Solapur:

Introduction:
Solapur District is a district in Maharashtra state of India. The city of
Solapur is the district headquarters. It is located on the south east edge of
the state and lies entirely in the Bhima and Seena basins.
Facts
District - Solapur
Area - 14886 km²
Sub-divisions - Solapur, Madha (Kurduwadi), Pandharpur
Talukas - North Solapur, Barshi, Akkalkot, South Solapur,
Mohol,Mangalvedha, Pandharpur, Sangola, Malshiras, Karmala, Madha.
Proposal for a separate Phandarpur District The Solapur district is under
proposal to be bifurcated and a separate Phandarpur district be carved out
of existing Solapur district.
Distance from Mumbai - 450 km
Means of transport - Railway stations -Solapur, Mohol, Kurduwadi, Madha,
Akkalkot Road ST Buses, SMT (Solapur Municipal Transportation, Auto-
Rikshaws. Solapur station has daily train service to Mumbai via Pune known as
Siddheshwar Express Also, daily shuttle from Solapur to Pune known as
Hutatma Express
Population
Total - 3,849,543(District)
The district is 31.83% urban as of 2001.
Area under irrigation - 4,839.15 km²
Irrigation projects Major-1 Medium-2 Minor-69 Imp. Projs.- Bhima Ujjani
Industries Big-98 Small-8986
Languages/dialects - Marathi, Kannada, Telagu
Folk-Arts - Lavani, Gondhal, Dhangari,Aradhi and Bhalari songs
Weather Temperature Max: 44.10 °C Min: 10.7 °C Rainfall-759.80 mm
(Average)
Main crops - Jowar, wheat, sugarcane Solapur district especially
Mangalwedha taluka is known for Jowar. Maldandi Jowar is famous in all over
Maharashtra. In December - January agriculturists celebrates Hurda Party.
This is also famous event in Solapur. Hurda means pre-stage of Jowar.
Agriculturists sow special breed of Hurda, named as Dudhmogra, Gulbhendi
etc.
Area under horticulture - 600 km²
Health infrastructure PHCs-67 Rural Hosp.-14 Dist. Hosp.-1 Big Hosp.-30
Tourist places - Pandharpur, Kundalsangam,Akkalkot, Akluj, Barshi, Karmala,
Nanaj(North Solapur taluka) In Pandharpur, warkaris come for having
darshan of Lord Vitthal and Rukmini without any invitation on Aashadhi
Ekadashi and Kartiki Ekadashi. Lakhs of warkari come by walking in scorching
sunny or rainy days. They walk hundreds of miles with chanting of Dhyanoba-
Tukaram. Jai Jai Vitthal Jai hari Vitthal. Lord Vitthal's temple is of ancient
time. This is unique case in world to which statue devotee can touch.
Mangalwedha is known as a land of saints like Damaji, Kanhopatra, and
Tikacharya. For Damaji, Lord Vitthal came at Mangalwedha as a Vithoo
Mahar. Damaji was head clerk of Badshah of Beedar (now in Karnataka),
opened doors of warehouses of Jawari in scarcity days and saved thousands
of lives.
Geographical Information:
Geographically Solapur is located between 17.10 to 18.32 degrees north
latitude and 74.42 to 76.15 degrees east longitude. The district is situated
on the south east fringe of Maharashtra State and lies entirely in the Bhima
and Seena basins. Whole of the district is drain either by Bhima River or its
tributaries.The district is bounded on the north by Ahmednagar and
Osmanabad districts, on the east by Osmanabad and Gulbarga (Karnataka
State) districts, on the south by Sangli and Bijapur (Karnataka State) and on
the west by Satara and Pune districts. There is no important hill system in
the district. Only in the north of Barshi Taluka several spurs of Balaghat
range pass south for a few kilometers. There are also a few scattered hills
in Karmala,Madha and Malshiras Talukas. The district in general has flat or
undulating terrain. The low table land and small separate hills in Karmala and
Madha Talukas act as a Watershed between Bhima and Sina rivers.The
district covers geographical area of 14844.6 sq. kms. which is 4.82% of the
total area of Maharashtra State. Out of the total area of the district 338.8
sq. kms (2.28%) is urban area whereas remaining 14505.8 sq.kms. (97.72%) is
rural area. Area wise Karmala taluka is biggest covering an area of 1609.7
sq.kms and North Solapur is smallest covering an area of 736..3 sq.kms.
The soils of the district can broadly be classified into three types.
• Black
• Coarse Gray
• Reddish

According to topography the district is divided in three natural zones.

