass, plasma glucose and hepatic
triacylglycerol, but increased serum free fatty acids and plasma catecholamines (Chen
& Li 2005). Seeking to understand this better, Chan et al. (2005) investigated the effect
of bitter melon juice on mitochondrial lipid oxidative enzymes as well as on the
expression of uncoupling proteins. The authors concluded that the reduction of
adiposity in the supplemented rats was likely to result from lower metabolic efficiency, a
consequence of increased lipid oxidation and mitochondrial uncoupling. A similar lipidlowering effect of a bitter melon supplement in hamsters was noted by Senanayake et
al. (2004).
5.2.4
Anti-cancer effects
A study investigating the effects of a number of traditional medicines or supplements
with postulated anti-cancer effects examined the antiproliferative effects of bitter melon
extract on various cancer lines. Although bitter melon extract was effective against the
PC-3M prostate cancer cell line, it was less effective than other extracts against LCNaP
prostate cancer cells and BG-9 normal skin fibroblasts (Rao et al. 2004). An earlier
report similarly investigated anti-proliferative effects of a number of vegetables,
including eggplant, green pepper, cabbage, Garland chrysanthemum, kidney beans,
cucumber and Welsh onion, and found bitter melon to be the most effective in terms of
growth-inhibition and apoptosis-inducing effects on HL60 human leukaemia cells. The
bitter melon extract also inhibited growth and induced apoptosis in B16 mouse
melanoma 4A5 cells, but inhibited the growth of BALBc/3T3 mouse fibroblast cells only
to a small extent (Kobori 2003).
In a study with a slightly different focus, De et al. (2003) investigated the DNAprotective effect of fresh bitter gourd juice, tomato juice, quercetin and alpha tocopherol
from carcinogen-induced damage. Although both juices were effective in protecting
against DNA damage they were less so than quercetin or alpha-tocopherol.
5.2.5
Anti-inflammatory activity
Because inflammation is now thought to be involved in the initiation of a number of
health issues, including cancer, the anti-inflammatory activity of a food or chemical is of
increasing research interest. In a cell-based and animal study, Manabe et al. (2003)
found that bitter melon induced both intestinal and systemic anti-inflammatory
responses.
5.2.6
HIV treatment side effects

A cell-based study into alternative dietary strategies for decreasing hyperlipidaemia in
HIV patients showed beneficial effects of bitter melon juice in decreasing HIV-1
protease inhibitor-treated human hepatoma cells (Nerurkar et al. 2006).
5.3
Adverse effects
Adverse effects of eating bitter gourd and drinking bitter melon tea have been observed
in children, including hypoglycaemic coma and convulsion (Heiser 1979; Raman & Lau
1996 cited in Krawinkel & Keding 2006), though unfortunately information on the
quantities involved is not available. Headaches have been observed after eating bitter
Page 10
melon seeds, and favism symptoms and reduced fertility in mice have also been
reported (Krawinkel & Keding 2006; Tiwari 2007). Pregnant women are also advised
against consuming bitter melon because of a risk of inducing miscarriage (SloanKettering 2008).
Bitter melon capsules or tablets are now available commercially internationally and are
promoted for their anti-diabetic properties, but Diabetes UK has warned against their
use on the grounds that their effect in conjunction with other anti-diabetic agents is as
yet unknown and other bioactive compounds may be present whose effect is unknown
(Krawinkel & Keding 2006).
5.4

A few studies have investigated various factors that could affect the health benefits
delivered by bitter melon. These include:
differences in cultivar. Vitamin C in 38 accessions of bitter melon measured by

Dey et al. (2005) varied from 60.20 to 122.07 mg/100 g (average 82.14 mg per
100 g) on a fresh weight basis. Four varieties of bitter melon (India green, India
white, China green and China white) were analysed for total phenolics, phenolic
acid constituents, and antioxidant activities of their methanolic extracts. In this
study there was no statistically significant difference in the antioxidant activities
of the extracts among varieties or between drying methods (oven or freeze dried)
(Horax et al. 2005). Total phenolic contents varied both within cultivars and
between cultivars: India green 4.646.84, India white, 6.038.94, China green
5.397.81 and China white 6.078.90 mg CAE (chlorogenic acid equivalents)/g.
Thus, the `white cultivars appeared to be richer in phenolics than the `green;
part of plant. Phenolic contents of bitter melon seed, inner tissues, and flesh
ranged from 4.67 to 8.02, 4.64 to 8.94 and 5.36 to 8.90 mg CAE/g, respectively,
with the flesh (the tissue beneath the skin as opposed to that surrounding the
seeds i.e. inner tissues) containing the highest levels (Horax et al. 2005);
degree of maturity at harvest. One variety of bitter melon was shown to

contain higher levels of vitamin C when the fruit was harvested at an early stage
(8 days after fruit set) rather than late (12 days after fruit set (Pal et al. 2005)).
Page 11
Tindori (Coccinia grandis)

Alternative names: Coccinia indica, Coccinia cordifolia, tindora, ivy gourd
Very little information is available on this vegetable and most studies focus on the
leaves rather than fruits, which are purported to have anti-diabetic properties. It is not
found on either the New Zealand or USDA food composition database.
However, according to Yang et al. (2006) it has only low antioxidant activity (Table 2).
The water extract showed similar superoxide scavenging capacity as the other
vegetables in this report, but other values were very low.
One study showed a protective effect of tindori extracts against induced liver damage in
rats according to a range of parameters, including pentobarbitone sleeping time and
biochemical parameters like serum alanine transaminase, aspirate transiminase, serum
allkalin phosphate, serum acid, phosphate, serum bilirubin, serum cholesterol and
serum triglycerides (Rao et al. 2005).
Page 12
Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata)

Alternative names: black-eyed pea, chori
Cow peas are an extremely valuable crop in many poorer areas of the tropics, but like
many pulses are less well known here. There are four subspecies of Vigna unguiculata,
which include black-eyed peas (Vigna unguiculata unguiculata), and snake beans
(Vigna ungiuculata sesquipedalis). Snake beans, because they are consumed in this
country for their pods rather than seeds, are dealt with separately below.
The vast majority of research to do with these vegetables relates either to protein
quality or to the presence of antinutritional factors. Both are important when legumes
are a staple and thus a primary source of nourishment or when used as animal fodder.
In New Zealand these factors are less important. As in most developed countries, diets
generally have more than adequate amounts of protein as well as a range of essential
amino acids. Although legumes such as cow peas lack the essential sulphur-containing
amino acids, these deficiencies are counteracted by the consumption of other sources
of protein, such as meat, dairy and cereals. Antinutritional factors are also less
important as most are destroyed in processing before consumption. Interestingly, more
recent research is discovering that some compounds, such as saponins, which
previously considered solely antinutritional, were may actually also have a nutritionally
beneficial role, particularly in terms of protecting against heart disease. Also, many
plant-based foods, including legumes, cereals and some vegetables such as spinach,
contain antinutritional components but these are generally counterbalanced by healthenhancing compounds (Siddhuraju & Becker 2007).
Most research on legumes has focused on soy, and although some findings are likely
to be relevant, it is difficult to ascertain the extent of this until this legume has received
more research attention.
7.1
Composition
7.1.1
Core nutrients
It has been difficult to find comprehensive information on the composition of cow peas.
However, it is known that they are a good source of protein, complex carbohydrates
and fibre (Phillips et al. 2003; Amjad et al. 2006; Olivera-Castillo et al. 2007) and like
other legumes are likely also to provide vitamins such as folate, thiamine and riboflavin
(Phillips et al. 2003) and minerals potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium,
copper, iron and zinc (Amjad et al. 2006). In keeping with other legumes, the amount of
vitamin C measured by Oboh (2007) was negligible at 0.50.9 mg/100 g.
7.1.2
Phytochemicals
There has similarly been relatively little research on the phytochemical content of cow
peas. However, Wu et al. (2004) have established that they contain levels of phenolic
compounds that are moderately high in terms of other vegetables (6.47 mg GAE/g),
though toward the lower end of the scale in comparison with other dry pulses. Tannins
(particularly in the seed coat), and phenolic acids (protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic,
caffeic, p-coumaric, ferulic, 2,4-dimethoxybenzoic, cinnamic, gallic, vanillic,
p-hydroxybenzoic and protocatechuic) have also been identified (Cai et al. 2003;
Duenas et al. 2005; Siddhuraju & Becker 2007). Myricetin and quercetin glycosides
flavonols were also reported by Duenas et al. (2005).
Page 13
7.1.3
Fibre
Cow peas also contain both soluble and insoluble fibre (Kahlon & Shao 2004; MartnCabrejas et al. 2008). Insoluble fibre, or roughage, is believed to be important in
maintaining bowel health. Although it is insoluble in water, it has water-attracting
properties, which help assist stool bulking and reduce the transit time through the gut. It
is thus important in preventing constipation and conditions like diverticulitis and bowel
cancer.
Soluble fibre is not as readily identifiable as fibre as is insoluble fibre. It includes
compounds like gums, pectins, inulin and the oligosaccharides (compounds containing
310 sugar molecules) that are present in many legumes. Soluble fibre is also thought
to help with bowel health, particularly in protecting against bowel cancer. Because
these compounds cannot be digested, they pass to the colon where they are fermented
by colonic bacteria. During the fermentation process, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are
produced together with gases. The latter are responsible for the flatulence that
frequently arises from consumption of foods containing these compounds. SFAs are
thought to have various beneficial effects, providing protection against various diseases
of the colon, including cancer, and lowering colonic pH, so preventing the
transformation of primary bile acids to co-carcinogenic secondary bile acids. In addition,
soluble fibre appears to benefit the cardiovascular system by lowering cholesterol and
blood pressure. Because it swells in the gut, it also delays stomach emptying. This has
a positive effect upon glycaemic response, which is important for diabetes management
as well as for weight control, as it gives a feeling of satiety.
7.1.4
Saponins
Saponins are also present in legumes and in the past were considered to be
antinutritional, but more recently have been found to have positive health benefits as
well. They were observed in cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005), with levels differing
considerably according to variety.
Saponins are a diverse group of biologically active glycosides, widely distributed in the
plant kingdom (Curl et al. 1985). They are divided into three main groups, triterpenoids,
basic terpenes and steroid saponins (Lister 2003). Structurally they comprise a
carbohydrate portion attached to an aglycone base as above. Named for their ability to
form stable, soap-like solutions with water, they often have a bitter or astringent taste.
Saponins are heat sensitive and water soluble (Shi et al. 2004), so short cooking times
with minimal water enables maximum retention of these compounds. Although some
saponins have also been shown to have antinutritive effects, including haemolytic,
antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and cytotoxic activity (Sparg et al. 2004), there
appears to be no evidence of any harmful effects of cow pea saponins in humans.
7.1.5
A great deal of research into legumes relates to the compounds they commonly
contain, which can have negative effects on human or animal health. These include
trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors, phytates, oligosaccharides and saponins, which
can compromise protein and mineral absorption and cause flatulence and indigestion.
Trypsin inhibitors were observed in cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005), with levels varying
according to variety.
Page 14
Oxalates, which too can compromise the absorption of important minerals such as
calcium and iron, have also been found in cow peas (Faboya & Aku 1996). At
2.02.9%, the phytate content of cow peas in a Nigerian study was considered to be
high (Oboh 2007).
7.2
Health benefits
Legumes have been long valued for their macro and micro nutrient content, particularly
their high levels of protein and complex carbohydrate content. More recently, other
compounds such as fibre, flavonoids (particularly the anthocyanins in coloured seeds
and isoflavones in soy) and saponins have received scientific interest.
7.2.1
In a comprehensive study of the antioxidant activity of a multitude of foods, Wu et al.
(2004) measured total antioxidant capacity of cow peas at 43.43 mol trolox equivalent
(TE)/g (dried bean) according to the ORAC assay. Although this was high in
comparison with other vegetables in the study, this is partly accounted for by the fact
that compounds are more concentrated in dry material than in fresh. A more meaningful
comparison is thus with other legumes, which were also dried and collectively
measured to be in the range of 24149 mol TE/g, with cow peas towards the lower
end. This study measured the activity of the hydrophilic fraction separately from the
lipophilic fraction, with the lipophilic accounting for the greater amount (37.07 mol
TE/g) compared with hydrophilic (6.36 mol TE/g).
A Nigerian study of five varieties of cow peas, two of pigeon peas and one of African
yam bean found very low levels of reducing power and free radical scavenging ability
for all legumes except African yam beans (23.6%), brown cowpeas (29.9%), and brown
pigeon peas (54.5%), which all had a relatively high free radical scavenging ability,
using the DPPH assay. The phenolic content of cow peas (which often accounts for
much of the antioxidant activity) was determined to be 0.31.0 mg/g, (dry weight) tannic
acid equivalents. Nzaramba et al. (2005) found that the seeds with the most highly
pigmented seed coats (the location of the highest concentrations of phenolics) had the
usually highest levels of antioxidant activity. However, Siddhuraju & Becker (2007)
found that superoxide ion scavenging varied with variety, not necessarily depending on
seed coat colour.
7.2.2
Cardio-protective effects
Epidemiological studies have linked frequent consumption of legumes with a lower
incidence of heart disease. One factor in this may be the lowering of cholesterol
through the binding of bile acids. Bile acids are synthesised in the liver from cholesterol.
However, if they are bound to other food components, such as fibre, they are more
readily excreted, thus requiring further synthesis from circulation cholesterol and
removing it from the blood. An in vitro study comparing the bile-acid binding capacity of
four legumes showed that whilst chick peas were particularly effective, both cow peas
and lima beans were effective also, and more so than soy (Kahlon & Shao 2004).
7.2.3
Anti-cancer effects
As already mentioned, cow peas contain good amounts of both soluble and insoluble
fibre. Fibre is believed to have a range of beneficial effects, including anti-cancer,
cardioprotective and anti-diabetic properties.
Page 15
Insoluble fibre
For many years, the term `fibre referred to only to what is now known as insoluble fibre
or, colloquially, roughage. Although it is insoluble in water, it has water-attracting
properties that assist stool bulking and reduce the transit time through the gut. It is thus
important in preventing constipation and conditions like diverticulitis and bowel cancer.
Soluble fibre
Soluble fibre is not as readily identifiable as fibre as is insoluble fibre. It includes
compounds like gums, pectins, inulin and the oligosaccharides (compounds containing
310 sugar molecules) that are present in many legumes. Because these compounds
cannot be digested, they pass to the colon where they are fermented by colonic
bacteria. During the fermentation process, short chain fatty acids (SCFA) are produced
together with gases. The latter are responsible for the flatulence that frequently arises
from the consumption of foods containing these compounds. SCFAs are thought to
have several beneficial effects, including providing energy for colonic mucosa,
protection against various diseases of the colon, including cancer, and lowering colonic
pH, so preventing the transformation of primary bile acids to co-carcinogenic secondary
bile acids. Some soluble fibre, particularly that which is viscous, also inhibits cholesterol
absorption and reduces blood glucose response (Ekvall et al. 2006).
The viscous kinds of fibre, such as pectins, some gums, mucilages and -glucans, form
gels in water and it is this property that explains why some fibres have been shown to
slow stomach emptying, delay absorption of some nutrients and reduce cholesterol.
Although there have been several trials using dried legumes, which have shown
beneficial effects upon cholesterol (Anderson & Major 2002), there appears to be little
material relating specifically to cow peas. In addition to fibre, several of the other
compounds present in legumes may also assist in this hypocholesterolaemic effect,
including, in order of importance, vegetable protein, oligosaccharides, isoflavones,
phospholipids and fatty acids and saponins (Anderson & Major 2002). Besides lowering
cholesterol, consumption of pulses may also reduce risk for cardiovascular disease by
lowering blood pressure (Anderson & Major 2002).
Although no human studies were found relating to anti-cancer effects of cow peas, one
animal study examined their effect on bowel cancer. A protective effect of consuming
cow peas was shown with fewer incidences of aberrant crypt foci (preneoplastic
markers) in the colon of treated rats in comparison with that of controls (Boateng et al.
2007).
7.2.4
Legumes in general have been shown to have low glycaemic index and thus be good
foods for people suffering from diabetes. A small human trial (n=10) over 8 weeks,
involving mildly insulin-resistant adults showed a significant plasma glucose-lowering
effect attributable to a daily intake of cup of cow peas (Hutchins et al. 2006). A
subsequent study examined the effects of and 1 cup cow peas on glycaemic
response to a high glycaemic index meal and found that consumption of cow peas
reduced glycaemic response (Hutchins et al. 2007). In contrast, although using
normoglycaemic adults, Winham et al. (2007) observed no significant effect of
consumption of or 1 cup amounts of cow peas upon glycaemic response.
Page 16
7.3
Variety. Variations in protein quality, proximate composition and sensory

