Notes :

Immunity System
Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote

Topic at a Glance
Immunity - Ability to defend and protect the body from pathogens.
Ability of body to recognize, neutralize or destroy and eliminate harmful substances.

Mostly these nonself materials are - Exogenous - few endogenous, called Antigens.
Ex. : Microbes, Pollen grain, toxins, chemicals.

Immunology - The study of immune responses to foreign substances and their role in resisting
infection.

Edward Jenner - developed Small Pox vaccine and gave idea of immunity - so Father of
Immunology.

Emil Von Behring and Kitasato (1980) demonstrated antibacterial substance in blood against
Tetanus, Diphtheria at Koch Institute, Berlin 1890. Behring was awarded Nobel Prize (1901) and
Known as Founder of immunology - discovered that antibodies protect body from pathogens.
Immune reaction :

Defence response produced by immunity system against antigens. Immune response has four
phases like (i) Identification of antigen, (ii) Amplification of diseases, (iii) Attack, (iv) Slow down.
Ractions may be 1) Primary : at first attack of antigen, may take longer time.
2) Secondary : at subsequent infection of the same antigen, quick more intense.
- Anamestic response - elevated immune response caused by memory cells at second time.
Ex. i)
Inflammatory response : Causes redness, heat, swelling, pain in area. Histamine.
Prostaglandings,Serotonin, Bradykinin, initiate this response.
ii)
Interferons - released by living cells when attacked by viruses, -interferon by leucocytes,
-interferon by fibroblasts, -interferons by lymphocytes.
iii) Pyrogens - fever producing substances, increase temperature kill microbes.

Cells of immune system Macrophages - large, irregular shaped cells, engulf microbes and kill. Ex. Kupffers cells in liver,
Clara cells in lungs.
Lymphocytes - B-cells - develop, mature in bone marrow, produce plasma B-cells (secrete antibody) and memory
cells (retain memory)

Plasma cells : Secrete antibodies at a rate of 20 trillions/day or 2000/sec, take part in immunity.

Memory cells : Stored information.

- T-cells - develop, originate in bone marrow, mature in Thymus gland.
- Killer T-cells - (cytotoxic cells) - kill and destroy pathogen, secrete perforin.
- Helper T-cells - stimulate B-cells to produce antibodies like lymphokines.
- Suppressor T-cells - check on immune system.
- Memory T-cells - Stored information.
- Macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils are phagocytes.
I. Innate/natural/Non-specific immunity - Present by birth, effective against wide range of
pathogens and protect body from general infections.
- Various barriers : To prevent entry of foreign agents.
- Physiological - body temperautre, pH, secretions Ex. : Acidity of gastric juice, fever.
- Anatomical - skin, mucous membrane.
- Phagocytic - phagocytes attack and destroy foreign agents.
- Inflammatory - redness, swelling, pain, production of heat, fever.

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Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote

Immunity System
II. Acquired Immunity/Specific immunity/Adaptive immunity involves :
Unique features of acquired immunity :
i) Specificity - specific for specific antigen/pathogen.
ii) Diversity - can recognize vast variety of diverse pathogen.
iii) Discrimination between self and non-self.
iv) Memory - retain memory of attack and second encounter with same stimulus increased response.
Acquired Immunity May Be :
i) Active Immunity - Achieved by vaccines/natural infections.
- Contacting disease and recovering from it.
- injecting killed micro organisms or other metabolic products. There are called shots Ex. : Cholera,
diphtheria, Influenza etc.
ii) Passive Immunity - achieved by readymade antibodies.
- Injecting individuals with antiserum containing antibodies. Protection lasts for a short time as
antibodies are rapidly broken down.
- Transfer of antibodies form mother to foetus (child) through placenta [IgG] and colostrum (first breast
milk) [IgA].

Innate/Natural/Non-specific
- In born, by birth
- Protects body from general infections
- Effective against wide range of pathogen

Species
Members of
a species
Ex. T.B. is
rare in
Rabbits

Individual
Varies from
person to
person.