• Eastern Zone: This comprises of Barshi, North Solapur, South Solapur and
Akkalkot Talukas.The soil is medium to deep black and of rich quality. Jawar,
Bajra and Pulses are the main crops of this zone.
Central or Tansitional Zone: Mohol, Mangalwedha, eastern part of
Pandharpur and Madha Taluka are covered by this zone. Like to moderate
soil and uncertain rainfall marks this zone.Both Kharip and Rabbi Crops are
grown in this part.
• Western Zone : Karmala, Sangola and Malshiras Talukas and western parts
of Pandharpur comes under this zone. Shallow and poor type of soil, not
retentive of moisture marks this part.Scanty and uncertain rainfall. Rabbi
crops mainly grown in Karmala, Pandharpur and Madha Talukas while Kharip
crops like Bajra and Groundnut are grown in Sangola and parts of Malshiras
talukas.
LAND USE PATTERN
Agricultural_: Agricultural Area 11480 sq.kms._ Cultivable not in uses 380
sq.kms.
Non-agricultural 690 sq .kms.
Grass Lands and Herbs 720 sq.kms.
Forest Cover 350 sq .kms.
Wastelands 1260 sq.kms.
Draught prone areas (All eleven talukas) 14844.6 sq. kms.
Agro climatically entire district comes under rain shadow area. Rainfall is
uncertain and scanty. The monsoon period is from second fortinght of June
to end of September bringing rains from south-west monsoon. The average
rainfall for the district is 545.4 mms. The talukawise average rainfall is as
below.
Name of Taluka Rainfall in mms.
North Solapur 617.3
South Solapur 617.3
Akkalkot 643.6
Barshi 594.8
Mangalwedha 519.8
Pandharpur 523.0
Sangola 462.4
Malshiras 422.8
Mohol 573.9
Madha 519.0
Karmala 506.0
Due to scanty and nonuniform rains scarcity conditions prevail in the
district. This has adversely affected the socio-economic condition of
peoples. In order to face this situation, the Ujani dam is built to provide
water to the draught prone areas.
The major river in the district is Bhima and Sina, Nira, Mann and Bhogawati
are its tributories. The Bhima and Sina run south-east. The Nira and Mann
nearly east . During the dry season all the rivers are nearly dry. The length
of Bhima river in Solapur district is 289 kms
Irrigation of Solapur:

The problem of irrigation has been an important one in regard to the

Sholapur district since long. An excellent description of the irrigation
facilities available in the district has been given by the old Sholapur
Gazetteer which is reproduced below:-
Water Works:
Sholapur has seven water works, of which three- the Koregaon, Ashti and
Ekruk lakes supply tillage water, and four at Sholapur, Barsi, Karmala and
Pandharpur supply drinking water. Of the three tillage water works the
Koregaon lake is an old work improved and the Ashti and Ekruk lakes are new
works.
Koregaon lake:
 The Koregaon lake lies thirteen miles north-east of Barsi and is formed by
throwing two earthen dams across two separate valleys. The larger dam on
the west is 995 feet long and seventy-one feet high in the centre, and the
smaller dam on the south-east is 300 feet long with a greatest height of
twelve feet. The drainage area is 4.4 square miles. The original depth of the
lake near the dam seems to have been fifty feet, but several centuries of
silt have much lessened its depth and reduced its storage capacity. Between
1855 and 1858, under the orders of the Collector, the full supply level was
raised nine feet which led to the building of the smaller dam. As the dams
were of inferior materials, the increased head of water in the lake caused
great leakage...... In 1864 and 1865 steps were taken to stop the leakage.
These repairs included the entire re-building of the front of the larger dam
for a depth of thirty feet that is to below low-water level, and the making of
a puddle trench, twelve feet deep and three feet wide, along the whole
length of the smaller dam. In September 1870 the smaller dam was
breached, and the efficiency of the work was greatly impaired....... The lake
will then have a depth of fourteen feet from outlet to full supply, an
available capacity of 81,298,114 cubic feet, and a full supply area of
8,793,017 square feet or 202...... acres In 1882-83 the lake watered 84½
acres in the village of Koregaon which paid £17-8s. (Rs. 174) for water rates.
Of the 84½ watered acres nineteen grew ground-nut, eight turmeric, 7¼
sugarcane, thirty-five jvari, thirteen wheat, and 2¼ gram.
Ashti lake:
The Ashti lake lies in the Madha sub-division twelve miles north-east of the
large town of Pandharpur....... The lake is formed by throwing across the
Ashti stream, a feeder of the Bhima, an earthen dam 12,709 feet long, with
a greatest height of 57.75 feet From this lake two canals are led. The left
bank canal, which is 11½ miles long, commands 12,258 acres; the right bank
canal, which is ten miles long, commands 5,624 acres. The land commanded is
chiefly in the Pandharpur sub-division. The lake-supply is sufficient to water
10,809 acres in regular rotation, thus raising the arable area under command
from four to nine per cent of the whole cultivated area. The dam is entirely
of earth...... In addition a concrete wall, five feet thick, has been built at the
river crossing, founded on rock and running well into the banks on both sides.
The concrete wall is under the centre of the dam...... The exposed portions
of the dam are guarded from wear by a mixture of crumbly trap and earth.
The whole dam was built in six-inch layers, well watered and rammed. A
waste weir, with crest at 232 and 800 feet wide, is formed by cutting
through a saddle on the right bank of the lake. The discharging capacity is
48,000 cubic feet a second, equal to a run-off of 0.80 of an inch the hour
from the drainage area of ninety-two square miles. The height to which such
a flood would rise is seven feet above the crest of the weir and five feet
below the top of the dam. All flood water is passed under the canals by
aqueducts or above them by over-passages which also serve as
accommodation bridges during the dry weather. The outlet and regulating
works for the left bank canal include a head wall, through which the water is
discharged into a tunnel, by which it is passed under the dam into a
discharging basin, constructed at the head of the canal. The head wall is of
coarse rubble masonry. The length at bottom is eighteen feet and the
breadth 10½ feet. The height of the wall is 33.5 feet, and the reduced level
at top is 241 or three feet below the formation level of the dam. The head
works of the right bank canal are almost the same as those of the left bank
canal; but as the required discharge is only one-third of what is necessary
for the left bank canal, all parts of the work are of a smaller size. The lake
was completed on the 31st of July 1881 at a cost of £33,499 (Rs. 3, 34,990).
The dam was begun on the 1st of December 1876 as a famine relief work.
The work was finally closed as a famine relief on the 30th of November
1877.
Ekruk lake:
The Ekruk lake, the largest artificial lake in the Bombay Presidency, lies five
miles north-east of Sholapur. The scheme was prepared in 1863 and
sanctioned in 1866. It comprises a reservoir formed by an earthen dam
7,200 feet long and seventy-two feet in greatest height and three canals.
The dam is thrown across the valley of the Adhila, a feeder of the Sina,
which has a drainage area of 160 square miles above the lake. The lake is
sixty feet deep when full, and holds 3,350 millions of cubic feet. The area of
water surface is 4,640 acres or 7¼ square miles. Two waste weirs, together
750 feet long, are provided for the escape of flood water after the lake is
full. Of the canals one on each bank is at a high level, designed for four
months' watering, and the third on the left bank is at a low level, designed
for a twelve months discharge. Of the two high level canals the right bank
canal is eighteen miles long, discharges sixty cubic feet a second, and
commands 565 acres; and the left bank canal is four miles long, discharges
twenty-five cubic feet a second, and commands 856 acres. The low level left
bank canal is twenty-six miles long, discharges seventy cubic feet a second,
and commands 10,601 gross acres. The canals are bridged and regulated
throughout and can be lengthened so as to command a larger area. The low
level canal flows close past the town of Sholapur. The work was begun in
1866, and the dam was closed in December 1869. Some water was supplied to
the kharif or rain crop of 1871-72. At the end of 1876-77 the work was
completed, except the masonry heads to distributaries and the last two
miles of the low level canals and the last twelve miles of the high level right
bank canal. By the end of 1881-82 all the works connected with the Ekruk
Lake were completed at a total cost of about £121,262 (Rs. 12, 12,620). In
1882-83, of 15,320 acres, the arable area under command, 1,306 acres were
watered and paid £524 (Rs. 5,240) for water rates....... Besides tillage water,
the Ekruk Lake supplies drinking water to the town of Sholapur.
Wells :
Besides from the Koregaon, Ashti, and Ekruk lakes bagayat or garden land is
watered either by throwing dams across streams or by wells. From the dams
land is watered at the latest till the end of March. Wells are rarely sunk in
malran or high level lands. According to the 1882 returns, Sholapur has ten
rivers, the Bhima, Sina, Man, Bhogavati, Apenpa, Bedki, Chandani, Korna, Nil,
and Sira, 818 streams, 214 reservoirs and 17,472 wells. Of the 17,472 wells,
4,812 are used for drinking and washing and 12,660 for watering; 4,712 are
with steps and 12,760 are without steps.
Agricultural activities in the Sholapur district are still dependent on the
vagaries of monsoon. Irrigation aims at making good the deficiencies of
rainfall thereby bringing more land under the plough which otherwise
remains uncultivated for want of water and also increasing the double-
cropped area. In brief, the object of irrigation is to augment farm produce.
Irrigation thus occupies an important place in the development of
agriculture. Naturally irrigation facilities of permanent nature are necessary
to reach any measure of stability in the agricultural production. At present
the main sources of water-supply in the district are wells, bandharas, tanks
and canals. Lift irrigation from rivers and wells through the installation of
electric pumping sets and oil-engines has also benefited agriculture in the
district
There was no major irrigation work taken up in the past in the district. Only
medium and minor works such as bandharas, tanks and wells provided
irrigation facilities in the district. The completion of the Nira Right Bank
Canal in 1937-38, however, was one of the most important land-marks in the
economy of the district. It ushered in an era of agrarian prosperity in the
areas benefited by it. The Bhima Project was another land-mark which has
been instrumental in revolutionising the structure of the agrarian economy in
parts of the district.