attributes in assorted breeding lines of cow pea were found by Giami (2005b). As
already mentioned, Nzaramba et al. (2005) found different levels of antioxidant
activity in varieties with differently coloured seed coats, finding that black and red
seed coats showed higher antioxidant activity than cream-coated seeds.
Similarly, four popular West African cow pea cultivars with different seed coat
colours were also found to have wide variations in viscosity and tannin content
when made into a paste for processing-properties that increased with seed coat
colour intensity (Plahar et al. 1997). Significant differences according to variety
were observed in saponin content and trypsin inhibitor activity in five varieties of
cow peas by Sinha et al. (2005).
Processing/cooking. Cooking was found to have both desirable and

undesirable effects. Cooking (open pan cooking, pressure-cooking and a newly
developed and patented fuel-efficient Eco Cooker (non-isothermal heating
process) reduced folic acid (Nisha et al. 2005) and thiamine (pressure cooking)
(Khatoon & Prakash 2004). Roasting improved digestibility (Plahar et al. 1997),
as did pressure cooking (Khatoon & Prakash 2004; Sinha et al. 2005). Pressure
cooking reduced typsin inhibitors and saponins more than open pan cooking
(Sinha et al. 2005). Dehulling removed tannins and cooking lowered the levels of
trypsin inhibitors (Egounlety & Aworh 2003). Boiling was shown to be more
effective than steaming for reducing the levels of antinutrients and improving the
protein quality of the seeds, as shown by the higher values for weight gain,
protein-efficiency ratio, net protein ratio and true digestibility of the boiled
samples (Giami 2005a).
Germination. It was shown that flour made from seeds that had been allowed to
germinate over 24 hours had significantly reduced antinutritional factors such as
trypsin inhibitors and haemaglutin as well as the oligosaccharide, stachyose,
which causes flatulence (Uwaegbute et al. 2000).
Soaking. Soaking of five varieties of dry seeds for 18 hours resulted in 34 and
23% reductions in the saponin content and trypsin inhibitor activity respectively.
Amounts removed were higher with longer periods of soaking (Sinha et al.
2005).
Maturity. The activity of trypsin inhibitory compounds in immature seeds was

markedly lower than that in mature cow pea seeds (Lima et al. 2004).
Page 17
Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata

sesquipedalis)
Alternative names: yard long bean, Chinese bean, long podded cow pea
As evident from their botanical name, snake beans are the same species as cow peas,
but a different subspecies, and are generally eaten as an immature pod. Although only
distantly related to the common bean, it is used in similar ways, rather than for its
seeds. There are two varieties, a light green and dark green (Wikipedia 2008). They are
usually harvested when 3050 cm long.
8.1
Composition
8.1.1
Core nutrients
These vegetables do not appear in the main food composition databases, but limited
information was found in a relatively old paper. High levels of vitamin C were measured
by Wills et al. (1984) and a more recent paper also found significant amounts of total
folate at 130 g/100 g (fresh weight basis) in Fiji-grown vegetables (Devi et al. 2008).
Also present at low, but useful levels were thiamin, niacin, magnesium, potassium and
iron. Snake beans also contained some fibre and were low in calories (Wills et al.
1984).
8.1.2
Phytochemicals
Little information has been found on phytochemicals present in these vegetables. Wills
et al. (1984) found a moderate amount of -carotene at 450 g/100 g fresh weight and
low levels of -carotene (25 g) and cryptoxanthin (35 g). It is likely, though not
certain until verified by formal analysis, that snake beans contain similar compounds to
those found in green beans, which include good amounts of lutein and zeaxanthin,
chlorophyll and the flavonoids quercetin and kaempferol.
8.2
Health attributes
There is a dearth of information on this subject. However, insofar as it is likely that they
contain similar compounds to those in green beans, they may contain lutein and
zeaxanthin, which are thought to be important, particularly for eye health.
8.2.1
Yang et al. (2006) measured only modest levels of antioxidant activity compared with
other plants in the study, but snake beans was one of the better Indian vegetables.
Page 18
Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos

lablab)
Alternative names: papadi, hyacinth bean
This vegetable can be used rather like green peas podded if seeds are immature, or
as a pod, like snow peas. Whilst their botanical name suggests they are purple, and
there are varieties with fragrant purple flowers, striking purple seed pods and dark
seeds, some cultivars are white-flowered with pale green pods. A number of internet
sources state that the pods and seeds are poisonous if eaten raw (particularly the
purple variety) and recommend prolonged boiling and changing the water several times
before consumption.
9.1
Composition
9.1.1
Core nutrients
When they are dry, beans are concentrated sources of nutrients. Because they do not
contain much water, the energy they provide is higher than in most other vegetables.
However, along with the energy are high levels of many nutrients, particularly minerals
magnesium, copper, zinc, iron, potassium and phosphorous and the B vitamin, thiamin
(USDA 2007). On the basis that a serving size of dry beans is likely to be around cup
or 50 g, the amount of nutrients they deliver is high. In addition, beans provide energy
in a particularly sustaining form, being mostly complex carbohydrates or protein. This is
important in terms of satiety and in maintaining a consistent blood glucose level.
See Appendix I for full data from the UDSA food composition database.
9.1.2
Phytochemicals
Kandlakunta et al. (2008) found moderate levels of carotenoids in Indian beans (Table
1), though whether these were the purple or white cultivar is not known. It is also not
clear whether the analysis took place on the whole pods or just the seeds.
9.1.3
Seeds of three Asian legumes, including Indian bean, were found to contain relatively
high levels of phytate phosphorus, an antinutritional compound, which compromises
mineral absorption. Among the legumes investigated, Indian bean also had the highest
trypsin inhibitor activity (preventing the metabolism of protein), ranging from 14 to 27
units/mg sample for four accessions (Laurena et al. 1994). As mentioned earlier,
however, soaking and adequate cooking markedly reduces levels of these health
attributes.
9.1.4
Yang et al. (2006) measured antioxidant activity in two varieties of Indian bean. Whilst
the purple variety showed reasonable activity according to the SOS assay, it was
relatively low according to the TEAC assay. The reverse was true for the white cultivar.
Although they were higher than most of the other vegetables in this report, they were
either close to or below the overall means. The exception was the methanolic extract of
the white cultivar, using the TEAC assay, which was nearly double that of the mean
(Table 2 in Yang et al. 2006).
Page 19
9.1.5
Diabetes
A study investigating the anti-diabetic effects of Indian beans showed a low glycaemic
response both in vitro and in vivo. Their low post prandial glucose response and slow
starch digestibility suggest that they could be ideal foods for diabetics (Fatima & Kapoor
2006).
9.1.6
Cholesterol absorption
Chau & Cheng (1999) investigated the effects of insoluble dietary fibre prepared from
three common legumes, including Indian beans, on cholesterol absorption in hamsters.
Compared to the control (cellulose) diet, all three diets significantly lowered the levels
of serum LDL cholesterol as well as liver cholesterol. Only the Indian bean fibre diet led
to a higher level of HDL cholesterol relative to the control. An earlier study had
examined the effect of protein concentrates on lowering cholesterol in hamsters.
Compared with the casein control, the protein concentrates of all three legumes
lowered levels of triglyceride and total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the
blood serum as well as liver total lipids and cholesterol contents (Chau et al. 1998)
Flour made from germinated seeds was shown to moderate the hypercholesterolemic
effects of a high cholesterol diet to some extent in a rat model. The authors postulated
that this was the result of the high fibre levels combined with high levels of vitamin C as
a result of the germinating process (Vadde et al. 2007).
9.2
9.2.1
Cooking
Indian beans and seven other legumes were analysed for nutrient composition after
cooking under pressure or in a microwave oven. Cooking methods did not affect the
nutrient composition of legumes, although thiamin was lower in cooked samples
compared with the raw controls. Cooking also altered the dietary fibre content of some
legumes. Both starch and protein digestibilities of pressure-cooked samples were
higher than of microwaved samples (Khatoon & Prakash 2004).
Page 20
10
Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus

indicus)
Alternative names: toover, red gram
Pigeon peas are a widely cultivated crop in tropical and semi tropical regions of the
world. As foods, they are used fresh and dried and are powdered into flour, but the
plant is also useful as animal fodder. The plant can grow to the size of a small tree, be
annual or perennial, and is very drought resistant.
Most published research relates again to issues around protein, digestibility and
antinutritional factors.
10.1
Composition
10.1.1
Core nutrients
Like other legumes, pigeon peas are extremely nourishing. Besides their high protein
content, they also contain excellent levels of a range of minerals, including iron,
magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, zinc, copper and manganese. They are also a
good source of thiamine, folate, vitamin B-6 and niacin. In addition, they supply
complex carbohydrates and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibre.
Although it is not stated, judging by the water content, the information available on
FOODFiles appears to refer to mature dried peas, rather than fresh.
See Appendix I for full data from the New Zealand FOODFiles database.
10.1.2
Phytochemicals
No information has been found specifically on the phytochemicals present in pigeon
peas, but it is likely that they will be somewhat similar to other legumes. Brown pigeon
peas were shown by Oboh (2007) to have the highest levels of phenolics (1.2 mg/g
tannic acid equivalent) out of five varieties of cow peas, African yam peas and two
varieties of pigeon peas. Phenolics in white pigeon peas were significantly lower at
0.4 mg/g tannic acid equivalents. Singh (1993) noted that 8090% of polyphenols were
present in the seed coat. This has also been observed with other legumes, with the
colour pigments in the skins of the seed accounting for a large proportion of the
phenolic compounds.
It is difficult to compare these values from this Nigerian study with beans measured in
other studies because phenolics are generally measured in gallic acid equivalents.
Moderate levels of carotenoids were measured by Kandlakunta et al. (2008) (see
Table 1).
10.1.3
Saponins were identified in a range of Nigerian staples, including pigeon peas, as well
as phytic acids and tannins, which were also present in fairly low quantities (Osagie et
al. 1996). A more recent study of a range of Indian legumes found tannins, oxalates,
phytates, -amylase, trypsin inhibitors and haemaglutin activities at moderate levels
compared with the other legumes in the study (Salunke et al. 2006).
Page 21
10.2
Health attributes
10.2.1
There was little difference in the reducing power of brown and white pigeon peas.
However, brown pigeon peas had the highest radical scavenging power of the legumes
in the study, and although this was similar to some other commonly consumed leafy
vegetables, it was lower than activity in vegetables such as broccoli and capsicum and
generally lower than in fruits (Oboh 2007).
10.2.2
Legumes generally have a low glycaemic index, meaning that their carbohydrates are
slowly and steadily absorbed. In a Phillipino study of various legumes, the glycaemic
index of pigeon peas compared with bread was low at 30.99 but not as low as that of
chick peas (13.87) or black beans (27.91), but lower than that of mung beans (44.38)
(Panlasigui et al. 1995). This is particularly important for diabetics, but is also useful for
the general population as energy is released in a slow and sustained manner, with
superior satiety.
10.3

By far the greatest amount of research relates to issues to do with antinutritional
factors, either measuring these or investigating ways in which to reduce them. The
cooking method most commonly recommended for legumes here is for soaking
followed by cooking, usually boiling, and it is interesting to see these processing
approaches reflected in the published research.
10.3.1
Cultivar
Varietal differences in composition have been observed according to a raft of macro
and micronutrient variables (particularly protein and mineral content) and as well as
antinutrient levels and types (Canniatti-Brazaca et al. 1996; Raghuvanshi et al. 1996;
Rani et al. 1996; Onimawo & Asugo 2004; Fasoyiro et al. 2005; Godoy et al. 2005;
Srivastava & Srivastava 2006).
10.3.2
Processing methods
The effects of different processing methods on antinutrients or their effects in terms of
nutritive value or digestibility were the subject of a large number of studies in this area.
Methods investigated included:
Page 22
Germination. Germination significantly altered the nutrient composition of the

seed, causing marked increase in calorific value. Crude protein, soluble
carbohydrate, cellular and organic cellular contents, cellulose, lignin, nonnutritive matter, total oxalate and phytic acid contents of the seed decreased with
germination, whereas the reverse was the case for fat, crude fibre, total ash,
soluble ash, acid-insoluble ash, cell wall carbohydrate, hemicellulose, iron,
manganese, calcium, magnesium, copper, phosphorus, food energy, digestible
energy, tannins, total phenolics and trypsin inhibitory activity (Oloyo 2004).
Ominaw (2004) similarly noted a decrease in crude protein content but in
contrast observed a decrease in fat from 6.75 to 5.25%, and fibre from 7.3 to
7.0%. Germination decreased antinutritional phytic acid in pigeon peas by over
60%, but had the disadvantage of decreasing total dietary fibre (Chitra et al.
1996).
Fermentation. Fermentation brought about a major reduction of alphagalactosides (82%), phytic acid (48%), and trypsin inhibitor activity (39%) and an
increase in fat and total soluble available carbohydrates, a slight decrease of
protein, dietary fibre, calcium, vitamin B-2, vitamin E, and total antioxidant
capacity, and a decrease of soluble dietary fibre, sodium, potassium, magnesium
and zinc contents. No changes were observed in the levels of starch and tannins
(Torres et al. 2006). Chitra et al. (1996) similarly noted a large reduction in phytic
acid with fermentation, but also the undesirable loss of fibre.
Cooking. Several studies showed that cooking, especially when preceded by

soaking, substantially lowered levels of antinutritional factors (Mulimani &
Paramjyothi 1994; Rani et al. 1996; Oloyo 2002; Fasoyiro et al. 2005; Parihar &
Upadhyay 2006). It reduced cooking time but also mineral content (Fasoyiro et
al. 2005). Losses of mineral content were higher in boiled samples than
autoclaved (Parihar & Upadhyay 2006) though little difference in mineral content
after different types of processing (germination, fermentation, autoclaving and
roasting) was observed by Chitra et al. (1996).
Page 23
11
Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii)

Rather than tasting of curry, these leaves are used in curries and in fact are described
as having a citrus-like smell and taste. Besides being used as an important flavouring in
Asian cuisines, curry leaf has also been an important folk medicine in China and other
Asian countries for centuries. Its uses are reported to be diverse and include analgesic,
astringent, antidysenteric, antioxidant, febrifuge, hypolipidemic, and hypoglycaemic
effects as well as to improve vision, treat night-blindness, and regulate fertility
(Palaniswamy et al. 2003). As with other herbs, large quantities of curry leaves are not
generally consumed in one meal, so they are likely to make their dietary contribution on
a small but regular basis. In addition, often the leaves are removed before the food is
eaten, in which case only compounds that have been extracted during the cooking
process would be ingested. However, the whole leaf is obviously part of the meal when
it has been ground or crushed before use. Many sources comment that it is best to
leave the leaves on the stalks until use, as they rapidly lose flavour when removed.
Similarly fresh leaves are more pungent than old or dried leaves.
Most research relates to antioxidant activity.
11.1
Composition
No information on curry leaves has been found on the the FOODFiles or USDA food
composition databases.
11.1.1
Phytochemicals
According to Palaniswamy et al. (2003), fresh curry leaves contained 9.744 g of lutein,
0. 212 g of alpha-tocopherol, and 0.183 g of beta-carotene per gram fresh weight.
The value for beta-carotene is low compared with the other Indian vegetables
measured by Kandlkunta et al. (2008) (see Table 1) as was the value for lutein
compared with data on other vegetables in the USDA database.
The levels of phenolics measured by (Ningappa et al. 2008) ranged from 18 to 168 mg
GAE/g extract, depending on the solvent/s used in the extraction process. The highest
values were obtained using an ethyl alcohol:water (1:1) combination. Although it is
difficult to generalise, given different extraction methods, these results suggest that
curry leaves contain high levels of phenolics, similar to other high phenolic herbs like
thyme and rosemary as measured by Ninfali et al. (2005) and Wu (2004).
Various studies have identified carbazole compounds as the major antioxidants in curry
leaves (Nakatani 2000; Tachibana et al. 2001; Nakatani 2003; Rao et al. 2007).
Carbazole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound, consisting of a central fivemembered nitrogen-containing ring fused on either side to a benzene ring. As with
other antioxidants, its radical scavenging activity is related to its ability to donate
hydrogen ions, either from hydroxyl groups or the N-H bond (Rao et al. 2007).
11.2
Although curry leaves have been found to contain insoluble oxalates (Radek & Savage
2008), it is unlikely that they pose a significant health risk since they are cooked and
consumed in relatively low quantities.
Page 24
11.3
11.3.1
Health attributes
Ningapppa et al. (2008) found that an ethyl alchol:water extract of curry leaves was
particularly effective over a range of assays demonstrating different kinds of antioxidant
activity. Besides inhibiting lipid peroxidation, radical scavenging, and protecting DNA
from radical damage, it was also a reducing agent and demonstrated ferrous ion
chelating activity. In the DPPH radical scavenging activity assay this extract was also
superior to other antioxidants, including vitamin C, alpha-tocopherol, butylated
hydroxytouene (BHA), curcumin and beta-carotene. Another study demonstrated the
antioxidant activity of three proteins isolated from curry leaves. The most potent
inhibited lipoxygenase activity, effectively prevented diene, triene and tetraene lipid
formation, and scavenged about 85% of hydroxyl and DPPH radicals at a significantly
lower (150-fold) concentration than the synthetic antioxidant BHA and antioxidant
vitamin E alpha-tocopherol (Ningappa & Srinivas 2008). Oleoresin of curry leaves was
evaluated for its antioxidant activity using the beta-carotene-linoleic acid assay along
with other extracts obtained using different solvents, namely methanol, water and
volatile oil. The oleoresin showed maximum activity of 83.2% at 100 ppm though the
synthetic antioxidant, butylated hydroxy anisole, exhibited 90.2% activity at the same
concentration. The methanol and water extracts showed activities of 16.7 and 11.3%,
respectively, at the same concentration and the volatile oil had negligible activity.
Compounds isolated from the oleoresin were tested for antioxidant activity, with the two
with the highest levels of antioxidant activity being identified as mahanimbine and
koenigine. Koenigine also showed a high degree of radical-scavenging activity (Rao et
al. 2007).
Although high levels of total phenolics were measured by Wong et al. (2006) who
ranked curry leaves third out of 25 edible tropical plants. In this study, unusually, this
did not correlate with high antioxidant activity either by the DDPH or FRAP assays
where curry leaves ranked 10th and 12th respectively.
11.3.2
Anti-cancer
An animal model was used by Dasgupta et al. (2003) to study a range of cancer
preventive properties of an aqueous curry leaf extract in mice. There was a significant
increase in endogenous antioxidant activity and reduced levels of lipid peroxidation and
lactate dehydrogenase. The anticarcinogenic potential of curry leaf was evaluated
using induced forestomach skin papillomagenesis and chemopreventive response was
measured by tumour burden and by the percentage of tumour-bearing animals. Both
dose levels of curry leaf extract showed a significant reduction in tumour burden and
incidence.
Another animal study also investigated the antioxidant potential of curry leaves in rats.
A 50% reduction was seen in the occurrence of carcinogen-induced micronuclei and a
30% reduction in the activity of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, an index of the
precancerous changes in tissues, when the rats were fed a curry leaf-supplemented
diet (Khanum et al. 2000).
Page 25
11.3.3
Anti-diabetic activity
The protective effects of curry leaf extract against diabetes markers, including beta-cell
damage and antioxidant defence system parameters, were also investigated in a rat
study. In the diabetic rats altered levels of glucose, glycosylated haemoglobin, insulin,
TBARS, enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants had been measured, but these
returned to near control levels after treatment with the curry leaf extract. The extract
also appeared to have a protective effect upon pancreatic beta cells (Arulselvan &
Subramanian 2007). A similar rat study investigating anti-diabetic effects of some
traditional Indian herbs also found curry leaf extract to be effective against a range of
diabetes markers. These included a significant decrease in the levels of blood glucose,
glycosylated haemoglobin and urea, with an increase in glycogen, haemoglobin and
protein. Treatment also resulted in an increase in levels of insulin and C-peptide and
improved glucose tolerance. A normalising effect on carbohydrate-metabolising
enzymes, such as hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and glycogen
synthase, was also observed (Narendhirakannan et al. 2006).
11.3.4
Antiatherogenic
A combination of curry leaf and mustard seeds incorporated into a high cholesterol diet
of experimental rats resulted in markedly lower levels of cholesterol, triglycerides,
phospholipids, low density lipoproteins and very low density lipoprotein fractions (Khan
et al. 1998). An earlier study had also shown a protective effect of curry leaves on
markers of radical-induced oxidative stress, resulting from a high fat diet, with lower
levels of hydroperoxides, conjugated dienes and free fatty acids in the livers and hearts
of supplemented rats in comparison with the rats receiving only the high fat diet.
Increased endogenous antioxidant activity was also observed in the supplemented rats
(Khan et al. 1997).
11.3.5
Anti inflammatory
Three carbazole alkaloids, mahanimbine, murrayanol, and mahanine were isolated and
identified from a curry leaf extract and investigated for bioactive properties. All
compounds showed topoisomerase I and II inhibitory activity as well as antimicrobial
and antimosquito properties. Murrayanol also displayed anti-inflammatory activity and
mahanine antioxidant activity (Ramsewak et al. 1999).
Page 26
12
Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta)