Racial
In races
Ex. Jews resistant
to T.B. Negro
susceptible

Active
- Own antibodies
- Resistance by own body cells
in response to infection

Acquired/Adaptive/Specific
- Acquired after birth
- Due to infection, Vaccination
inoculation of antiserum

Herd
Resistance
by a group
of animals
Ex. Epidemic
Jaundice
Passive
- Readymade anti serum/
antibodies inected
j
- No antigenic stimulus
- Short time protection

Natural (NAAI)
Artificial (AAAI)
- When exposed to
- Achieved by vaccines/
pathogens
immunisation
- Effective
Ex. : BCG vaccine (TB)
- Achieved after
TAB - Typhoid.
recovery from infection
- remains for long time
Ex. : Chicken pox, Influenza,
measles, Tetanus

Natural (NAPI)
Transfer of antibodies
from mother to child
Ex. : IgG through placenta
IgA through colostrum

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Artificial (AAPI)
- Readymade antibodies/
antiserum from othre
individuals is injected
Ex. : Inoculation used
against hepatitis,
mumps etc.

Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote

Immunity System
Antigen (Ag) :

Any foreign substance, that enters into body, stimulates formation of antibodies is called Antigen.

Mostly proteins, polysaccharides or viruses but not lipids. Part of antigen that binds antibody is
- Epitope.
- Two types :
i)
Auto antigens - self, in own cells
ii)
Non-self antigen - external.
- Hapten [Partial Ag] : nonprotein, but on combining with protein it can from a new antigen.
Antibody :

Specific glycoprotein produced in response to particular antigen is called Antibody. Mostly

Immunoglobulins.

Produced by lymphocytes, present in blood serum, show keylock system.

Porter (1950) described Y-shape model for antibody.

Antibody has four peptide units, arranged symmetrically.

Two peptide units from Heavy chains (H).

Two peptide units form Light chains (L).

Chains linked (Hinge) by interchain disulphide bonds, form loops.

Light and Heavy chain with help of single disulphide bond.

Heavy chains inter connected at hinge region by 2-disulphide bonds.

Each heavy and light chain has two terminals ends.

N-terminal - aminoterminal and C-carboxy terminal.

Tips of H and L chains are called variable regions - constitute Antigen binding site called
Paratope, remainder of each chain is constant region.

Site for antibodies formation - Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Bone Marrow.

Antigen-antibody complex :

Serology - deals with antigen - antibody reactions.

Antibodies are specific to antigens.

There are active sites (parotopes) where antigen binds (epitopes) like lock and key called antigen
antibody complex. Formed in three ways
Agglutination : Binding of antibodies to antigens and forms large insoluble complex molecules
interact on surface of antigen.

Opsonisation : Antibody coat on the surface of antigen and helps in recognition, digestion by
phagocytosis. Opsonins are formed.

Neutralization - toxins neutralized by antitoxins.

Precipitation - Precipitins makes Ag - Ab complex insoluble.

Blood Groups in Man :

Common antigens present on human RBCs are A, B, Rh.

Antigen A and B were discovered by Karl Landsteiner, discovered ABO blood group system in
man (1901).

Landsteiner & Wiener (1940) found Rh antigen (D-antigen) on RBCs of Rhesus monkey and
man Rh +ve Rh ve .

They also discovered two types of antibodies a and b in plasma.

Four blood groups A, B, AB and O type.

Blood group AB discovered by Decastello and Sterli.

Persons with Rh antigen are Rh +ve while without Rh factor are Rh ve .

O - group universal donor, no antigens AB - universal receipient, no antibodies.

Blood groups are important for safe blood transfusion ; to avoid serological complications.

Rh+ve 85 %, 15 % Rh ve population.

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Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote

Immunity System

Genetically determined blood group systems of man include ABO, Rh, Duffy, MNS etc.
Blood
Group

Genotype

Antigen on RBC

Antibody
in plasma

Can donate to

Can receive from

IA IA, IAI0

A, AB

A, O

IB IB , IB I0

B, AB

B, O

AB

IA IB

A and B

None

AB

A, B, AB, O

I0 I0

None

a and b

A, B, AB, O

Haemolytic disease of new born (HDN) - Erythroblastosis foetalis :

Erythroblastosis foetalis - Destruction of erytherocytes of foetus.