Major irrigation works:

The following is the brief account of the major irrigation works in the
district:-

Nira Right Bank Canal:

The Nira Right Bank Canal system fed by Bhatghar dam in Pune district was
put into operation in 1937-38. This canal has a length of 95 miles passing
through Sholapur and Satara districts. This canal system now provides
irrigation facilities to the Malshiras taluka and irrigates about 50,000 acres
in the district. The proportion of the area irrigated to the net area sown in
Malshiras taluka is higher than other talukas in the district, due to this
facility. The important crops irrigated by this system are sugarcane, cotton
and wheat.

Bhima Irrigation Project:

It is another important major irrigation project in Sholapur district. This
project consists of two parts, viz.,
(i) Pawana in Pune district and
(ii) Ujani in Sholapur district,
with canals on each bank to create irrigation potential of 1,66,750 hectares
in Pune and an equal potential in Sholapur district. The Ujani dam is located
at Ujani in Madha taluka in the district, just half a mile upstream of the
bridge on Bhima River on Pune-Sholapur Road. The work of this dam was
started in 1969. Originally this project was estimated to cost about Rs. 40
crores. The latest estimated cost of the project is Rs. 62.69 crores and the
potential of 1, 67,750 hectares would be created on completion of the
project. An expenditure of Rs. 21, 16 lakhs was likely to be incurred by 1973-
74, i.e., last year of the Fourth Plan. This project envisages storage at Ujani
with canals on the left and right banks. The dam involves diversion of railway
line, costing about Rs. 5.60 crores. By the end of the Fourth Five-Year Plan
the following works would be completed:-
(1) Pawana dam complete with installation of crest gates,
(2) Ujani dam-main dam would be under construction and
(3) Left Bank Canal construction - up to forty kilometre length.
An outlay of Rs. 40 crores has been proposed on this project during the
Fifth Five-Year Plan period. It is proposed to complete the entire Bhima
project and a part of the canal work during the Fifth Plan. The remaining
canals may be completed during the subsequent period. The Ujani project is
expected to be completed in 1981.

Sina Kolegaon:
It is a new major irrigation project taken up during the Fifth Plan. It
envisages construction of an earthen dam on Sina river, near village Nimgaon
in Karmala taluka. It is estimated to store 5.24 T.M.C. of water. The project
will benefit Karmala, Barshi and Mohol talukas in Sholapur district and
Paranda taluka of Osmanabad district. The estimated cost of this project is
Rs. 910 lakhs and the outlay proposed for Fifth Plan is 100 lakhs. It will
create an irrigation potential of 1,34,500 hectares.

Minor irrigation works:

All minor irrigation schemes that irrigate up to 101.17 hectares (250 acres)
are under the administrative charge of the Zilla Parishad. The Zilla Parishad
is empowered to take up minor irrigation works costing upto Rs. 5 lakhs. It
has however been found that projects for irrigation cannot be undertaken
within the above-mentioned financial limit by the Government. Naturally the
policy of Sholapur Zilla Parishad has been to construct percolation tanks and
bandharas, which help in increasing the water-level in the wells in their
vicinity due to the rise of sub-soil water. The Zilla Parishad has so far taken
up ten percolation tanks, out of which two were completed during 1967-68
and 1968-69. There are about fifty proposals for the construction of
percolation tanks in the district which are under investigation.