Besides being used in Indian cooking, taro leaves are widely used in Pacific Island
cuisine. Not unlike spinach in taste, taro leaves are extremely nutritious, containing an
extensive range of micronutrients at high levels. Also like spinach, taro leaves contain
antinutritive oxalates, which can compromise the absorption of some minerals or lead
to kidney stones or gout. However, oxalates are destroyed, or their effects mitigated, by
most forms of cooking. Unless taro leaves are eaten very frequently this should not be
a major problem in New Zealand.
12.1
Composition
Despite the fact that taro leaves have been found to be exceptionally rich in
micronutrients, it appears that their phytochemical composition has received very little
research attention.
12.1.1
Core nutrients
Taro leaves are an extremely nutritious vegetable providing moderate to excellent
levels of a range of micronutrients, including vitamins C, A, E and B6, folate, riboflavin,
niacin, thiamin, magnesium, manganese, potassium, calcium, copper and iron. In
addition, it provides both soluble and insoluble fibre and is low in calories (Athar et al.
2004).
See Appendix I for full data from the New Zealand FOODFiles database.
12.1.2
Phytochemicals
High levels of beta-carotene are also present in taro leaf (3410 g per 100 g fresh
weight), similar to those in other high beta-carotene green leafy vegetables such as
spinach and silver beet, though not as high as some orange vegetables such as carrots
(Athar et al. 2004). This would provide a large proportion of the RDI for vitamin A.
Although it has not yet been verified by formal research, reasonable levels of phenolics
would be expected in taro leaves.
12.1.3
Besides the antinutritive protease inhibitors found in legumes, there are other protective
compounds found in plants such as oxalates, which are present in taro leaves as well
as many other foods such as spinach, rhubarb and tea (Noonan & Savage 1999;
Oscarsson & Savage 2007). In plant tissues these compounds are present as endproducts of metabolism, but in humans they compromise nutrient absorption (especially
of minerals such as calcium, magnesium and iron) as well as contributing to the
formation of kidney stones and gout. Oxalates in New Zealand taro leaves varied from
443 mg/100 g fresh weight in older leaves to 589 mg/100 g fresh weight in young taro
leaves according to Oscarrson & Savage (2007). However, because a large proportion
(74%) of total oxalate content is water soluble, the total level is likely to fall with moist
cooking methods such as boiling as the oxalates leach out into the cooking liquid.
Baking taro leaves reduced oxalate levels to 59%, though this amount would
nonetheless put this vegetable in the category of a high oxalate food (Oscarsson &
Savage 2007). Baking with milk further reduced oxalate levels to 21.4% total oxalates.
Page 27
12.2
Health attributes
12.2.1
Despite the very high levels of antioxidant vitamin C, which besides its many other
functions in the body is also an antioxidant, and high levels of beta-carotene, Yang et
al. (2006) measured only low levels of antioxidant activity in taro leaves. This is
somewhat puzzling.
12.3
Page 28
Inter-cultivar differences in terms of the micronutrient composition of taro leaves

were investigated in an Indian taro collection; wide genotypic variability was
found in moisture (62.1566.45%), protein (20.6526.25%), ash (9.8513.95%),
crude fat (2.014.16%), crude fibre (20.5426.15%), carbohydrates
(34.1743.36%), starch (15.6420.61%), total chlorophyll (1.531.91 mg/g), total
carotenoids (1.201.95 mg/100 g) and ascorbic acid content (26.3536.08
mg/100 g) (Awasthi & Singh 2000).
13
Conclusion
The vegetables in this report are diverse in many respects. They include leafy
vegetables, seeds, pods, unusual members of the gourd family and herbs. Belonging to
many different families, they range from low to high energy and similarly from low to
high nutrient density. Just as they differ in nutrient value, so too do they in terms of
health attributes and this is often, though not always, reflected also in the amount of
research that they have received. Some, such as the anti-diabetic properties of bitter
gourd, appear promising from research to date but it remains to be seen whether this
early promise will be replicated in larger, well designed human trials. Other vegetables,
such as taro leaf, still await their full nutritional worth to be acknowledged. Even those,
like some of the gourds, may not be as nutritionally beneficial as others in this report,
but may still play an important dietary role in terms of providing fibre, low calorie bulk
and in culinary terms act as a base or foil for stronger tasting ingredients.
Page 29
14
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Page 37
Appendices
Page 38
Appendix I Macro and micronutrient composition of some Indian

vegetables
Table 1. Macro and micronutrient data on pigeon peas and taro leaves (FoodFiles
2004)
Values given per 100 g
Peas,Red
pigeon,raw
Taro,leaves,raw
Water
10
83
Energy
kcal
304
29
Protein
20
4.8
Total fat
0.8
Carbohydrate, available
51.4
0.7
Dietary fibre (Englyst, 1988)
4.9
Ash
3.47
1.8
Sodium
mg
29
Phosphorus
mg
300
60
Potassium
mg
1100
843
Calcium
mg
100
216
Iron
mg
2.7
Beta-carotene equivalents
30
3410
Total vitamin A equivalents
569
Thiamin
mg
0.5
0.15
Riboflavin
mg
0.15
0.39
Niacin
mg
2.3
2.3
Vitamin C
mg
90
Cholesterol
mg
Total saturated fatty acids
0.456
0.185
Total monounsaturated fatty acids
0.016
0.077
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids
1.13
0.378
Dry matter
90
17
Total nitrogen
3.2
0.82
Glucose
0.1
0.2
Fructose
0.2
0.25
Sucrose
1.3
0.2
Lactose
Maltose
Total available sugars
1.6
0.65
Starch
49.8
0.05
Alcohol
mg
3.9
Soluble non-starch
polysaccharides
1.3
Insoluble non-starch
polysaccharides
3.6
Energy
kJ
1260
122
Magnesium
mg
130
192
Total niacin equivalents
Page 39
Manganese
1800
1800
Copper
mg
1.25
0.32
Zinc
mg
2.78
0.9
Selenium
0.9
Retinol
Potential niacin from tryptophan
mg
1.6
0.7
Vitamin B6
mg
0.285
0.5
Folate, total
100
126
Vitamin B12
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
mg
2.27
2.3
T=trace
Bitter melon Momordica charantia (balsam-pear, bitter

gourd), pods, raw
Refuse: 17% (Tough stems and leaves)
NDB No: 11024 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion)
Units
Value per
100 g
Number
of Data
Points
Std
Error
Water
94.03
Energy
kcal
17
Energy
kj
71
Protein
1.00
Total lipid (fat)
0.17
Ash
1.10
Carbohydrate, by difference
3.70
Fiber, total dietary
2.8
Calcium, Ca
mg
19
Iron, Fe
mg
0.43
Magnesium, Mg
mg
17
Phosphorus, P
mg
31
Potassium, K
mg
296
Sodium, Na
mg
Zinc, Zn
mg
0.80
Nutrient
Proximates
Minerals
Page 40
Copper, Cu
mg
0.034
Manganese, Mn
mg
0.089
Selenium, Se
mcg
0.2
Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid
mg
84.0
Thiamin
mg
0.040
Riboflavin
mg
0.040
Niacin
mg
0.400
Pantothenic acid
mg
0.212
Vitamin B-6
mg
0.043
Folate, total
mcg
72
Folic acid
mcg
Folate, food
mcg
72
Folate, DFE
mcg_DFE
72
Vitamin B-12
mcg
0.00
Vitamin A, IU
IU
471
mcg_RAE
24
mcg
mg
Carotene, beta
mcg
190
10
Carotene, alpha
mcg
185
10
Lutein + zeaxanthin
mcg
170
10
Vitamins
Vitamin A, RAE
Retinol
Lipids
Cholesterol
Other
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 (2007)
Page 41
Indian beans Dolilchos lablab, syn Lablab purpureus, Dolichos

purpureus (hyacinth beans), mature seeds, raw
Refuse: 0%
NDB No: 16067 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion).
Units
Value per
100 g
Number
of Data
Points
Std
Error
Water
9.38
1.358
Energy
kcal
344
Energy
kj
1439
Protein
23.90
0.492
Total lipid (fat)
1.69
0.524
Ash
4.29
0.381
60.76
Calcium, Ca
mg
130
29.541
Iron, Fe
mg
5.10
Magnesium, Mg
mg
283
115.834
Phosphorus, P
mg
372
63.721
Potassium, K
mg
1235
150.848
Sodium, Na
mg
21
2.663
Zinc, Zn
mg
9.30
Copper, Cu
mg
1.335
Manganese, Mn
mg
1.573
Selenium, Se
mcg
8.2
mg
0.0
Thiamin
mg
1.130
Riboflavin
mg
0.136
0.023
Niacin
mg
1.610
Pantothenic acid
mg
1.237
Vitamin B-6
mg
0.155
Folate, total
mcg
23
Folic acid
mcg
Nutrient
Proximates
Minerals
Vitamins
Page 42
Folate, food
mcg
23
Folate, DFE
mcg_DFE
23
Vitamin B-12
mcg
0.00
Vitamin A, IU
IU
mcg_RAE
mcg
Fatty acids, total saturated
0.288
18:1 undifferentiated
0.076
0.715
mg
Tryptophan
0.199
Threonine
0.925
Isoleucine
1.143
Leucine
2.026
Lysine
1.632
Methionine
0.191
Cystine
0.279
Phenylalanine
1.204
Tyrosine
0.853
Valine
1.239
Arginine
1.755
Histidine
0.684
Alanine
1.067
Aspartic acid
2.821
Glutamic acid
3.880
Glycine
1.028
Proline
1.162
Serine
1.315
Vitamin A, RAE
Retinol
Lipids
Cholesterol
Amino acids
Page 43
Pigeon peas Cajanus cajan syn Cajanus indicus (red gram),

mature seeds, raw
Refuse: 0%
NDB No: 16101 (Nutrient values and weights are for edible portion)
Nutrient
Units
Number
Value per
Std
of Data
100 g
Error
Points
Proximates
Water
10.59
28
0.38
Energy
kcal
343
Energy
kj
1435
Protein
21.70
41
0.315
Total lipid (fat)
1.49
23
0.105
Ash
3.45
28
0.053
62.78
Fiber, total dietary
15.0
Calcium, Ca
mg
130
18
7.724
Iron, Fe
mg
5.23
30
0.367
Magnesium, Mg
mg
183
14
17.121
Phosphorus, P
mg
367
18
30.43
Potassium, K
mg
1392
23.534
Sodium, Na
mg
17
1.407
Zinc, Zn
mg
2.76
0.26
Copper, Cu
mg
1.057
0.036
Manganese, Mn
mg
1.791
0.138
Selenium, Se
mcg
8.2
mg
0.0
Thiamin
mg
0.643
11
0.06
Riboflavin
mg
0.187
12
0.015
Niacin
mg
2.965
12
0.363
Pantothenic acid
mg
1.266
0.057
Vitamin B-6
mg
0.283
12
0.041
Folate, total
mcg
456
15.181
Minerals
Vitamins
Page 44
Folic acid
mcg
Folate, food
mcg
456
15.181
Folate, DFE
mcg_DFE
456
Vitamin B-12
mcg
0.00
Vitamin A, IU
IU
28
2.344
mcg_RAE
0.117
mcg
Fatty acids, total saturated
0.330
16:0
0.307
18:0
0.024
Fatty acids, total monounsaturated
0.012
0.012
Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated
0.814
0.778
0.035
mg
Tryptophan
0.212
14
Threonine
0.767
28
Isoleucine
0.785
28
Leucine
1.549
28
Lysine
1.521
28
Methionine
0.243
26
Cystine
0.250
19
Phenylalanine
1.858
19
Tyrosine
0.538
26
Valine
0.937
28
Arginine
1.299
26
Histidine
0.774
26
Alanine
0.972
24
Aspartic acid
2.146
24
Glutamic acid
5.031
24
Glycine
0.802
24
Vitamin A, RAE
Retinol
Lipids
Cholesterol
Amino acids
Page 45
Proline
0.955
23
Serine
1.028
24
Page 46
Appendix II Major functions of main micronutrients contained in