Rh - factor incompatibility. Ex. Rh ve mother bears Rh +ve foetus.

If first child is Rh ve , RBCs of foetus enter mothers blood circulation and sensitize her. Neither
mother or first child is affected.

But during in subsequent pregnancy, if Rh +ve child born - then immune system gets sensitized
and secretes anti-Rh-antibodies to destroy Rh-antigen.

It leads to agglutination resulting into anemia, death or miscarriage, still birth.

To avoid still birth, Rh ve mother are injected with Anti-D/Coombs Serum.

In milder form of HDN, infant is born with Haemolytic anemia i.e. low Hb % and release of nucleated
RBC.
Immune system disorders :
Three types : i) Hyper Sensitivity or Allergy, (ii) Auto immune diseases and (iii) Immuno - deficiency
diseases.
i) Hyper Sensitivity or Allergy : Allergens - substances that cause allergy.
Ex. : Pollen grains, dusts, drugs, chemicals, plants, fabrics, cold, heat, Sunlight, feathers, fur,
food, venom scents, perfumes etc. Von Pirquet coined term Allergy

Immunity

(1) Immediate
Immediately as soon as exposed to allergen. It
is of short duration, such condition
called Anaphylaxis.

(2) Delayed
Reaction seen after 1-3 days of
exposure to allergens

Mechanism of Allergic reactions :

Sensitisation : Stimulation of formation of antibodies by allergens.

Stimulates : Allergens bind with antibody bound mast cells that release histamine.

Histamine action : Causes rashes, inflammation, sneezing, reddening of eyes etc. on skin, in
respiratory tracts etc.

Anti histamine drugs used to treat allergy.

Common types of Allergies :

Utricaria : Skin allergy due to certain chemicals.

Asthma : Allergy of respiratory system (lungs) due to dust, cotton, fibres, pollen grains etc.

Hay fever (Rhinitis) : Increased secretion of muscosa of nose, throat and conjuctivites. Caused
by jowar pollen grains.

Anaphylactic shock : Due to certain drugs, bee string, food content etc. severe reaction occurs
when secretion of histamine from cells suddenly increased.

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Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote

Immunity System
ii) Auto immune diseases :

Result when immune system attacks and destroys Self cells and molecules.

This condition can cause chronic and serious diseases.

Examples - Insulin dependent diabetes, Multiple sclerosis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimotos

disease, Myesthania gravis, Ulcerative colitis etc.
iii) Immuno deficiency diseases :

SCID
- Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency
- Serious congenital disorder in childern
- due to inadequate production of B and T lymphocytes, Adenosine
deficiency.
- Children become suseptible to infections.

AIDS
- Aquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome.
Additional information :
Immumoglobulins Types of antibodies based on strucutre of C-region.
1) Ig A

3) Ig E

4) Ig G

Situated on surface of

Produce allergic

Act against inhaled

& ingested pathogens
Alpha H chain

B-lymphocytes
activate B-cells
Delta H chain

responses,
gives actual
synthesized in body
Act as mediator
immunity to foetus activates B-cells
in allergic reactions. & new born baby Mue H chain

Monomer

75 % of total

5) Ig M

In breast milk/colostrum

10 %
Diamer

2) Ig D

Epsilon H chain

Gama H chain

Monomer

Monomer

Macroglobulin earliest

Pentamer

Man had learnt ot tolerate self and intolerant to non self, concept given by Burnet and Medawar.
Specificity - an ability to distinguish among various foreign molecules any specific disease causing
organism.
Attenuated - totally degraded micro organism prepared for injection (in vaccines)
Complete antigen - must be recognized by body as non-self with minimum molecular weight
5000 daltons.
Eczema - dermititis with reddening of skin, formation and rupture of vesicles, scale formation.

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Prof.Dr. R. S. Dhote