Co-operative Lift Irrigation Scheme:

The sources of irrigation in the district are rivers, wells, tanks and
bandharas. Water is lifted from the rivers, wells, tanks etc., and used for
irrigation purpose. Formerly water was lifted by leather mots or iron mots.
This system is still prevalent in some parts of the district where it is not
possible to install pumping sets and where the agriculturists cannot afford
to purchase oilengines. The co-operative lift irrigation societies, therefore,
have been formed as an alternative to provide irrigation facilities. This has
helped in bringing larger area under irrigation, reduce the cost of irrigation
per acre, raise more than one crop a year and make farming more profitable.
The Sholapur Zilla Parishad has taken up twenty-three lift irrigation
schemes in the district.
With the two big rivers, viz., Bhima and Sina, and small rivers like Man, Bori
and Harna, lately a few lift irrigation schemes have been taken up in the co-
operative sector. The Zilla Parishad has undertaken twenty-three such
schemes for implementation, out of which seven have been completed.
Bhima River traverses about 180 miles in Sholapur district and has a
minimum discharge of fifty cusecs. Besides the Bhima, the Sina and the Bori
are suitable for lift irrigation; a major lift irrigation scheme is located at
Tandulwadi in South Sholapur taluka. It irrigates about 4,000 acres.
Generally in such schemes, area irrigated varies between 125 acres and
1,500 acres. These schemes are found more in South Sholapur, North
Sholapur and Akkalkot talukas. More schemes have been proposed
throughout the district and some of the co-operative sugar factories have
undertaken to finance some lift irrigation schemes.

Ecosystem :
An ecosystem is a complete community of living organisms and the nonliving
materials of their surroundings. Thus, its components include plants, animals,
and microorganisms; soil, rocks, and minerals; as well as surrounding water
sources and the local atmosphere. The size of ecosystems varies
tremendously. An ecosystem could be an entire rain forest, covering a
geographical area larger than many nations, or it could be a puddle or a
backyard garden. Even the body of an animal could be considered an
ecosystem, since it is home to numerous microorganisms. On a much larger
scale, the history of various human societies provides an instructive
illustration as to the ways that ecosystems have influenced civilizations.

Ecosystem consists of:

• Abiotic characteristics
• Biotic characteristics eg.
• Plants
• Herbivores
 • Carnivores
• Detritivores and Decomposers
• Dam ( water ) ecosystem:
The ecosystem in ujani dam is fresh water ecosystem:

Abiotic characteristics
An ecosystem is composed of biotic communities and abiotic environmental
factors, which form a self-regulating and self-sustaining unit. Abiotic
environmental factors of aquatic ecosystems include temperature, salinity,
and flow.
The amount of dissolved oxygen in a water body is frequently the key
substance in determining the extent and kinds of organic life in the water
body. Fish need dissolved oxygen to survive. Conversely, oxygen is fatal to
many kinds of anaerobic bacterias.
The salinity of the water body is also a determining factor in the kinds of
species found in the water body. Organisms in marine ecosystems tolerate
salinity, while many freshwater organisms are intolerant of salt. Freshwater
used for irrigation purposes often absorb levels of salt that are harmful to
freshwater organisms. Though some salt can be good for organisms.

Biotic characteristics
The organisms (also called biota) found in aquatic ecosystems are either
autotrophic or heterotrophic.

Autotrophic organisms
Autotrophic organisms are producers that generate organic compounds from
inorganic material. Algae use solar energy to generate biomass from carbon
dioxide and are the most important autotrophic organisms in aquatic
environments. Chemosynthetic bacteria are found in benthic marine
ecosystems. These organisms are able to feed on hydrogen sulfide in water
that comes from volcanic vents. Great concentrations of animals that feed
on this bacteria are found around volcanic vents. For example, there are
giant tube worms (Riftia pachyptila) 1.5m in length and clams (Calyptogena
magnifica) 30cm long.

Heterotrophic organisms
Heterotrophic organisms consume autotrophic organisms and use the organic
compounds in their bodies as energy sources and as raw materials to create
their own biomass. Euryhaline organisms are salt tolerant and can survive in
marine ecosystems, while stenohaline or salt intolerant species can only live
in freshwater environments.
A dam ecosystem is also called as lentic ecosystem:

Bacteria
Bacteria are present in all regions of lentic waters. Free-living forms are
associated with decomposing organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of
rocks and plants, suspended in the water column, and in the sediments of the
benthic and profundal zones. Other forms are also associated with the guts
of lentic animals as parasites or in commensal relationships. Bacteria play an
important role in system metabolism through nutrient recycling, which will be
discussed in the Trophic Relationships section.