Indian vegetables
Main micronutrients in legumes and their physiological functions (Adapted from
(Medscape 2004; BUPA 2006).
Name
Major function
Vitamin A
Retinol (animal origin)
Some carotenoids (plant origin,
converted to retinol in the body)
Important for normal vision and eye health

Involved in gene expression, embryonic
development and growth and health of new cells
Assists in immune function
May protect against cancers and atherosclerosis
Vitamin C
Ascorbic acid
Necessary for healthy connective tissues

tendons, ligaments, cartilage, wound healing and
healthy teeth
Assists in iron absorption
A protective antioxidant - may protect against
some cancers
Involved in hormone and neurotransmitter
synthesis
Vitamin E
alpha-tocopherols and tocotrienols
Non-specific chain-breaking antioxidant

Reduces peroxidation of fatty acids
May protect against atherosclerosis
Thiamin
vitamin B1
Coenzyme in the metabolism of carbohydrates

and branched-chain amino acids
Needed for nerve transmission
Involved in formation of blood cells
Riboflavin
vitamin B2
Important for skin and eye health

Coenzyme in numerous cellular redox reactions
involved in energy metabolism, especially from fat
and protein
Niacin
vitamin B3
Nicotinic acid, nicotinamide
Coenzyme or cosubstrate in many biological

reduction and oxidation reactions required for
energy metabolism and fat synthesis and
breakdown
Reduces LDL cholesterol and increases HDL
cholesterol
Vitamin B6
Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine
Coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism,

neurotransmitter synthesis, haemoglobin
synthesis.
Involved in neuronal excitation
Reduces blood homocysteine levels
Prevents megaloblastic anaemia
Folate
Generic term for large group of
compounds including folic acid and
pterylpolyglutamates
Coenzyme in DNA synthesis and amino acid

synthesis. Important for preventing neural tube
defects
Key role in preventing stroke and heart disease,
including reducing blood homocysteine levels with
vitamin B12
May protect against colonic and rectal cancer
Page 47
Page 48
Name
Major function
Calcium
Structural component of bones and teeth

Role in cellular processes, muscle contraction,
blood clotting, enzyme activation, nerve function
Copper
Aids in utilization of iron stores, lipid, collagen,

pigment
Role in neurotransmitters synthesis
Iron
Component of haemoglobin and myoglobin in

blood, needed for oxygen transport
Role in cellular function and respiration
Magnesium
Component of bones
Role in enzyme, nerve, heart functions, and
protein synthesis
Manganese
Aids in brain function, collagen formation, bone

structure, growth, urea synthesis, glucose and lipid
metabolism and CNS functioning
Potassium
Major ion of intracellular fluid

Maintains water, electrolyte and pH balances
Role in cell membrane transfer and nerve impulse
transmission
Phosphorus
Structural component of bone, teeth, cell

membranes, phospholipids, nucleic acids,
nucleotide enzymes, cellular energy metabolism
pH regulation
Major ion of intracellular fluid and constituent of
many essential compounds in body and processes
Zinc
Major role in immune system

Required for numerous enzymes involved in
growth and repair
Involved in, sexual maturation
Role in taste, smell functions
Appendix III Phytochemical constituents and ethnobotanical

uses of some Indian vegetables
Note: There are not data for chemicals and ethnobotanical uses for all vegetables.
Material downloaded Wed Jul 16 19:30:05 EDT 2008 http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgibin/duke/ethnobot.pl
Chemicals in: Lagenaria siceraria (MOLINA) STANDLEY.

(Cucurbitaceae) -- Calabash Gourd, White-Flowered Gourd
22-DEOXOCUCURBITACIN-D Plant: DUKE1992A
ARGININE Fruit 140 - 3,140 ppm DUKE1992A
ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 101 - 2,265 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 50 - 330 ppm DUKE1992A
ASH Fruit 4,300 - 96,400 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 44,300 ppm; DUKE1992A
BETA-CAROTENE Fruit: DUKE1992A
BETA-GLYCOSIDASE Fruit: DUKE1992A
CALCIUM Fruit 200 - 5,830 ppm DUKE1992A
CALCIUM-OXIDE Seed 1,100 ppm; DUKE1992A
CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 29,000 - 760,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 83,000 ppm;
DUKE1992A
CHOLINE Fruit 640 - 16,020 ppm DUKE1992A
CUCURBITACIN-B Fruit: DUKE1992A
CUCURBITACIN-D Fruit: DUKE1992A
CUCURBITACIN-G Fruit: DUKE1992A
CUCURBITACIN-H Fruit: DUKE1992A
CUCURBITACINS Fruit 130 ppm; DUKE1992A
FAT Fruit 200 - 4,485 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 450,000 - 525,400 ppm DUKE1992A
FIBER Fruit 5,600 - 12,550 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 15,800 ppm; DUKE1992A
FOLACIN Fruit 0.059 - 1.3 ppm DUKE1992A
FUFURAL Fruit 1,740 - 43,512 ppm DUKE1992A
GIBBERELLIN-A50 Plant: DUKE1992A
GIBBERELLIN-A52 Plant: DUKE1992A
HISTIDINE Fruit 40 - 900 ppm DUKE1992A
IODINE Fruit 0.005 - 1.12 ppm DUKE1992A
IRON Fruit 2 - 45 ppm DUKE1992A
ISOLEUCINE Fruit 330 - 7,400 ppm DUKE1992A
KILOCALORIES Fruit 140 - 3,140 /kg DUKE1992A
LEUCINE Fruit 360 - 8,070 ppm DUKE1992A
LINOLEIC-ACID Fruit 90 - 2,465 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 288,000 - 336,250 ppm
DUKE1992A
LYSINE Fruit 210 - 4,700 ppm DUKE1992A
MAGNESIUM Fruit 110 - 2,465 ppm DUKE1992A
METHIONINE Fruit 40 - 900 ppm DUKE1992A
NIACIN Fruit 3.2 - 72 ppm DUKE1992A
Page 49
OLEIC-ACID Fruit 40 - 1,435 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 81,900 - 95,625 ppm

DUKE1992A
PALMITIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 225 ppm DUKE1992A
PECTIN Fruit 8,400 - 210,000 ppm DUKE1992A
PHENYLALANINE Fruit 150 - 3,365 ppm DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORUS Fruit 130 - 2,915 ppm DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORUS-OXIDE Seed 24,600 ppm; DUKE1992A
PHYTOSTEROLS Leaf 1,300 ppm; DUKE1992A
POTASSIUM Fruit 860 - 33,635 ppm DUKE1992A
PROTEIN Fruit 2,000 - 139,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 307,200 ppm; DUKE1992A
RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 0.2 - 4.9 ppm DUKE1992A
SAPONIN Seed: DUKE1992A
SODIUM Fruit 20 - 450 ppm DUKE1992A
STEARIC-ACID Fruit: DUKE1992A
THIAMIN Fruit 0.3 - 6.5 ppm DUKE1992A
THREONINE Fruit 180 - 4,035 ppm DUKE1992A
TRYPTOPHAN Fruit 30 - 675 ppm DUKE1992A
URONIC-ANHYDRIDE Fruit 4,900 - 122,800 ppm DUKE1992A
VALINE Fruit 270 - 6,055 ppm DUKE1992A
VIT-B-6 Fruit 0.4 - 9 ppm DUKE1992A
WATER Fruit 955,400 - 963,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 24,700 ppm; DUKE1992A
ZINC Fruit 7 - 157 ppm DUKE1992A
ppm = parts per million

tr = trace
Ethnobotanical uses
Lagenaria siceraria (CUCURBITACEAE)
Ache(Head) Al-Rawi, Woi.Syria; Ache(Tooth) Bliss; Adenopathy Eb24: 250; Alexiteric
Woi.Syria; Alopecia Woi.Syria; Anasarca Eb24: 250; Antidote Bliss; Asthma Liogier;
Bilious Steinmetz; Boil Bliss; Burn Eb24: 250; Cancer Hartwell; Convulsion Eb24: 250;
Cough Al-Rawi, Liogier; Depurative Brutus; Diuretic Bliss, Keys, Liogier, Steinmetz;
Dropsy Eb24: 250, Liogier, Woi.Syria; Emetic Bliss, Steinmetz, Woi.Syria; Fever
Steinmetz; Gum Bliss; Hoarseness Liogier; Hydropsy Brutus; Insanity Eb25: 250;
Laxative Eb25: 250; Leucoderma Eb25: 250; Litholytic Steinmetz; Lithontriptic Bliss;
Pectoral Woi.Syria; Pimple Woi.Syria; Purgative Bliss, Liogier, Steinmetz, Woi.Syria;
Refrigerant Al-Rawi, Bliss; Rheumatism Woi.Syria; Scrofula Eb24: 250; Sore Eb24:
250; Splenitis Eb24: 250; Tetanus Eb24: 250; Tumor Hartwell; Wound Eb24:
Ethnobotanical uses
Luffa acutangula ROXB. (CUCURBITACEAE)
Amenorrhea Burkill,1966; Diuretic Burkill,1966; Parturition Burkill,1966; Purgative
Burkill,1966; Uremia Burkill,1966
Adenopathy Eb24: 257; Amenorrhea Woi.6; Anodyne Eb24: 257; Asthma Woi.6;
Conjunctivitis Al-Rawi, Woi.6; Convulsion Eb24: 257; Demulcent Woi.6; Diuretic Liogier,
Woi.6; Dropsy Liogier; Emetic Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Liogier; Expectorant Woi.6;
Page 50
Jaundice Woi.6; Laxative Woi.6; Leprosy Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Madness Eb24:
257; Meibomian Secretion Al-Rawi; Piles Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Purgative AlRawi, Brutus, Duke,1972, Liogier, Woi.6; Scabies Eb24: 257; Scrofula Eb24: 257; Skin
Woi.6; Snuff Woi.6; Sore Eb24: 257, Liogier; Sore(Veterinary) Woi.6; Spasm Eb24:
257; Splenitis Al-Rawi, Duke,1972, Woi.6; Splenomegaly Woi.6; Syphilis Eb24: 257;
Tetanus Eb24: 257; Tonic Liogier; Uremia Woi.6
Page 51
Chemicals in: Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae) -- Bitter Melon,

Sorosi
5-ALPHA-STIGMASTA-7,22,25-TRIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG
5-ALPHA-STIGMASTA-7,25-DIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG
5-HYDROXYTRYPTAMINE Fruit: MPI
ALKALOIDS Fruit 380 ppm; IFP 1
ALPHA-ELAEOSTEARIC-ACID Seed 4,670 - 231,632 ppm WOI
ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 570 - 36,447 ppm CRC Leaf 1,700 - 12,412 ppm CRC
ASCORBIGEN Fruit: WOI
ASH Fruit 4,000 - 142,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 21,000 - 149,000 ppm CRC
BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 18 ppm; CRC Leaf 51 - 330 ppm CRC
BETA-SITOSTEROL Fruit: IFP
BETA-SITOSTEROL-D-GLUCOSIDE Fruit: IFP
CALCIUM Fruit 130 - 4,333 ppm CRC Leaf 2,640 - 18,701 ppm CRC
CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 47,000 - 763,000 ppm CRC Leaf 70,000 - 618,000 ppm CRC
CHARANTIN Fruit 1,500 ppm; IFP
CHOLESTEROL Fruit: MPI
CITRULLINE Fruit: IFP
COPPER Fruit 30 ppm; MPI
CRYPTOXANTHIN Fruit: IFP
DIOSGENIN Tissue Culture: MPI
ELASTEROL Plant: JSG
FAT Leaf 4,000 - 39,000 ppm CRC Seed 2,000 - 496,000 ppm CRC
FIBER Fruit 10,000 - 257,800 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 5,000 - 104,000 ppm CRC
FLAVOCHROME Fruit: IFP
FLUORIDE Fruit 0.2 - 0.5 ppm MPI
FLUORINE Fruit 4.8 ppm; MPI
GABA Fruit: IFP
GALACTURONIC-ACID Fruit: MPI
IODINE Fruit 0.41 ppm; MPI
IRON Fruit 2 - 560 ppm CRC Leaf 50 - 357 ppm CRC
KILOCALORIES Fruit 190 - 3,290 /kg CRC
LANOSTEROL Fruit: MPI
LEAD Fruit 5 ppm; MPI
LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 770 - 38,192 ppm WOI
LUTEIN Fruit: IFP
LYCOPENE Fruit: IFP
MAGNESIUM Fruit 195 - 3,800 ppm MPI
MANGANESE Fruit 10 ppm; MPI
MOMORDICIN Fruit: IFP
Page 52
MOMORDICOSIDE-A Seed: CCO

