George

Totten*
G.E. Totten &
Associates
LLC
Seattle,
Washington

* Fellow of ASM
International
and member of
the ASM
Heat Treating
Society

FATIGUE CRACK
PROPAGATION

asically, fatigue crack propagation can be divided

Stage I
into three stages: stage I (short cracks), stage II
(long cracks) and stage III (final fracture).
Stage I: Once initiated, a fatigue crack propagates
along high shear stress planes (45 degrees), as
schematically represented in Fig. 1. This is known
as stage I or the short crack growth propagation stage.
The crack propagates until it is decelerated by a microstructural barrier such as a grain boundary, inclusions, or pearlitic zones, which
cannot accommodate the initial crack growth direction. Therefore,
grain refinement is capable of increasing fatigue strength of the material by the insertion of a large quantity of microstructural barriers,
i.e. grain boundaries, which have to be overcome in the stage I of
propagation. Surface mechanical treatments such as shot peening
and surface rolling, contribute to the increase in the number of microstructural barriers per unit of length due to the flattening of the
grains.
Stage II: When the stress intensity factor K increases as a consequence of crack growth or higher applied loads, slips start to develop
in different planes close to the crack tip, initiating stage II. While stage
I is orientated 45 degrees in relation to the applied load, propagation
in stage II is perpendicular to the load direction, as depicted in Fig. 1.
An important characteristic of stage II is the presence of surface
ripples known as striations, which are visible with the aid of a
scanning electron microscope. Not all engineering materials exhibit
striations. They are clearly seen in pure metals and many ductile
alloys such as aluminum. In steels, they are frequently observed in
cold-worked alloys. Figure 2 shows examples of fatigue striations in
an interstitial-free steel and in aluminum alloys. The most accepted
mechanism for the formation of striations on the fatigue fracture surface of ductile metals, is the successive blunting and re-sharpening
of the crack tip, as represented in Fig. 3.
Stage III: Finally, stage III is related to unstable crack growth
as Kmax approaches KIC. At this stage, crack growth is controlled by
static modes of failure and is very sensitive to the microstructure,
load ratio, and stress state
(plane stress or plane strain
a
loading).
Macroscopically, the fad
tigue fracture surface can be
b
divided into two distinct ree
gions, as shown by Fig. 4.The
first region corresponds to the
c
stable fatigue crack growth
and presents a smooth aspect Fig. 3 Lairds proposed mechanisms of
due to the friction between striation formation in the stage II of
the crack wake faces. Some- propagation: (a) no load; (b) tensile load;
times, concentric marks (c) maximum tensile load; (d) load reversion
known as beach marks can and (e) compressive load.
be seen on the fatigue fracture
surface, as a result of successive arrests or decrease in the rate of fatigue crack growth due to a temporary load drop, or due to an overload that introduces a compressive residual stress field ahead of
the crack tip.
Final fracture: The other region corresponds to the final fracture
and presents a fibrous and irregular aspect. In this region, the fracture can be either brittle or ductile, depending on the mechanical

ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/MAY 2008

Stage II

Surface

TECH
SPOTLIGHT

Fig. 1 Stages I and II of fatigue

crack propagation.

5 Pm

2 Pm

40 Pm

Fig. 2 Fatigue striations in (a)

interstitial free steel and (b)
aluminum alloy AA2024-T42.
Figure (c) shows the fatigue
fracture surface of a cast aluminum
alloy, where a fatigue crack was
nucleated from a casting defect,
presenting solidification dendrites
on the surface; fatigue striations are
indicated by the arrow, on the top
right side.

39

Fast fracture

Fast fracture

Kmax
Kmax
'Kap = 'Keff
K
'Kap

'Keff

K
Kmin
Kcl

Kmin
Kcl
Fatigue crack
propagation

Initiation 15 mm

Fatigue crack
propagation

(a )
Initiation 20 mm

Fig. 4 Fatigue fracture surface: (a) high applied load; (b) low applied load.

da/dN

properties of the material, dimensions of the part, and

loading conditions.
The exact fraction of area of
each region depends on the applied load level. High applied
loads result in a small stable
crack propagation area, as de40 mm
picted in Fig. 4. On the other
hand, if lower loads are applied,
Fig. 5 Ratcheting marks, indicated the crack will have to grow
by the arrows, in a SAE 1045 shaft
longer before the applied stress
fractured by fatigue.
intensity factor K, reaches the
fracture toughness value of the
Final failure
material, resulting in a smaller
area of fast fracture, Fig. 4b.
Ratcheting marks: Ratcheting
marks are another macroscopic
Increasing
feature that can be observed in
Paris regime
R
fatigue fracture surfaces. These
marks originate when multiple
cracks, nucleated at different
points, join together, creating
Near threshold
steps on the fracture surface.
'K
Therefore, counting the number
Fig. 6 Schematic representation of of ratchet marks is a good indication of the number of nuclethe R ratio effect on fatigue crack
ation sites. Figure 5 presents in
growth curves. The near threshold,
detail some ratchet marks found
Paris regime, and final failure
regions are also indicated on the
on the fracture surface of a large
curves.
SAE 1045 rotating shaft fractured
by fatigue.
Plastic deformation
envelope Crack tip