Primary producers
Algae, including both phytoplankton and periphyton are the principle
photosynthesizers in ponds and lakes. Phytoplankton are found drifting in
the water column of the pelagic zone. Many species have a higher density
than water which should making them sink and end up in the benthos. To
combat this, phytoplankton have developed density changing mechanisms, by
forming vacuoles and gas vesicles or by changing their shapes to induce drag,
slowing their descent. A very sophisticated adaptation utilized by a small
number of species is a tail-like flagella that can adjust vertical position and
allow movement in any direction. Phytoplankton can also maintain their
presence in the water column by being circulated in Langmuir rotations.
Periphytic algae, on the other hand, are attached to a substrate. In lakes
and ponds, they can cover all benthic surfaces. Both types of plankton are
important as food sources and as oxygen providers. Plants, or macrophytes,
in lentic systems live in both the benthic and pelagic zones and can be
grouped according to their manner of growth:
1) emergent macrophytes = rooted in the substrate but with leaves and
flowers extending into the air,
2) floating-leaved macrophytes = rooted in the substrate but with floating
leaves,
3) submersed macrophytes = not rooted in the substrate and floating
beneath the surface and
4) free-floating macrophytes = not rooted in the substrate and floating on
the surface. These various forms of macrophytes generally occur in
different areas of the benthic zone, with emergent vegetation nearest the
shoreline, then floating-leaved macrophytes, followed by submersed
vegetation. Free-floating macrophytes can occur anywhere on the system’s
surface. Aquatic plants are more buoyant than their terrestrial counterparts
because freshwater has a higher density than air. This makes structural
rigidity unimportant in lakes and ponds (except in the aerial stems and
leaves). Thus, the leaves and stems of most aquatic plants use less energy to
construct and maintain woody tissue, investing that energy into fast growth
instead. In order to contend with stresses induced by wind and waves, plants
must be both flexible and tough (Reynolds 2004). Light is the most
important factor controlling the distribution of submerged aquatic plants.
Macrophytes are sources of food, oxygen, and habitat structure in the
benthic zone, but cannot penetrate the depths of the euphotic zone and
hence are not found there.
Invertebrates

Water striders are predatory insects which rely on surface tension to walk
on top of water. They live on the surface of ponds, marshes, and other quiet
waters. They can move very quickly, up to 1.5 m/s.
Zooplankton are tiny animals suspended in the water column. Like
phytoplankton, these species have developed mechanisms that keep them
from sinking to deeper waters, including drag-inducing body forms and the
active flicking of appendages such as antennae or spines Remaining in the
water column may have its advantages in terms of feeding, but this zone’s
lack of refugia leaves zooplankton vulnerable to predation. In response, some
species, especially Daphnia sp., make daily vertical migrations in the water
column by passively sinking to the darker lower depths during the day and
actively moving towards the surface during the night. Also, because
conditions in a lentic system can be quite variable across seasons,
zooplankton have the ability to switch from laying regular eggs to resting
eggs when there is a lack of food, temperatures fall below 2 °C, or if
predator abundance is high. These resting eggs have a diapause, or dormancy
period that should allow the zooplankton to encounter conditions that are
more favorable to survival when they finally hatch. The invertebrates that
inhabit the benthic zone are numerically dominated by small species and are
species rich compared to the zooplankton of the open water. They include
Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, crayfish, and shrimp), molluscs (e.g. clams and
snails), and numerous types of insects.These organisms are mostly found in
the areas of macrophyte growth, where the richest resources, highly
oxygenated water, and warmest portion of the ecosystem are found. The
structurally diverse macrophyte beds are important sites for the
accumulation of organic matter, and provide an ideal area for colonization.
The sediments and plants also offer a great deal of protection from
predatory fishes. Very few invertebrates are able to inhabit the cold, dark,
and oxygen poor profundal zone. Those that can are often red in color due to
the presence of large amounts of hemoglobin, which greatly increases the
amount of oxygen carried to cells. Because the concentration of oxygen
within this zone is low, most species construct tunnels or borrows in which
they can hide and make the minimum movements necessary to circulate
water through, drawing oxygen to them without expending much energy.

Fishes and other vertebrates

Fishes have a range of physiological tolerances that are dependent upon
which species they belong to. They have different lethal temperatures,
dissolved oxygen requirements, and spawning needs that are based on their
activity levels and behaviors. Because fishes are highly mobile, they are able
to deal with unsuitable abiotic factors in one zone by simply moving to
another. A detrital feeder in the profundal zone, for example, that finds the
oxygen concentration has dropped too low may feed closer to the benthic
zone. A fish might also alter its residence during different parts of its life
history: hatching in a sediment nest, then moving to the weedy benthic zone
to develop in a protected environment with food resources, and finally into
the pelagic zone as an adult.
Other vertebrate taxa inhabit lentic systems as well. These include
amphibians (e.g. salamanders and frogs), reptiles (e.g. snakes, turtles, and
alligators), and a large number of waterfowl species Most of these
vertebrates spend part of their time in terrestrial habitats and thus are not
directly affected by abiotic factors in the lake or pond. Many fish species
are important as consumers and as prey species to the larger vertebrates
mentioned above.