MOMORDICOSIDE-B Seed: CCO
MOMORDICOSIDE-C Seed: CCO
MOMORDICOSIDE-D Seed: CCO
MOMORDICOSIDE-E Seed: CCO
MOMORDICOSIDE-F-1 Fruit: IFP
MOMORDICOSIDE-F-2 Fruit: IFP
MOMORDICOSIDE-G Fruit: IFP
MOMORDICOSIDE-I Fruit: IFP
MOMORDICOSIDE-K Seed: CCO
MOMORDICOSIDE-L Seed: CCO
MUTACHROME Fruit: IFP
NIACIN Fruit 3 - 50 ppm CRC Leaf 15 - 103 ppm CRC
NICKEL Fruit 10 ppm; MPI
NITROGEN Fruit 33,800 ppm; MPI
OLEIC-ACID Seed 1,580 - 77,376 ppm WOI
OXALATE Fruit 185 - 1,444 ppm MPI
OXALIC-ACID Fruit 5 ppm; WBB
PECTIN Fruit: IFP
PEROXIDASE Fruit: IFP
PHOSPHORUS Fruit 320 - 8,333 ppm CRC Leaf 540 - 33,467 ppm CRC
PHYTOFLUENE Seed: IFP 1
PIPECOLIC-ACID Fruit: IFP
POLYPEPTIDE-P Fruit: CCO
POTASSIUM Fruit 2,700 - 45,000 ppm CRC Leaf 5,100 - 33,117 ppm CRC
PROTEIN Fruit 9,000 - 181,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 51,000 - 371,000 ppm CRC
RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 0.4 - 9 ppm CRC Leaf 4.6 - 31 ppm CRC
RUBIXANTHIN Fruit: IFP
SODIUM Fruit 20 - 333 ppm CRC Leaf 190 - 1,234 ppm CRC
STEARIC-ACID Seed 29,800 - 147,800 ppm WOI
STIGMASTA-5,25-DIEN-3-BETA-OL Plant: JSG
STIGMASTEROL Fruit: MPI
SUGARS Fruit 35,000 - 45,000 ppm IFP
THIAMIN Fruit 0.2 - 12 ppm CRC Leaf 1.3 - 8 ppm CRC
TITANIUM Fruit 100 ppm; MPI
UREASE Seed: WOI
VICINE Seed: CCO
WATER Fruit 795,000 - 934,000 ppm CRC IFP Leaf 801,000 - 846,000 ppm WOI
Page 53
ZEAXANTHIN Fruit: IFP 1

ZEINOXANTHIN Fruit: IFP 1
tr = trace
Ethnobotanical uses
Momordica charantia (CUCURBITACEAE)
Abdomen Burkill,1966; Ache(Head) Burkill,1966; Ache(Stomach) Burkill,1966; Asthma
Burkill,1966; Burn Burkill,1966; Dermatosis Burkill,1966; Diarrhea Burkill,1966;
Parturition Burkill,1966; Scald Burkill,1966; Sprue Burkill,1966; Vermifuge Burkill,1966
Abdomen Eb21: 62; Abortifacient Eb21: 57, Eb21: 62, Woi.6; Ache(Ear) Eb21: 62;
Ache(Head) Eb21: 62; Antibiotic* Eb21: 62; Apertif Eb21: 62; Aphrodisiac Ayensu,
Bliss, Eb21: 62, Martinez; Asthma Eb21: 62; Astringent Eb21: 60; Bilious Eb21: 62;
Bite(Snake) Eb21: 60; Bladder Eb21: 60; Boil Eb21: 60; Burn Eb21: 60, Martinez;
Cancer Ayensu; Cancer(Breast) Hartwell; Canicide Eb21: 62; Carminative Woi.6;
Catarrh Eb21: 60; Chilblain Eb21: 60; Cold Gupta, Lewis; Colic Ayensu, Uphof, Woi.6;
Colitis Eb21: 60; Cough Eb21: 60; Depurative Standley,1931; Dermatosis Liogier;
Diabetes* Eb21: 62, Eb30: 140, Wong; Diabetes Mellitis Woi.6; Digestive Eb21: 62;
Dysentery Ayensu, Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140, Wong; Dysmenorrhea Eb21: 60; Dyspepsia
Al-Rawi; Eczema Eb25: 420; Emetic Eb21: 62; Emmenagogue Gupta; Eruption Eb21:
60; Eye(Veterinary) Eb21: 62; Fatality Eb21: 62; Fever Ayensu, Eb24: 361, Eb30: 140,
Woi.6, Wong; Gonorrhea Ayensu; Gout Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Halitosis Bliss, Eb21: 62;
Hepatitis Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Hyperglycemia* Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140; Hypertension Eb30:
140, Wong; Insecticide Gupta; Itch Eb21: 60; Jaundice Al-Rawi, Eb21: 62; Kidney
Eb21: 62; Lactogogue Eb21: 62; Laxative Ayensu, Brutus; Leprosy Al-Rawi, Ayensu,
Duke,19, Eb21: 60, Eb21: 62, Eb28: 12; Liver Al-Rawi; Malaria Duke,1972, Eb21: 60,
Eb21: 61, Eb30: 140, Liogier, Wong; Malignancy Eb21: 62, Hartwell; Medicinel Pittier;
Melancholy Al-Rawi; Night-Blindness Eb21: 62; Piles Al-Rawi, Eb21: 60; Poison* Lewis,
Duke,1972, Eb21: 62; Psoriasis Eb21: 62; Purgative Eb21: 60, Eb21: 62, Martinez;
Refrigerant Al-Rawi, Bliss, Woi.6; Renitis Liogier; Rheumatism Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140,
Woi.6, Wong; Roundworms Ayensu; Scabies Martinez; Skin Eb21: 62, Liogier; Soap
Duke,1972; Sore Ayensu, Eb21: 62, Eb28: 12, Martinez; Spleen Al-Rawi; Splenitis
Eb21: 60, Woi.6; Stomachic Woi.6; Stone Eb21: 62; Styptic Eb21: 62; Swelling Ayensu;
Thrush Eb21: 60; Tonic Woi.6; Tumor Hartwell; Urethritis Ayensu, Eb21: 60;
Vermifuge* Woi.6, Al-Rawi, Eb21: 60, Eb30: 140, Martinez, Uphof, Woi.6, Wong;
Wound Eb21: 60; Yaws Ayensu
Page 54
Chemicals in: Lablab purpureus (L.) SWEET (Fabaceae) -- Bonavist

Bean, Hyacinth Bean, Lablab Bean
2'-HYDROXYGENISTEIN Hypocotyl 36 ppm; JLI
3-O-GLUCOPYRANOSYLGIBBERELLIN-A4 Plant: DUKE1992A
ALANINE Seed 420 - 11,775 ppm DUKE1992A
ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 70 - 577 ppm DUKE1992A
ARGININE Seed 880 - 19,365 ppm DUKE1992A
ARSENIC Seed 0.02 ppm; DUKE1992A
ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 7.7 - 63.6 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,063 ppm; DUKE1992A
ASH Fruit 10,000 - 56,818 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 6,400 - 52,762 ppm DUKE1992A
ASPARTIC-ACID Seed 2,560 - 31,130 ppm DUKE1992A
BETA-CAROTENE Seed 0.66 - 5.44 ppm DUKE1992A
CALCIUM Fruit 500 - 2,841 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 500 - 4,122 ppm DUKE1992A
CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 100,000 - 568,182 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 91,900 - 757,628
ppm DUKE1992A
COPPER Seed 9 - 16 ppm DUKE1992A
CYSTINE Seed 460 - 3,792 ppm DUKE1992A
FAT Fruit 1,000 - 5,682 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,000 - 16,488 ppm DUKE1992A
FIBER Fruit 20,000 - 113,636 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13,000 - 107,172 ppm
DUKE1992A
GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 1,720 - 42,815 ppm DUKE1992A
GLYCINE Seed 10,280 - 11,345 ppm DUKE1992A
HEMAGGLUTININE-A Seed: DUKE1992A
HEMAGGLUTININE-B Seed: DUKE1992A
HISTIDINE Seed 1,090 - 8,986 ppm DUKE1992A
IRON Fruit 16.7 - 94.9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7.4 - 61 ppm DUKE1992A
ISOLEUCINE Seed 2,180 - 17,972 ppm DUKE1992A
KILOCALORIES Seed 194 - 3,795 /kg DUKE1992A
LAURIC-ACID Seed: DUKE1992A
LEUCINE Seed 1,450 - 22,355 ppm DUKE1992A
LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A
LYSINE Seed 190 - 18,000 ppm DUKE1992A
MAGNESIUM Seed 400 - 5,505 ppm DUKE1992A
MANGANESE Seed 39 ppm; DUKE1992A
METHIONINE Seed 140 - 2,105 ppm DUKE1992A
MYRISTIC-ACID Plant 30 - 247 ppm DUKE1992A
NIACIN Fruit 8 - 45 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5.2 - 42.87 ppm DUKE1992A
OLEIC-ACID Seed 950 - 7,832 ppm DUKE1992A
PALMITIC-ACID Seed 560 - 4,617 ppm DUKE1992A
PALMITOLEIC-ACID Seed 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A
PANTOTHENIC-ACID Plant: DUKE1992A
Page 55
PHENYLALANINE Seed 380 - 13,285 ppm DUKE1992A

PHOSPHORUS Fruit 600 - 3,409 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 490 - 4,800 ppm
DUKE1992A
POTASSIUM Seed 2,520 - 20,775 ppm DUKE1992A
PROLINE Seed 1,070 - 12,822 ppm DUKE1992A
PROTEIN Fruit 45,000 - 255,682 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 21,000 - 173,125 ppm
DUKE1992A
RIBOFLAVIN Seed 0.92 - 7.58 ppm DUKE1992A
SERINE Seed 13,150 - 14,510 ppm DUKE1992A
SODIUM Seed 20 - 260 ppm DUKE1992A
STEARIC-ACID Seed 90 - 742 ppm DUKE1992A
THIAMIN Seed 0.77 - 12 ppm DUKE1992A
THREONINE Seed 1,430 - 11,789 ppm DUKE1992A
TRYPTOPHAN Seed 880 - 7,255 ppm DUKE1992A
TYROSINASE Seed: DUKE1992A
TYROSINE Seed 1,550 - 12,788 ppm DUKE1992A
VALINE Seed 1,430 - 13,670 ppm DUKE1992A
WATER Fruit 824,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 878,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
ZINC Seed 75 - 93 ppm DUKE1992A
tr = trace
Ethnobotanical uses
Lablab purpureus (FABACEAE)
Ache(Ear) Eb24: 252; Antidote(Fish poison) Bliss; Antidote(Plant poisons) Bliss;
Antivinous Bliss; Blindness Eb24: 252; Carminative Bliss; Cholera Bliss; Diarrhea Bliss;
Epilepsy Eb24:; Fever Bliss; Leucorrhea Bliss; Megalospleny Eb24: 252; Menorrhagia
Bliss; Poison* Lewis; Poultice Bliss; Preventitive(Gray-Hair) Bliss; Sunstroke Bliss;
Swelling Eb24: 252; Thirst Bliss; Throat Eb24: 252; Tonic Bliss; Tumor Hartwell
Page 56
Chemicals in: Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) VERDC.