Plastic zone

Propagation rates
Similarly to the initiation phase,
(a)
many factors can affect long fatigue crack propagation rates.
Among them, special attention
(b)
should be given to effects of load
ratio and the presence of residual
Premature contact points
Oxides
stresses.
Increasing the load ratio has a
z z
(c)
z z
z
tendency to increase the long
crack growth rates in all regions
Fig. 7 Crack
of
the
curve
plotting
fatigue crack growth rate
closure
versus
applied
stress
intensity factor range, or
mechanisms
induced by: simply the curve of da/dN versus applied 'K. Gen(a) plasticity, erally the effect of increasing load ratio is less sig(b) roughness nificant in the Paris regime than in near-threshold
(c) oxide. and near-failure regions, Fig. 6.
Near the threshold stress intensity factor, 'Kth,
40

Time

(b)

Time

Fig. 8 Load ratio effect on 'Keff, in a fatigue cycle: (a)

Kmin<Kcl (b) Kmin>Kcl

the effects of R ratio are mainly attributed to crackclosure effects, in which crack faces contact each
other at an applied Kcl that is higher than the minimum applied stress intensity factor, Kmin.
Several different mechanisms may contribute
to premature crack closure. One consists of plasticity-induced closure, represented in Fig. 7a. As
the crack grows, the material that has been previously permanently deformed within the plastic
zone now forms an envelope of plastic zones in
the wake of the crack front. This leads to displacements normal to the crack surfaces as the restraint
is relieved. This is no problem while the crack is
open; however as the load decreases, the crack
surfaces touch before the minimum load is
reached, shielding the crack. This type of premature contact can also occur due to crack wake
roughness and irregularities, Fig. 7b, or by the
presence of corrosion sub-products such as oxides, Fig. 7c.
As observed in Fig. 8, the effect of closure produces a reduction in the effective 'K range because of the increase in the effective Kmin, reducing
the driving force for fatigue crack growth. The effect is more significant near the threshold region
because the crack tip opening displacements are
smaller and crack faces are closer to each other.
Additionally, for the same applied 'K, higher R
ratios increase the applied values of Kmax and Kmin,
increasing 'Keff.
For most materials, the Paris regime is considered closure-free and Kmax-independent and the
crack growth rates are generally very similar for
tests conducted under different R ratios. Near the
final failure, the effects of R ratio are related to the
higher monotonic fracture component as Kmax approaches KIC.
Therefore, for the same applied 'K, Kmax values
are higher for tests conducted under higher applied R ratios, and consequently, da/dN values are
higher.
The effects of residual stress on fatigue crack
growth are related to alterations in the R ratio and
in the applied 'K. In other terms, the residual
stresses affect the two parameters that control the
crack driving force, i.e. Kmax and 'Keff. When a
crack is introduced in a plate subjected to a
residual stress field, a residual stress intensity
factor Kr, arises that can either decrease or increase
the crack driving force parameters.
The superposition principle can also be applied
ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES/MAY 2008

This article is from

Failure Analysis of Heat Treated Steel Components

Edited by L.C.F. Canale, R.A. Mesquita, and G.E. Totten
This thorough reference work discusses various causes of failure with integrated coverage of
process metallurgy of steels by forging, casting, welding, and various heat treatment processes.
The breadth of coverage and the numerous examples provide an invaluable resource for the designer, engineer, metallurgist, mechanical and materials engineers, quality control technicians,
and heat treaters.
For more information or to order, call Customer Service at 800/336-5152;
or visit www.asminternational.org and click on the ASM Store button.
in terms of the stress intensity factor, provided
that the material remains linearly elastic. In this
sense, Kr can be added to Kmax and Kmin:

2. If Kmin <0, then:

R = 0

'K = Kmax = Kmax + Kr

Kmax = Kmax + Kr
Kmin = Kmin + Kr
As a result, R and 'K are defined as follows:
1. If Kmin>0 then:
R =

K min K min + Kr
=
Kmax K max + Kr

'K = Kmax --Kmin = (Kmax + Kr) -- (Kmin+ Kr) =

Kmax --Kmin = 'K

It is important to note that these equations assume that the part of the fatigue cycle during
which the crack is closed at its tip (i.e. K<0) makes
no contribution to crack growth.

For more information: George Totten is president of

G.E. Totten & Associates LLC, 514 N. 86th Street, Seattle,
WA 98103; tel: 206/788-0188; getotten@aol.com; www.
getottenassociates.com.

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Of rest
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Int

Electroless nickel coatings reinforced

FUTURE

ELECTROLESS NICKEL
COMPOSITE COATINGSMATERIALS FO
DEEP O R
CONST IL AND GAS W
RUCTIO
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N

927
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mid phosphorus (4 to 10 wt% P), and high phosphorus (>10.5 wt% P). Without the composite el-

with diamond, silicon carbide, boron ement, each subset has distinct uses and propbus
hool body
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all maducing
ars,
specific wear and lubricity properties electroless nickels are presented in Table 1.
sales
ht ye re pro
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This article will examine the performance and
in eig ers we
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to complex surfaces.
cost advantages possible with electroless nickel
red
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silicon carbide, boron nitride, and polytetraol
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ADVANCED MATERIALS
& PROCESSES/MAY
2008
challenge
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