Trophic relationships
Primary producers
Lentic systems gain most of their energy from photosynthesis performed by
aquatic plants and algae. This autochthonous process involves the
combination of carbon dioxide, water, and solar energy to produce
carbohydrates and dissolved oxygen. Within a lake or pond, the potential
rate of photosynthesis generally decreases with depth due to light
attenuation. Photosynthesis, however, is often low at the top few millimeters
of the surface, likely due to inhibition by ultraviolet light. The exact depth
and photosynthetic rate measurements of this curve are system specific and
depend upon:
1) the total biomass of photosynthesizing cells,
2) the amount of light attenuating materials and
3) the abundance and frequency range of light absorbing pigments (i.e.
chlorophylls) inside of photosynthesizing cells. he energy created by these
primary producers is important for the community because it is transferred
to higher trophic levels via consumption.
Bacteria
The vast majority of bacteria in lakes and ponds obtain their energy by
decomposing vegetation and animal matter. In the pelagic zone, dead fish
and the occasional allochthonous input of litterfall are examples of coarse
particulate organic matter (CPOM>1 mm). Bacteria degrade these into fine
particulate organic matter (FPOM<1 mm) and then further into usable
nutrients. Small organisms such as plankton are also characterized as FPOM.
Very low concentrations of nutrients are released during decomposition
because the bacteria are utilizing them to build their own biomass. Bacteria,
however, are consumed by protozoa, which are in turn consumed by
zooplankton, and then further up the trophic levels. Nutrients, including
those that contain carbon and phosphorus, are reintroduced into the water
column at any number of points along this food chain via excretion or
organism death, making them available again for bacteria. This regeneration
cycle is known as the microbial loop and is a key component of lentic food
webs. The decomposition of organic materials can continue in the benthic and
profundal zones if the matter falls through the water column before being
completely digested by the pelagic bacteria. Bacteria are found in the
greatest abundance here in sediments, where they are typically 2-1000
times more prevalent than in the water column.

Invertebrates
Invertebrates can be divided into feeding guilds based on their method of
prey capture. Zooplankton rely on a combination of dissolved organic matter
and particulates for survival. Zooplankton concentrate unicellular algae,
bacteria, and detritus in the pelagic zone by sieving through morphological
structures or with the creation of rotary currents that can centrifuge
particles into a larger mass for digestion. These processes are energetically
efficient, but they do not allow for the selection of usable material. As a
result, a portion of the catch is invaluable as a food source and must be
discarded. When capturing larger particles, including other zooplankton taxa,
each particle is procured individually with a raptorial appendage. This type of
feeding is energetically more costly, but the nutritional returns can be
greater because selection is involved. Benthic invertebrates, due to their
high level of species richness, have many methods of prey capture. Filter
feeders create currents via siphons or beating cilia, to pull water and its
nutritional contents, towards themselves for straining. Grazers use scraping,
rasping, and shredding adaptations to feed on periphytic algae and
macrophytes. Members of the collector guild browse the sediments, picking
out specific particles with raptorial appendages. Deposit feeding
invertebrates indiscriminately consume sediment, digesting any organic
material it contains. Finally, some invertebrates belong to the predator guild,
capturing and consuming living animals. The profundal zone is home to a
unique group of filter feeders that use small body movements to draw a
current through burrows that they have created in the sediment. This mode
of feeding requires the least amount of motion, allowing these species to
conserve energy.A small number of invertebrate taxa are predators in the
profundal zone. These species are likely from other regions and only come to
these depths to feed. The vast majority of invertebrates in this zone are
deposit feeders, getting their energy from the surrounding sediments.

Fish
Fish size, mobility, and sensory capabilities allow them to exploit a broad
prey base, covering multiple zonation regions. Like invertebrates, fish
feeding habits can be categorized into guilds. In the pelagic zone, herbivores
graze on periphyton and macrophytes or pick phytoplankton out of the water
column. Carnivores include fishes that feed on zooplankton in the water
column (zooplanktivores), insects at the water’s surface, on benthic
structures, or in the sediment (insectivores), and those that feed on other
fishes (piscivores). Fish that consume detritus and gain energy by processing
its organic material are called detritivores. Omnivores ingest a wide variety
of prey, encompassing floral, faunal, and detrital material. Finally, members
of the parasitic guild acquire nutrition from a host species, usually another
fish or large vertebrate.Fish taxa are flexible in their feeding roles, varying
their diets with environmental conditions and prey availability. Many species
also undergo a diet shift as they develop. Therefore, it is likely that any
single fish occupies multiple feeding guilds within its lifetime.