(Fabaceae) -- Asparagus Bean, Pea Bean, Yardlong Bean
ALANINE Seed 11,090 - 12,111 ppm DUKE1992A
ALPHA-LINOLENIC-ACID Fruit 700 - 5,761 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,580 - 2,817 ppm
DUKE1992A Shoot 440 - 4,305 ppm DUKE1992A
ALUMINUM Seed 6 - 840 ppm DUKE1992A
AMYLOSE Seed 108,420 - 111,200 ppm DUKE1992A
ANTIMONY Seed 0.031 ppm; DUKE1992A
ARACHIDIC-ACID Seed 86 ppm; DUKE1992A
ARGININE Fruit 1,960 - 16,131 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16,850 - 18,401 ppm
DUKE1992A
ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 56 - 2,633 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A
Shoot 360 - 3,523 ppm DUKE1992A
ASH Fruit 6,000 - 49,383 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 39,270 - 45,132 ppm DUKE1992A
Shoot 10,500 - 102,740 ppm DUKE1992A
BARIUM Seed 1 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A
BEHENIC-ACID Seed 380 ppm; DUKE1992A
BETA-AMYLASE Seed: DUKE1992A
BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 1.5 - 72 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 0.3 ppm; DUKE1992A Shoot
0.7 - 6.9 ppm DUKE1992A
BORON Seed 3 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A
CALCIUM Fruit 500 - 4,115 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,255 - 1,643 ppm DUKE1992A
CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 83,500 - 687,243 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 619,000 - 676,095
ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 48,200 - 471,624 ppm DUKE1992A
CERIUM Seed 0.1 ppm; DUKE1992A
CESIUM Seed 0.005 - 0.174 ppm DUKE1992A
CHLORINE Seed 100 ppm; DUKE1992A
CHOLINE Seed 2,020 ppm; DUKE1992A
CHROMIUM Seed 3.6 ppm; DUKE1992A
COBALT Seed 1.2 ppm; DUKE1992A
CYSTINE Fruit 420 - 3,457 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2,690 - 2,938 ppm DUKE1992A
ERUCIC-ACID Fruit 130 - 1,070 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 120 - 753 ppm DUKE1992A
Shoot 80 - 783 ppm DUKE1992A
EUROPIUM Seed 0.002 ppm; DUKE1992A
FAT Fruit 4,000 - 32,922 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13,100 - 14,306 ppm DUKE1992A
Shoot 2,500 - 24,462 ppm DUKE1992A
FIBER Seed 47,700 - 52,090 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 13,000 - 127,202 ppm
DUKE1992A
FOLACIN Fruit 8.9 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 6.5 - 7.2 ppm DUKE1992A
GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATASE Seed: DUKE1992A
GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 43,190 ppm; DUKE1992A
Page 57
GLYCEROPHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A

GLYCINE Seed 8,550 ppm; DUKE1992A
HISTIDINE Fruit 900 - 7,407 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7,550 - 8,245 ppm DUKE1992A
IRON Fruit 1 - 69 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 86 - 94 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 19 - 188
ppm DUKE1992A
ISOLEUCINE Fruit 1,500 - 12,346 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9,890 - 10,800 ppm
DUKE1992A
KILOCALORIES Fruit 470 - 3,868 /kg DUKE1992A Seed 3,470 - 3,789 /kg
DUKE1992A Shoot 290 - 2,837 /kg DUKE1992A
LEAD Seed 0.4 - 8.4 ppm DUKE1992A
LEUCINE Fruit 2,000 - 16,461 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 18,640 - 20,356 ppm
DUKE1992A
LIGNOCERIC-ACID Seed 104 ppm; DUKE1992A
LINOLEIC-ACID Fruit 960 - 7,901 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,080 - 3,364 ppm
LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 1,168 ppm; DUKE1992A
LYSINE Fruit 1,840 - 15,144 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 16,460 - 17,975 ppm
DUKE1992A
MAGNESIUM Fruit 374 - 4,160 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,141 - 3,952 ppm
MANGANESE Seed 16 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A
MERCURY Seed 0.58 ppm; DUKE1992A
METHIONINE Fruit 400 - 3,292 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,460 - 3,779 ppm
DUKE1992A
MOLYBDENUM Seed 8 ppm; DUKE1992A
MUFA Fruit 360 - 2,963 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,140 - 1,245 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot
220 - 2,153 ppm DUKE1992A
MYRISTIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 10 - 11 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot
10 - 98 ppm DUKE1992A
NIACIN Fruit 1 - 59 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 21 - 24 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 11.2 - 110
ppm DUKE1992A
NICKEL Seed 6 ppm; DUKE1992A
OLEIC-ACID Fruit 210 - 1,728 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,140 - 1,245 ppm DUKE1992A
PALMITIC-ACID Fruit 840 - 6,913 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,180 - 3,473 ppm
PALMITOLEIC-ACID Fruit 10 - 82 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 20 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A
PANTOTHENIC-ACID Seed 15 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A
PHENYL-PHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A
PHENYLALANINE Fruit 1,540 - 12,675 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 14,210 - 15,518 ppm
DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORUS Fruit 590 - 4,856 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,342 - 6,375 ppm
DUKE1992A Shoot 90 - 881 ppm DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORYLASE Seed: DUKE1992A
PHYTIC-ACID Seed 5,100 - 10,270 ppm DUKE1992A
Page 58
POTASSIUM Fruit 2,101 - 22,212 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 11,570 - 12,635 ppm
DUKE1992A Shoot 4,550 - 44,520 ppm DUKE1992A
PROLINE Seed 14,050 ppm; DUKE1992A
PROTEIN Fruit 28,000 - 230,453 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 238,800 - 270,598 ppm
DUKE1992A Shoot 41,000 - 401,174 ppm DUKE1992A
PUFA Fruit 1,690 - 13,909 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,650 - 6,170 ppm DUKE1992A
Shoot 1,060 - 10,372 ppm DUKE1992A
PYROPHOSPHATASE Leaf: DUKE1992A
RAFFINOSE Seed 4,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 1.1 - 9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 2.3 - 2.6 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot
1.8 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A
RUBIDIUM Seed 13 - 39 ppm DUKE1992A
SCANDIUM Seed 0.001 - 0.005 ppm DUKE1992A
SELENIUM Seed 0.014 - 0.14 ppm DUKE1992A
SERINE Seed 12,030 ppm; DUKE1992A
SFA Fruit 1,050 - 8,642 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,390 - 3,702 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot
660 - 6,458 ppm DUKE1992A
SILVER Seed 0.027 ppm; DUKE1992A
SODIUM Fruit 39 - 333 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 170 - 186 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 70 685 ppm DUKE1992A
STACHYOSE Seed 20,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
STARCH Seed 390,000 - 400,000 ppm DUKE1992A
STEARIC-ACID Fruit 130 - 1,070 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 200 - 218 ppm DUKE1992A
STIGMASTEROL Seed 250 ppm; DUKE1992A
STRONTIUM Seed 2 - 60 ppm DUKE1992A
SUCCINOXIDASE Sprout Seedling: DUKE1992A
SUCROSE Seed 15,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
THIAMIN Fruit 0.8 - 10 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9 - 10 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 3.5 - 35
ppm DUKE1992A
THREONINE Fruit 1,040 - 8,560 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 9,260 - 10,112 ppm
DUKE1992A
TIN Seed 0.743 ppm; DUKE1992A
TITANIUM Seed 0.2 - 84 ppm DUKE1992A
TRYPTOPHAN Fruit 320 - 2,634 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 3,000 - 3,276 ppm
DUKE1992A
TYROSINE Fruit 1,150 - 9,465 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 7,860 - 8,584 ppm DUKE1992A
VALINE Fruit 1,620 - 13,333 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 11,600 - 12,688 ppm
DUKE1992A
VANADIUM Seed 0.21 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A
VERBASCOSE Seed 31,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
VIGNAFURAN Plant: DUKE1992A
VIT-B-6 Seed 3.7 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A
WATER Fruit 872,000 - 884,560 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 890,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
Seed 83,120 - 85,480 ppm DUKE1992A Shoot 897,800 ppm; DUKE1992A
Page 59
YTTRIUM Seed 0.21 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A

ZIRCONIUM Seed 0.8 - 2.4 ppm DUKE1992A
tr = trace
Ethnobotanical uses
Vigna unguiculata (FABACEAE)
Adenopathy Eb24: 252; Anus Eb24: 252; Astringent Woi.3; Bilious Woi.Syria; Breath
Bliss; Burn Eb24: 252; Cyanogenetic Woi.Syria; Diarrhea Bliss; Diuretic Woi.3;
Dysentery Eb24: 252; Dysuria Eb24: 252; Fistula Eb24: 252; Jaundice Woi.Syria;
Kidney Bliss; Leprosy Eb24: 252; Liver Woi.Syria; Measles Eb24: 252; Nausea Bliss;
Neuralgia Eb24: 252; Nutritive Brutus; Pleurisy Eb24: 252; Pneumonia Eb24: 252;
Polyuria Bliss; Prolapse Eb24: 252; Rinderpest Eb24: 252; Smallpox Eb24: 252; Sore
Eb24: 252; Stomach Bliss; Thirst Bliss; Tonic Woi.3; Tumor Eb24: 252
Page 60
Chemicals in: Cajanus cajan (L.) HUTH (Fabaceae) -- Pigeonpea

2'-0'METHYLCAJANONE Root: GMJ
2'-HYDROXYGENISTEIN Plant: JLI
5,7,2'-TRIHYDROXYISOFLAVONE Root: GMJ
ALANINE Seed 8,170 - 10,870 ppm DUKE1992A
ALPHA-AMYRIN Root: GMJ
ARGININE Seed 11,280 - 14,530 ppm DUKE1992A
ASCORBIC-ACID Fruit 320 - 1,601 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1,279 ppm; DUKE1992A
ASH Fruit 13,000 - 51,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 185,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant
58,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 14,000 - 46,000 ppm DUKE1992A
BETA-AMRYIN Root: GMJ
BETA-CAROTENE Fruit 0.4 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 0.84 - 4.6 ppm DUKE1992A
BETA-SITOSTEROL Leaf: GMJ
CAJAFLAVANONE Root: GMJ
CAJAISOFLAVONE Root: GMJ
CAJANIN Seed: DUKE1992A
CAJANONE Plant: DUKE1992A
CAJAQUINONE Root: GMJ
CALCIUM Fruit 350 - 2,022 ppm DUKE1992A Plant 8,900 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 290
- 1,540 ppm DUKE1992A
CARBOHYDRATES Fruit 217,000 - 747,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 636,000 ppm;
DUKE1992A Plant 668,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 213,000 - 714,000 ppm
DUKE1992A
CONCAJANIN Seed: DUKE1992A
CYSTINE Seed 1,880 - 2,800 ppm DUKE1992A
FAT Fruit 6,000 - 20,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 69,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant
FERREIRIN Plant: DUKE1992A
FIBER Fruit 3,500 - 352,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 183,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Plant
GENISTEIN Root: GMJ JLI
GLUTAMIC-ACID Seed 40,790 - 56,270 ppm DUKE1992A
GLYCINE Seed 6,860 - 8,970 ppm DUKE1992A
HISTIDINE Seed 7,090 - 8,655 ppm DUKE1992A
IRON Fruit 17 - 56 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 13 - 62 ppm DUKE1992A
ISOGENISTEIN-7-0-GLUCOSIDE Root Bark: JLI
ISOLEUCINE Seed 6,990 - 8,780 ppm DUKE1992A
KILOCALORIES Fruit 1,140 - 3,860 /kg DUKE1992A Seed 1,170 - 3,974 /kg
DUKE1992A
LEUCINE Seed 13,110 - 17,325 ppm DUKE1992A
LINOLEIC-ACID Seed 7,780 - 24,472 ppm DUKE1992A
Page 61
LINOLENIC-ACID Seed 350 - 1,114 ppm DUKE1992A