Special animal of ujani:

Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis), also known as the Common Indian
Monitor, is a monitor lizard found throughout Bangladesh,India and Sri
Lanka. It measures up to 75 cm in body length with the tail about 100 cm in
length. It feeds on small terrestrial vertebrates, ground birds and their
eggs, arthropods and fish.

Although not uncommon, Monitor lizards are killed for their meat and skins
and are threatened in many places by hunting.

The lizard is known as Guishaap or Goshaap in West Bengal and Bangladesh,

and as ghorpad in Maharashtra . The lizards have strong claws and in some
parts of India this has led to the myth that they can cling strongly to
surfaces. A popular legend in Maharashtra states that Shivaji's general
Tanaji Malusare used a monitor with ropes attached for climbing the walls of
the Sinhagad fort in the Battle of Sinhagad.

Effect of pollution and human interfernce:

Human Impacts
Acidification

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are naturally released from volcanoes,
organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the
majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline,
and the smelting of ores containing sulfur. These substances dissolve in
atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as acid rain. Lakes and ponds
that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer,
resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are
very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity,
resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid. At a pH of 5-6
algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an
increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes.
As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most
significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the
population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die
and leave the systems without fishes. Acid rain has been especially harmful
to lakes in the Northeastern United States.

Eutrophication

Eutrophic systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~30+µg/L),

nitrogen (~1500+µg/L), or both. Phosphorus enters lentic waters from
wastewater treatment effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff
of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from agricultural fertilizers from
runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in
nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of
phytoplankton growth, termed a plankton bloom. This bloom decreases water
transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants. The resultant
reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species’ that
utilize it for spawning, maturation and general survival. Additionally, the
large number of short-lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of
dead biomass settling into the sediment. Bacteria need large amounts of
oxygen to decompose this material, reducing the oxygen concentration of
the water. This is especially pronounced in stratified lakes when the
thermocline prevents oxygen rich water from the surface to mix with lower
levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that
are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions
Invasive species

Invasive species have been introduced to lentic systems through both

purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as
unintentional events (e.g. in ballast water). These organisms can affect
natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration,
hybridization, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites With
regard to native species, invaders may cause changes in size and age
structure, distribution, density, population growth, and may even drive
populations to extinction Examples of prominent invaders of lentic systems
include the zebra mussel and sea lamprey in the Great Lakes.

Human Impacts

Acidification

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are naturally released from volcanoes,
organic compounds in the soil, wetlands, and marine systems, but the
majority of these compounds come from the combustion of coal, oil, gasoline,
and the smelting of ores containing sulfur. These substances dissolve in
atmospheric moisture and enter lentic systems as acid rain. Lakes and ponds
that contain bedrock that is rich in carbonates have a natural buffer,
resulting in no alteration of pH. Systems without this bedrock, however, are
very sensitive to acid inputs because they have a low neutralizing capacity,
resulting in pH declines even with only small inputs of acid At a pH of 5-6
algal species diversity and biomass decrease considerably, leading to an
increase in water transparency – a characteristic feature of acidified lakes.
As the pH continues lower, all fauna becomes less diverse. The most
significant feature is the disruption of fish reproduction. Thus, the
population is eventually composed of few, old individuals that eventually die
and leave the systems without fishes. Acid rain has been especially harmful
to lakes in the Northeastern United States.

Eutrophication

Eutrophic systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~30+µg/L),

nitrogen (~1500+µg/L), or both. Phosphorus enters lentic waters from
wastewater treatment effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff
of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from agricultural fertilizers from
runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in
nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of
phytoplankton growth, termed a plankton bloom. This bloom decreases water
transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants. The resultant
reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species’ that
utilize it for spawning, maturation and general survival. Additionally, the
large number of short-lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of
dead biomass settling into the sediment. Bacteria need large amounts of
oxygen to decompose this material, reducing the oxygen concentration of
the water. This is especially pronounced in stratified lakes when the
thermocline prevents oxygen rich water from the surface to mix with lower
levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that
are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions.

Invasive species

Invasive species have been introduced to lentic systems through both

purposeful events (e.g. stocking game and food species) as well as
unintentional events (e.g. in ballast water). These organisms can affect
natives via competition for prey or habitat, predation, habitat alteration,
hybridization, or the introduction of harmful diseases and parasites. With
regard to native species, invaders may cause changes in size and age
structure, distribution, density, population growth, and may even drive
populations to extinction. Examples of prominent invaders of lentic systems
include the zebra mussel and sea lamprey in the Great Lakes.