LUPEOL Root: GMJ
LYSINE Seed 13,750 - 17,010 ppm DUKE1992A
MANGANESE Seed 17 - 21 ppm DUKE1992A
METHIONINE Seed 1,860 - 2,720 ppm DUKE1992A
MUFA Seed 120 - 135 ppm DUKE1992A
NIACIN Fruit 18 - 75 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 22 - 77 ppm DUKE1992A
OLEIC-ACID Seed 120 - 381 ppm DUKE1992A
PALMITIC-ACID Seed 3,070 - 9,642 ppm DUKE1992A
PANTOTHENIC-ACID Seed 6.8 - 20 ppm DUKE1992A
PHENYLALANINE Seed 16,020 - 20,780 ppm DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORUS Fruit 1,240 - 4,888 ppm DUKE1992A Plant 2,400 ppm; DUKE1992A
Seed 1,270 - 4,500 ppm DUKE1992A
POTASSIUM Fruit 6,220 - 17,472 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 5,250 - 18,103 ppm
DUKE1992A
PROLINE Seed 9,550 - 11,830 ppm DUKE1992A
PROTEIN Fruit 70,000 - 244,000 ppm DUKE1992A Leaf 110,000 ppm; DUKE1992A
Plant 214,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Seed 72,000 - 262,972 ppm DUKE1992A
PUFA Seed 8,140 - 9,100 ppm DUKE1992A
RIBOFLAVIN Fruit 1.6 - 6.9 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 1.7 - 8 ppm DUKE1992A
SERINE Seed 9,780 - 11,500 ppm DUKE1992A
SFA Seed 3,300 - 3,690 ppm DUKE1992A
SODIUM Seed 156 - 205 ppm DUKE1992A
STEARIC-ACID Seed 240 - 733 ppm DUKE1992A
STIGMASTEROL Leaf: GMJ
THIAMIN Fruit 3.4 - 12.4 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 4 - 13 ppm DUKE1992A
THREONINE Seed 7,190 - 8,580 ppm DUKE1992A
TRYPTOPHAN Seed 1,580 - 2,370 ppm DUKE1992A
TYROSINE Seed 4,510 - 6,015 ppm DUKE1992A
VALINE Seed 9,130 - 10,480 ppm DUKE1992A
VIT-B-6 Seed 3 - 4 ppm DUKE1992A
WATER Fruit 644,000 - 694,000 ppm DUKE1992A Seed 99,000 - 695,000 ppm
DUKE1992A
tr = trace
Page 62
Ethnobotanical uses
Cajanus cajan (L.)HUTH (FABACEAE)
Cough Burkill,1966; Dermatosis Burkill,1966; Diarrhea Burkill,1966; Earache
Burkill,1966; Enteritis Burkill,1966; Sore Burkill,1966
Abdomen Eb22: 98; Antidote* Eb30: 126, Wong, Bliss, Eb30: 126, Wong;
Antidote(Fish) Eb29: 317; Antidote(Manihot) Liogier; Astringent Standley; Bite(Bat)
Duke,1972, Eb24: 355; Bronchitis Eb22: 98; Ciguatera Eb29: 317; Cold Eb22: 98; Colic
Eb24: 247; Convulsion Eb24: 247; Cough Eb22: 98; Detersive Standley; Diarrhea
Eb22: 98; Diuretic Standley; Dysentery Standley; Expectorant Bliss; Flu Eb30: 126,
Wong; Gargle Liogier; Jaundice Liogier; Laxative Standley; Leprosy Eb24: 247;
Pectoral Liogier; Sedative Bliss; Soporific Woi.2; Sore Altschul; Sore(Throat) Liogier;
Stroke Eb30: 126, Wong; Swelling Altschul; Tumor Hartwell; Tumor(Abdomen)
Hartwell; Urticaria Liogier; Vermifuge Bliss; Vertigo Eb22: 98; Vulnerary Bliss, Brutus,
Liogier, Standley; Witchcraft Eb30: 126, Wong
Murraya koenigii (RUTACEAE)

Ethnobotanical uses
Anodyne Woi.6; Bruise Woi.6; Carminative Woi.6; Diarrhea Woi.6; Dysentery Woi.6;
Eruption Woi.6; Kidney Woi.6; Nausea Woi.6; Stomachic Woi.6; Tonic Uphof, Woi.6
Page 63
Chemicals in: Colocasia esculenta (L.) SCHOTT (Araceae) -- Taro

ALANINE Root 730 - 2,485 ppm DUKE1992A
ALUMINUM Leaf 18 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 3.9 ppm; DUKE1992A
AMYLOPECTIN Root 176,400 - 188,640 ppm DUKE1992A
AMYLOSE Root 68,600 - 73,360 ppm DUKE1992A
ARABINOSE Root 3,200 - 8,560 ppm DUKE1992A
ARGININE Leaf 2,200 - 15,340 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,030 - 3,510 ppm DUKE1992A
ASCORBIC-ACID Leaf 69 - 3,625 ppm DUKE1992A Root 325 ppm; DUKE1992A
ASH Leaf 13,000 - 155,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 8,000 - 63,000 ppm DUKE1992A
ASPARTIC-ACID Root 1,920 - 6,540 ppm DUKE1992A
BETA-CAROTENE Leaf 18 - 298 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.8 ppm; DUKE1992A
BORON Leaf 3.6 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 0.9 - 7 ppm DUKE1992A
CALCIUM Leaf 260 - 17,400 ppm DUKE1992A Root 130 - 3,780 ppm DUKE1992A
CALCIUM-OXALATE Leaf 4,000 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 430 ppm; DUKE1992A
CARBOHYDRATES Leaf 48,000 - 640,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200,000 - 885,000
ppm DUKE1992A
CAROTENOIDS Leaf 5 - 7.3 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.07 - 0.2 ppm DUKE1992A
COPPER Leaf 1.5 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 1.6 - 8 ppm DUKE1992A
CYSTINE Leaf 640 - 4,465 ppm DUKE1992A Root 320 - 1,090 ppm DUKE1992A
FAT Leaf 6,000 - 107,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,000 - 16,000 ppm DUKE1992A
FIBER Leaf 12,000 - 150,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 6,100 - 37,000 ppm DUKE1992A
GALACTOSE Root 35,200 - 94,100 ppm DUKE1992A
GLUTAMIC-ACID Root 1,740 - 5,925 ppm DUKE1992A
GLYCINE Root 740 - 2,520 ppm DUKE1992A
HEMICELLULOSE Root: DUKE1992A
HISTIDINE Leaf 1,140 - 7,950 ppm DUKE1992A Root 340 - 1,160 ppm DUKE1992A
HOMOGENTISIC-ACID Rhizome: DUKE1992A
IRON Leaf 6 - 200 ppm DUKE1992A Root 4 - 200 ppm DUKE1992A
ISOLEUCINE Leaf 2,600 - 18,130 ppm DUKE1992A Root 540 - 1,840 ppm
DUKE1992A
KILOCALORIES Leaf 310 - 3,280 /kg DUKE1992A Root 920 - 3,820 /kg DUKE1992A
LEUCINE Leaf 3,920 - 27,335 ppm DUKE1992A Root 1,110 - 3,780 ppm DUKE1992A
LINOLEIC-ACID Leaf 2,140 - 14,925 ppm DUKE1992A Root 580 - 1,975 ppm
DUKE1992A
LINOLENIC-ACID Leaf 930 - 6,485 ppm DUKE1992A Root 250 - 850 ppm
DUKE1992A
LYSINE Leaf 2,460 - 17,155 ppm DUKE1992A Root 670 - 2,280 ppm DUKE1992A
MAGNESIUM Leaf 200 - 3,140 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200 - 1,350 ppm DUKE1992A
MANGANESE Leaf 45 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 1.3 - 7.6 ppm DUKE1992A
METHIONINE Leaf 790 - 5,510 ppm DUKE1992A Root 200 - 680 ppm DUKE1992A
MUCILAGE Root 40,000 - 10,700 ppm DUKE1992A
MUFA Leaf 600 - 4,185 ppm DUKE1992A Root 160 - 454 ppm DUKE1992A
Page 64
NIACIN Leaf 8 - 105 ppm DUKE1992A Root 4 - 40 ppm DUKE1992A

OLEIC-ACID Leaf 600 - 4,185 ppm DUKE1992A Root 160 - 545 ppm DUKE1992A
OXALATE Leaf 4,260 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 650 ppm; DUKE1992A
OXALIC-ACID Root 1,334 ppm; DUKE1992A
PALMITIC-ACID Leaf 1,310 - 9,135 ppm DUKE1992A Root 350 - 1,190 ppm
DUKE1992A
PHENYLALANINE Leaf 1,950 - 13,600 ppm DUKE1992A Root 820 - 2,795 ppm
DUKE1992A
PHOSPHORUS Leaf 490 - 5,800 ppm DUKE1992A Root 460 - 5,204 ppm DUKE1992A
PHYTOSTEROLS Root 190 - 650 ppm DUKE1992A
POTASSIUM Leaf 4,370 - 51,774 ppm DUKE1992A Root 3,230 - 21,760 ppm
DUKE1992A
PROLINE Root 600 - 2,045 ppm DUKE1992A
PROTEIN Leaf 24,000 - 347,280 ppm DUKE1992A Root 10,000 - 112,000 ppm
DUKE1992A
PUFA Leaf 3,070 - 21,410 ppm DUKE1992A Root 830 - 2,825 ppm DUKE1992A
RIBOFLAVIN Leaf 3 - 35 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.2 - 1.6 ppm DUKE1992A
SAPONIN Root: DUKE1992A
SAPOTOXIN Root: DUKE1992A
SERINE Root 920 - 3,135 ppm DUKE1992A
SFA Leaf 1,510 - 10,530 ppm DUKE1992A Root 410 - 1,400 ppm DUKE1992A
SODIUM Leaf 20 - 484 ppm DUKE1992A Root 7 - 480 ppm DUKE1992A
STARCH Leaf 700 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 245,000 - 262,000 ppm DUKE1992A
STEARIC-ACID Plant 200 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 60 - 205 ppm DUKE1992A
SUGAR Leaf 9,200 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 10,000 - 11,000 ppm DUKE1992A
SULFUR Leaf 240 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 85 - 565 ppm DUKE1992A
THIAMIN Leaf 1.3 - 17 ppm DUKE1992A Root 0.3 - 5 ppm DUKE1992A
THREONINE Leaf 1,670 - 11,645 ppm DUKE1992A Root 690 - 2,350 ppm
DUKE1992A
TRYPTOPHAN Leaf 480 - 3,345 ppm DUKE1992A Root 230 - 785 ppm DUKE1992A
TYROSINE Leaf 1,780 - 12,415 ppm DUKE1992A Root 550 - 1,875 ppm DUKE1992A
URONIC-ACID Root 800 - 2,140 ppm DUKE1992A
VALINE Leaf 2,560 - 17,850 ppm DUKE1992A Root 820 - 2,790 ppm DUKE1992A
WATER Leaf 810,000 - 900,000 ppm DUKE1992A Root 660,530 - 754,000 ppm
DUKE1992A
ZINC Leaf 6.6 ppm; DUKE1992A Root 5 - 66 ppm DUKE1992A
tr = trace
Page 65
Ethnobotanical uses
Colocasia esculenta (ARACEAE)
Abortifacient Eb23: 105; Ache(Ear) Duke,1972; Alopecia Duke,1972; Anodyne Eb23:
105; Antidote Bliss, Duke,1972; Astringent Woi.2; Athlete's-Foot Wong; Bite(Bug) Bliss;
Boil Eb28: 4; Cancer(Nose) Hartwell; Carminative Bliss; Cyanogenetic Eb23: 105,
Eb30: 400; Dyspepsia Bliss, Eb23: 105; Intoxicant Eb23: 105; Laxative Eb25: 248;
Morphea Eb23: 105; Mycosis(Veterinary) Eb23: 105; Parturition Bliss; Pediculicide
Bliss; Piles Tackholm; Poison Bliss, Eb23: 105; Polyp Hartwell; Poultice Eb23: 105;
Rubefacient Duke,1972; Scleroderma Eb23: 105; Sore Eb23: 105; Stimulant
Duke,1972; Sting(Wasp) Duke,1972; Styptic Duke,1972, Eb23: 105, Woi.2; Thrush
Eb23: 105; Tubercle Eb23: 105; Tumor Hartwell; Vermifuge Eb23: 105; Wart Hartwell
Parturition Burkill,1966; Wound Burkill,1966
Anthrax Eb24: 249; Atrophy Eb24: 249; Bronchitis Eb24: 249; Cachexia Eb24: 249;
Cough Eb24: 249; Tuberculosis Eb24: 249; Wound Eb24: 249
Page 66

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Indian Vegetable Food Report

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Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No.

Nutritional attributes of Indian vegetables

A report prepared for

Horticulture New Zealand

New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited

Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria)

4.2.1 Antioxidant activity

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia)

5.1.1 Core nutrients

Tindori (Coccinia grandis)

Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata)

3.2.1 Antioxidant activity

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula)

Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis)

8.1.1 Core nutrients

Indian beans (Lablab purpureus syn. Dolichos lablab)

Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

Pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan syn. Cajanus indicus)

10.1.1 Core nutrients

10.2 Health attributes

10.2.1 Antioxidant activity

10.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii)

11.2 Antinutritional factors

11.3.1 Antioxidant activity

Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta)

12.3 Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

12.1.1 Core nutrients

12.2 Health attributes

12.2.1 Antioxidant activity

Appendix I Macro and micronutrient composition of some Indian vegetables

Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria) This does not appear to be a particularly

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) Bitter melon has received considerably

Snake beans (Vigna unguiculata sesquipedalis) Snake beans are a variety of

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Curry leaves (Murraya koenigii) Rather than being consumed as a vegetable,

Taro leaves (Colocasia esculenta) Taro leaves are an extremely nutritious

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Indian marrow (Lagenaria siceraria)

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Indian beans (purple)

Indian beans (white)

NS, not significant for SOS (<21 mol ascorbate equivalent/g).

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula)

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Bitter melon (Momordica charantia)

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

HIV treatment side effects

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Factors affecting nutrient and phytochemical levels

differences in cultivar. Vitamin C in 38 accessions of bitter melon measured by

degree of maturity at harvest. One variety of bitter melon was shown to

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Tindori (Coccinia grandis)

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Cow peas (Vigna unguiculata)

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291

Plant & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2291